Volume 19 No. 1 February 2000 H" """ """ ','O , "" ,'q

Blackwell Publishers . Oxford UK and Boston USA

JOÃO LUIs CARDOSO

THE FORTIFIED SITE OF LECEIA (OEIRAS) IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CHALCOLITHIC lN PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA

SUI11Jl1ary. Reseafch ;1/10 lhe Clwlco/itltic period in lhe regtoll Df Lower ESlremadllra, south o/ Torres Vedras, lVestem Portugal, lias generated II1l1cll l/elV dOIa from JorliJied siles aI/ti cemelerie". The /ack, so Jar, oJ (/ Ihorol/gh overview of lhis diverse body Df informotioll lUIs hil1dered lhe defini/iol1 of lhe Cha/co/ilhic cu/lllre oJ lhe regiol/. The ecol/omic, social aI/ti cII/lllm/ trallsforma/ioll observed ar sifes IVilh a tong sequellce begilll/ing H'il" lhe Late Neolilhic. Iws /leveI" heell (lI1o/ysed.

The resa/ls obtailled by lhe alllhor iII olle of lhe l1Ios1 Ilotable sites of lhe regio", lhe fortifled sile Df Leceill, uear lhe 101\111 o/ Oeiras, are of particular iI/teres/. Sevellleen excavotioll cOlllpa;glls cllrrietl oul since 1983 "ave provitled ti remarkable body Df informa/iol/. The clwracterizatioll of olheI' previou.'Ily identified Clwlcolilhic groups iII Por/ugal al/ow us /0 see IIOW lhe Clwlcolilhic of ESlremadura relates, ai a regiollal leve/, lVilh lhe cullural developmelll 10 lhe /lar/h. fhe soulh, IIte llimerlal/d mul/he coasl.

Of major imporrcmce lo //tis discussio/l are fhe chrollometric reslllts obfailled iII Leceia. For fhe first lime, lhe 36 radiocarboll dates mui lheir subseq/lellf slmístical Irealmelll have allolVed IIS to esrablish absolute bOlllldaries fo r lhe exislillg sllccessive cU/lural plwses of lhe Late Neolirhic (/lu/ lhe Ear/y, Mi(ld/e a//(/ Late C/w/co/ilhic.

INTRODUCfION

Lowcr Estremadura is a privileged area for researeh on the Chalcolithic. Thc richness of the archaeological remains found here may be explaincd by lhe favourable natural conditions, but lhe presenl-day high population dcns ity is, to a great ex tent, rcsponsiblc for lhe mally casual discoveries which have led to the large Ilumber of enrlier sludies. Thcse have inspired hundreds of published accoullts detailillg both settlements and cemeleries, many 01' them, lInfortlll1atel y, of very lim itecl scientific interes\.

ln Ihis contex l lhe reslllts oblainec1 by lhe HUlhor in lhe fonified sile of Leceia, near Oeiras may be cOllsidered. The sevcnteen cxcavation campaigns, carri ccl oul anllually since 1983, have leel lO a comprehensive body of slratigraph ic data logel her ",ith numerous fie ld observatiol1s, providing an essclltial background for future \Vork aI othel" archaeological sitcs in lhe rcgion. Thc informat.ion obtained at Leceia relates to lhe thousand-year evolulion or a dynamic and complex society which intensively exploiled lhe available naturaJ resources. 1t

OXFORD JOURNAL OP ARCHAEOLOGY 19( 1) 31-55 2000 1,:. Dlack\\cll Publishcrs Lld. 2000. 108 CO\\ley ROád. O).(ord OX-I IJF. UK and 350 Maio Slreel, ~lalden. MA 02148. USA. 37

THE CHALCOLlTIfIC lN PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA

TABLE I Radiocarbon dates for Leceia

Lnb. rcf. Type ólJC Date I.JC Calibrated date 01' Sam pie (%o) (BP) (cal OC)

lu 20"

LAYER 4 ICEN-827 cO<l1 -24.08 7930 ± 60 7000-6620 7030-6560 ICEN-738 bonc -19.77 4630 ± 45 3497- 335 1 3509- 3147 ICEN- llGO -21,81 4630 ± 60 3500-3350 3620-3110 ICEN-3 12 coai -20.22 4530 ± 100 3370-3()<0 3610-2910 ICEN-31] 22,02 4520 ± 130 3490-2930 2630-2880 ICEN-316 - 23,39 4520 ± 70 3350-3050 3490-2920 ICEN- 1161 bone - 20.00 4440 ± 50 3293- 2927 3337- 2917 ICEN-1159 - 21.35 4430 ± 50 3261 - 2925 3333- 29 15 ICEN- 1158 - 2 1.45 4320 ± 60 3020-2880 3090-2710

LAYER 3 ICEN-674 coai -24.56 4370 ± 60 3080-2910 3290-2880 (CEN-II?3 bonc -20.50 4170 ± 50 2878- 2621 2888-258 1 ICEN-91 -20.00 4 130 ± 60 2870-2580 2880-2490 ICEN-673 coai -24.95 4130± 100 2880-2500 2920-2460 ICEN-675 -25,42 41oo±90 2870-2490 2890-2410 ICEN- 1175 bane - 19.85 4090 ± 80 2870-2490 2880-2460 ICEN- 1176 - 20,02 4090 ± 60 2860-2500 2880-2460 lCEN- 1177 - 21.12 4050 ± 50 26 15- 2485 2860-2461 ICEN- 11 7'" - 21.20 3980 ± 50 2563- 2457 2587- 2335

LAYER 2 ICEN-89 bone - 19,91 4200 ± 70 2890-2630 2920-2580 ICEN·92 coai -24,56 4 120 ± 80 2870-2500 2890-2460 ICEN·1212 bone -21.02 4110 ± 70 2870-2500 2880-2470 Ly-4205 coai 4030 ± 120 2860-24 10 2890-2200 ICEN-I220 baile -20.05 4030 ± 70 2620-2460 2870-2350 lCEN-1217 -22.64 4020 ± 80 2620-2460 2870-2310 ICEN-95 VellllS sp* +1 ,34 3990 ± 70 2580-24 10 2850-2290 ICEN- 102 PareI/a sp*' +1.68 3970 ± 70 2570-2360 2840-2210 ICEN- 1213 bonc -23.21 3970 ± 70 2570-2360 2840-2210 ICEN-737 - 19.56 3920 ± 70 2470-2290 2580-2 150

• Thcsc rcsults ha\'e already been corrccted for lhe cffeel of lhe ocean ic resen'oir. 'nlC apparenl age af marinc shcl1s 011 lhe Portugucsc coasl during mosl of lhe Chalcolithic is 380 ± 30 ycars I"C (Soares 1989),

was the agricultura I potential, maximized by lhe progressive improvcment in technologies, that created a prosperolls economy able to support trade in goods anel raw materiais with othel" rcgions. Such trading is well documentcd by lhe artefacts discovered, We are dealing, then, with a society thm was clearly open to trade wl1 i1e being settled in , aml limited to, a well delined territory. The externa 1 economic relations es tablished by the inhabitants 01' Leceia, introduced new technologics (copper-working, for example) and, at a more abstract levei, a relig ious ideology. Thi s may be recognizecl from lhe nature anel typology of idols recovered which show the fusion of incligenous traits with cultural ieleas from the M ed iterrancan, Accord ing to Jorge ( 1994, 472) lhis is \V hy ESlre madura shows a g realer architeclural di vers ily as wel! as the grcatest number ofMcditerranean-style fortified sitcs. l orge has also Showll lhere to be a dircct relationship betweell architeclural complex ity and lhe ex istence of inlramural semi-specialized areas for slOl'age 01' produclion. The Jalter are we l! docltlllented in Lcceia by

38 OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY

1} Blackwell Publi~hc rs Ltd, 2()(x)

,..

o

,. 6'

,. 3. 'le

13. 10. II. "'0 .IS 12· 16 .. 11

".

,.

". ".

20 ••

" n.

a.

••

JOÃO wís CA RDOSO

,.

•

LEGENDA : I: S. Marti nho; 2: Ou teIro de S. Mamede; 3: Colum bclra; 4: Outeiro da Assenta; 5: Maccira: 6: Pico Agudo; 7: Pragança; 8: Oulelro do Cabeço; 9: Vila Nova de S. Pedro; 10: Fórnca; 11 : Zambujal ', 12: Varalojo; 13: Charrino; 14: Barro; 15: Portuchcira; 16: Penedo; 17: Boiaca ; 18: S. Mateus; 19: Ac hada; 20: Malacães; 2 1: Ota; 22: Pcdm do Ouro; 23: VcsIXiro; 24: Sarrc ira ; 25: Cabeço da R.baldclra ; 26: Qu inta u'Além ; 27: Socorro; 28: Pedranla: 29: Monte do Cartaxo; 30; Penedo de Lex im ; 3 1: Ncgmis; 32: Salc!U,\s; 33: Alto do Montijo; 34: Oleias; 35: Cortcgaça; 36: Magoi lo; 37: Penha Verde; 38: Seteais; 39: Serra das Éguas; 40: Esparg. c M.as do Penedo; 41 : Semi das Baúlas ; 42: Tala(de; 43: Lcccia; 44: Camaxide; 45: Es tariJ ; 46: Murtal ; 47: Parede; 48: Casa Pia; 49: Montes Claros; 50: V. Pouca e Sete Moinhos; 5 1: Alpcna; 52: Outeiro; 53 : Porto de Catn bas; 54: Malhadas; 55: Extremidade NE da Serra de S. Francisco: 56: M. da Fonte do Sol; 5'7: Casal dn Cerca; 58: Chi banes: 59: Pcdrâo; 60: Rotu ra.

Figure 1 Main Chalcoli thic silcs in POrl ugucsc Estremadura

th ree cLrcu1 ar stone struetLtres. rcgardcd as the foundatio ns of threshing floors for clry ing 01'

threshing cereais o r other vegetable products (Cardoso 1989. fi gs. 73, 74: Cardoso 1994a. fig. 62). Thcse slrueturcs and the walls Ihal surround Ihem are a rea lity irrcspeCli ve of whether or nol slIeh cvidcnec rcprescnts 'lhe \Vi II to prateet spaees anel socially important act ivi ties wi lh the use of an architecture of supra-regional pres ti ge' (Jo rge 1994, 472-3).

Leceia constilules lhe nuc leus o r a slable and sedentary population. dislribulcd in smaller settlcmcnts throughout a definite region surrounding lhe fo rtificd si tc. anel probably unified by blood lies. Th is was, then, basica lly a socielY wi lh initi al tribal roals. Similar l1uclei probably cxis ted th rOllghollt the terri tory of Lower Estre madura, as is ind icalcd by other ev idencc of poplllation eOllcentratl0l1s.

What mode l, thell, expl aills the birth and evollltioll o f this society belweell the midd le of the fOllrt h alld the elld of the third millennilllll BC? AI an earlier stage there had been a socia l process intluenced by externa I impulses conditioned by ccono mie circlllllstances aml the

OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 1';. B1ackwell Publishcrs Lld. 2000 39

THE CHALCOLlTHlC lN PORTUGUESE ES1REMADURA

NW

o, X l O._ Y 1.'

,

1<. , •

Figure 2

SE

O" X: ll,Q Y: O,,

Cross-scc tion 3/1994 illuslrat ing lhe general stratigraphic succcssion obscrved (marked (*) in Fig. 3). 1 - Layer 2 (Middlc Chalcolithic); 2 - Laycr 3 (carly Chalcolithic); 3 - Layer 4 (Late Ncol ithic); 4 - 'terra rassa', corresponding

to lhe (OP of lhe gcological subSlratull1.

natural reSQurces avai lable. From thi s interaction (Parrei ra 1990,29) resulted a society with distinctive qualities, which evolved early 011 and interacted with olher human groups at an inter­regional leveI.

TI-IE CU LTURAL PHASES REPRESENTED AT LECEIA A NO TI-IEIR ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY

Thrce main cuhural phases can be distingui shed in the Chalcolilhic of Estremadura, each af which is roune! at Leceia. They arc stratificd in archaeologicallayers displayi ng specific characteristics and containing distinctive artefacts. Among the Jatter, pottery stands out: certain types may bc regarded as markers, or 'type fossils', of obvious va lidity. Thi s does not mean that it is imposs ible to find pottery of a given cultural phasc in a layer of another phase. ln addition to the prabable residual survival of certain types one must also accept the vertical and/or horizol1tal displacement of sherds ci lher al the time of their depositiol1 or later. Such observations on ly have a statistical va lue if based 011 a large Ilumbcr of occurrences. ln addition , during large-area excavations, Iike lhat of Leceia, it is not easy to separate accurateJy the material fram different archaeological layers where Ihey are interclltting. This is especially evident for interface zoncs. ln summary then, to be credible the material recorded must be statistically va lid. Lei lI S now see \Vhal the main characleristics are of lhe three cultural phases stratig raphically identified in Leceia.

The firsr clllrural plwse: rhe Lare Neolirhic

Throughout the course of the seeond half of the fourth millennium BC, Ol1e sees il1 Estremadura progressive occupation of topographically clevaled places favoured \Vith good nalural derences (S il va 1983). At Leeeia, the site consisls of a low cliff platform in the shape of a buttress overlooking the ferti le va lley of the Barcarena, about four kilometres from the ri ver Tagus, defended 011 two sides by a tel1 metre high limestone scarp. Here an open settlement was

40 OXFORD JOURNAL 01' A RCHAEOLOGY

© Bl ackwell Publishers Lld. 2000

JOÃO Lu ís CARDOSO

o 10 m N"'-

+

,/ L

/

9.

j 95/ -_ o_o ._ . - -_ .11'

99 940J---------------_' ________________ ~ _______________ _' ________________ .L_ ______________ _!

Figure 3 Lcccia 1983/ 1996 - Schcmmic plan of lhe area excavaled.

OX FORO JOURNAL or ARCHAEOLOGY " Bt3ckwcl1 Publishcrs Lld. 2000 4 1

T/-IE CHALCOL/T/-IIC lN PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA

l ........ ,41J

l

Figure 4

T I

~

L

Characteristic cera mies of ali cultu ra l phases represented. Belo\\': carinated cups anel indented lip vessels (Late Ncol ilhic): in lhe cCllI rc: 'copos' and cups with nutcd dccorm ion (Early Cha1cothic); abovc: im prinlcd 'acada Icaf

and 'compositc Icaves' dccoraled 1ll00ifs anel Be l! 8 eaker (Middle Chalcolithic am] Late Cha1colithic).

42 OXFORD JOURNAL 01' ARGIAEOLOGY

C Blackwcll Publishcrs L1d. 2M

JOÃO Lu ís CA/IDOSO

established 0 11 an outcrop of compact Lower Cretaceolls limestone, with rock shelters in lhe face ar lhe olllcrop. The location ar lhe site was delcrmined by both geolllorphology and by the SllITounding resources. ln addition to lhe good natural defences provicled by thi s platforlll , the existence 01' (I va lle)' oJfcrccl a natural means ar entr)' anel circulation for both lhe local population anel for goods coming [mm lhe Tagus eSlUary inlo lhe llinterland af lhe Lisboll peninsula. ln add ition, lhe valley was not ol1l y a potential arca for lhe procluction of food in small culli vatioll plalS but in the vicinity a f lhe confluence af lhe Bm"carena stream wilh lhe ri ver Tagus was an ideal pl ace for tappillg \Valer rCSQurces. ln lhe course af the Late Neolithi<.: and the Chalcolithic the average sea-Ievel would have bcen higher than at present (Di as 1985, lig. 4). This \Vould have led to lhe formalion or a eSlllary rich in readily available aqllalic resources and providing eas)' upstream navigaüon from the Tagu s estuary 10 lhe prchisloric forlified site of Leceia.

Thc nine radiocarbon dates oblained for lhis period or occupalion lie within lhe lime­inlerval corresponding to lhe Late Neolilh ie (Soares and Cardoso 1995). Using lhe CALlB program, probabilitl' accumulation graphs were plotted of the daI a collecled and severa I intervals were establi sheel . ThllS, at a probabilily of 50%, the chronology obtained for lhe Late Neolilhic occupalion cOlTesponds lo lhe inlerva l 3350-3040 ea l. BC wh ich , at a probabi lil )' of 95% beeomes 35 I 0-2900 cal. Be.

Althollgh no defensive slructures have been idelllified aI lhe ESlremadura SilCS, lhe choice af Ilaturally defendeel anel topographica ll y elevated places suggests the ex istence or pOlenlial connict. Since one onl y dcfenels (besides OIlC'S O\Vn person) what is worth defending, whal sorl of goods eompeUed Ihese eomJl1unities to seek refuge ai the 10p of lhe hills? ln ali probability it was those resulting from the accumulation of excess agricultural product.ion generated by lhe introdllction of improved techno logies slIch as the plollgh. the cart, anel tbe use or animal tractioll.

We are, indeed, dealing Wilh some aI' lhe moS! striking s)' mbols of lhe so-callcd Revolllli on of Seeondary Products (RS P). The existence of food producls in surplus for lhe first time offers a glimpse of the instability and intcr-group social tension, 50 well documenled al Leceia, that will characterize lhe enlire third mil1ellnium in Estremadura.

The energ)' supplied bl' barness ing bovine resourees, appLied bOlh 10 agriculture (cxemplified in lhe presence of the plough) as well as to transp0rlHtion (lhe presence ar lhe cart). was evaluated bl' Gimpel ( 1975). rf lhe average speed of an ox is of the order of 0.73 m/s aml the force applied approximatell' 54 kgf, lhe power is ncarl l' 40 kgf m/s, whieh is higher than Ihal calcll lated for a mule (30 kgf m/s), bUI lower than lhat for a ha rse (60 kgf m/s).

'The waUs elo nOl just mean economy. but ecollomy and sociely. They are built to prolect someone anel somelhing from olhers. ThllS, lhe definition a f " lhese olhers" is fundamelllal , as it is to know wilat Iypes of sociclics confront cach othel" and the economic context tha! allows iI.' (Gonçalves 1989- 1991. 405). Tbese are pertinelll observalions lO which we wil1 try to makc a fnrther contrjbut ion tluoughollt this papeL

The secol/tI clI/tllral phase: the Ear/y Chalcolithic

At Leceia, after a period of abandonmenl lhal could have laslcd belween 30 and 150 l'ears (Soares and Cardoso 1995), one can idenlifl' , aI lhe verl' beginning 01' lhe Earll' ChaJcol ithie, (c1arecl around 2800 Be) lbe building of an impasing forlificalion , slanding e ilher on the bedrock a r on lhe layer corresponding to the occupation of the Late Neolilhic (Cardoso

OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY {:l Blackwell Publishi'rs Ltd. 2000 43

THE CHALCOLlT/-IIC lN PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA

1989; 1994a; I 994b; 1994c; 1995). The defensive structure IVas undoubtedly carefull y planned and me Lhodicall y carried oul. The differences recorded betlVeen this phase of occupaLi on and Lhe NeoliLhic phase are nOL enough, hOlVever, to suggest a cultural break (lhere IVould certai nly have been a discontinuity of a socio-ccollomic systems) anel evcn less are they enough to suggest the alTival af ncw populations unfamiliar lo the region. On the contrary, in this forti fication one glimpses lhe logical consequence af instability in the Late Neolithic, anel lhe continucd prefcrence for a naturall y defensible site.

As IVith the Late Neoli thic, the Early Chalcolithic is also dated at Leceia IVi Lh a high degree of accmacy. The nine radiocarbon dates allowed lhe plolling ar a probabiliLy accumulation graph (based on Lhe CALlB program). AI a probabiliLy of 50%, Lhe duraLion of the Early Chalcolithic IVould have been bellVeen 2770 and 2550 cal. BC anel , aI a probability of 95 %, bellVeen 2870 and 2400 cal. BC (Soares and Cardoso 1995).

We should remember, hOlVever, lhat lhe 50% probability period represents theflorl/ il of Lhe group, or raLher, the period it tlourished (see the di scussion of lhis conccpL in Soares and Cabral 1993 ,220). Given the above dales, it is ccrlain lhat lhe Early Chalcolilhic was of shorter duralion than lhe Late Neolilhic (2800-2600 BC). If 50, lhe firsl fortillcation aI Leceia, mised soon afler lhe begi nning of Lhe early Chalcolithic, IVould go back to about 2800 Be. On the other hand, the lerlllillllS of this cultural phase IVould be close to 2500 BC, a concl usion reinforced by the dates ascribed to the follOlVing phase, lhe Middle Chalcolithic, lo be dealt IVilh belolV.

Leceia, Lhen, should be considered to belong IVith llVO olher, beLter knolVn Estremadura si tes - Vila Nova de S. Pedro (Azumbuja), IVhere hundreds of tlint alTolVheads IVere found in hoards, perhaps constituting military arsenais, in the sLratum Vila Nova I (Paço 1964, (45), and Zambl~al (Ton·es Vedras). The vigour of Chalcolithic human ex pansion in LOIVer ESlremadura was expressed in large fortified centres (in some cases showing proto-urban characteristics). Their localion was determined by natural defences (they IVere ali on platforms delimited by SCalVS, as at Leceia or Zambujal, ar on Lhe top of hills) close to agricultural va ll eys of high ferti li ty, commanding the natural routes in the region. The favourable geomorphological conditions and Lhe agricultural capacily of the soils IVere thus lhe lwo determining factors for lhe choice of such forrified places.

Farming activi ties in large fields ar in small enclosed plots suitable for lhe growing of IVheat anel barley, as have been identified at Vila Nova de S. Pedro (Paço (954), would have been lhe c1eLerl1lining fac Lors in the economy and subsistence 01' these Chalcolithic populations of Estremadura, in panicular those li ving 011 lhe promolltory of Leeeia overlooking the fertile Barem'cna va lley. 011 the other hand, animal traetion used in ploughing made erop growing poss ible 011 heavy, Jich soils, slleh as lhe basaltie soils to lhe east, norlh and west of lhe prehistorie scttlemellL These soils \Vere suitable for intensive agriculture of the kind which has been maintained up to lhe present day.

The importance of farming in these neighbouring tcrritories is indirectly indieated by the pollen st ratilled in an episode of abandonmenl in lhe Early ChalcoliLhic sequence, deLecLed aI lhe sitc. Professor João Pais of lhe New U ni versi ty of Lisbon has recogni zed, in the relevanl pollen speeIra, a great predominance of gramineae anel compositae, traditionally associated wi th the procluction of cereais. These species bccome dominam onl y in arcas that are totally 01'

partially abandoned for a period of time. The artefacts recovered document lhe importance of agricultural tire. These includc

axes destined for deforcstation , frequently with edges blunted throllgh use, hoes, nlll11erous

44 OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY

o BJackwcll Publishcrs Lld. 2000

JOÃO wís CARDOSO

hand querns anel bladcs or sickles made oul or nint. Vegclable crops \Vere growll in 5mall piaIs along lhe va lJeys, pcrhaps already lIsing primitive ilTigation systems (Parreim 1990), as is \\leI! illuSlralcd aI Vi la Nova de S. Pedro by lhe exislence of such plants as boarel bean (Paço 1954) anel nax (Paço anel Arthur 1953: Paço 1954).

At Leccia, evcn though sceds or thesc spccies have so far 11 0 1 been fOllnd, lhe evidence of agriculture anel possibly horticu lture is reinforced, nOl on ly by lhe lools already ment ioned bUI by lhe ex.istence af thrcc nagstonc slrUClurcs 01' a circu lar plan best regarded as lhe bases of Ihreshing floors (Cardoso 1989, fi gs. 73 anel 74; Cmdoso 1994a, fig. 15). Such slruClures were probabl y covered wilh compacted elay or hardened potter's canh, as is used in similar traditional constlllclions today. The rcmains fOlll1d in one 01' lhcm show that sllch struclures \Vere t1scd not oIl ly for proccssing cerea is, bUL aho for drying vegetables likc brami beans comparable to those prcscrved by carbonizalion at Vi la Nova de S. Pedro. We are dealing, aI Lcceia with lhe only known case, in lhe Chalcolilhic of Portugal, which demOllslrales lhe vigou!' of Lhe fu lly eSLabli shed agricultura I ecollomy.

This system or production was complemented wilh lhe lending 01' sheep, goals alld oxen, as well as Wi Lh lhe raising of domcstic swine which togelher providcd lhe population Wi lh 1110st of their protein . This showsjusl how sell lcd Ihese c0Il1Jl111nilies \Vere aml ho\V proricicnLly they could handle the dOll1csticaled spec ies thm then) as now, COIlSlilllte Lhe primary sOllrce of protein in the human dict.

The hunting of deer aml wild boa r indicates the cx istence 01' clearances in lhe forcsts anel large open spaces occupied by nalllral paslures suitable for lhe circulation of lhe herds or aurochs and wild horses prcsent in the fauna l inventories. Fishing uml gathering mollllscs 011 lhe nearby scashore \Vere casicr Ihen than 110W, for the rivers and strcams were no1 as silled IIp. The change Ül conditions is due to lhe reccnl Flandrian risc in seu leveI. Fishing activilies are quite wel! documellted at mo~;t ofthese Si1CS showing Ihal fishing was import3m in slIpplel11cming the diet. The presence of severa I copper fi sh-hooks IOgelher \V ith lhe remaills of ciprinids (elory alld porgy) demonstrates lhe praclice of coastal angling. ln additioll , mcntioll shollld bc mude to lhe lishillg weighls, eilher carveel limeslOlle blocks 01' jusl pebb les IIsed in Jishing lines 01' l1 els (Cardoso 1996).

Finally. the weur 011 several polished stOIlC axes tells lI S of importam forestr)' aCliv itie!-­such as lree clcaring, for opcning up fields for agriculture ar for pasturillg purposcs. as wel! as for oblail1 ing firewood anel OlheI' wooellal1d producls like acorns. The laner have been idenlifieel al Vila Nova de S. Pedro \V here they were groul1d il1lo fiou r (Paço 1954).

From what has beell shoWIl at Leceia, Olle may visualize a cOllll11unity mClhodically and thoL'OlIghly exploitillg lhe natural reSOllrces 3vailable in the slIrrollnding habitats. 1'1'0 111 lhe cSLUary, through the coaslal zone lo lhe wooels 3ml paslures of the hinterland . The pro.ximity or lhe shore lO ali lhe s ixleen fortified siles in ESlremadura li sled by Jorge ( 1994,465) shows, lO a grealer or lesse r degrce, the impoltancc of marilimc rcsources in lhe cconomy 3ml subsistence of Ihesc poplIlarions. ln the case of Lo\Ver Estremadura Ihis is rurther emphasilcd by lhe dislribution, aroulld lhe Sado esluary, ofChaJcoli lhic siles which 100k advantage oflhe elevaled ground along lhe Ilol1hern bank of lhe river (Silva alld Soares 1986). The role 01' the aqllatic resources in lhe eliel of Ihese populalio lls is we l1 il1usn·ated in remnrkab le research work on lhe remnants of lhe ma lacological fauna co l1ecled at lhe fortili ed s ile 01' ROlura (Silva 1963). ln lhe particular case of Leccia, lhe exploitation of the cstuary is well documented from lhc Late Neolilhic. ln spite of lhe diversity of lhe exploiled biolopes ol1e neeel Iravel no more Ihan 5 km to obtain al1 the mol1uscs idenlified Ihere (Cardoso el ai. 1996a), The Barcarena ri vermoulh

OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY . 81ackwcll Publishers Lld. 2000 45

THE CHALCOLlTHlC lN PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA

forrned a small cstuarine bay whosc depths at low ride wou ld yield oysters (Crassos/ rea allgulala) as well as cockles (Cera,çtoderma edu/e). Upstrcam, cJams (Vellerupis deCllssata) \Vere also rounel in intcrtidal Illud and sanei.

On the ocean coast of the Oeiras municipality, limpets (Palella sp.), mussels (Myti llls sp.) anel other types of clams (Mollodollta lilleata), were collected from the rocks. Offshore, in slightly deeper sanei}' subslI'ata, triton (Nassarius reticulatus) , \Vany vcnus (Velllls verrucosa) and sca llops (Pectell /Ilaxill/fls) coulel also be foune!. Numerous remains of ali of these and other less common species have been rounel ai the sile. Evcn though abundant. lhe malacological fauna 's contribution to lhe fooel supply has yet to be defined. What wc may aecepl is that with slIch plclltiful rcmains a1 CC!"lai n silCS in lhe region, likc Parede, lhe maritimc rcsourccs muSI have provided an essential part of the eliet (Correia 1980).

The earl y phase of the Estremadura Chalcolithie is particularly well characterizeel by the lVell-known Iluted decoration applied to tlVO types of pottery vesscls: cups and 'copos', which have a rcslricled slraligraph ic dislribulioll.

The first plaee IVhere tluteel pottery - especially the 'copos' - lVas recognized as a valuable cultural indicator was at Vila Nova de S. Pedra. Yct. fourtcen years, clapsed [ram the beginning of the exeavations in 1937 before A. do Paço 'began to suspect' the existence ar a stratigraphy, in spite of the recognition, in lhe call1 paign of 1942, of a Jayer prc-elating the bui lding aI' the central fortification (Paço and Jalhay 1943). lt lVas not until 195 1. during the fifteenth digging carnpaign, lhat two very di stinct layers were recorded undcr lhe inside face of the lVa ll of the ccntral fortification (Paço and Arthur 1952,293). ln the lower layer, 'a high­quality sherd ar reei pottery lVas uncovercd, maele lVith fine , lVell -seivcel clay IVhich had been well fircd'. lt was completely unlike lhe olher ceramics. Thi s was, as lhe authors cxplained. a vessel in lhe shape of a chalice, a deep kind of vessel, slightly curved anel opening up delicalely towarels lhe rnollth , with lhe elecorati on limilcd to parallel , eheqllered ar herring­bone grooves. It carried a lighl burnish, made wi lh a blunl irnplemenl drawn oveI' the clay 10 give it a son of polish. The aUlhors were clearly describing a ' Ilutcd copos'. a form so characleri stic of the Vila Nova [ cultural phase (elefined there by the so-called 'lolVer layer') that one can consieler it as the stratotype (aelopting the terminology ar stratigraphieal geology) of the initial Chalcolithi e ar Estremaelura. ln a short study eleelicateel to this type aI' pottery, A. do Paço states. 'The stratum that li es direct ly above the beelrock of the fortification varies in thiekness betlVeen 25 and 30 centimetres' (Paço 1959, 254). The lack of definition of the relmionship between thi s layer and lhe internal fortification led, in 1959, to lhe opening of a sect ion 10 intersect the structure (Savory [970). This demonstrateel that that layer preceeled the phase of the fortification - a fact accepted in the meantime by A. do Paço (Paço 1964). Thi s pottery - the ' Importkeramik' of Sangmeister - (Paço anel Sangmeister 1956a) 1V0uld assume great importanee in the coloniali st eloetrine that both au thors proposed, as did the British archaeologist B. Blance (Blanee 196 1). IVho, in spite of earlier recogni zing its local manufacture (B lance 1959) salV great similarity betlVeen such pottery anel that ar the Aegean (Early Cyclaelie). Since it does not oeeur in any other region of the Iberian Peninsula, this pOllery cou leI result [ram a direcl relationship betwcen lhe castem Mediterranean anel Portuguese Estremadura, a region considered by another German archaeologist as a door for oriental inlluenees arri vi ng by sea in a pre-Bell Beaker epoch (Leisner 1961,425-6). B. Blance explic itly stated that ' the frequeney ar herring bane deeoration that eonnects the pre­beakcr pottery mainly to that or lhe Aegcan Sea allows the admi ssion of "direcl contact" wilh the eivi li zat ions of those regions' (op. cit., 426, 427). However, the apparent lack of

46 OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY

o Blackwcll Publ ishcrs Lld. 2000

JoÃo Luís CA RDOSO

intermcdiate statiolls along the Mediterranean coast, mi ght seem to argue agains l such contacls.

The compari son af this decorative paltem \Vith Mcditcnaneall cera mies had previoll sly becll proposcd by Paço anel Sangmeister (1956b). Sangmcister's cnthus iaSlll, wben confrontecl for lhe first time with lhe imposing fonification af Vi la Nova de S. Pedro - dcclaring lhat he had never seell anythillg like it before - along with the dramatic results obtaillcd in lhe 1955 campaign (lhe 'campai gn af lhe walls ') - might cxp lain (anel might in part have served to

invigoralc) lhe sem"eh for di stant paralle ls. Let us n01 forget lhat diffusiolli sl theories \Vere, at lhe time, taken lo lhe extreme to lhe poinl af recognizing supposcd Egyptian affínities in lhe dolmen paint ings of Beira Alta (Leisncr 1961 , 425 , 426). A 'nuanee' of this ex treme perspective \Vas introduced b)' Savor)' (1970, 1983-84, 28 in the Portuguese translation): The 'copos' may represent a comparatively narrow chronologica l horizon and possibly a new element in lhe population, but, even though the inspiration appears lo be com illg from ex ternal sources lhey are cenainly nol imported. They were locally made and, whalcvcr their inspiratioll , they have no exacl paralle]s oUlside lhe Tag us eSluary region. Moreover wc now know tbal lhi s is a form that already exisled in the Late Ncoli lhic in Lcceia (Cardoso et aI. 1983/84; 1996a).

Among lhe decoraled pottery, one can also o bserve lhe use of lhe nutcd lechnique inside large vessels with Ihick lips - a fonn lhat ill Estremadura replaced lhe carinaled cu ps of the Late Ncol ithic. (Besides Lei sner' , monographic stud)' of 1961, see also Cardoso 1989, fi g. 119, no. 6; Cardoso 1994a, figs. 118, no. 2 and 119, no. 3 and 4.) This lype of decorated vessel sometimes occurs in lhe Chalcoli lhic in lhe sOllth-weSI, as at lhe site 01' Poria To rrão (A rnaud 1993) dcmonstrating lhe ex istence of contacl bClweell lhe Estremaduran area and the sOlJth­wcst during the Chalco lith ic.

Among lhe o lheI' Early Cha lcolithic remains in Estremadura, lhe qllality of bifac ial working of certain flint arlefacls, somctimes called ' Egyptian fini shing ', is anolhcr allus ion to lhe eastem MeditelTanean invoked by thosc who believed in Chalcolithic diffusiollism (Jalhay 1943). Ho\Vever, such a tlaking techn.ique was alread)' known in the Late Neolithic of thi s regioll , alld is iJlustrated by the fine halberds from lhe Cova da Moura cave (Ton·es Vedras) or the caves of Senhora da Luz (Rio Maior) (Cardoso el a( . 1996b). Such a lcchnique hus express ion in finel y worked arlefacts, Iikc lhe bealltifu l mitre-shaped arrow pOilllS, unknown in the late Neoli thic bUl plentiful at Leceia and at Vila Nova de S. Pedro, especiall)' during thc Chalcoli thic.

ln the Early Chalcolithic of Estremadura, the absence of coppcr artefacts has 10 be slressed, at least at Lcceia. Thcy are also Ul1knOWIl at Zambujal. AI Vila Nova de S. Pedro the archaeological records are deficielll , prevcnling any concJusion, although Savory ( 1970) found no traces of copper artefacts in the seclion c ul in 1959 in lhe layer wirh 'copos' sherds belong ing to this cultural phase. Thi s malter is of major importance; al Lcceia, lhe crite rion of abscncc - s ignificant considering the representative nalure of lhe arca dug - demons trates thal lhe building of thal important fortifi catioll was dictated by defensive considerat ions o nl y aJ1(1 is um·elated to metalllu·gical acti vilics . This contradicts the thesis postulated aner lhe excavation of Zambujal in lhe 1 960s and 1970s, according to whi ch copper extraction was lhe reason for lhe presence, in this ' finisterrae ' 01' Europe, of groups of prospectors, metallurgi sts and merchants, who came from lhe eastem Medilerranean reg ions.

The successive phases of structural strengthening, observed in Lcceia throughout lhe Early Chalcoli lhic, as in Zambujal and in Vi la Nova de S. Pedro (shown by the excavations of

OXFORD JOURNA L OF ARC t tAEO LOGY ~ BlaC"kllI~1I Publishers LlO. 2000 47

THE CHALCOLlTHIC lN POIITUGUESE ESTREMADUIIA

v. Gonçalves in lhe I 980s), were the result of planned readjustments. This suggests the continuation, or perhaps \Vorscning, af social inslabi lily in the course af the Earl)' Chalcolithic - a period of around 200 years during the first half of lhe third mill ennium Be. The magn ifice nce of sllell building-work clearl y demonstrates a hierarchical society, 011 al1 intra­anel inler-collllllunal leveI. The tribal model, which presupposes equality 0 11 account ar blood ties. does not lotall )' correspond to lhe observed rcalit )'. lt is more appropriate to visualize a sculed society, elearly cstabli shed in its Q\Vn territory, whose openness to external stimuli fa voured lhe alTi val af oUlsiders. Thc presence of lhe Jatter, however, are not necessary to cx plain lhe fOl"lns af intra-communal social differentiation which were already emerging. The dil'ferences in hOllsi ng strllc ture, both in s ize and quality of bllilding may be related lo privilege proponional lo lhe social slatllS of the ir respect ive inhabitanls. One stlch case is an imposing house. ci rcular in plan, s itualed in lhe best defended area, whil e others, smaller in size and buill 10 a lower standard, are situated in places more easil y exposed to enemy raieis.

On lhe other hand, the builcling or lh is imposi ng forlifieation wilh its three clefensive li nes anel a built-up area al most as large as Vil a Nova de S. Pedro (l0,000 sq m) and larger than lhat of Zambujal (7000 sq m) presupposes the existenee of surplus food supplies. Onl y lhus cou lel a section of the population bc rclcased fro m producti ve ac tivi ties fo r long periods of lime.

Finally, one can visualize al Leceia nol only lhe social division of labollr, as ill any OlheI' triba l coml1ll1nity, but also a hierarehy 01' fun etions, Icav in g the general coordination of everyo ne's work in lhe hands of an 'elite ' . ln effeet, lhe occupalioll of lhe Leceia platform, like lhe bui lding of lhe inner enclosure of Vila Nova de S. Pedro, seems lo have been lhe rcsult of a previollsly elefined plan methodically, accurate ly anel simultaneously put into praclice: lhe threc lines 01' wall s, occllpying a space of abollt 10,000 sq m, can be ShOWI1 to have bcen bllilt at lhe same time. lhus showing a clear a priori idea of what was inlcnded lo be built. SlIch a canc lu sion is baseei on the st ratigraphic observations: leavi ng as icLe laler repairs, rei nforcements o r modifications, a li three defensive lines ill variabl y lie either on the geological bedrock or 0 11

the layer corresponding to lhe Late Neolithic. This delllonstrates that their construction occurred s illlu ltancously, soon after the beginning of lhe Early Chalcolithic.

The eLlItLlral phase deseribed as the Early EstremadLlra Chalco lilhi e is founel in isolated places. among others in lhe sllla ll , e lcvatcd , lInfortified sites built at sueh locations as Alto do Da fLlnclo (Gonçalves and Serrão 1978) anel Pedrão (Soares and Silva 1975). Its slrali graphie position , well dcfined at Leceia, is particul arly inleresling but lhere are few strati graphies available in Estremadura, most of lhelll being of limited vallle and significance. At lhe site of Parede (Sen·ão 1983) a la)'er was idenlified (lhe fOLlrth of the defiLled general sequenee) cOI1lai ning fluted potter)'. However lhe conditions under whi ch the excavations took place anel the limiled ex lenl of the area exposed in lhe largely-destroycd si te prevented definite concl usions being drawn. The Olhe I' Estremaduran site is Lhat o f Rotura. ln lhe scclions stlldied (Ferrei ra and Silva 1970), lhe basalla)'er prodLleed avessei with tlLlted deeoration bLll none of lhe characterist ic 'copos ' were found. Thcse observations were later confinned by one of the allthors (S ilva 1971). However what do occur in abundance, are fragmenls af large vessels deeorated b)' blunl o r fine impress ions (with eheq Ll ered and other designs), eharaeleris lie of the Mield le Chalco lithic. The presence of llulllerous fragments of earthenware cruc ibles for mc lting mela is, indicaling lhe presence or metallurgy, Icad one to ascribe the re levant layer no l to lhe Ea rly Chaleolithie bLlt insleacllo lhe Middle Chalcolilhie - and more precisely perhaps lO lhe ear!y phase of thi s period. This is comparable with the phase reccnt ly identified at Columbreira (Gonçal ves, J .L.M. 1994). Here the L1 se of imprinled 'acaeia leaf' o r 'crLl ci fera ' motifs was slill

48 OXFORD JOURNAL OF A RCHAEOLOGY

:D Blackwell Publishers Lld. 2000

JOÃO LUis CA IIDOSO

unknowll , although Lhe fluteel decoration still survived, at Icast 0 11 some vesscls. Such an intcrpretation answers doubts abolll the cultural position af th is layer, which probabl y bclongs lo a lale slage in lhe Earl y Chalcolith ic of Estremadura (Sil va and Soares 1986, 83).

ln ESlremadura, the Early Chalcolith ic undoubled ly corresponds to a period of a Oourishing eeouamy, showll in lhe improvcmcnts achieved ill producti vc capaciLy. Some of lhese were known from the end of rhe Neolilhic, olhers onl y in lhe Middle ChalcoLilhic, and ali \Vere accompanied by lhe illcrcasing complex ity Df lhe social fabrico

Tile Ihird cllllllral phase: lhe Middle Chalcolilhic

T he Middle ChalcoLithic in Estremadura begins at lhe end of the firsr ha lf oF lhe lh ird nüllclllliull1 DC. U is genera lly wel! c10cumcnted for the sitcs occupied 0 1' roundcd in lhe preceding cul lural phase. Apparenrly rh is cultural phase is rarc ly found isoLaled al small siles, unli ke some of thc sires of lhe Earl y Chalco.lilhic and Late ChalcoJithic (the epoch of lhe Bell Beaker ' phenomenon' ). One exccplion may have been lhe (orl ified site of Pedra de Ouro (Paço 1966; Le isuer and Schubart L966). Decorared pottery continued to be the mosl di srincrive archaeograph ic elemem, as it hael been in lhe preced ing cultural phase. lt lakcs lhe rorm or lhe wcll -kllOWIl oval imprinled 1110lif, orgallized in pa irs ('acacia Ica r ) or in groups or rom leaves ('crllcífera'). These are totally 1I1lknown in Laycr 3 aI Lcccia) corresponding la lhe ini lial Chalcolilh ic (Fig. 4).

Togcther wiLh lhe rad iocarbon dales relaLing to other cultural phases, the eighteen radiocarbon dates available for Leceia's Midclle Chalcolithic make thi s sile lhe besl understoocL in terms of its chronological-cultllral evolution, of ali those knowll in PorLuga l. For lhe first time, the statistical treallnent of the whole set af data givcs a date for lhe Iransi Lion belwecn lhe Early and lhe Middle Chalco lilhic o r around 2700-2600 cal. BC (Cardoso and Soares 1996). Grealer a~curacy is nOI passible aI lhe moment , due to lhe facI lbat lhe availab le calibration curve (Slu iver and Pem·san 1993; Stlliver and Reimer 1993) shows a very weak inclination with numerouS oscillalions in lhe lime-interval in questiono The lermilllls of this cultural phase may, ho\Vever, be placed close to 2200 cal. BC. perhaps coi nciding wi th lhe rimc whcn Bcll Bcakcr pottery in Leceia anel in olher large seu-Iemcnts in Est remadura was wel! in ev idence - onc says 'Middle' becallse lhe first pottcry af Lhi s lype Ül Estrcmadura, anel in parl i cu l~u· aI Leceia, is older (Cardoso and Soarcs L990/92). The Bell Beaker presence al lhis sile was discussed in the paper jUSl referred to. 11 has been showll that lhe cOl11l11unity living within lhe wa lls co­ex isled Wilh the people Witll Be l1 Beaker pOltery who had inilially oceupied lhe opcn space outside lhe fOrlifi calion .

The speeial altention given to thc defensive slruclures ai Zambujal up lo lhc Bcll Beaker epoch (Sangmeisrer and Schuban 198 1), is nol parallc lecl al Leceia, \Vhere lhe c1efences belong almost excl usively to thc Early Chalcoli th ic. The pre-ex isling defensive slruclures began rapid ly 10 dccay, wi th many or tl1cm round razed to the ir foundations before tlle Beaker presence within the walls.

AI V ila Nova de S. Pedro, accord ing to the abservations frOIll lhe laSI excavalions (Gonçalves, V.S. 1994), the \Va lls may have builr progressively from lhe cXlcrior lO lhc inlcrior, in sHeh a way Ihal lhe central fortificalion is the 111051 recent. This agrecs willl lhe stratigraphic observations mentioned earLier.

The secrion eut lh rough lhe sire in 1959 (Savory 1970) provided lhe oppOrl Uni ly lO

idenlify a new cultural phase, wi lh a stratigraphic idenlily never before revealed in

OXFORD JOUR NA L OF ARCHAEOLOGY BI3ckweU Publis:hers Lld. 2000 49

THE CHALCOLlTHIC lN PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA

Estremadura. The acceptance Df lhe presence Df colonisls from lhe castem regions af lhe Iberian Peninsula (Savory 1968), corresponding to thi s cultural phase, was a compromi se to accolll lllodate the extreme diffusionist theorics supported by earlier aUlhors. Colonization from afar, never explicitl y accepted by Savory, became intra-peninsular coloni zation, e10ser to more moderate diffusioni st COllccpts and more acceptable. T hc implication was of lhe movcment of small groups on a Iimited se ale.

The cultu ral correlation 01' the layer above that 01' the 'copos' at Vila Nova de S. Pedro (Savory 's Period II ) with the Middle Chalcolithic of Estremadura raises certain reserva tions. Indccd , the author givcs prominance to 'symbol ceramic' \V il h solar decoration, with cv idcnt M illarean parai leis, bul does not refel", CVC Il once, to lhe charactcri stic patterns of 'acacia' 0 1'

'crucifera ' Icaves, These are only melllioned (under lhe designation of 'Chibanes pottery', ln the Portuguese translation or Savory 1970, 1983/84, 27), in Period W, tlms co-exis ting wi th Bell Beaker pottery. A. do Paço round rragments 01' those ceramics, but did not ascribe any chronologieal-eultural meaning to them, On lhe contrary, he misinterpreted them, as is seen rrom his words regarding the samples rrom the rortified s ite 01' Pedra de Ouro, Alenquer (Paço 1966, 127): 'The problcm of the dU'onology of these last cerami cs is one which worries us the most because they have not appeared to us in a wel! defined layel". One presumes tltem to be later than the Be ll Beaker Culturc'. As was shown later, this does not corrcspond to reality . lt is probable that the absence 01' this type of ceramic in the layer overl ying that of the 'copos' at Vila Nova de S. Pedro, in the section investigated by Savory, has more to do with the limited cxten1 of the exeavation than to real sem'city ar pOllery, ln faet, severa) of lhese fragments are piClUfCd in a recent work report ing on 50 ycars of excavations at that fortification (A rnaud uml Gonçalves 1995, fig. 26). The significance or thi s pottery should not be underestimated. The constancy 01' decoratcd motifs and forms associated with them (exclusively in the region of Lower Estremadura) is remarkable, Sueh a phcnomenon \Vi II ccrtainly have a social explanation. Erfectively, lhe homogenei ly 01' Ihese ceramics in a vast rcgion like this indícatcs lhe ex istenee of intensive social contacts anel argues against there being closed and self­suffieicnt communities. T his is exaetly the opposite of what was demonstratcd by Alarcão (1992, 55) in some 01' the lron Age fonified sites of nonhem Po rtugal.

Ir one accepts pottery-making as a spccific, essentially femininc las.k, in caeh settlement (Paço 1957; Coelho and Cardoso 1992), the constancy alludcd to may be explaincd by virilocality: lhat is to say, women moving into their husbands' homcs, thus securing lhe diffusion of slIch ceramics through multi pie marriages Wi1h il1 lhe cultural arca 01' lhe Lower Estremadura.

Thc large sphcrica l stOl'age vessels ('provisions vessels') show ex uberant 'acacia leaf anel 'compositc lear decorat ion a1 lhe lip. Thcsc vessels are more abundant in the rull Chalcolithic or Estremadura than in the preced ing período As for the stonc implemen1s, one should stres, the existence of the numerous oval, nint blades, mostly used in sickles. Their abu ndance in the Middle Chalcoli thic in Leceia, when comparcd to the Early Chalco lithic, is six timcs as high. Sueh facts reflecI lhe intensification or production then reached, made possib le by lhe improvcment in agricultural teehniqlles as well as by lhe introdllClion or new aCli vi ties which improved lhe exploitalion 01' natural resources. T he evidence of such acti vitics is seell in artcfacts, almost unknown in lhe Early Chalcolith ic, 5uch as wcaving \Vcights (A maml and Gonça lves 1995, 34) and cheese- presses with perrorated walls, used in milk products: these are known only in the rull Chalcolithic 01' Estremadura, at least in Leceia. The so-called Revolution or Secondary Products (RSP) was still in progress in the full Chalcolithic

50 OXFORD JOURNA L DF i\RCHAEOLOGY

Blackwell Publishcrs Lld. 2000

JO/IO Luís CAIIDOSO

of Lo\Vcr Estremadura just as it had becn in lhe l1 onh-east anc! sOllth-west. For lhe castem Upper Algarve. a c1car dClllonstration af lhe same siluatioll is givcll by Gonçalves ( 1989-199 1. 409).

Ho\Vevcr. besidcs lhe introduction af these 'novcltics'. no allcral iolls or discolllinuilics in lhe cu ltural sequcnce cnn be sccn in lhe archaeological scqucncc a1 Lcccia, in lhe bone al1ll stonc industry . Thi s confinns the already-kno\V1l cOJ1 scrvati ve nature of sueh artcfacts which Uerpmann ( 1995) asseris strongly for the stone induslry of Zambujal.

ln lhe Middle Chalcolilhic, lhe ·copos' are replaced by vessels of analogous shapc bUI com"ser anel larger, anel now dccoJ'alcd wi lh motifs 511Ch as 'acacia' anel 'crucifonn ' Icaves, Al Lcccia Ihere is 110 confinnation af lhe hYPolhcsis advancccl by Parreira ( 1990) 1hm lhe 'copos' \Vere scrvcd differelll fUllctions from olher ilems 01" Chalcolilhic lableware Ihus j usliryillg lhei !' mai ntenance lhJ'Oughollt lhe cntire pre-beaker phase. 011 lhe conl ra ry. one call see ai Leceia lhe disappearance of lhe c1assical shape even though lhe trad ition of ils manufacture was 11 0 1

compJctely 1051. Whether fin e ar coarse in style and whatever lhe decoraliall. lhe 'copos" arc just drinking vessels, as their name implies. No wonder lhal we finei them ill a Bcll Bcaker conlexl, although wilh decoralions Iypical of lhe periocl (B ubner 1979, fi g. 2: Gonçalves 1992. fig. 17, no. 3).

\Vhatevcr lhe conclusions, lhe straligraphics obtained in lhe three major Chalcolithic ESlremaduran siles. are dillicult to con elale. AI Vila Nova de S. Pedro. Ihere is no reliable recorcl save the stratigraphic cross-section af 1959, anel th is can be cOllsidered represemative 10 only a very lim iled degree, a ract recagni zed by the author himsclf. The fe\V publi shed pholographs or lhe earlier excavatia ns are unrortll llatcly of paor qualily. At Zambujal. lhe reeord has favoured lhe elcfinition af slIccessive bllilding phases to lhe eletrimelll 01' carcful slratigraphic in vestigat ion. Sections exisl but are poor anel dirfieuh 10 correlate. thus preventing lhe establishmcnt of a general stratigraphic scqucnce for the sile uml lhe corrcspolleling cultural assembl edgc contenl (Sangmeister anel Schubart 1981). Thc cxcavators post ulateel a similar seqllence \O Ihal of Paço and Sangmeisler ( 195Gb) ai Vila Nova de S. Pedro. ln Ihis scheme on ly two main cultural phases \Vere ielenlifieel: lhe pre-Bell Beaker anel lhe Bell Beaker phases. Thi~

schclllc wOlllel exp lai n the occurrence Ihroughoul lhe elllire buileling sequence - although in variable percelllages - of lhe 'acacia lear anel/or the 'erueiform" types of pottery dccoration (Kunsl 1987, abb. 70). Later, Kunst (1996, 280) improved lhe accuracy of lhe scheme by detini ng, for Zambujal , the following sequence baseei on pottery elecoration:

I. The excl usive presence of cylinder-shaped ·copos; 2. Freqllcnl cylindrical 'copos' + sem·ce 'acacia Icar' c1eeoration anel 'composilc Icaves"

('carved leaves' of lhe alllhor); 3. Freqllent cyli ndrical 'copos' + I"requent carveel leaf elecoration + searcc Bell Bcaker

poltery; 4. Frcquent decoration wilh carved Icaves + frequcnt Bell bcakcrs + sem·ce cyli ndrical ·copos·

(rulllmaged specimens onl y); 5. Frequent Bell Bcakcrs + scm·cc carved lear clccorati ons + abscnee or cy lindrical ·copos· .

These observat ians reveal an enrichmcnl, lhrougholll the slrat igraphic sequcllce, of lhe 'acacia Icaf' anel 'crlleiform IcaP elecorations, abscnt ollly in lhe illitial stage 01' the occupalion or thc SilC and in decline in the final stage, ai lhe same time as the 'copos' also begilllo decline aml disappear \Vhi le lhe Bcll Beaker pOllery lakes Iheir place.

OXFORD JOURNA L OF ARCl IAEOLOGY c D1ack\\ell Publi~hcrs Lld. :2000 51

THE CHALCOLlTHIC lN PORTUGUESE ESTlIEMADUIIA

AI I.cce ia, these obscrvations are well supported , with lhe differencc lhat at thi s s itc lhe sill1ultaneolls existence of cy lindrical 'copos' anel Bell Beaker pottery is not cOllfirmed. I\ lso, lhe associa tiol1 01' lhe 'copos' wilh 'carvcd lcaves ' pottery may be due to d isturbance, g iven their vcs tigial chamelel".

Ir aul' archaeo logical knowledge af lhe thrcc ESlrcmaduran sites moSL thorough ly slUdiecl is of ver)' uncven vai ue, \Vhat Illay one say af Ihase siles w hcrc rcscarch was carri ed out by ob~olele Illcthods anel wilhollt stratigraphi c defin ition? Although less mOllumental , these s itcs a re af no less scicntific intcrcst.

REFERENCES

7he Opell Ulliversi/)' (Lisbol/) mui Tlte Arc//{{eological S",dies Cel//re

Oeiras Muuicipality Fâbrica da Pólvora de Barcarel/o

2780 Oeiras Por/ligai

AI.ARC..l.O. J. Jt: 1992: A evolução da cuhura cast reja. COI/iII/briga 31 . 39-7 1.

ARNAUI>. H,I. 1993: O povoado c.\lcolítico de Porto Torrão (Ferreira do Alentejo): síntese das investigtlçõcs rc:llizadas. Vipasca 2, 41-60 (Câmtlr<l Munic ipal de Aljustrel).

AR~AUD. J.},\. and GONÇALVES.J.I .. 1995: A fortificação pré-h istórica dc Vila Nova de S. Pedro (Azambuja): balanço de meio século de investigações (2a pane). !?evisra de Arqueologia da Assembleia Dis/rital de Lisboa 2. 11--10.

I.3LANCE. B.},1. 1959: Cenlmica est ri ada. RCI'ista de Gllilllarâes 69 (3/4). 459-64.

BLANCl. B.},1. 1961: Ei.lr\y Bronze Age colonists in lbcria. Allliqui/y 35. 192-202.

BllBNER. },\.A.l1. Pl'reira 1979: Ccrílmica de importação na Estremadura POrtugucsa. Etlll/OS 8. 3 1-85.

CARDOSO. J.1.. 1989: Leceia - reslIl/ados das eSC(/I'(lçàes realizadas (Câllwra Municipal de Oeiras).

Cf\RDO$O.l.L. 199-1-<1: Leceia 1983- 1993. Resu ltados das escavações do povo<ldo pré-hi stórico. ESllldos Arqueo/ágicos de Oeiras - CMO (número especial), 1- 164.

CARDOSO. li .. I 99-1-b: L ' lltIbitat chalcol ilhiquc rorti fiée de Leceia. Le .• dnssiers de l'Arclléologie 198. lO-15.

CAIWOSO. J.L. 1994c: Comcntário ao sítio arqueológico de Leceia (Oeiras). ln A.M. Arruda (cd. ). Lisboa S/lbterr/inea (Lisboa. Muscu Nacional de Arqueologia). 173-4.

CAl-WOSQ. lL. 1995: O povoado pré-hi:..tórico de Leceia (Oeiras). Resultado:.. das escavações ereellJadas (1983 - 1993). AClas do I Congresso de Arqueologia PellillJular (Pono, 1993).5 (Porto), 11 5-29.

CARDOSO. J.L. 1996: Pesos dc pesca do povoado pré-histórico de Lecc.ia (Oeiras) e da Penha Verde (Silllra). Eswdos Arqueológicos de Oeirtl.l' - CMO 6. 107-19.

CARDOSO. 1.L. <111(1 SO/\RES. A.~l . ~IONGE 1990/92: Cronologia absoluta para o campaniforme d<l Estremadura e do Sudoeste de Portugal. O Arqueólogo Porll/gllês S. IV. 8/ 10. 203~28.

CARDOSO.J.L. <lnd SOARES. A.~l. },lONGE 1996: Chronologie absoluc pour le Néolithique et le Clmlcolithique de rE~tremadllra portllgaise - la cont ribution de Leceia. ReVI/e (1'Arclléol1lérrie, supplément, 45-50.

CARDOSO. lL.. SOARES. J. alJ(l SILVA. C. TAVARES DA 1983/84: O povoado calcolítico de Leceia (Oeiras). Ia e 2,1 campanhas de escavação (1983 e 1984). CLIO/Arqueulogia, revista da UNI!\RCHIINIC 1,4 1-68.

CARDOSO. J.L.. SOARES. J. <lnd SILVA. C. TAVARE,I) DA I 996a: O Neolítico fi nal do povoado de Lcccia

52 OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY

j) BI<lckw~1I Publishers Lld. 2000

JOÃO LUís CARDOSO

(Oeiras). Estlldo dos materiais das campanhas de 1987 e 1988. E~II((lnJ Arqueológicos de Oeira.~ - CMO 6,47-89.

CARDOSO. l .L.. FERREIKA. O. DA VEIGA <lml CARREIRA. J.R. I 996b: O espó lio arqueológico das grufíl5 ll,lItlrai ....

da Senhora da Luz (Rio Maior). Es/udos Arqueológicos de Oeirm - Ci\ tO 6. 195-256.

COEU-IO. A.V PINTO and CARDOSO. J.L. 1992: Mmcriai .. cerâm icos do povoado l:alcolítico do ~Iolltc da Tumba (Torrão). Análises macro e microscópias. Setúbal Arqueológica 9/10. 277-89.

CORREIA. SJI. 1980: Povoado::, calco líti cOl:. da E!'Itrcmaclura portugue~a: ICllli.lti\'êl de abordagem l!con6mica. Arqueologia 2. 24-9.

DIAS. 1M. ALVE I R1~1I0 1985: RcgiMos da migração da linha de CO::. l a no ... últimos 18000 "HlOS na plataforma cOllti ncllwl portuguesa setentrional. Actas da I 1?t!lIl/ir1o do Qllafemârio Ibérico (Li\boi.l. 1985), I (Lisboa). 28 1- 95.

FERREIRA. O. DA VEIGA and SII.VA. C. TAVARES DA 1970: A cs trmigrafia do povO<tdo pré-histórico da Rotura (SeHíbn l). NOla prel iminar. AClll.\· das I Joma(/as Arq/leológicas dtl As.çociaçiio dos Arq/feálogO\' Portugueses (Lisboa, 1969). 2 (Lisboa), 203-25.

GI~IPEI.. 1. 1975: UI Rél'o/miol/ /lIllustrielfe du Moyefl Age (Pmis).

GO~IES. R. VAREI.A. GO:>'IES. ~I VARELA ánd SA:\'TQS. ~1. r:ARI~IIA DOS 1983: O ~antutír i o cxtcrior do EscOtlral (i\lontclllor-o-Novo. Évora). Zephyrus 36. 287- 307.

úÚXÇALVES. J.I..M. 1992: Grutas arlificiais da Quinta d~l~ Lapa~ (ivlontc Rcdondo - TOITe!\ Vedras). Setúbal Arqueológica 9/10. 247-76.

GOXÇALVES. J . L . ~1 I 99-l: Castro da Columbeira. Uma primcira fa!'!c do Calcolítico médio eSlremenho? AI­Maclall S. I\. 3. 5- 7.

GOXÇAI.VES. J.L.~1. and SERRf\O. E. DA CUNHA 1978: O povoado do Ca1colítico inicial do Aho do Ditrundo - Linda-a-Vclha. Ac/(/s das III JOfl/adas Arqllf!oJ6gicas da Associaçâo dos Arque6Iogo.\ po,.'ugue.\l'\ (Lisboa. 1977) (Lisboa), 75- 96.

GOXÇALVES, v.s. 1989- 1991: MegaJiti.HI/O e metalurgia 110 AlIO Algarve' Oriel/tal. Uma aproxill/ariio imegmda (Lisboa, EMUdos e Memórias do Centro de Arqucologia c Hbtória da Ulliver~id"de de Li sboa! INIC. 2 (2 1'0 \. )).

GOXÇALVES, V.$. 1994: O ca~tro de Vila Nova de S. Pedro. Um típico povoado calcolítico fortifí caclo do 3°. milénio. ln A.M. Arruda (ed.). Lisboa SlIbterrânea (Lisboa. Museu Nac ional de Arqueologia). 49- 5 I .

JAUIAY. E. 19-13: O castro cneolílico de Vila Nova de São Pedro c as ~lIas relações com o norte ;.\fricano c o Mediterrâneo oriental. 4°. COllgn>sso Lllso-Espallhol pam u Progresso das Ciências (Poria. 19-12). 7 (Porto). 107- 17.

JORGE. S. OLIVEIRA 199-l: Colónias, fortificações. lugares ll1onutllelllali/ado~ . Trajectória das cOllcepçõe ... sobre Ulll tema do Calcolílico peninsular. Re\'isra da FaCilIdade de Lelm.\ (Uni ve rsidade do Pono), S. II. II. 447-546.

KU~ST. ~1. 1987: Zmllbujal. Glockellbecker /fluI Ke,.bblafl\'er~ierte Kemlllik alls deli GmbulIgell 196-1 bi.\ 1973 (Madrider Bei triigc 5.2).

KUNST. M. 1996: As cerâmicas decoradas do Zambujal e o ra:-.eamentO do calcolítico da Estremadura portuguesa. Eswdos Arqueológicos de Oeiras - eNIO 6. 257- 87.

LEISNER. v. 1961 : VílSOS eneolílicos decorados no interior. I?el'i.\'/a de G"ill/{/I'âes 71 0/4). 407- 28.

LEISNER. V. :md SC HUBART. H. 1966: Die KupferLcitli che Befc ... tigulIg VOII Pedra do Ouro/Portugal. i\llIdrider Miueilt/l/gel/ 7, 9-47.

PAÇO. A. DO 1954: Sel\lente~ pré-h istóricas do ca!'!lro de Vi la Nova de S. Pedro. AI/ais da Acodemia POflllguesa da I-l islôria S. 11 ,5.28 1-359.

PAÇO. A. DO 1957: Castro de Vila Nova dc S. Pedro. IX - rorno de cOlcr ce râmica. I?nista de Gllilllar(k~ 67 (1/2). 83- 94 .

OXFORO JOURNAL 01' ARCHAEOLOGY ~~. B1ad,\\~1I Publi,h{'~ lId. 2000 53

THE CHALCOUTHlC lN PORTUG UESE ESTIIEMA DURA

PAÇO. A. DO 1959: Castro de Vi la Nova de San Pedro. X II - Nota sobre lIll tipo de cerâm ica de i est rato Vila Nova L AI1I[Jllr;aj" 21, 252-60.

PAÇO. A. DO 1964: Castro de Vila Nova de S. Pedro. X IV - V ida económ ica. XV - O problema cClInpanifol"mc. XV I - Meta lurgia e aná li ses especlrográficas. AI/a;s da Academia Portuguesa da His/óri(, S. 11 , 14, 135-65.

PAÇO. A. DO 1966: Cas telo da Pedra de Ouro. Aliais da Acadelllia Portugl/esa da História S. li , 16, 11 7-52.

I)AÇO. A. DO and ARTIIUR. ~ I.L.C. 1952: Castro de Vi la Nova de S. Pedll'o. 1-15:', campanha de escavações ( 1951 ). Bro/éria 54 (3). 289-309.

PAÇO. A, DO and ARTHUR. ~1.L.c. 1953: CClslro da Vi la Nova de SeUl Pedro. I V - sementes pré-históricas de Linho. Archil'O de PrehislOria LevaI/tina 4, 15 1-7.

PAÇO. A. DO and JALHA Y. E. 1943: A póvoa cllcolílica de Vila Nova de S. Pedro. I - Escavações de 1942. 8ro/éria 37 ( I), 37-59.

PAÇO. A DO alld SANG~ I EJSTER. E. 1956a: Castro de Vi la Nova de S. Pedro. VIII - campanha de

escavações de 1955 (193.). Arqueologia e História S VII I. 7, 93- 11 4.

PAÇO. A. DO and SANG~IEI STER. E. 1956b: Vi ln Nova de S. Pedro - eine befestigte Siedlung der Kupfe rzeit in Portugal. Gerlll{/lIia 34 (3/4), 21 1- 30.

PARRE IRA. R. 1990: Considerações sobre os milénios IV e III a. C. no cent ro e sul de Portuga l. Eswdos Oriel/tais I. 27-43.

SANG~ I E ISTER. E. and SCHUBART, H. 1981 : Zmllbllja/. Die Grabllllgell /964 bis /973 (Madrider Bei trage. Band I. Tei l I. 2).

SAVORY. H.N. 1968: Spaill (111(1 Portllgal (Londres) (Li sboa, wilh Portugese translation, Verbo, 1969).

SAVORY. H.N. 1970: A section through the innermosl rampart at lhe chalcolithic castro of Vila Nova de S. Pedro. Santarém (1959). Actas das / Jom(/(Ias Arqueológicas da Associaçi'io dos Arqueólogos Portugueses (Lisboa, 1969) I, 133-62. Portugucse translat ion in eLIO/Arqueologia, RevisIa da UNIARCH/INIC 1 ( 1983/84), 19-29.

SERRAo. E. DA CUN HA 1983: A es tação pré~h i s tór i ca da Parcde. Documentos inéditos sobre est ratigraria e eSlrUlUras (Campanha de 1956). O Arqlleólogo POI"Illguês Série IV, I , 119-48.

SILVA. c. TAVARES DA 1963: Faulla ma/aeológica do castro da ROlllra (Setúbal. Publicações da TerllÍlia Cultu ra . Ciência e Saber, 30).

SILVA. C. T.A VARES DA 1983: O megalitismo e os pri meiros Illctalurgistas. Tn lH. Sarai va (cd.): História de Por/ligai. 1 (Lisboa), 83-89.

Sl LV,\ . c. TAVARES D/\ 197 1: O povoado pré-histórico da Rotura. Notei s sobre a cer1lm ica. Aclas do 1/ COl/gresso Naciol/al de Arq/leologia (Coimbra, 1970), 2 (Coi mbra), 175-92.

SIL \IA. C. TA VARES DA and SOARES. J. 1986: A rq/leologia da A rrábida (Lisboa, Colecção Parques Naturais, 15. Serviço Nacional de Parques, Reservas e Conservação da Natureza).

SOARES. A.~1. ~IONGE 1989: O efeito de resell'{/fório oceânico lias águas costeiras de Porfllga/ COI/filieI/tal (Lisboa. Provas de acesso a In vestigador Auxiliar do Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial). 135.

SOARES. rU .. 1. ~IONGE <lnd CABRAL. J . ~1. PE IXOTO 1993: Cronologia absoluta para o Calcolílico da Estremadura e do sul de Portugal. Actas do I Congresso de Arqueologia Penins/llar (Porto, 1993). 2 (Porto). 217- 35.

SOf\RES. A.H ~IONGE aml CARDOSO. J.L. 1995: Cronologia absoluta para as ocupações do Neolítico final e do Calcolítico in icial do povoado pré-hi ::;tórico de Lcccia (Oeiras). ESlIIdos Arqueológicos de Oeiras­CiVlO 5. 263-76.

SOARES.J. anel SILVA. C. TAVARES DA 1975: A ocupação pré-histórica do Pedrão e o Calcolítico da região de Setúbal. Serúbal Arq//eológica I, 53- 153.

54 OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY

1:' BlaC"kwell Publishers L1d. 2000

JOÃO Luís CARDOSO

STUIVER. M. 3nd PEARSON. G.W. 1993: High-precision bidecadal calibratioll of lhe radiocarbon time scale. AD 1950-500 Be a nel 2500-6000 Se. ln SlUivcr, M .. Long. A. 01\(1 Kra. R.S. (eels .). Cal ibrat ion 1993. Radiocarboll 35 ( I). 1-23.

STUIVER. ~1. ~lId REI~·IER . PJ. 1993: EXlendcd 14C database nnd revi sed CALlB 3.0 14C age calib rmion progrmTI. ln Swiver. M., Long, A. anel Km, R.S. (eds.): Calibralion 1993. RadiocarbOIl 35 ( I), 1- 23.

UERPMANN. M. 1995: A indústria da pedra lascada no Zambujal ~ algulls resultados. ln M. KlIll sl (cd.), Origens, esll"fltllras e relações das culturas ctllcoJ{r;cas da Península Ibérica, Actas da I Jornadas Arqueológicas de Torres Vedras (Torres Vedras, 1987) (Lisboa, InSliiUto Portugl1 ê~ do Património Arquitec tó nico e Arqueológico). 37--43.

OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY r: llIac"\~ell Publishers Lld. 1000 55