The Duration of Function Words in Japanese

University of Washington Working Papers in Linguistics Volume 21 (2002) pp. x-y

The Duration of Function Words in Japanese Setsuko Shirai

[email protected]

1 Introduction

It is well known that reduction occurs in English function words. However, it is not

clear whether reduction occurs in Japanese function words. Previous research leads

to conflicting results. I will show that reduction occurs in Japanese function words.

1.1 Background

Segmental duration is influenced by several factors. Known factors influencing

segmental duration are the position of a phoneme in a word (for English Beckman &

Edward 1990), the presence or absence of stress (for Dutch Sluijter and van Heuven

1995), adjacent phonemes (for English Port 1981, for Japanese Han 1962), the

number of syllables in a word (for English, Lehiste 1972, Port 1981), the rate of

speech (for English Port 1981), and syntactic structure (for English Klatt 1975).

In addition, lexical status influences the duration of a phoneme, which is the

topic of this paper. In English, function words are reduced (Bolinger and Sears 1981).

As a result, the vowels of function words become [] in conversational speech.

However, it is not clear whether function words in Japanese are shorter than content

words or not. Study conducted by Campbell (1992) indicates that Japanese particles

are longer than the average of their counterparts. The result is that the duration of

two phones [w] and [a] in the Japanese topic marker [wa] are longer than [w] and [a]

independently. However, the corpus unfortunately does not have many content [wa]

compared to the number of function [wa] (content [wa] 82 times vs. function [wa]

139 times); accordingly, the duration of the function [wa] with content [wa] could not

be compared in the word-final position. So it is possible that the position of the target

segment influences Campbell’s duration results.

Keating and Huffman (1984) conduct research on the vowel reduction in

Japanese. Their research shows that vowels in prose are closer to the center of F1 X

The Duration of Function Words in Japanese 2

F2 plots than those in word-lists. Unfortunately their research does not include

measuring the duration of vowels.

Research conducted by Ueyama (1999) indicates that the duration of a vowel

[a] in a function word (subject marker [ga]) in Japanese is shorter than the duration of

a vowel in a content word. However, the duration of the word-final [a] in the content

word [obaba] is compared with the duration of [a] in the function word [ga] in the

phrase [obaba - ga], so the adjacent phones and the number of syllables in a word1

are not control. Then, the difference in the number of syllables may lead to the

durational difference of the target vowels. Thus, it could not be concluded that the

duration of a vowel in a function word is shorter than in a content word.

1.2 Purpose

I design the current experiment to investigate the difference between the duration of a

vowel in a content word and the duration of a vowel in a function word in Japanese.

A typical Japanese function word is a particle such as a subject marker2.

The Japanese particles are as follows.

(1) Japanese particles

[wa]: topic marker [ga]: subject marker [o]: object marker [de]: indicates place of action or corresponds to “be” plus “and” in English3 [e]: indicates direction [to]: conjunction ‘and’, or complementizer [ka]: conjunction ‘or’ or question marker [no]: genitive marker [ni]: dative marker

1 Since a word plus a particle (function word) has at most one pitch accent, the combination of a noun plus a following particle is considered a prosodic word in Japanese (Poser 1984). 2 Japanese has other function words, too. However, it is hard to find the content words that consist of the same phonemes as the function words. 3 The second grammatical role of [de] indicates the end of a verb phrase.

Shirai 3

For ease of measurement, only [a] in the subject marker [ga] and [o] the

conjunctions [to] and [e] in [de] are used. I call these [ga], [to] and [de] the target

syllables. I create two sets of sentences: content group, and function group. The

tokens in the content group include content words ending with the target syllables,

and the tokens in the function group include function words as the target syllables. In

order to control adjacent phonemes, the preceding syllable of the target syllable and

the following syllable are the same in both groups. Five orders of presentations are

used to minimize order effects. The subjects are asked to read five randomizations.

In addition, the order of the token sets is different for each subject.

1.3 Hypothesis

Hypothesis 1: In English, function words such as the article “the” or preposition “in”

are reduced in normal speech. I predict that the duration of vowels in function words

in Japanese will be shorter than the duration of the matched word-final vowels in the

content words.

Null Hypothesis: The duration of the target vowel in a function word will not

be different from the duration of the target vowel in a content word in Japanese.

2 Experiment

2.1 Tokens

I create two types of sentences for three target vowels [a], [o], and [e] by using the

Japanese dictionary “Gyakuhiki kojien4” (Shinmura et al 1967). The sentences in the

content group contain words ending with the target vowels while the sentences in the

function group contain words plus function words, which contain the target vowels.

For example, I compare a vowel [a] in a two-syllable word [kia] with [a] in a

function word [a] following a one-syllable word [ki], yielding [ki-a]. In addition,

syllables after the target vowels in the content group are the same as in the function- 4 Words in this dictionary are arranged in ascendant order based on the word-ending syllable.


group so that the influence of the adjacent phones is minimized. The tokens are

pseudo-randomized5 in five ways so five sets of tokens are prepared. Furthermore,

the order of the word lists is different for each speaker. Thus, the influence of the

token order is minimized.

However, I do not control the pitch of the target syllable because previous

research reveals that Japanese pitch does not influence the duration of vowels. Sugito

and Mitsuya (1977) show that Japanese pitch accent does not systematically affect

duration. In addition, Cutler and Otake (1999) briefly state that whether the pitch of

the target syllable is high or low does not affect the duration of the vowels in

Japanese.

(2) tokens6 (first: content, second: function)

[ga]: two-syllable word a. bokushi, kiga kikitsukeru

pastor starvation heard A pastor heard about the starvation.

b. katou_san_wa ki_ga kiku7. Mr. Kato _ TOP8 spirit_SUB be effective Mr. Kato is tactful.

[ga]: four-syllable word c. nakamura_san_wa jinbutsuga toku_ni osukide irasshaimashita

Mr. Nakamura_TOP portraits especially like (honorific and past form) Mr. Nakamura especially liked portraits.

d. ano eiga_wa jinbutsu_ga toku_ni yoku byousha sareteimasu that movie_TOP people_SUB especially well described (passive voice) In that movie, people are described especially well.

5 Using a random function in Excel, I create random numbers from 1 to 95. If a reduplicated number is created, then another number is used. Since it is created by the random function, it is not truly random in the way that a sequence of numbers created by throwing a dice is for example. I add three sentences at the beginning and at the end of the lists so each list contains a total 101 sentences. 6 I also record another function word [ka] ‘or’ with two pairs of tokens: [mitaka] and [haika]. However, speakers articulate the preceding syllables in [mitaka] in two ways, so I eliminate them from the analysis. The text of the second token is ‘we determine the word by accent.’ The difference between [hai] ‘bridge’ and [hai] ‘chopsticks’ is pitch. Thus the speakers try to pronounce them with correct accents, which lead to hyper-articulation. Therefore I eliminate them from the analysis. 7 /ki_ga kiku/ is an idiom. 8 TOP: topic marker, SUB: subject marker, OBJ: object marker, CONJ: conjunction, NEG: negation, GEN: genitive marker, DAT: dative marker, COMP: complementizer, POST: postposition, COP: copula

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[to]: two-syllable word e. hato kubi_o mawashita

pigeon neck_OBJ turn (past form) The pigeon turned his head

f. ha_to kuki dake shika nai leaf_CONJ stem only NEG There is nothing but a leaf and a stem.

[to]: three-syllable word g. kookoosei kogoto karuku kikinagasu

high-school students sermon lightly listen (without attention) High-school students do not pay attention to the sermon.

h. kookoo_no kogo_to kanbun_wa muzukashii high-school_GEN old Japanese_CONJ classic Chinese_TOP difficult Studying Old Japanese and Classical Chinese is difficult.

[de]: two-syllable word i. kotowaza_ni, tade kuu mushi mo suki zuki to

proverb_DAT glass eat bag_OBJ (also) like_COMP A proverb says that everyone has his own taste (“To each his own”).

j. taue_no ato ta_de kuu meshi_wa umakatta rice planting after paddy_POST eat meal_TOP delicious After rice planting, meals eaten at the rice paddy were delicious

[de]: three-syllable word k. suizoku_kan_ni iku_made, hitode, kon’nani kireidanante shiranakatta

aquarium_DAT go_until starfish like this beautiful didn’t know Until coming to the aquarium, I did not know that starfishes are so beautiful.

l. kato_san_wa, Tokyo no hito_de, korokoro_to yoku waratte, aisoo_ga ii. Mr. Kato_TOP Tokyo_GEN person_COP well laugh, friendly Mr. Kato, from Tokyo, he frequently laughs and is friendly.

2.2 Procedure

2.2.1 Subjects

Five male and five female native Japanese speakers participate in the experiment.

One speaker was born in Yokohama, and the others were born in Tokyo. Yokohama

is close to Tokyo, and the Yokohama dialect is considered to be the same as the

Tokyo dialect. Thus, all subjects are considered to be Tokyo dialect speakers. Three

speakers are in their 30’s, and seven speakers are in their 20’s.


2.2.2 Recordings

The randomized lists contain approximately 100 sentences of which 12 are of interest

to this study. The speakers read five word-lists in the sound attenuated recording

booth in the phonetic lab at the University of Washington. Recordings are made

using an Electro-Voice RE20 microphone with a flat response to 20 kHz, an amplifier

(Shure model FP32A) and an analog cassette tape recorder (TASCAM 122MK III).

After the recording, the speech is digitized, using Sound Edit 16 version 2 on a

computer equipped with an Audiomedia III card. Although the subjects read five

word-lists, the first and the last repetition are not used in this research in order to

obtain pronunciations least affected by reading rate.

2.2.3 Measurements

In measuring the duration of vowels, the following criteria are used. If the onset of

the target syllable is a stop, the onset consists of the release burst and the preceding

closure silence. If the onset of the target syllable is a fricative, there is no silent

period. I measure from the onset of the release burst of the target syllable as the onset

of the vowel. The vowel offset is considered to be the point where there is a loss of

energy on a spectrogram and an equivalent loss of complexity in the waveform.

Figure 1 is an example of a spectrogram and waveform showing the measuring

points.

Figure 1 Example of measuring points in the vowel /a/ in /ga/

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I measure from the onset of the release burst to the end of the vowel where

there is a loss of energy on the spectrogram and an equivalent loss of complexity in

the waveform. I measure the duration of vowels at the troughs in the waveform.

2.3 Results

Firstly the overall result with ANOVA repeated measure is presented. Secondly, the

results of two-tailed t-tests for each token are presented.

2.3.1 Overall results

The measured results are submitted to a repeated measure ANOVA with DURATION as

the dependent variable, and LEXICAL, VOWEL, and GENDER as independent variables.

The main effect for LEXICAL on DURATION is [F(1, 348) = 13.363, p = 0.0003]. The

main effects for GENDER on DURATION is [F(1, 348) = 4.822, p = 0.03]. The main

effects for VOWEL on DURATION is [F(2, 348) = 27.136, p< 0.0001]. However, no

interaction effects between factors are observed.


2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 2 0

1 4 0

ms

C o n t e n t F u n c t I o n

L e x I c a l E f f e c t

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 2 0

1 4 0

ms

F e m a l e M a l e

G e n d e r E f f e c t

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 2 0

1 4 0

ms

a e o

V o w e l E f f e c t

Figure 2 Box plot showing each effect on DURATION. Duration of vowel: content > function, female > male, e > a > o

Post Hoc Scheffe tests with α at 0.05 indicate that the durations of vowels in

function words are significantly shorter than in content words, that vowels produced

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by female speakers are longer than those produced by males, and that the duration of

/e/ is the longest while /o/ is the shortest.

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

ms

hato hitode jinbutsuga kiga kogoto tade

functioncontent

Lexical effects on vowel duration (ms) split by token

Figure 3 Box plots showing the duration of vowels in each token. The function vowel /a/ in token /jinbutsuga/ is mostly shortened. Second greatest shortened vowel is /o/ in token /kogoto/. The duration of function /o/ in /hato/ is unexpectedly longer than the duration of content /o/.

2.3.2 [a]

I will discuss each token. The first function word is the subject marker [a]. I

compare the duration of the target vowels: in the word-final syllable of four-syllable

words ([dinbtsa]), and in the function word ([a]) following three-syllable

words ([dinbts]). The results of the measurements are submitted to an

independent two-tailed t-test. There is a significant effect for lexical type in

comparing the duration of the function [a] and the duration of the content [a]; t (29) =

21.526, p < 0.0001. The result of the comparison of the word-final vowel in the two-

syllable word ([kia]) with the vowel in the function [a] following the one-syllable

word ([ki]) also indicates that the duration of [a] in the function group is shorter than


in the content group9. The average duration of function [a] following the three-

syllable word (61 ms) is shorter than [a] following the one-syllable word (76ms)

while the number of syllables does not cause a large difference in the average

duration of [a] in the content group10.

Content /ga/

Function /ga/

Figure 4 Spectrograms illustrating /a/ in /jinbutsuga/. Top: vowel in the content /ga/ consists of more than ten sound waves. Bottom: vowel in the function /ga/ consists of three sound waves.

9 The result of the two-tailed test for [kia]: t (29) = 2.172, p < 0.04. 10 The average duration of [a] in four-syllable word is 82 ms while in two-syllable word was 83 ms. Since the adjacent phonemes were different, we could not compare the durations.

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The spectrogram in Figure 4 illustrates that the function vowel [a] (about three

sound waves) in [dinbts-a] is much shorter than the vowel in the content

[dinbtsa] (more than ten sound waves).

2.3.3 [to]

The second function word is [to] (Japanese conjunction ‘and’). When I compare the

duration of the word-final vowel in the two-syllable word [hato] with the vowel in the

function [to] following the one-syllable word [ha], there is no significant difference

between the duration of the function [o] and the content [o] at the alpha level 0.05; t

(29) = -1.150, p =0.3: In addition, the duration of the vowel in the function [to] is

longer than the vowel in the content [to]. However, the duration of the content vowel

in the three-syllable word ([kooto]) is significantly longer than that of the vowel in

the function [to] following two–syllable words ([koo]); t (29) = 3.642, p=0.001.


Content /to/

Function /to/

Figure 5 Spectrograms illustrating /o/ in /kogoto/. Top: the vowel in the content /to/ consisting of eight peaks. Bottom: the vowel in the function /to/ consisting of a couple of peaks

2.3.4 [de]

The third function word is [de], which has two grammatical roles. The grammatical

role of the function [de] in [ta-de] indicates the place of action while the function

[de]11 in [ito-de] corresponds to “be” plus “and” in English. The results are

conflicting. The function [de] in [ta-de] is significantly shorter than content [de] at

the alpha level 0.05; t (29) = 2.234, p=0.03. Although function [de] in [ito-de] is 11 This [de] indicates the end of a verb phrase.

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shorter than content [de], the difference is not statistically significant; t (29) = 0.916,

p = 0.4.

3 Velar fricative (Allophone of Velar stop)

While measuring the duration of [a] in /ga/, I notice that some content /ga/ and

function /ga/ look like fricatives. Here I provide the spectrograms.

No release burst

Release burst

Figure 6 Spectrograms illustrating allophones: fricative [a] and stop [a]. Top: fricative [a] without release burst. Bottom: [a] with release burst


Instead of a release burst, frication appears in the left spectrogram in Figure 6,

although Japanese /g/ is supposed to be a stop. On the other hand, the release burst

appears in the right spectrogram of Figure 6. Both tokens are articulated by the same

person. The adjacent phones of the target syllables are the same for each token.

Some subjects produce stop [a] in both tokens. Some produce stop [a] for

content and fricative [a] for function while other subjects produce fricative [a] for

content and stop [a] for function12. Thus Japanese [a] shows free variation between

[a] and [a]. Probably this variation is limited to utterance-internal /ga/. The

following spectrogram shows that utterance-initial /ga/ is a stop.

Release burst

Figure 7 Spectrogram illustrating utterance-initial [a]. The release burst in the spectrogram indicates a stop.

Although some speakers articulate stop [a] and others fricative [a], the

duration of the vowel in function /ga/ is shorter than that of the vowel in the content

/ga/.

12 In many spectrograms, it is hard to tell a stop from a fricative because the target syllable is articulated immediately after the preceding vowels.

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4 Discussion

The overall results indicate that vowels in function words are shorter than those in

content words. Especially, the duration of [a] in the subject marker [ga] is

significantly shorter than the content [a] in the contexts of [dinbta]. The

phonetic environments of target vowels in [dinbtsa] are almost identical: the

adjacent phones, the lengths of sentences, and the locations of the target vowels. The

preceding four moras [dinbts] and the following three moras [toki] are the

same in both groups, so the influence of adjacent phones can be ignored. In addition,

the lengths of both sentences (25 moras vs. 27 moras) and the locations of the target

syllables (11th vs. 12th) are almost identical. Thus, the short duration of function [a]

in [dinbt-a] can be attributed to the difference of lexical status. In addition,

the function [o] in the context of [koo-to] is significantly shorter than the content [o].

However, there are two unexpected results: token [hato] and token [itode]. The

function [o] in the context of [ha-to] is not shorter than the content [o], and there is

not a significant difference between function [e] and content [e] in the context of

[itode].

4.1 Possible Reason for unexpected result [to] in [hato]

First I will discuss the reason for the long duration of function [o] in [ha-to]. The

unexpected result of [hato] is probably due to devoiced vowels following the target

vowel. In my design, the phonetic environment of the target syllable in the function

word is the same as that in the content word. However, the subjects articulate them

differently. While most vowels [] in the following syllable [k] of function [to]

are devoiced, the vowels [] of content [to] are not devoiced13.

13 21 vowels out of 30 after function [to] are devoiced while 3 vowels after content [to] out of 30 are devoiced.


Content /to/ Clear vowel

Function /to/ frication

Figure 8 Spectrograms illustrating the difference of the following vowel of /to/ in [hato k]. Clear vowel [] is seen in the top spectrogram while frication but no vertical lines are seen in the bottom spectrogram. This frication is devoiced vowel [].

The spectrograms in Figure 8 indicate that the vowel [] following content

[to] is not devoiced while the vowel [] following function [to] is devoiced.

Devoicing tends to occur between voiceless consonants.

(3) Condition for devoicing

C1VfC2 → Vf / C1 __ C2 [hi] [devoiced] [-voiced] [-voiced]

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The vowel [] following function [to] is located between [k] and [k]

([to kki]) while the vowel following content [to] is located between [k] and [b]

([to kbi]). It is possible that this difference in the voicing of /k/ and /b/ leads to the

difference of [] devoicing; consequently, it leads to the unexpected results.

4.2 Possible reason for unexpected result for [de] in [itode]

Although function [e] in [ito-de] is shorter than content [e], the difference is not

statistically significant; t (29) = 0.916, p = 0.4. In my hypothesis, this unexpected

result may be due to the syntactic structure of the sentence. I will discuss the

syntactic structures of both sentences. I provide the tokens here.

(4) Tokens with [itode] (first-content, second -function)14

a. [S [adv [S (I) [VP suizoku_kan_ni iku]] _made], (I) aquarium_DAT go _until [S (I) [VP [NP [S [NP hitode] [VP kon’nani kireida]]-nante] shiranakatta]]] (I) starfish so beautiful + COMP, NOM didn’t know ‘Until coming to the aquarium, I didn’t know that the starfish is as beautiful as it is.’

b. [S [NP kato_san_wa] [S (he) [VP Tokyo_no hito_de], Mr. Kato_TOP Tokyo_GEN people_COP [VP korokoro_to yoku waratte] the way of laughing well laugh [VP aisoo_ga ii]]] friendly ’Mr. Kato, from Tokyo, he frequently laughs and is friendly’

The sentence with content [de] consists of a subordinate clause and a main

clause, which contains an embedded clause. Content [de] is located at the end of a

noun phrase, which serves as the subject of the embedded clause. Thus there is not a

major syntactic boundary after content [de]. On the other hand, the sentence with

14 DAT: dative, COMP: complementizer, NOM: nominalizer, TOP: topic marker, GEN: genitive marker, COP: copula. Subjects of sentences in Japanese are often omitted.


function [de] consists of a noun phrase plus three verb phrases. These three verb

phrases are syntactically equal. Thus, there is a major syntactic boundary after the

function [de]. Since vowel lengthening occurs after a major syntactic boundary (Klatt

1975), function [de] is lengthened. In Japanese, a syntactic boundary often coincides

with a prosodic boundary.

I will discuss that there is phonetic evidence for the existence of a prosodic

boundary. Here I provide spectrograms of both sentences.

de

Almost same pitch

No long pause

de high pitch

low pitch

Long pause

Figure 9 Spectrograms illustrating no prosodic boundary after content [de] but after function [de]. Top: Content /de/, Bottom: function /de/

Shirai 19

Spectrograms in Figure 9 show that there is no long pause after content [de]

but there is after function [de]. In addition, the pitch levels after content [de] and the

following syllable are almost the same while the pitch level after function [de] is

much lower than the pitch level of the following vowel. These indicate that there is a

difference of prosodic boundary levels between content [de] and function [de].

Research conducted by Beckman & Edwards (1990) shows that the final vowels of

intonational phrase are lengthened, but word-final vowels are not lengthened.

Ueyama’s research (1999) leads to similar results, in which phrase-final lengthening

occurs before large phrase boundaries but not before small phrase boundaries.

Therefore, the difference of the prosodic boundaries probably leads to the unexpected

results.

5 Future research

In this project, the tokens are limited to the duration of /a/, /o/, and /e/ in [a], [to] and

[de], respectively. In the future, I would like to research other vowels. In addition, I

would like to research vowel formants.

6 Conclusions

The overall results indicate that the durations of the syllables in the function groups

are shorter than in the content groups. Although conflicting results with two pairs of

tokens are found, they are phonetically explicable. Therefore, it can be concluded

that vowels in function words are shorter than vowels in content words in Japanese,

and lexical status affects vowel duration. This study shows that past results may be

due to a lack of controlled factors such as presence or absence of devoiced vowels

etc. However, if other factors are equal such as in the token [dinbtsa], the

vowel duration in function words is shorter than in content words. In addition, some

subjects produce fricative [] instead of stop [].


7 REFERENCE

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/huku**/ (II). Annual Bulletin, Research Institute of Logopedics and Phoniatrics; 1985, 19, 139-155.

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APPENDIX - data

Table 1 The duration of [a] in the context of [dinbtsa]

speaker content function speaker content function F1 79.88 58.44 M1 63.67 31.58F1 101.8 69.09 M1 70.53 32.65F1 110.54 76.95 M1 79.14 40.2F2 57.56 53.25 M2 58.74 52.49F2 61.25 62.66 M2 75.25 74.02F2 61.57 71.42 M2 107.18 94.44F3 100.35 38.15 M3 60.81 50.7F3 109.76 50.05 M3 80.29 50.95F3 122.11 64.9 M3 133.65 51.87F4 43.31 35.26 M4 100.29 75.59F4 58.07 47.13 M4 119.96 89.51F4 63.31 49.44 M4 135.39 103.76


F5 56.05 54.85 M5 44.59 40.66F5 80.15 102.13 M5 74.11 47.6F5 90.79 102.86 M5 77.88 59.59

Table 2 The duration of [a] in the context of [kia]

speaker content function speaker content function F1 74.08 66.31 M1 33.73 39.91F1 82.12 82.79 M1 49.75 41.90F1 92.16 109.02 M1 60.20 50.21F2 99.61 90.52 M2 86.03 52.74F2 104.13 92.29 M2 93.04 64.68F2 107.69 104.62 M2 94.09 68.72F3 74.35 75.57 M3 79.55 58.01F3 80.92 77.93 M3 89.70 69.52F3 90.33 79.96 M3 91.63 69.89F4 72.73 78.99 M4 92.41 65.83F4 74.65 91.59 M4 103.98 76.27F4 99.48 100.32 M4 127.46 76.77F5 67.63 84.49 M5 39.37 66.22F5 91.49 93.20 M5 64.38 74.33F5 108.13 108.90 M5 73.06 78.41

Table 3 The duration of [to] in the context of [hato]


Table 4 The duration of [to] in the context of [kooto]

speaker content function speaker content function F1 39.90 46.50 M1 21.28 32.23F1 40.32 59.32 M1 63.17 58.73

Shirai 23

F1 54.11 72.04 M1 74.27 81.22F2 39.50 37.94 M2 96.64 8.43F2 46.45 38.74 M2 97.03 16.55F2 49.69 56.77 M2 103.08 67.03F3 70.34 32.47 M3 66.72 40.80F3 74.47 44.33 M3 66.79 48.94F3 100.82 46.69 M3 69.47 76.22F4 27.95 39.35 M4 93.49 45.80F4 43.15 41.46 M4 106.08 55.40F4 59.31 59.37 M4 113.99 57.00F5 57.30 36.71 M5 38.98 22.34F5 83.37 58.40 M5 66.58 36.13F5 86.61 68.87 M5 68.84 70.79

Table 5 The duration of [de] in the context of [itode]


Table 6 The duration of [de] in the context of [tade]

speaker content function speaker content function F1 81.58 68.16 M1 42.93 64.66F1 82.73 69.68 M1 63.69 69.60F1 89.86 91.04 M1 65.00 75.39F2 61.94 68.12 M2 55.53 50.55F2 69.94 71.00 M2 61.40 54.52F2 71.70 76.30 M2 73.70 56.48F3 55.85 51.19 M3 76.42 68.45F3 84.09 52.18 M3 79.96 70.21F3 118.97 75.23 M3 93.15 74.15F4 92.89 79.29 M4 55.21 47.20F4 97.23 81.62 M4 60.37 71.18


F4 122.71 115.93 M4 69.72 76.63F5 69.79 68.99 M5 62.10 58.85F5 74.40 74.98 M5 66.84 69.67F5 86.08 80.33 M5 74.65 71.31

The Duration of Function Words in Japanese

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