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The “Eleven Precepts" for Laity inthe Ugrapar伊rcchli-sfltra

Jan Nattier

The Ugrapariprccha-sfitra (hereafter Ugra) is one of the oldest extantMahayana scriptures. It is among the very small group of Buddhisttexts translated into Chinese already during the second century C.E. ,when An Xuan 安玄 and Van Fotiao嚴佛調 (var.嚴浮調) produceda version entitled Fajing jing 法鏡經“Dharma-MirrorSUtra" (T322,12. 仔仔22b). But among the dozen or so Mahayana scriptures nowconsidered to be authentic Han-period translations,l the Ugra exhibitsa number of particularly archaic features. For example, rather thantreating sravakas and bodhisattvas as belonging to separate andcompeting groups it portrays them as part of a single community,suggesting that a definitive split between Mahayana and non-Maha­yana communities had not yet taken place. Indeed , the lay bodhi­sattva is reminded that when he becomes a Buddha in the future , he(l ike Sakyamuni Buddha before him) will lead the members of hiscommunity to Arhatship, and thus he should not despise those whoare presently pursuing the sravaka path. The Ugra , in other words,does not recommend the bodhisattva path for all Buddhists, but onlyfor the minority who are capable of carrying out the rigorous practicesit demands. Thus we have here a Mahayana sutra-that is, a sUtradescribing the practice of the bodhisattva path-in which the ancientvision of a Buddha as an enlightened being who helps others tobecome Arhats (not Buddhas) is still in effect.

Not surprisingly, the pejorative term hlnayana never occurs inthe Ugra , for its authors clearly viewed the sravaka path as perfectlyacceptable (though of course not as glorious as the path to Buddha­hood). But many other features characteristic of later Mahayanasutras are missing as wel l. The Ugra betrays no awareness of any ofthe complex bhfimi systems that would appear in other MahayanasUtras, nor does it recommend devotion to the celestial BuddhasAk~obhya or Amitabha or to any of the long list of celestial bodhi­sattvas (Avalokitesvara, MafijusrI, etc.) whose cult would become soimportant in later texts. The bodhisattva path is affirmed in quite

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straightforward terms, without the use of the rhetoric of emptiness(sunyata) used in the PrajfHiparamita scri ptures to deconstruct it. Inshort, the Ugra appears to portray the bodhisattva path at a very earlystage in its developmen t. Professor Sakurabe's translation of theTibetan version of this important text has thus contributed greatly toour understanding of early Mahayana Buddhism.

The Ugra is well known for the fact that it offers advice to bothlay and renunciant bodhisattvas. In fact , the text is clearly dividedinto two parts, addressed to two different kinds of bodhisattvas: onedescribing the conduct of the householder (grhin) , the other describ­ing the conduct of the renunciant (pravrajita). In this brief paper Iwill examine only one aspect of the Ugra's teachings: its discussionof the precepts for laity.

Precepts are discussed , of course, in a great many Mahayanasutras, but the list given in the Ugra is unusual. At the beginning ofits discussion the Ugra states that the bodhisattva should uphold thefi ve precepts (五戒事， 12.16c20). In all Chinese and Tibetan versionsof the sutra each precept is discussed in detail , but if we take just thelist itself, it reads (in the version of An Xuan and Van Fotiao , 12.16c2 1- 17a 13) as follows:

(I) not delighting in killing living beings (不好殺生)(2) not delighting in stealing people's things (不好盜竊人物)(3) not delighting in wrong conduct with respect to desire (不好

欲之邪行)

(4) not delighting in false speech (不當好妄言)(5) not delighting in drinking alcohol (不當好飲酒)

So far the list is quite familiar, for it consists of the familiar paficaslla.But the list does not end here. Instead , it continues with an additionalSIX Items:

(6) not defaming people to one another (不當以相識眾人)(7) not practicing coarse speech (以為不鸝言)(8) not using ornate speech (不以綺語)

(9) not being ensnared by infatuation (不有癡網)

(10) not wishing harm to others (意為不敗亂)， and(II) getting rid of wrong views (去離邪見).

Although I have given only the version found in the translation of AnXuan and Van Fotiao, exactly the same list of eleven precepts occursin all of the extant versions of the Ugra , including the second Chineseversion titled 郁伽迦羅越間菩薩行經，by Dharmarak~a (T323) , the thirdChinese version titled 郁伽長者會， attributed to Kang Sengkang康僧鎧

Nattier: The "'Eleven Precepts" for Laity 35

but thought by some to be the work of Dharmamitra (T310 [I 月)， andthe Tibetan version titled Drag-shul-can-gyis zhus-pa 'i mdo producedby Surendrabodhi and Ye-shes-sde (Otani No. 760 [19]). This is, inother words, not simply a peculiar feature of the first Chinese transla­tion of the Ugra , but a peculiar feature of the Ugra itself.

Though the list given in the Ugra is unusual , its basis is easy todiscern. While the first five items are the standard list of five precepts(五戒， Sk t. paficaslla) for uplisakas and uplisikliS , the remainder areclearly drawn from another source: the well known list of “ ten gooddeeds" (十善， Sk t. dasa-kusala-karmapatha) , in which the preceptagainst “ false speech" found in the paficasila is supplemented by threeadditional categories of vocal offenses (slander, harsh speech , andmeaningless talk) , and three mental offenses-covetousness, malice,and wrong views-are added as well. Since the first four items in thepaficaSlla are already included in the dasa-kusala , when the two listsare merged only one new precept-the fi仇h in the paficaslla list,prohibiting the use of intoxicants-is added to the ten "good deeds."The resulting total is therefore eleven.

Eleven is of course an unexpected number, and it is not surprisingthat some scholars have viewed this list as strange and perhaps evenunique. But the same list of “ eleven precepts" also occurs elsewherein Buddhist literature. A good example is found in the oldest Chineseversion of the Astaslihas/伙li-prajfilipliramitli-sutra (hereafter A ~!a) ，

translated by Lokak~ema 支宴迦識 (T224，道行般若經). Here the textrefers to ten precepts (十戒) rather than five, but like the Ugra it goeson to enumerate eleven (8.454b28-29):

(I) not killing living beings (不殺生)，

(2) [not] stealing (強盜)，

(3) [not] indulging in lewdness (經決)，

(4) [not] lying (兩舌)，

(5) [not] being fond of alcohol (嗜酒)，

(6) [not using] abusive speech (惡口)，

(7) [not using] reckless speech (妄言)，2

(8) [not using] ornate speech (綺語)，

(9) not being jealous (不嫉妒)，

(10) [not being] angry and reviling (瞋悉罵音)， and(11) [not] doubting (不疑).

Though some of the terminology is different, this is clearly the samelist that we saw in the Ugra , where the paficaslla and the dasakusalawere combined into a single list of eleven.

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It might seem at first that this is simply a mistake, and indeedHIRAKAWA Akira has suggested that this peculiar list is the result ofinadequate translation by Lokak~ema.3 Later Chinese translations ofthe same sutra would seem to support this assertion , for we find onlythe standard ten karmapathas in the translations by Zhi Qian 支謙

(T225 , 8.494cll-14) and KumarajIva (T227 , 8.564a15-18). TheTibetan translation , however-although it was produced several cen­turies after the versions of Zhi Qian and KumarajIva-offers evidenceto the contrary. Here we find the following list (Otani no. 734, vo l.21 , 135.3.3-8):

(1) [an irreversible bodhisattva] abstains from killing livingbeings (srog gcod pa spangs) ,

(2) abstains from taking what is not given (ma byin par len paspangs) ,

(3) abstains from misconduct with respect to desire ('dod pas logpar spyod pa spangs) ,

(4) abstains from becoming heedless due to alcohol ('bru'ichang dang bcos pa'i chang bag med pa'i gnas spangs) ,4

(5) abstains from false speech (brdzun du smra ba spangs) ,(6) abstains from slanderous speech (phra ma smra ba spangs) ,(7) abstains from harsh speech (tshig rtsub mo smra ba spangs)(8) abstains from useless speech (tsh恕 kyal pa smra ba spangs) ,(9) abstains from covetousness (brnab sems spangs) ,

(10) abstains from ill will (gnod sems spangs) , and(11) abstains from wrong views (log par Ita ba spangs).

In the Tibetan the precept on intoxicants is listed fourth and falsespeech is given fifth , but aside from this small change in sequence theTibetan version agrees with the Chinese translation by Lokak民rna.

That 兒， it enumerates a total of eleven precepts, in contrast to the laterChinese translations by Zhi Qian and KumarajIva which have onlyten.

Even the Sanskrit text of the A .J!a , which in its present formpostdates even the Tibetan , agrees with the early Chinese translationof Lokak♀ema. Here we find the following list (A~!a xvii.324):

(1) [an irreversible bodhisattva] abstains from killing livingbeings (prli lJ litiplitlit prativirato bhavati) ,

(2) abstains from stealing (adattlidlinlit prativirato bhavati) ,(3) abstains from misconduct with respect to sensual desire

(kllmamithyliclirllt prativirato bhavati) ,(4) abstains from heedlessness due to alcohol (surli-maireya.

Nattier: The "Eleven Precepts" for Laity 37

madya-pralnlidasthlinlit prativirato bhavati) ,5

(5) abstains from false speech (anrtavacanlit prativiratobhavati) ,

(6) abstains from slanderous speech (pisunavacanlit prativiratobhavati) ,

(7) abstains from harsh speech (parusavacanlit prativiratobhavati) ,

(8) abstains from meaningless speech (sa的bhinnapralliplit

prativirato bhavati) ,(9) abstains from covetousness (abhidhylita !J prativirato

bhavati) ,(10) abstains from ill will (vylipadlit prativirato bhavati) , and(II) abstains from wrong views (mithylidarsanlit prativirato

bhavati).Once again we have the list of “ eleven precepts" found in the Ugraand in Lokaksema's As衍， with the same reversal of the fourth andfifth precepts that we saw in the Tibetan version of the latter.

We may conclude, therefore, that the list of eleven is certainly notthe result of an error on Lokak~ema's part, but has a long history inIndian sources. Indeed , the more standard-looking set of ten preceptsfound in the translations of Zhi Qian and KumarajTva might best beviewed as the result of an editorial “ correction ," made either in Indiaor in China.

The Ugra and the A~!a are quite different in content, and it seemsunlikely that one of these sOtras directly influenced the other. A morereasonable hypothesis would be that lists including both the paficasllaand the dasakusala circulated freely (perhaps even widely) in India,and that the authors of both of these sOtras simply adopted such a listfrom this larger milieu. And in fact many other instances of themerger of these two Iists of precepts can be found. Not all of them ,however, resulted in a total of eleven items. In the oldest Chinesetranslation of the larger Sukhlivatlvyuha-sutl呀， for example-the阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓佛檀過度人道經(T362)， traditionally attributed to ZhiQian 支謙 but now , in light of recent work by Paul Harrison , to beconsidered a revised version of a translation by Lokak~ema6-we findthe following list (12.311 a20-24):

(I) First, not killing living beings (一者不得殺生)，(2) Second, not stealing property (二者不得盜竊)，(3) Third , not indulging in lewd behavior or love for the wives

of others (三者不得短波姦愛他人婦女)，

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(4) Fourth , not deceiving people about one another (四者不得調欺)，

(5) Fi仙， not drinking alcohol (五者不得飲酒)，(6) Sixth , not lying (六者不得兩舌)，(7) Seventh , not speaking harshly (七者不得惡口)，(8) Eighth , not speaking recklessly (八者不得妄言)，(9) Ninth , not being covetous (九者不得嫉妒)， and

( 10) Tenth , not bei ng greedy (十者不得貪聲).Here, it would seem , all of the precepts concerning speech found in thedasakusala have been included. but the final item from thatlist-avoiding wrong views-has been eliminated. It also appears thatthe eighth precept (against covetousness) has been translated twice(日rst as 嫉妒， then as 貪黎)， and that the ninth precept (against malice)has not been translated at al 1.7 In either event , we have here a total often. The same list is found in a slightly later translation of the samescri pture, titled 無量清淨平等覺經 (T36I; 12.293a9-12), which wastraditionally assigned to Lokak~ema but should now be considered,in light of Harrison's recent findings , as a revision by Zhi Qian ofLokak民rna's original translation.

This passage occurs, however, in the portion of the text knowndealing with the “ Five Evils" (五惡) whose Indian ancestry is indoubt, and this particular section does not even have a parallel in theversion attributed to Sarhghavarman (T360).8 It would therefore behazardous to use this example as evidence for the circulation of sucha list of precepts in India. Yet there are examples of merged lists inmany other texts, at least some of which are certainly of Indian origin.We may now turn to examples of combined pa方caslla and dasaku狗的

lists in texts of another type: those found in non-Mahayana scriptures.In three texts said to have been translated during the Western Jin

西晉 we find merged lists containing not eleven precepts, but ten. Inthe first of these, titled 大樓炭經 (T23) and attributed to Fali 法立 and

Faju 法炬，9 we fi nd the followi ng list (I.306a9-13): 10

(1) First , not killing living beings (一者不殺生)，(2) Second , not stealing (二者不盜)，

(3) Third , not violating the wives of others (三者不犯他人婦女)，(4) F 0 urth , not Iyin g (四者不妄)，

(5) Fi仙， not drinking alcohol (五者不飲酒)，(6) Sixth , not usi ng harsh speech (六者不惡口罵膏)，(7) Seventh , not being duplicitous or using ornate speech (七者

不兩舌綺語)，

Nattier: The "Eleven Precepts" for Laity 39

(8) Eighth , not being covetous (八者不嫉妒)，(9) Ninth , not being malicious (九者意不瞋惠)，

(10) Tenth, having right views (十者正見).Here we find that the text has dealt with the anomalous numberresulting from the merger of the two lists by eliminating the preceptagai nst sl ander (or “divisive speech"), thus maintaining the total often.

In another text assigned to the same period, titled 玉耶女經 (TI42)

for which the name of the translator has been lost, we find thefollowing referred to as the “ ten precepts" 十戒 (2.865c4-8):

(I) First, not killing living beings (一不殺生)，(2) Second , not stealing (二不偷盜)，

(3) Third , not indulging in lewdness (三不經俠)，(4) Fourth , not lying (四不妄語)，

(5) Fifth , not drinking alcohol (五不飲酒)，(6) Sixth, not usi ng harsh speech (六不惡口)，

(7) Seventh , not using ornate speech (七不綺語)，

(8) Eighth , not being covetous (八不嫉妒)，(9) Ninth , not being malicious (九不瞋惠)，

(10) Tenth, believing what is good and attaining what is good (十者信善得善).

Once again the precept against slander has been eliminated, thusresulting in a total of ten.

In yet another text from the same period , the *Sylimakajlitaka(TI74，菩薩股子經) by a translator whose name has been lost, we findanother merged list of precepts, here referred to as the “ ten gooddeeds" 十善 (3.436b29-c2):

(I) Not killing (不殺)，

(2) Not stealing (不盜)，

(3) Not indulging in lewdness (不經)，

(4) Not being deceptive (不欺証)，

(5) Not drinking alcohol (不飲酒)，(6) Not using reckless speech (不妄言)，

(7) Not usi ng ornate speech (不綺語)，

(8) Not being covetous (不嫉妒)，

(9) Not cursing (不咒詛)，

(10) Believing in the Way and not doubting (信道不疑).

Though the wording here is less familiar, the content of the list is thesame as in the two cases just described. By eliminating the preceptagainst slander, the paficaslla and the dasakusala have been merged

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while retaining a total of ten precepts. II

But such “ abbreviated mergers" do not occur only in Chinesetranslations. In the Sanskrit Mahlivastu we find another example ofthe merger of the two lists of precepts, resulting in a total list of ten(Senart ed. , 11.99, 5-12):

( 1) taking life is not dharma (prli f} litiplito adharmo) ,(2) stealing is not dharma (adinnlidlino adharmo),(3) wrong conduct with respect to sensual desire is not dharma

(klime~u mithylicliro adharmo),(4) drinking intoxicating liquor and spirits is not dharma (surli-

maireya-madya-plinarh adharlno),12

(5) false speech is not dharma (mr~avado adharmo) ,(6) slander is not dharma (pisunavlica adharnlo) ,(7) idle chatter is not dharma (sa的bhinnaprallipo adharmo) ,(8) covetousness is not dharma (avidyli [sic] adharmo),I3

(9) malice is not dharma (vylipado adharmo) , and( 10) wrong view is not dharma (mithyadr~!i adharmo).

Here the total of ten is maintained by omitting a different one of thevocal offenses, viz. “ harsh speech" (pliru妙。).

* * *In light of the substantial evidence reviewed above, it is quite

clear that the practice of combining the lists of five precepts and tengood deeds-in varying ways and with varying results-was quitecommon in Indian Buddhism. But the two sets were not alwaysmerged into a single list of precepts. In other cases both sets wererecommended , and mentions of the paficasila 五戒 and the dasa­kusala 十善 occur together. In the 六度集經 (T152) translated by KangSenghui 康僧會， for example , there are several instances where areference to the paficasila is immediately followed by a reference tothe dasakusala. One passage states that at a certain time in the pastall countries were governed according to the paficasila and thedasakusala (處處諸國無不改操五戒十善以為國政，3.5aI2-13). In anotherpassage a robber takes on not just the three refuges and the pancaslla,but the dasakusala as well (貧人以三自歸五戒十善， 19a22), and in yetanother two teachers (道士!) recommend that a certain king practiceboth the paficaslla and the dasakusala (勸奉五戒載十善而行， 44a24­25). In one case an even longer list is given , including not only thepa方casila and the dasakusala but the six paramitlis and the eightuposatha precepts (五戒六度八齋十善，47a25).

Nattier: The “ Eleven Precepts" for Laity 41

But might this juxtaposition simply be the result of confusion onKang Senghui's part? It has been suggested , after all , that this text maynot be a genuine “ translation ," but a compilation created in China. 14

As with the passage in the Sukhlivativyilha found in the sectionconcerning the “ Five Evils," it would be risky to build a case for theuse of the precepts in India on this one text alone.

But there is no need to do so, for the juxtaposition of thepaficaSila and the dasakusala occurs in a substantial number of texts.A quick computer search turned up dozens of examples, including thefollowing:

From non-Mahayana texts:﹒增一阿合經 (T 125), 2.626a22-刃，的 Ib28

.生經 (TI54) ， 3.99b28, IOOal and 7﹒菩薩股子經 (T174) ， 3.438aI9

• "炎子經 (T 175), 3.443c8.鹿母經 (T 182), 3.457a28﹒佛本行集經 (T 190), 3.859a4.雜譬喻經 (T204)， 4.501bI9-20, 501c4.雜譬喻經 (T205)， 4.506c 15﹒舊雜譬喻經 (T206) ， 4.510bI4, 510c詣， 517b17

.眾經撰雜譬喻 (T208) ， 4.542b II and 27﹒法句譬喻經 (T211) ， 4.587c7.出曜經 (T212)， 4.635a22

From Mahayana texts:﹒大般若波羅蜜多經(T220)， 6.995c28﹒放光般若經 (T221)， 8.5c2, 47c9, 127泊， 131c2.光讚經 (T222) ， 153a 15﹒摩訶般若波羅蜜經 (T223) ， 8.222b24 and c7，的Oc2

.大方廣佛華嚴經(T278)， 9.450bl , 456c28﹒大方廣佛華嚴經 (T279)， 10.89b7, 94a25.漸備一切智德經 (T285)， 10.497alO﹒最勝問菩薩十住除垢斷結經 (T309)， 10.98Ib27, 1029a4.大般涅槃經 (T374)， 12.380b26﹒大般涅槃經 (T375)， 12.620b6.大般泥洹經 (T376)， 12.864a16﹒菩薩從兜術天降神母胎說廣普經(T384)， 12.1038b7.當來變經 (T395)， 12.1118b28﹒觀虛空藏菩薩經 (T409) , 13.680a28.賢劫經 (T425)， 14.8b22.千佛因緣經 (T426)， 14.67a26, b2

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﹒佛名經 (T441) ， 14.240a29, 297b23.沙屬比丘功德經 (T501), 14.770c24.鍵陀國王經 (T506)， 14.774b I﹒末羅王經 (T517) ， 14.791c2﹒脂陀越國王經 (T518)， 14.792b21﹒摩達國王經 (T519) ， 14.792c29﹒普達王經 (T522)， 14.795c5﹒優婆夷淨行法門經 (T579) ， 14.958c 15.四天王經 (T590) ， 118c 13 and 23 ch.超日明三昧經 (T638)， 15.538b 18﹒觀佛三昧海經 (T643) ， 15.667b14﹒菩薩頭路經 (T656)， 17.73a 18, 112b5.分別經 (T738)， 17.541 b25﹒五苦章句經 (T741)， 17.543clO.自愛經 (T742)， 17.550a12﹒除恐災唐、經 (T744)， 17.522a17.罪福報應經 (T747)， )7.564b27﹒未曾有因緣經 (T754)， 17.585a20 and b4.柄檀樹經 (T805)， 17.750c29﹒諸法勇王經 (T822)， 17.850b6 and 10, c24﹒一切法高王經 (T823)， 17.856c27, 857a2 and c I﹒諸法最上王經 (T824) ， 17.864a21 and 25 , 864b27 , and﹒弟子死復生經 (T826)， 17.869c22.

Still other examples are found in the vinaya and sastra sections of thecanon.

It has sometimes been suggested that the paficaslla and thedasakusala belonged to different Buddhist different communities, andin particular that the latter set of precepts-and not the former-wasused by early Mahayanists.Hirakawa, for example, has written that“ The dasakusala which was so highly regarded by the early Maha­yanists was never held to be important by the Nikaya followers."15But our search for the antecedents of the Ugra's distinctive list of~~eleven precepts" has led to a quite different conclusion. Far frombeing the property of separate communities, much less distinctivemarkers that can be used to separate Mahayana from non-Mahayana­oriented groups, the two lists often stood side by side, and some­times-as in the case of the Ugra , the A~!a， the Mahlivas仰， and anumber of other scriptures preserved only in Chinese-were mergedinto a single list. It now seems clear that the paficaslla and thedasakusala were a part ofthe common property of Indian Buddhism ,

Nattier: The HEleven Precepts" for Laity

where they were shared by bodhisattvas and sravakas alike.

Notes

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I See Erik ZUrcher “ A New Look at the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Texts," inKoichi Shinohara and Gregory Schopen , eds. , Fron1 Benares to Beijing: Essays onBuddhism and Chinese Religion in Honour of Pro.f. Jan Yun-hua (Oakville:Mosaic Press, 1991), pp. 277-304.

2 The expression 妄言 is used in some cases to translate “ false speech"(anrtavacana , mr~avlida) ， and in others to translate Hmeaningless" or “ wild"speech (sarhbhinnaprallipa).

3 HIRAKAWA Akira , 4‘The Rise of Mahayana Buddhism and Its Relationshipto the Worship of Stupas" [translated fronl the Japanese by Taitetsu Unno],Memoirs of the Research Department of the IIδyδ Bunko ， 22 (1963), pp. 57-106(p.75).

4 The Tibetan specifies two different types of alcoholic drinks.5 The Sanskrit specifies three different types of alcoholic drinks.6 Paul Harrison,“On the Authorship of the Oldest Chinese Translation of the

Larger Sukhlivatl-vyaha-satra ," unpublished paper presented at the annualmeeting of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Lausanne, Switzer­land (August 1999).

7 It is at least possible that the characters嫉妒 were intended to translate theeighth of the dasakusa旬， i.e.、“malice， ill will ," but this is less than certain as thesame characters are used elsewhere to translate the ninth precept, against 44covetous­ness." The text continues with several other related practices (311 a24-26) , but theseare not numbered and do not appear to be drawn from either the pancaslla or thedasakusala.

8 There is, however, a close parallel in the Song-period translation ofthe sametext (大阿彌陀佛經， attributed to 王日休， 12.337b 12-15), where these precepts arereferred to as 十善.

9 As Eri k ZUrcher has pointed out (The Buddhist Conquest of China[Leiden: E. J. Brill , 1959], p. 70 and p. 345, n. 254) , most of the attributions to thesetranslators are doubtfu l. This text, however, is one of only four scriptures assignedto these two translators in the Chu sanzang jiji 出三藏集記 (T別的， 55.9cI9-IOa3)，

and thus it can presumably be accepted as genuine.10 Here the list of precepts is not given a specific title, though it seems to echo

the dasakusala when it states 善有十因緣.

11 A slightly shorter version of the same list--totalling only nine precepts inall-occurs twice、 with identical wording in both passages. in another version ofthe same text (T 175, \I炎子經， 3.440b 11-12 and 442a28).

12 The Sanskrit specifies three different types of alcoholic drinks.13 As suggested by Edgerton (

Early Buddhism and Abhidharma Thought:In Honor of Doctor Hajime Sakurabe on HisSeventy-seventh Birthday, 2002. 20. May, Offprint

The “Eleven Precepts" for Laity inthe Ugrapαriprcchl1-sutra

Jan Nattier