A

RESEARCH

ON

THE GROUND WATER QUALITY OF OYIGBO OIL CENTERAREA.

(A CASE STUDY OF AFAM-NTA COMMUNITY, OYIGBOLOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA. RIVERS STATE)

BY

EKEKE, RAWLINGS OKECHUKWU (a.k.a SIRLAW)(HND- IMT, B.TECH- UNIPORT, NIMECHE, NREP-USA)

1

MARCH, 2015

DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to God Almighty for his

abundant grace and mercies throughout the period of

this research.

2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to God Almighty without whom this work

would not have been a success.

I am appreciative to my unmarried wife for her support

and prayers towards this research work.

Also, I acknowledge the unrelenting financial, moral

and academical efforts of my parents Sir and Mrs

Ekeke, Peter, my eminent Aunty Ekeke Violet, my uncle

Engr and Mrs Evans Ekeke, Pastor and Mrs Prince

Charles towards my project research in this academic

excellence pursuit.

3

To my sisters and brothers; Engr. Ekeke Steve Sorochi,

Ekeke Chizorom, Ekeke Matina and my boy Charles Joseph

, I also acknowledge your moral and financial support

towards the success of this project.

I will not fail to appreciate the kind gesture given

to me by my best friend Engr. Oluka Benjamin. my

manager Pastor Prince Charles, my colleagues and staff

of the department.

And mostly, I am grateful to my Boss Engr. Anike

Michael of mechanical Department, University of Enugu

Teaching Hospital. And also to my entire sundry for

being part of this success story.

TO GOD BE THE GLORY. AMEN

EKEKE, RAWLINGS OKECHUKWU

4

ABSTRACT

Water is a solvent and dissolves minerals from the

rocks with which it comes in contact. Ground water: is

the water located beneath the earth’s surface in soil

pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.

5

Groundwater may contain dissolved minerals and gases

that gives it the tangy taste enjoyed by many people.

Without these minerals and gases, the water would taste

flat.(see Adesanya, 1984; Egborge, 1991; Olabaniyi and

Owoyemi, 2004;2006) The most common dissolved mineral

substances are sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium,

chloride, bicarbonate and sulphate. The samples

collected was tested for these physic chemical

parameters. This result shows a slight change with

respect to the W.H.O standards. The ground water

samples that have values of PH below WHO limit, higher

pb, fe2+, TDS, conductivity, Ca2+, Hco3, So42-, No3, on the

basis of WHO specifications, the ground water cannot be

regarded as portable owing to its high coliform counts

and acidic nature, From our study, the sample

investigated has PH less than WHO. Limit which

indicates that the water sample is acidic which may be

6

as a result of acid rain or dissolution of other

poisonous metals.

The corrosive effect of these gases may be associated

with the high rate of respiratory tract diseases in the

area.

TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

i

Certification page

ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Abstract vi

Table of content vii

CHAPTER ONE; 7

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Background of the study

1

1.2 Statement of the problem

5

1.3 Aim and Objectives

8

1.4 Research hypothesis

8

1.5 Significance of the study

8

1.6 Scope of the study

9

1.7 Limitation of the study

10

1.8 Study Area

10

1.8.1 Population 11

1.8.2 Climate

11

8

1.8.3 Vegetation and soil

12

1.8.4 Relief and drainage

12

1.8.5 Economic activities

14

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Conceptual frame work and literature review

15

2.1 Definitions of terms

15

2.2 Conceptual framework 21

2.2.1 How ground water occurs

21

2.3 Literature review 24

2.4 Common groundwater contaminants

38

2.5 Sources of contamination in ground water

40

9

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology 45

3.1 Sources of data

45

3.2 Method of data collection

46

3.3 sampling technique

46

3.4 Sample size 47

3.5 Method of data analysis

47

3.6 Test procedure and methodology

47

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Result presentation and data analysis

51

4.1 Data presentation 51

4.2 Physiochemical parameters 51

10

4.2.1 Site 1 (river)

51

4.2.2 Site 2 (well)

52

4.2.3 Site 3 (well)

54

4.2.4 Site 4 (river)

56

4.2.5 Site 5 (well)

58

4.2.6 Site 6 (river)

60

4.2.7 Site 7 (river)

62

4.3 Discussion 64

4.4 Environmental and health implication

70

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Summary and conclusion

7111

5.1 Summary of findings

71

CONCLUSION

73

POLICY IMPLICATION/ RECOMMENDATION 74

REFERENCES

75

12

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Oil plays a vast and vital role in our society as it is

organized today. Oil represents much more than just one

of the main energy sources used by mankind. Besides

being an important energy source, petroleum products

serve as feedstock for several consumer goods, thus

playing a growing and relevant role in people’s lives.

On the other hand, the oil industry holds a major

potential of hazards for the environment, and may

13

impact it at different levels: air, water, soil, and

consequently all living beings on our planet. Within

this context, the most widespread and dangerous

consequence of oil and gas industry activities is

pollution. Pollution is associated with virtually all

activities throughout all stages of oil and gas

production, from exploratory activities to refining.

Waste waters, gas emissions, solid waste and aerosols

generated during drilling, production and refining are

responsible for the most pollution. Other environmental

impacts include intensification of the greenhouse

effect, acid rain, poorer water quality, ground water

contamination, among others. The oil and gas industry

may also contribute to biodiversity loss as well as to

the destruction of ecosystems that in some cases may be

unique. Most potential environment impacts related to

oil and gas industry activities are already well

14

documented.(ikem et al, 2002, Edet, 2003 and regunath

et al 1987)

It is necessary to find ways to conciliate industry

development with environmental protection, that is,

with sustainable development. After recovered and

transported, crude oil has to go through refining

processes in order to be converted into products that

hold commercial value. Oil refineries are major

polluters, consuming large amounts of energy and water,

producing large quantities of waste waters, releasing

hazardous gases into the atmosphere and generating

solid waste that are difficult both to treat and to

dispose off.

In terms of the oil and gas impact on ground water

quality, it is seen in water contamination due to

effluent, wash water and cooling water discharges, and

seepage from storage and waste tanks; water

contamination due to discharges of water effluents rich

15

in inorganic salts without appropriate treatment

(slaine pollution). Thermal pollution due to discharge

of effluents with temperatures higher than recipient

water bodies. Ground water contamination by

inappropriate disposal of solid wastes resulting from

chemical industry processes, including effluent

treatment sludge and particulate matter from dust

collectors. The connections between water and energy

have been studied in recent years, with growing

recognition of how closely the two are linked. Water is

used, in varying quantities and ways in every step of

fossil fuel extraction and processing (ptacek et al,

2004).

For example, the amount of coal produced worldwide in

2009 required an estimated 1.3 to 4.5 billion cubic

meters (m) of water for extraction and processing. But

while interest has grown in the volume of water

required for energy production, the water- quality

16

impacts have been given much less attention. Because

water is used in so many ways during fossil-fuel

extraction and processing.

There are also many ways in which it can become

contaminated with a wide variety of pollutants, from

sediment to synthetic chemicals, contaminates water

bodies and may also become contaminated by solid or

liquid wastes created by the extraction process. Mining

and drilling for fossil-fuels bring to the surface

materials long buried in the earth; including water and

generate large quantities of waste materials or by-

products, creating large-scale waste disposal

challenges. Water brought to the surface through mining

or drilling, called “produced water” can contain

dissolved salts, trace metals, hydrocarbons and radio

nuclides (USGS, 2010). Spills and other disasters

associated with the extraction process, such as the

spill of over one million of coal slurry in kentucky in

17

2000 when a containment dam failed, are anther source

of contamination (USDOE 2006), Finally, surface water

may drain into many openings and ground water

frequently accumulates in mines, leading to the

creation contamination of ground water quality.

Afam-nta-ndoki is one of the important oil producing

communities in Rivers stare of Nigeria. The Niger Delta

as a whole produces about 2 million barrels per day

with about 425 million cubic metres per day gas flared.

From this, a yearly input into the atmosphere of

400,000 tonnes of So2 has been estimated (ogunkoya and

Efi,2003). A part from this enormous amount of gas

flared into the environment, the activities of the

producing companies also lead to significant oil spills

and industrial effluent discharges that have the

potential to impair rainwater and ground water.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

18

Waste waters from oil and gas industries are being

discharged without appropriate treatment into rivers or

other locations where infiltration may occur. Water

effluents are not treated by any of the neutralization,

evaporation, aeration, flocculation, oil and grease

separation, carbon absorption and reverse osmosis;

solid wastes that cannot be recycled must be treated

appropriately before final disposal. From extraction to

end use, petroleum products affect surface water

qualify with hydrocarbon salts, nutrients, a host of

organic compounds, and various heavy metals. In many

areas around Afam-nta Ndoki in Oyigbo L.G.A, oil spills

and storm water run-off containing oil derivatives have

degraded ecosystems and human supply. Petroleum, also

known as Crude oil, comes from the remains of

prehistoric life subjected to heat and pressure for

millions of years. Over time, petroleum accumulated in

oil fields, between layers of impermeable rock. Crude

19

oil is extracted from tapping into the fields initial

pressure (known as primary recovery) to pressurizing

the fields with water or stream or other gases to force

the oil to the surface (known as secondary and

tertiary, or enhanced, recovery). The choice of

appropriate treatment is not properly complied with the

waste classification according to the pertinent

regulation(s) in Afam-nta Ndoki in Oyigbo L.G.A oil

producing area. Depending on the nature of the waste

possible treatment methods include incineration,

controlled landfill disposal, chemical immobilization

and solidification, encapsulation, burning in cement

kilns, etc but these treatments may be unavailable at

the site in Afam-nta Ndoki in Oyigbo Local Government

Area.

Water is considered absolutely essential to sustain

life. In Nigeria ground water has a major role to

satisfy the needs of domestic and agricultural

20

purposes. The ever growing demand of water resources

coupled with the rate at which much of the earth’s

fresh water being adversely affected by human

activities, demonstrates a developing crisis and

horrible future of environmental water resources are

not appropriately managed. Afam-nta-Ndoki is not an

exception to this future crisis indeed. Afam-nta Ndoki

with an average annual rainfall of 300mm is a city

located in an area that suffers critically from a

shortage of water resources. So the conservation of

improvised water resources is indispensable for the

sustainability of our economic development. For this

reason, in the past few decades more attention has been

given to the water quality in Afam-nta Ndoki. Afam-nta

Ndoki is facing water quality problems as well as

drinking water shortage, especially during the wet

season.

21

Many people from the community are suffering from

health problems due to consumption of the available

contaminated water. according to the report of

environmental professionals in Nigeria there were about

400 wells and drainages in the Afam-nta Ndoki

Community. Out of these, some are still living and

polluted by underground oil and spillages but not

maintained. Some of them become dumping places for

garbage.

Preventive maintenance of equipment and storage areas

are not measure put into consideration by oyigbo oil

producing center, to prevent occasional leaks. It is

based on these inherent problems that the research

questions are asked as follows;

1.What are the reasons for improper or lack of treatment

of water before disposal in the study areas?

2.Why are incineration method not considered before water

are discharged into rivers in the study areas?

22

3.What possible ways can this problem be curb in the

study areas?

4.why does production has its intended effect on ground

water quality

5.How can we proffer solution to these problems in the

study areas?

1.2AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study is to examine the ground water

quality and its physiochemical properties in Afam-nta

Ndoki, Oyigbo Local Government area. The objectives of

the study are:

1.To examine the method of treatment of waste water in

the area.

2.To determine the causes of improper treatment of waste

water before disposal in the study area.

3.To proffer solution to the effect of oil production and

its intended effect on ground water quality.

23

1.4 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

For the purpose of this study, the research hypothesis

is

Hi: There is significant difference between the normal

water and underground water in the study area.

Ho: There is no significant difference between the

normal water and underground water.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This research will serve as gateway to further research

on the negative impact or effect of oil spillage and

environmental pollution to the aquatic lives, human

beings and the environment at large. It will also

create a

background that will provide a long lasting measure to

curb the environmental law violation situations and

dangers of contaminated water in the lives of humans.

It is also geared towards providing a lasting solution

to Government and its agencies or commission which can

24

they can base their policies that will minimize or

eradicate completely the problems of gas flaring, oil

spillage and general water pollution and other factors

traceable to causing harm to human health as a result

of the quality of the water taken. The research work

will also serve as a basement towards understanding the

physiochemical parameters of good water and their

corresponding measures of detecting them. i.e the

instruments or type of equipment used to detect the

parameters and the methodology applied during the

process.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study covers ground water quality in oil areas. It

specifically examines the impact of oil production on

ground water quality and investigates the causes of

improper treatment of the ground water in Afam-nta

community (study area).

25

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY

Ignorance of the community people, thereby hindering

me from collection of samples

Time constraint

Resources ( money)

Energy

Environmental or weather condition

1.8 STUDY AREA

The study area is Afam-Nta community which is located

in Oyigbo Local Government area of Rivers State.

Afam-Nta community is made up of three autonomous

communities . Afam-Nta community is bounded by

Obeakpu-Ndoki, Afam-Ukwu-Ndoki and Egberu-Ndoki. Afam-

Nta community lies between latitude N 40 52I 2011 and

longitude E 60 551 5311. Rivers state is bounded on the

North by Bayelsa State, South by the Akwa Ibom, South-

East by Abia State, and East by Imo State.

26

Hence, the interest in the area is both ecological

and economical.

The villages that makes up of the present Oyigbo local

government area are

historically grouped into three sub-clans, namely:

(1) Umuihueze Sub-clans.

These are the villages and towns: Okoloma-Ndoki,

Ayama, Obunku, Umuosi, Egber-Ndoki, Afam-Ukwu, Afam-

Nta, Obeakpu-Ndoki, Mgboji -Ndoki .

(2) Okobo Sub-clan.

These are Umuagbai, Mri-ihu, Obete, Okpontu, etc,

(3) Asa Sub-clans.

These are Obigbo, kom-kom, Izuoma, Obeama, Mmiri-

nwayi.

1.8.1. Population; According to the 2006 Census

figures, Oyigbo local Government area has a

population of 10,460. Afam-Nta community the study

27

area has a population of 1,307 (National Population

Commission, 2009).

1.8.2 CLIMATE

Afam-nta Ndoki features a tropical monsoon climate with

length and heavy rainy seasons and very short dry

seasons. Only the months of December and January truly

qualifies on dry season month in the city. The

harmattan, which climatically influences many cities in

West Africa, is less pronounced in Port- Harcourt’s

heaviest precipitation occurs during September with an

average of 370mm of rain. December on average is the

driest month of the year; with an average rainfall of

20mm. Temperature throughout the year in the city is

relatively constant, showing little variation

throughout the course of the year. Average temperatures

28

are typically between 250-280c in the city (C.U.Oyegun

and A. Adeyemo 1999).

1.8.3 VEGETATION AND SOIL

Afam-nta Ndoki in Oyigbo L.G.A of Rivers State has a

climate and vegetation has equatotrial high rainforest

zone of Nigeria. Rain falls nearly all the year round

with variations reaching its peak within the months of

July end of October gives rise to rainforest vegetation

of Afam-nta Ndoki. The relative humidity is also high.

Further it is a low land area in terms of relief and

pressure soil which favoured the growth of agriculture

both for food and sales. Therefore farming is a

dominant economic activity in Oyigbo Local Government

Area. Yam, cassava, vegetable are largely grown. Garri

processing for commercial purpose is practiced by

almost every family.

1.8.4 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE

29

In terms of the surface features of Afam-nta Ndoki is

very very unique. The area falls within the coastal

belt dominated by low-lying coastal plains which

structurally belong to the sedimentary formations of

the recent new Port-Harcourt city. It has an elevation

of just about 139m above sea level, the landscape of

the region comprises the coastal palms by a maze of

swamps, creek and water ways. Generally, the land

surface slope gently (3 -5 degrees on the average) in

the northwest (NW) to southeast (SE) direction C.U

Oyegun and A. Adeyemo (1999). The northern quadrants of

the region are characterized by gently rolling coastal

plains while swamp tidal basins, mud flats and sand

bars predominate in the southern section of the region.

The area has a very poor drainage, essentially due to

the combination of low relief, high water table and

high rainfall. The low relief of the region results is

strikingly gently slopes which have the effect of

30

making the flow velocities of the rivers very low. This

situation result in the formation of river meanders. To

a large extent, the drainage pattern is structurally

controlled on the coastal low lands and is mainly

dentritic pattern on the shore zone. The mouth of the

creeks and river system allows the river to empty into

the Atlantic Oceans. Rivers generally flows southwards

and southeast wards.

1.8.5 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

The Afam-nta Ndoki is a major industrial centre as it

has a large number of multinational firms as well as

other industrial concerns, particularly business

related to the petroleum industry. It is one of the

chief oil producing community in Rivers State in

Nigeria. Rivers State is one of the wealthiest States

in Nigeria in terms of gross domestic product and

foreign exchange revenue from the oil industry, crude

oil being its main export earner. Afam-nta Ndoki also

31

engages in farming as a dominant economic activity in

Oyigbo L.G.A. Yam, cassava, vegetable is largely grown.

Other forms of economic activities include trading and

fishing. The oil industries also operate on a large

scale here in Port- Harcourt as the heart of Nigerian’s

oil industry with virtually all major multinational oil

companies being represented there until recently owing

to security threat from Niger Delta militants and

cultists. Afam –nta Ndoki in Oyigbo has a lot of oil

wells.

32

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Ground water: is the water located beneath the earth’s

surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of

rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated

deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable

33

quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces

or fractures and voids in rock become completely

saturated with water is called the water table.

Ground water is recharged from, and eventually flows

to, the surface naturally; natural discharge often

occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or

wetlands. Ground water is also, often withdrawn for

Agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by

constructing and operating extraction wells. The study

of the distribution and movement of ground water is

hydrogeology, also called ground water hydrology.

Typically, groundwater is thought of as liquid water

flowing through shallow aquifers, but in the technical

sense,it can also include soil moisture, permafrost

(frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability

bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water.

Ground water is hypothesized to provide lubrication

that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It

34

is likely that much of the earth’s surface contains

some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in

some instances.

Ground water is stored in and moves slowly through,

moderately to highly permeable rocks called aquifers.

The word aquifer comes from the two latin words ‘aqua’

or ‘water’ and ‘ferre’, to bear or carry. Aquifers

literally carry water under ground. An aquifer maybe a

layer of gravel or sand, a layer of sandstone or

cavernous limestone, a rubbly top or base of lava

flows, or even a large body of massive rock, such as

fractured granite, that has sizeable openings. In terms

of storage at anyone instant in time, ground water is

the largest single supply of fresh water available for

use by humans.

Ground water has been known to humans for thousands of

years. Scripture(Genesis 7:11) on the biblical flood

states that “ the fountains of the great deep (were)

35

broken up,” and Exodus, among its many references to

water and to wells, refers (20:4) to “water under the

earth.” Many other ancient chronicles show that humans

have long known that much water is contained

underground, but it is only within recent decades that

scientists and engineers have learned to estimate how

much groundwater is stored underground and have begun

to document its vast potential for use. An estimated

one million cubic meter of the world’s ground water is

stored within one-half meter of the land surface. Only

a fraction of this reservoir of ground water, however,

can be practicably tapped and made available on a

perennial basis through wells and springs. The amount

of groundwater in storage is more than 30 times greater

than the nearly 30,000 cubic meter volume in all the

fresh –water lakes and more than the 300 cubic meter of

water in all the world’s streams at any given time.

36

WATER QUALITY: Define the physiochemical parameters of

water in terms of contaminations. It defines water

range of impurities ranging from soluble impurities to

insoluble impurities. For the nation as a whole, the

chemical and biological character of ground water is

acceptable for most uses.The quality of groundwater in

some parts of the country, particularly shallow

groundwater, is changing as a result of human

activities. Groundwater is less susceptible to

bacterial pollution than surface water because the soil

and rocks through which groundwater flows screen out

most of the bacteria. Bacteria, however, occasionally

find their way into groundwater, sometimes in

dangerously high concentrations. But freedom from

bacterial pollution alone does not mean that the water

is fit to drink. Many unseen dissolved mineral and

organic constituents are present in groundwater in

various concentrations. Most are harmless or eve

37

beneficial; though occurring infrequently, others are

harmful and a few may be highly toxic.

Water is a solvent and dissolves minerals from the

rocks with which it comes in contact. Groundwater may

contain dissolved minerals and gases that gives it the

tangy taste enjoyed by many people. Without these

minerals and gases, the water would taste flat.(see

Adesanya, 1984; Egborge, 1991; Olabaniyi and Owoyemi,

2004;2006) The most common dissolved mineral substances

are sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chloride,

bicarbonate and sulphate. In water chemistry, these

substances are called Common Constituents.

Water typically is not considered desirable for

drinking if the quantity of dissolved minerals exceeds

1,000mg/L (milligrams per liter). Water with a few

thousand mg/L of dissolved minerals is classed as

slightly saline, but it is sometimes used in areas

where less- mineralized water is not available. Water

38

from some wells and springs contains very large

concentrations of dissolved minerals and cannot be

tolerated by humans and other animals or plants. Many

parts of nation are underlain at depth by highly saline

ground water that has only very limited uses.

pH: It is used to express the intensity of acidic or

alkaline condition of the solution. Most of the water

resources are slightly acidic. WHO has recommended

maximum permissible limit of pH from 6.5 to 9.2 [97. At

all seven stations pH valves were found in Afam-nta in

Oyigbo Local Goevernment Area in Rivers State with

desirable limits and suitable range.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY [EC] : Electrical Conductivity

is measure of water capacity to convey the electric

current. It signifies the total number of dissolved

acids.

TURBIDITY: In most of the water samples the turbidity

is due to presence of colloidal and very fine

39

dispersions. At all the seven sampling stations the

turbidity values in the range of 0.3 NTU to 1.2 NTU and

found within the limit prescribed by WHO.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS) : TDS is the presence of

dissolved solids And it indicates the behaviour of

salinity in the groundwater. Water containing more than

50mb/L of TDS is not considered desirable for drinking

water supplies, but in unavoidable cases 1500mb/L is

also allowed.

TOTAL HARDNESS: Hardness is the property of water which

increases the boiling points of water. Hardness of

water mainly depends upon the amount of calcium or

magnesium salts or both.

SULPHATE: Sulphate is a nontoxic anion but ailment like

catharsis; dehydration and gastrointestinal irritation

have been linked to it when concentration is high.

CHLOLRIDE: The Department of National Health and

Welfare, Canada reported that, the chloride which comes

40

from natural and man-made sources are the main sources

of chloride in groundwater. The sources are

agricultural runoff, inorganic fertilizers, industrial

and septic tank effluents, animal feed stocks. Chloride

is not harmful to human at low concentration but could

alter the taste of water at concentrations above

250mg/L.

CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM: The hardness is directly

related to calcium and magnesium content. In the

present study, the calcium concentration ranged between

4.7mg/L to 17.5mg/L and found below the permissible

limit of WHO while magnesium content in the water

samples was ranging from 0.4mg/L to 22.0 mg/L which was

found within the prescribed limit.

2.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

41

Quality of groundwater: For the Nation as a whole, the

chemical and biological character of groundwater is

acceptable for most uses. The quality of ground water

in some parts of the country, particularly shallow

groundwater, is changing as a result of human

activities. Groundwater is less susceptible to

bacterial pollution than surface water because the soil

and rocks through which groundwater flows screen out

most of the bacteria. Bacteria, however, occasionally

find their way into groundwater, sometimes in

dangerously high concentrations but freedom from

bacterial pollution alone does not mean that the water

is fit to drink. Many unseen dissolved mineral and

organic constituents are present in groundwater in

various concentrations. Most are harmless or even

beneficial; though occurring infrequently, others are

harmful and a few may be highly toxic.

2.2.1 HOW GROUNDWATER OCCURS

42

It is difficult to visualize water underground. Some

people believe that ground water collects in

underground takes or flows in underground rivers. In

fact, groundwater is simply the surface water that

fully saturates pores or cracks in soils and rocks.

Groundwater is replenished by precipitation and

depending on the local climate and geology, is unevenly

distributed in both quantity and quality. When rain

falls or snow melts, some of the water evaporates, some

is transpired by plants, some flows overland and

collects in streams, and some infiltrates into the

pores or cracks of the soil and rocks. The first water

that enters the soil replaces water that has

beenevaporated or used by plants during a preceding dry

period. Between the land surface and the aquifer water

is a zone that hydrologists call the unsaturated zone.

In this unsaturated zone, there is little water, mostly

smaller openings of the soil and rock; the large

43

openings usually contain air instead of water. After a

significant rain, the zone may be almost saturated;

after a long dry spell, it may be almost dry. Some

water is held in the unsaturated zone by molecular

attraction, and it will not flow toward or enter a

well. Similar forces hold enough water in a wet towel

to make it feel damp after it has stopped dripping.

After the water requirements for plant and soil are

satisfied, any excess water will infiltrate to the

water table, the top of the zone below which the

opening in rocks are saturated below the water table,

all the openings in the rocks are full of water that

moves through the aquifer to streams, springs, or wells

from which water is being withdrawn. Natural refilling

of aquifers at depth is a slow process because

groundwater moves slowly through the unsaturated zone

and the aquifer. The rate of charge is also an

important consideration. It has been estimated, for

44

example, that if the aquifer that underlies the high

plains of Texas and New Mexico- an area of slight

precipitation was emptied, it would take centuries to

refill the aquifer at the present small rate of

replenishment. In contrast, a shallow aquifer in an

area of substantial precipitation may be replenished

almost immediately.

Aquifers can be replenished artificially, for example,

large volumes of groundwater used for air conditioning

are returned to aquifers through recharge wells on long

Island, New York, Aquifers maybe artificially recharged

in two main ways: one way is to spread water over the

land in pits, furrows or ditches or to erect small dams

in stream channels to detain and deflect surface

runoff, thereby allowing it to infiltrate to the

aquifer; the other way is to construct recharge wells

and inject water directly into an aquifer. The latter

is a more expensive method but may be justified where

45

the spreading method is not feasible. Although some

artificial- recharge projects have been successful,

others have been disappointments there is still much to

be learned about different ground-water environments

and their receptivity to artificial-recharge practices.

A well, in simple concept, may be regarded as nothing

more than an extra pore in the rock. A well dug or

drilled into saturated rocks will fill with water

approximately to the level of the water table. If water

is pumped from a well, gravity will force water to move

from the saturated rocks into the well to replace the

pumped water. This leads to the question: Will water be

forced in fast enough under a pumping stress to assure

a continuing water supply? Some rock, such as clay or

solid granite, may have only a few hairline cracks

through which water can move. Obviously, such rocks

transmit only small quantities of water and are poor

aquifers. By comparison, rocks such as fractured

46

sandstones and cavernous limestone have large connected

openings that permit water to move more freely; such

rocks transmit larger quantities of water and are good

aquifers. The amounts of water that an aquifer will

yield to a well may range from a few hundred gallons a

day to as much as several million gallons a day.

2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

Domestic oil and gas production and also clean water

are critical for economic growth, public health and

national security of Nigeria. As domestic oil and gas

production increase in new areas and old fields are

enhanced, there is increasing public concern about the

effects of energy production on surface-water and

groundwater quality. To a great extent, this concern

arises from the hydraulic fracturing techniques being

used today, including horizontal drilling, for

producing unconventional oil and gas in low-

permeability formation.

47

The US Geological Survey (USGS) John Intesley Powell

center for analysis and synthesis in hosting an

interdisciplinary working group of USGS scientists to

conduct a temporal and spatial analysis of surface-

water and groundwater quality in areas of

unconventional oil and gas development. The analysis

uses existing national and regional datasets to

describe water quality, evaluate water quality changes

over time where there are sufficient data, and evaluate

spatial and temporal data gaps.

Water quality is affected by natural processes and

anthropogenic activities within a water shed. Oil and

gas development and production operations at the

surface and below ground can affect water quality. At

the surface, activities at a drill site or production

facility, such as road and well-pad construction, leaks

from pits or tanks chemical spills and discharge of

wastewater, can potentially affect surface-water and

48

shallow groundwater quality. Below-ground activities,

such as drilling prior to casting installation, leaks

during or following hydraulic fracturing, failed casing

seals, pipeline breaks, abandoned wells, deep-well

disposal of flow back or produced wastewater, and

induced subsurface migration pathways, potentially can

affect shallow and deep ground water quality. The

effects of unconventional oil and gas development and

production on regional water quality have not been

previously described despite the fact that oil and gas

development in the United States began nearly 150 years

ago, and more than 4 million oil- and- gas related

wells (IHS) Energy, 2011) have been drilled with an

increasing trend in the use of hydraulic fractioning.

The objectives of the USGS Powell Center Work group are

to;

1.Better understand hydraulic fracturing in the united

State

49

2.Broadly assess the quality of surface water ground

water in areas of unconventional oil and gas

production.

3.Evaluate potential changes in water quality over time

4.Determine current baseline concentrations of major ions

in surface water and groundwater in areas of

unconventional oil and gas production.

5.Identify spatial and temporal data where further

information is needed to evaluate existing water

quality and water-quality trends

6.Identify future research needed to better understand

the effects of oil and gas production and hydraulic

fracturing on surface- water and groundwater fossil

fuels are produced, in varying quantities, in every

major region of the world.

The water related impacts of fossil fuel

extraction and refining in a given region are a

function of multiple factors including the amount and

50

type of fossil fuel produced, the extraction methods

used, physical and geological conditions and regulatory

requirement (Mieike et al 2010). In some cases, social

conditions such as political stability also influence

the links between water and energy. In Nigeria, for

example, political corruption and social tensions have

contributed to a high incidence of oil spills because

oil companies are often not held accountable for

polluting, and because of vandalism of oil pipelines.

At the global scale, 22 recent of all water used is for

industrial purposes, including mining and fossil-fuel

extraction and power generation (UN WWAP nid).

Estimates for the amount of water used globally

specifically for fossil-fuel extraction are not well

developed and many are based on water- intensity

estimates from one article (Gleick 1994) that is over

15 years old. Data on the water-quality impacts of

fossil-fuel extraction and processing are even more

51

poorly developed than those on water quantity and in

many cases are not available at all, as water quality

is not well monitored in many regions of the world. On

estimate for global water use for oil production,

produced by applying water intensities per unit of oil

extracted to global oil production figures, puts total

water use at 13 billion m of water for oil production

worldwide in 2006 (Maheu, 2009).

This estimate taken into account the differing water

intensities of oil produced in different part of

Nigeria.

The Powell Center Study is a collaboration with the

USGS National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWOA) Program,

which provided water-quality data from the USGS

National Water Information System (NWIS) and US

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Modern Storage

and Retrieval (STORET) data bases. Preliminary data

compilation for areas of unconventional oil and gas

52

production from the USGS and EPA data bases yielded

754,000 water-quality samples collected from 78,000

groundwater sampling sites and 32,000 surface water

sampling sites. Major ions, including calcium,

magnesium, sodium, bicarbonate (alkalinity), chloride

and sulfate, are the most commonly determined

constituents for most water-quality samples.

Concentrations of these constituents can be affected by

oil and gas development and are typically elevated in

produced waters, spatial and temporal analysis will

include summary statistics for major- ion

concentrations in samples of surface water, shallow

groundwater (within about 100feet of land surface ) and

deep groundwater for selected time periods in selected

unconventional oil and gas production areas. Where

sufficient data are available, changes in water quality

over time will be evaluated and described for each

area. Areas and time periods for which sufficient data

53

are unavailable will be identified as data gaps where

additional data collection maybe warranted to evaluate

water quality and water-quality trends.

From extraction to end use, petroleum products affects

surface water and groundwater, impairing water quality

with hydrocarbons, salts, nutrients, a host of organic

compounds and various heavy metals. In many areas

around the world, oil spills and storm water runoff

containing oil derivatives have degraded ecosystems and

human water supply.

Petroleum, also known as crude oil, comes from the

remains of prehistoric life subjected to heat and

pressure for millions of years over time, petroleum

accumulated in oil fields, between layers of

impermeable rock, crude oil is extracted from these

fields through a series of recovery methods that run

from tapping into the fields’ initial pressure (known

as primary recovery) to pressurizing the fields with

54

water or steam or other gases to force the oil to the

surface known as secondary and tertiary or enhanced,

recovery). Total daily global crude oil production

extraction) runs about 85 billion barrels, equivalent

to about 12 million metric tons (US EIA, 2010a). In

2009, Russia accounted for 12.9 percent of total global

production, followed by Saudi Arabia at 12 percent, the

US at 8.5 percent. Iran at 5.3 percent, and China at

4.9 percent. (BP2010). In the United States, about one-

quarter of domestic production comes from offshore

wells, but global offshore oil production is only about

6 percent of total global production. Producers convey

crude oil from the well via pipelines or ships to

refineries, where crude oil is distilled into a variety

of petroleum products, including gasoline, kerosene,

fuel oils, liquefied petroleum gas, various lubricants,

asphalt and precursors to plastic and pharmaceutical

products, among others. These petroleum products are

55

then distributed via various modes to other

manufacturers and to end users. Each of these steps

requires or can affect water. Oil fields themselves

usually contain large volumes of salt water. The water

that comes to the surface along with extracted crude

oil is known as produced water. Produced water can

contain hydrocarbon residues, heavy metals, hydrogen

sulfide, and boron, as well as elevated concentrations

of salts. The ratio of produced water to crude oil

tends to rise with the age of the well. Khatib and

Verbeek (2003) estimated that oil production generates

roughly three times as much produced water as crude

oil, equivalent to about 15 billion of produced water

annually world-wide.

Historically, producers disposed of this waste stream

with direct disposal into environment or into

evaporation pits that were often little more than holes

in the ground that allowed produced water sources or

56

streams fed by these aquifers (PettyJohn, 1971). Khatib

and Verbeek (2003) estimated that about 55 percent of

one major oil company’s produced water was re-injected

into the ground. Clark and Veil (2009) found that some

98 percent of produced water from onshore wells in the

United States was re-injected but that 91 percent of

produced water from offshore wells was simply

discharged into the ocean. Assuming that the 2 percent

rate of U.S onshore produced water that is not re-

injected can be applied globally- probably an

optimistic assessment- yields an annual worldwide total

of 300 million of produced water remaining on the

surface. The large volumes of produced water are the

greatest single connection between oil production and

water quality but each step of the oil extraction and

refining process has led to contamination of water

resources. Oil spills from wells are not uncommon and

can pollute vast areas both off shore and on shore,

57

generating clear and measurable environmental impact.

Spills during the conveyance of crude oil from the

point of extraction to refineries also occur with some

regularity. The Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill, which

garnered significant public attention, is only one

example of many and in fact does not rank among the top

25 largest oil spills worldwide (O’ Rourke and

Connolly, 2003). In Nigeria, an estimated 260,000

barrels of oil (41,000) spill each year into Niger

Delta and surrounding areas, with devastating impacts

on people, plants, wildlife (vidal 2010, Nassiter

2010). Marine spills, such as these can lead to fresh

water system contamination which the oil hits the

shoreline and drifts up through estuaries into streams.

In the U.S, spills into freshwater systems occur more

frequently than marine spills, between 1995 and 1996,

77 percent of all spills greater than 1000 gallon were

in land spills. The majority of these spills were from

58

oil pipelines (Yoshioka and Carpenter, 2002). After

production, Crude oil is refined through a series of

water-intensive processes: water is used for steam, as

part of the refining process, as wash water, and for

cooling. Process water typically becomes contaminated

with sulfur and ammonia, requiring treatment. Cooling

system water has little direct contact with petroleum

products, though trace contaminants may appear in

cooling system water. Such cooling water is the largest

consumptive water use in refining at a rate of three to

four units of cooling water per unit of crude oil,

depending on the type of cooling system. Because of the

large volumes of water required for operation,

refineries are often located adjacent to water sources.

The sheer size of many refineries – often covering

square kilometers of land- means that, in some

countries, precipitation on the refinery grounds must

be captured and treated so as not to contaminate

59

adjacent water bodies. Refined petroleum products

continue to affect water quality, though their impacts

typically become more diffuse oncethe products are

refined and distributed. In the United States, the

environmental protection Agency has recorede more than

490,000 confirmed leaks from under ground storage tanks

(USTs), which are generally used to store petroleum

products. As of March 2010, there were more than 600,00

active USTs and more than 1,734,000 closed USTs in the

country US EPA 2010). The total number of USTs

worldwide is not known. Leaking USTs can contaminate

groundwater resources with gasoline, diesel, fuel and

related compounds, such as benzene and toluene. The

total volumes leaked from USTs and the total volume of

ground water affected by such leaks, is not known. In

the U.S, more than 75 percent of refined petroleum

becomes gasoline, diesel and jet fuel (Teufel and

Azelton 2008). The distribution and combustion of these

60

fuels also affect surface water and groundwater. Once,

the refined gasoline and diesel fuels reach more

vehicles, spills and combustion by- products can become

non-point sources of pollution, washed by storm water

runoff into streams or infiltrating into groundwater.

Combustion of these fuels discharges nitrogen and other

contaminants to the atmosphere, which in turn can be

carried back to the earth in precipitation, increasing

pollution loadings to lakes and streams.

Incompletely combusted fuel and minor spills and leaks

from motor vehicles also generate contaminants. One

study found that runoff from motor vehicles also

generates contaminants. One study found that runoff

from one square kilometer of roads and parking lots

carried the equivalent of more than 180 barrels of oil

annually (NRDC, 2001).

Although there do not appear to be any estimates of the

total volume or impacts of such end-use impacts on even

61

a local scale, much less any global estimates,

extrapolating from this one estimate suggests that

storm water runoff carries the equivalent of almost 20

million barrels of oil (more than 3 million) annually

nationwide (about 0.8 percent of total annual motor

fuel consumption), though this should be considered

little more than an order of magnitude estimate. Total

global runoff from contaminated surfaces could not be

estimated from available data.

Unconventional petroleum, which includes tar sands and

oil shade, is not extracted with conventional wells,

unconventional petroleum requires more complex

extraction and processing than does crude oil, and its

water quality impacts are potentially many times

greater than those of conventional crude. Tar sands,

sometimes known as oil sands, are a mix of clay, sand,

water and bitumen. Bitumen is a thick, tarlike

substance that can be processed into “synthetic crude”

62

which can then be further processed by an oil refinery.

Bitumen is also used directly in asphalt and other

applications. Almost half of Canada’s total oil

production comes from Albert’s tar sand, equivalent is

about 1.5 million barrels of oil per day, or 86.4

million total in 2009 ( Gosselin et al 2010). The total

recoverable oil equivalent in Albert’s tar oil reserves

(Gosselin et al 2010).

Venezuela has a small commercial tar sands operation,

and small deposits have been found in the Middle East.

In eastern Utah, in U.S., a controversial effort to

develop tar sands is now under way (WRA 2010). Tar

sands production is more complicated and capital

intensive than typical petroleum production. Companies

extract bitumen either via surface mining or in situ,

which typically involves injecting steam into the tar

sands deposits to decrease bitumen’s viscosity and

enable it to flow into pools, where it can be

63

extracted. Tar sands mining operations use large

volumes of water to separate the bitumen from parent

materials. Roughly two-and-a- half units of water are

required to extract and process one unit of bitumen by

surface mining, yielding an annual water-use volume.

2.4 COMMON GROUNDWATER CONTAMINANTS

1. NITRATES: Dissolved nitrate is most common

contaminant in groundwater. High level can cause blue

baby disease (methamologlobiamia) in children, may form

caranogens and can accelerate eutrophication in surface

waters. Sources of nitrates include sewage,

fertilizers, air pollution, landfills and industries.

2. PATHOGENS: Bacteria and viruses that can cause water

borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery,

polio, hepatitis, sources include sewage, landfills,

septic tanks and livestock;

3. TRACE METAL: Include lead, mercury, cadmium, copper,

chromium and nickel. These metals can be toxic and

64

carcinogenic. Sources include industrial and mine

discharges, fly ash from thermal power plants either

due to fall out or disposal in ash ponds. Industrial

solid waste dumping and leaching into ground water

through rainwater.

4. INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS: Inorganic dissolved salts

accumulation such as SO4, Chloride, etc along with Na, K

building up high dissolved solids and combination of

carbonates, bicarbonates along the Ca and Mg building

up high hardness of water and converting soft/sweet

water in to hard water creating gastrointestinal

problems in human being if they consume groundwater as

drinking source.

5. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: Include volatile and semi-

volatile organic compounds like petroleum derivatives,

PCBs Pesticides. Sources include agricultural

activities, street drainages, sewage landfills,

65

industrial discharges, spills vehicular emissions fall

out etc.

Realizing the importance of groundwater quality in

urban areas and its deterioration, CPCB initiated

groundwater quality survey in problem areas (industrial

pockets) of the country during 1994. The findings were

published as CPCB publications. During 2001- 2003, the

survey was repeated. The findings of the survey are

presented in this report.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) with the

help of National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee

Pollution Control Research Institute (PCRI), Haridwar

and Thane Municipal Corporation, Thane initiated

similar survey for Metro-cities. Metro-cities are the

cities having population of 1 million and above. There

are 35 such cities in India.

2.5 SOURCE OF CONTAMINATION IN GROUND WATER:

66

Underground sources of drinking water, especially in

outskirts of larger cities and villages are highly

polluted. Groundwater is threatened with pollution from

the following sources;

a)DOMESTIC WASTES: Domestic wastes and methods of their

disposal are of primary concern in urban areas. Prime

factors responsible for deteriorating the water quality

include pathogenic organisms, oxygen demand, nutrients

and solids from domestic wastes, solid wastes are the

potential sources of contamination as they are partly

burned and partly incorporated into the soil and pose

serious danger to ground water.

b)INDUSTRIAL WASTES: Most industries generally produce

wastes containing toxic heavy metals along with

hazardous organic and inorganic effluents. These

chemicals contaminate the ground water and severely

pollute it.

67

c)AGRICULTURAL WASTES: Fertilizers, Pesticides,

Insecticides, Herbicides, processing wastes and animal

waste etc. are constantly added to the water. Leachates

from agricultural land containing nitrates. Phosphates

and potash, more downward with percolating water and

join the aquifers below posing danger to the

groundwater.

Throwing rubbish and other unwanted things into the

water are not only the cause of water pollution, but a

harmless activity such as farming could lead to some

thing as insidious as nitrate pollution. Rising nitrate

levels have raised an alarm because of the possibility

of adverse effect on human and animals.

Methaemoglobinaemia or blue baby disease is caused by

the reaction of nitrate with haemoglobin, the oxygen

carrier in the blood, producing methaemoglobin, which

strangles the oxygen carrying capacity of the tissue.

Some claim that nitrate can wear down body’s immune

68

system while its derivatives may be carcinogenic.

Nitrate also causes eutrophication, although in India

and other tropical regions, it is though that

phosphates are more to be blamed for this asphyxiation

of water bodies.

d)RUNOFF FROM URBAN AREAS: Effluents from urban areas

contain large concentration of oils, grease nutrients,

heavy metals and detergents being soluble can pass

through the soil and pollute ground water. Raw sewage

dumped in shallow soak pits and seepage from polluted

lake pond or stream also pollute water. Rainfall could

pickup substantial contaminants from dust and air and

join the aquifer below. The infiltration of liquids

containing toxic pollutants may cause pollution in

sandy soil and well waters. Supply of potable water has

been affecting the contamination of water resources in

most of the developing countries. Rivers, Lakes and

groundwater have been polluted by industrial effluents,

69

pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural runoff and

urban waste. Chronic water scarcity is common in areas

where groundwater has been overdrawn for irrigation,

industrial use or to meet the requirements of urban

population, clearing of forests which increase surface

runoff and reduce groundwater have made the situation

worse. Many countries are fast using up their

groundwater and moving from a situation of crises to

disaster.

e)SOLUBLE EFFLUENTS: Several soluble effluents pollute

the groundwater critically. The extent of pollution is

more in sandy soils and humid regions having high water

table conditions. Global withdrawals of water have

grown by a fheter of over 6 between 1900 and 1995 more

than double the rate of population growth.

This is because of increasing water needs for

agriculture, industrialization and greater human uses

in urban cities.

70

According to W.H.O, about 460 million people, more than

8% of world’s population, live in countries than can be

considered to be highly water stressed. About 25% of

world’s population lives in countries where the

consumption of fresh water is so high that they are

likely to move into situation of serious water stress.

Agriculture takes about 70% of the water withdrawals,

often rising to 90% in dry tropics. Water withdrawals

for irrigation have increased by more than 60% which

has coincided with the green revolution. High yielding

crop varieties require a lot of water. Now water

withdrawals are so high that water bodies such as

rivers and lakes have shrunk in size. A direct impact

of this has been on the flow of rivers especially

during dry periods, which is vital for the aquatic

ecosystem. Along the coasts, increasing groundwater

withdrawals have led to the ingress of saline water

into ground water. Other potential sources of

71

groundwater contamination are waste water treatment

lagoons, mine spills, transport accidents, seepage

pits, urban and rural garbage, earthen septic tanks

refuse dumps barnyard manures, leaching and downward

movement of pollutants.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the methodology that was used in

the study; it gives a description of the study area and

the methods that was used to collect data from the

field. It gives a summary of the research design,72

sample population and size, data collection

instruments, measuring instruments, data collection

instruments, measuring instruments, data, type, data

processing and presentation and the problems

encountered during the process of data collection and

analysis.

3.1 SOURCES OF DATA

In carrying out this study, data was derived from two

sources namely primary and secondary sources.

Primary Data

The primary source involves the collection of ground

water from the field in the study area and this was

assumed to give first hand information on the subject

under study.

Secondary Source

Secondary data was obtained from sources like:

Annual reports, journal articles, internet, magazines,

newspapers, past survey reports and books related to

73

the subject of the study and these were consulted at

length to extract the information required to support

the findings from the study.

3.2 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Groundwater sample was collected from seven (7)

different locations (well ) covering the area of Afam-

nta Community. The groundwater samples were collected

in sterilized plastic containers or good quality of

screw capped polyethylene bottles of 500ml capacity.

Sampling was carried out without adding any

preservatives in bottles. The containers were sealed

and the samples were protected from direct sunlight

during transportation and samples were then transported

to laboratory for laboratory investigation of physio-

chemical analysis.

3.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

I used SPSS. The location (well) of study was chosen

using purposive sampling technique because of the

74

nature of the environment and the locations was

identified before commencement of sample collection.

Purposive sampling was involved in choosing the well

that has appropriate characteristics /properties

required for the study. The reasons for selection of

this method is that it is convenient and it helps the

researcher target those particular wells which is

really needed for the study. A random sampling method

was also used since most of the locations have the

required properties for the study.

3.4 SAMPLE SIZE

Groundwater sample were collected for physio-chemical

analysis from seven (7) sites, the groundwater samples

were collected from wells, water-logged and gutters. A

total of twenty one sampling points were analysed to

examine the quality of water.

3.5 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

75

After collecting all the necessary data, these data

will be coded and edited, analyzed and rephrased to

eliminate errors and ensure consistency.

The data obtained from the analysis, was presented in

tables. Each sample presented in each table and all the

samples were presented and finally interpreted in the

discussion below.

3.6 TEST PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY

PH/ EC/TDS Determination of water sample:

These chemical properties were determined

electrometrically with a multi-parameter photometer.

CHLORIDE DETERMINATION FOR WATER SAMPLE

These were determined titrimetrically. About 100mls of

the sample was measured in a conical flask and 1ml of

potassium chromate indicator was added. The solution

was titrated with AgNO3 solution until the appearance of

brick red colour as the end point.

TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS DETERMINATION FOR WATER SAMPLE

76

Whatman filter paper was first dried in an oven,

brought out, allow to cool, weighted and its initial

weight was noted. Thereafter, 100mls of the sample was

filtered through the filter paper. The filter was re-

dried and re-weighed.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN DETERMINATION FOR WATER SAMPLE.

The DO was determined electrometrically with DO meter

NITRATE DETERMINATION

The cuvette was filled with 6mls of sample and content

of one packet of H193728-0 was added, and shaken for 50

seconds. The cuvette was inserted into the instrument

and the reading was taken using H183200 multi-parameter

photometer.

PHOSPHATE DETERMINATION

The cuvette was filled with 10mls of sample while 10

drops of H193717A-O Molybdate reagent and content of

one packet of H193717B-O were added. The cuvette was

77

inserted into the instrument and the reading was taken

using H183200 multi-parameter photometer.

SULPHATE DETERMINATION

The cuvette was filled with 10mls of sample and the

content of one packet of H193751-0 indicator reagent

was added. It was shaken for 1 minute and cuvette was

inserted into the instrument. The reading was taken

using H183200 multi-parameter photometer.

THE HEAVY METALS DETERMINATION (APHA 301A)

A measured quantity of the sample were transferred into

kjeldahl flask; 20ml of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3)

was added and the sample pre-digested by heating gently

for 20 mins. More acid was there after added and

digestion was continued for 30-40 mins. Digestion was

stopped when a clear digest was obtained, the flask was

cooled and the content transferred into a 50ml

volumetric flask and made to the mark with distilled

78

water. The resulting solution was analysed for heavy

metals using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

79

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT PRESENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 DATE PRESENTATION:

The result of the physic – chemical parameters of

ground water is presented in the table below.

4.2 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

4.2.1 Site 1 (river); the result of the physiochemical

analysis of the water samples collected from site 1 are

represented in the table below. The results are

compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.1 physicochemical parameters of sample 1

S/N Parameter Unit Sample 1 W.H.O

limit

1 PH 6.93 6.5-8.5

80

2 Conductivity Ns/cm 157.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 74.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.005 -

5 DO Ppm 7.15 -

6 CL Mg/L 0.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 7 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 1.2 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.05 45.50

11 Hco3 Mg/L 1 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.05 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 13.8 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 12.2 50(0.50)

15 Na+ Mg/L 0.14 2

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.59 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.03 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.00 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.02 5

81

The table above shows the results of the parameters

analyses in sample 1 with the W.H.O limit standard.

4.2.2 Site 1 (well); the result of the physiochemical

analysis of the water samples collected from site 2 are

represented in the table below. The results are

compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.2 physicochemical parameters of sample 2

S/N Paramete

r

Unit Sample 2 W.H.O

limit

1 PH 4.54 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivi

ty

Ns/cm 51.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 23.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.014 -

5 DO Ppm 4.45 -

6 CL Mg/L 1.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 2 500

82

8 Po43- Mg/L 1.5 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.26 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 1.28 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 1.58 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 6.0 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.07 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.50 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.01 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.01 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.03 5

The table above shows the results of the physio

chemical parameters analyses in sample 2.

The PH of sample 2 is 4.54 which is below W H O limit

and this implies that the water sample is acidic.

83

4.2.3 Site 3 (river); the result of the physiochemical

analysis of the water samples collected from site 3 are

represented in the table below. The results are

compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.3.1 physicochemical parameters of sample 3

S/N Paramete

r

Unit Sample 3 W.H.O

limit

1 PH 6.91 6.5-8.5

84

2 Conducti

vity

Ns/cm 110.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 44.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.007 -

5 DO Ppm 9.21 -

6 CL Mg/L 0.6 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 4 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.3 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.68 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.06 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 23.0 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 6.5 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 0.55 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 2.24 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.48 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.03 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.00 5

85

The table above shows the result of the physio chemical

parameters analyses from sample 3.

The Ca2+ in water samples 3 is high though within the

limit. High Calcium concentration causes dental

calciosis which low concentration caused dental caries.

Hence it is essential to maintain moderated

concentration of Calcium in drinking water.

4.2.4 Site 4 (river); the result of the physiochemical

analysis of the water samples collected from site 4 are

represented in the table below. The results are

compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for drinking water.

86

Table. 4.2.4 physicochemical parameters of sample 4

S/N Paramet

er

Unit Sample

3

W.H.O

limit

1 PH 6.35 6.5-8.5

2

Conductivi

ty

Ns/cm 41.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 5.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.011 -

5 DO Ppm 7.32 -

6 CL Mg/L 0.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 1 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.3 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.01 50(0.50

)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.60 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.00 0.3

87

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 2.67 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 5.7 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 0.97 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.84 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.04 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.001 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.001 5

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters

analyses from sample 4.

The Fe2+ is not significant in the water sample and this

shows that this water is not good for drinking. Iron

aids to build strong and healthy bones in humans.

4.2.5 Site 5 (well); the result of the physiochemical

analysis of the water samples collected from site 5 are

represented in the table below. The results are

compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for drinking water.

88

Table. 4.2.5 physicochemical parameters of sample 5

S/N Paramete

r

Unit Sample 5 W.H.O

limit

1 PH 5.12 6.5-8.5

2 Conducti

vity

Ns/cm 60.1 250

3 TDS Ppm 23.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.007 -

5 DO Ppm 9.11 -

6 CL Mg/L 2.0 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 6.0 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.0 -

89

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.58 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.16 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 2.0 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 4.01 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.00 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.20 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.48 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.02 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.20 5

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters

analysed from sample 5.

The Pb element is significant and this when injected

into the system through drinking water can cause lead

poison.

90

The PH of the sample is below limit showing that the

sample is acidic.

4.2.6 Site 6 (river); the result of the physiochemical

analysis of the water samples collected from site 6 are

represented in the table below. The results are

compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.6 physicochemical parameters of sample 6

S/N Paramete

r

Unit Sample 6 W.H.O

limit

1 PH 6.01 6.5-8.5

2 Conducti Ns/cm 150.1 250

91

vity

3 TDS Ppm 138.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.014 -

5 DO Ppm 9.91 -

6 CL Mg/L 2.0 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 10 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.3 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.08 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.40 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.01 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 2.18 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 9.2 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.01 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.50 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.01 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.04 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.02 5

92

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters

analysed from Sample 6.

Chloride is the indicator of contamination with animal

and human waste. Chloride is a common constituent of

all natural water and it is generally not classified as

harmful constituent. Chloride is significant in this

water sample.

4.2.7 Site 7 (river); the result of the physiochemical

analysis of the water samples collected from site 7 are

represented in the table below. The results are

compared with the World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for drinking water.

93

Table. 4.2.7; physicochemical parameters of sample 7

S/N Paramete

r

Unit Sample 7 W.H.O

limit

1 PH 5.02 6.5-8.5

2 Conducti

vity

Ns/cm 49.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 40.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.012 -

5 DO Ppm 6.20 -

6 CL Mg/L 1.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 3 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.1 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.02 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.05 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 2.0 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.06 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 17.64 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 6.2 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.02 -

94

16 K2+ Mg/L 2.01 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.02 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.06 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.02 5

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters

analysed from sample 7.

The TDS of the sample is within the W.H.O range. The

TDS is the term used to describe, the Inorganic salts

and small amount of organic matter present in solution

of water.

4.3 DISCUSSION

The result of the pysio-chemical parameters of ground

water are presented in tables 1-7 above. Climate

factors such as rainfall, temperature, pressure and

humidity, etc. play an important role in the geology as

well as terrestrial environment.

95

A sound knowledge of these factors help in

understanding the complex processes of these

interaction between the climate and biological

processes in water bodies.

PH is the scale of intensity of acidity and alkalinity

of water and measures the concentration of hydrogen

ions. The W.H.O limit for PH is 6.5-8.5. In the present

study, the PH values of ground water observed varied

from 4.5 to 6.91. The pH value was below limit in

samples 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7, and this shows that the water

sample is acidic. The higher the ground water acidity

in the area has been attributed to the dissolution in

rain water, effluents of acidic gases including Co2, No2

and So2 that originated from gas flares and vehicular

exhaust (Ogunkoya and Ef1,2003). The pH values of

samples 1 and 3 are within W H O limit and this occurs

however as ground water acidity is reduce as it

percolates the soil and under goes base – buffer

96

reactions. The PH values of samples 1 and 3, that fell

within the allowable range could be as a result of sea

water infiltration into the area thereby neutralizing

the acidity of the ground water.

PH is considered as an indicator of over all

productivity that causes diversity. Though PH has no

direct impact on consumers, it remains an important

parameter (USEPA, 1983) which controls water solubility

and the rate of metallic reaction. The results of all

parameters determined in the ground water shows that

the water is acidic and is not good for drinking.

The Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of water

capacity to convey the electric current. It signifies

the total number of dissolved acids. The W.H.O limit of

(EC) is 250Ns/cm samples 2 ,4,5 and 7 shows less

seasonal variation of conductance where as samples1, 3

and 6 show large seasonal variation reflecting

significant water-soil interaction resulting in the

97

dissolution of the geological medium. Locally, the

effect of salt water infiltration into the aquifer from

the tries influence Imo River in Afam-nta may also be

an important factor in the Stalinization of ground

water in the area.

TDS is the presence of dissolved solid and it indicates

the behaviour of salinity in the ground water. TDS is

one of the main quality parameter for any purpose.

Water containing more than 500 mg/L of TDS is not

considered desirable for drinking water supplies. All

the ground water samples investigated showed TDS level

lower than the allowable limits of W.H.O. The higher

values of TDS in sample land 6 revealed abundance of

major ions, arguable due to infiltration of pollutant

through dilution in sub-surface soil. The observation

may also account for the strong positive correlation

between TDS/cl, TDS/fe.

98

TSS and DO which was investigated from our samples

ranges between 0.005 – 0.014 and 4.45 – 9.91

respectively there are no prescribed standards

suggested by W.H.O for parameters of Tss and DO for

drinking purpose, so no comparison can be made fro

observed values.

Hardness is the property of water which increases the

boiling points of water. Hardness of water mainly

depends upon the amount of Calcium or Magnesium salts

or both. Total hardness is the indicator of

hydrogeology and aesthic quality of water. The W.H.O

limit for hardness is 500 mg/L the hardness for the

water samples investigated falls in within the W.H.O

limit and this shows that the waters is soft thereby

making the ground water portable.

Chloride comes from natural and man-made sources are

the main sources of chloride in ground water. The

sources are agricultural runoff, inorganic fertilizers,

99

industrial and septic tank effluents, animal feed

stocks, chloride is not harmful to human at low

concentration but could alter the taste of water at

concentrations above 250 mg/L. chloride mean values

obtained from this study were generally lower than the

W.H.O 250 mg/L limit.

Sulphate and nitrate (So42- and No3) sulphate is a non

toxic union but ailment like catharsis, dehydration and

gastrointestinal irritation have been linked to it when

concentration is high. Concentration of Sulphate in

water sample was insignificant in the samples

investigated.

Nitrates have low concentrate in the samples

investigated. Natural gas rich in oxides of Sulphur and

nitrogen are flared into the atmosphere n this general

area, at an average rate of 42.5 million cubic meters

per day. Never the less, the lower concentration of No3

in ground water may party be cause by the organic

100

carboh (present in the soil) reduction of nitrate to

nitrogen gas and sometimes to ammonia in the presence

of denitrifying microbes (how know and Glynn, 2005).

HCo3 was invested in our sample and raged from 2.0-

0.26. there are no prescribed standards suggested by W

H O for HCo3 for drinking purpose, so no comparison can

be made from the observation.

The enrichment of HCo3 in ground water is consistent

with the dissolution in ground water of biogenic Co2

trapped in the soil.

Calcium and Magnesium, the hardness is directly related

to Calcium and Magnesium content. In the present study,

Calcium concentration ranged between 1. 58 mg/L to 23.0

mg/L and ground below the permissible limit of W H O.

while Magnesium content in the water samples was rising

from 4.01 mg/L to 12.2 mg/L which was ground within

the prescribed limited. Ca2+ and Mg2+ are usually

released into ground water by the dissolution of field101

spars and micas (freeze and Chery, 1979) that are

important components of the Deltaic plain sands

aquifer.

Fe occurs higher their permissible limit in sample 2

and this suggests greater dissolution of fe from

metallic wastes and scraps and lateritic fe within the

soil particles. Other samples investigated falls within

the W H O permissible limit. Pb has W H O limit as 0.01.

the samples investigated has higher concentration above

the W H O permissible limit which is an indication of

high rate of atmosphere pollution by fumes from

autombile exhaust and other industrial sources,

industrial use of Pb produced materials. It may also

reflect the high filtering capacity of the soil with

rest to ground water.

Cu and Zn falls within the permissible W H O limit.

102

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPLICATION

Results obtained from ground water samples indicate

total coliform counts of 0-7.38 log 10 cfu/mL. this

exceeds almost in all samples tested by the W H O

standard for water portability. The high coliform

counts suggest that ground water in the study area may

be potentially harmful.

The ingress of coliform bacteria may have been

facilitated by the shallow nature (0-4m) of the

aquifer, which enables easy access by percolating

contaminated water.

The result of this study and several others indicate

that the accelerated economic and population growth

brought by the oil exploration and production

activities in the study area generated adverse

environmental and health impacts. So2 and No2 gas are

103

actively poisonous and irritating both to the skin and

lungs. Current medically records from health

institution within this study area indicate that

respiratory tract diseases accounts for about 30% of

all diseases reported. Besides So2 and No2 are dissolved

by rain water to produce weak H2S04 and HNO3, which fall

on the earth as acid rain with corrosive effects.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Water is a solvent and dissolved minerals from the

rocks with which it comes in contact. Ground water may

contain dissolved minerals and gases that give it the

tinge taste enjoyed by many people. Without these

minerals and gases, the water would taste flat. The

most common dissolved mineral substances are Sodium,

104

Calcium, Potassium, Chloride, bicarbonate, and

Sulphate. In water chemistry, these substances are

called common constituents.

From our study, the sample investigated has PH less

than WHO. Limit which indicates that the water sample

is acidic which may be as a result of acid rain or

dissolution of other poisonous metals. Visual

observation showed that farm lands and bushes are

eroded as a result of bad water. Also the gaseous

emissions have been linked to increased green house

effect and the establishment of local heat Islands in

this area and this causes heating effect on the crops

and animals.

The measured pb concentrations of ground water are

higher in all causes than W.H.O limit recommended

maximum of 0.01mg/L. also, soil samples within the

study area have pb concentration up to 1.51pp which are

potentially in transit to the water table.

105

Consequently, edible vegetable show pb equality

impairment and bioaccumulation. The toxic effects of

excessive pb levels in human include significant damage

on the brain of both adults and infants (centernoetal,

2005), it is also known to induce heart related

diseases

The rapid population growth that out paced public

utilities development and the unsanitary habits of the

residents are reflected in the high coliform load in

ground water within the study area. Although the water

samples were not tested for specific pathogens, the

high microbial population present Suggests that it may

be harmful to health. This is confirmed by medical

records from major health institution within the study

area. Currently, gastro- enteritis account for between

10 and 15% in adults and 20 to 30% in infants of all

diseases reported.

106

CONCLUSION

The Physio-chemical assessment of ground water in major

parts of Afam–nta Community in Oyigbo local government

Area of Rivers State based on land uses covering

industrial, coastal, dry land residential, land fill

areas, etc were carried out. Majority of quality

parameters investigated were found below the WHO limit.

The sources of pollutants were diverse with industrial

effluent, municipal solids and septic having a great

impact on the ground water resources. The ground water

samples that have values of PH below WHO limit, higher

pb, fe2+, TDS, conductivity, Ca2+, Hco3, So42-, No3, on the

basis of WHO specifications, the ground water cannot be

regarded as portable owing to its high coliform counts,

while enhanced pb concentration makes the ground water

objectionable.

107

The unacceptable coliform counts in ground water may be

linked to the high rate of gastro-entreritis because

many inhabitants rely on ground water for domestic use.

The corrosive effect of these gases may be associated

with the high rate of respiratory tract diseases in the

area.

POLICY IMPLICATION / RECOMMENDATION

Based on the findings and conclusion, the following

recommendations are hereby made. It is believed that it

would help to alleviate the problems faced by the

individuals in Afam-Nta community.

First and foremost, there is need for continuous

regulation and quality control monitoring to prevent

and control pollution in order to safe guard human

health and facilitate Nigeria attainment of millennium

development goal (MDG) for water and sanitation.

108

Secondly, the effective maintenance of water quality of

local resources through appropriate control measures,

continuous monitoring of their quality parameters and

their use as a supplement t river. Water hall reduce

the water crisis in the city.

Thirdly, the government should set up a model to end

all gas flaring activities by oil companies operating

in Afam-nta Community and Oyigbo local Government Area

at large.

Finally, there should be adequate sensitization on the

dangers of polluted water to human health and the

environment

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