The Bilum and the Language of Metaphors Carola Emkow, Regina Knapp, Allen Lunsford

Abstract

The bilum, as the traditional stringbag of Papua New Guinea is called in Melanesian Pidgin and increasingly more so in English, too, is a traditional handmade string bag mostly madeby women in Papua New Guinea. They were originally made with fiber from various local trees. These days they are often made from imported yarn, although you can still find traditionally made fiber bilums in the highlands. The bilum has been investigated not only from the perspective of its construction but also its social significance in highland societies (cf. MacKenzie 1991, Knapp 2013). Another interesting aspect with respect to bilums has yet passed unnoticed. This article will highlight the use of metaphoric language not only in denoting the parts of a bilum but in the construction of bilums. The useof metaphoric language nicely illustrates how the source concept of BUILDING (a fence) is used for the description of building a bilum. The construction method is linguistically described as MOVEMENT – like moving through the highlands of Papua New Guinea.

0 The bilum 0.1 The bilum of Papua New Guinea

The flexible looped string bag, or bilum as it is called in Melanesian Pidgin is the most hard worked accessory of every day life in PNG. It has its origin in the highlands of Papua New Guinea.

String bags come in various sizes, shapes, and patterns. They are essential companions to every person in the community; men,women, and children. Some bilums are constructed and used with a utilitarian purpose such as transporting agricultural

products, tools or equipment. Bilums can also have a household use such as sheltering babies or storing food supplies, utensils, and personal belongings. But the most commonly noticed bilum is the one carried by each individual. The personal bilum can be seen as a garment, an ornament, and a working accessory all at the same time. It is an essential partof every-day life, as well as playing a crucial ceremonial role; expressing regional and social identity.

The activity of producing bilums (looping) is an activity that remains integral to contemporary life and is an important aspect of culture. It’s an activity persued during the day during breaks from garden work, while walking to the bus stop and after dark around the chat circle.

String bags are technologically sophisticated and complex artifacts. Originally, bilums were constructed from interconnected loops of handspun bark fiber threads. Now that manufactured textile products are relatively inexpensive and widely available, they are often more often made of acrylic yarn. Traditional methods of linking small lengths of fiber into the arbitrarily long cord lend themselves to both natural and man-made material. The same traditional process of ‘twisting’ can be used in either case and produces a cord that is much stronger than the original material alone.

0.2 The construction of a bilum Bilums have erroneously been taken as woven, plaited, or

knotted. The method is more properly described simply as ‘looped’. Looping is a technique that prevents the finished work from unraveling, but at the same time does not draw the material into a tight knot. While the primary use of this technique is to produce string bags, it is also sometimes used for making ceremonial clothing: long-looped aprons, cloaks, andheadnets.

A typical highland bilum is started from the bottom with thefirst row forming the base. To make the base even, a spacer is frequently used. One or more loops together are called a ‘mesh’. The number of loops in the first (bottom) row determines the width of the bilum. The bilum evolves by workingaround the base. It is important to know that the body of the bilum is created by working around the base in shapes given by the pattern.

The construction of a kundu bilum will serve to explain how a bilum is made. The kundu pattern is a well-known traditional pattern of the highlands. The kundu drum is a traditional drum used in ceremonies. The following picture is a schematic illustration of its design.

After the base (orange) has been made “posts” (bright orange) are set up. After the “posts” have been set up two colors, green and blue, are worked around these “posts” . The fabric isthen patched with bright orange, the base for the next kundu drums.

There are more than a dozen ‘common’ bilum themes in the communities of the Eastern highlands. Many have been used for generations, and some are becoming popular in recent times. Many ‘new’ patterns come into existence, inspired by every-day life. A fairly recent pattern is called ‘floor mat’: As the name suggests the design of a floor mat has been the source forthis pattern.

1 Metaphors 1.1 Introductory remarks

For most people metaphors are an exclusively stylistic device of language used for embellishment. Hence, metaphors can easily be ‘lived without’. George Lakoff, a linguist, andMark Johnson, a philosopher, however suggest that metaphors cannot be lived without as they can actually structure our perceptions and understanding. Metaphors are necessary and

needed to express human concepts, they constitute a pervasive part in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action.Human thought processes are largely metaphorical (cf. Lakoff & Johnson 1980).

Producing a new thought, or describing a new concept is much more effective when using metaphor to build upon something previously known or understood. At times this can be the only effective way of expressing something new without a concrete context, an abstract conceptas it were. The human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined. Thinkingand acting is a subconscious process, thereforewe are not always aware of the metaphoric nature of our conceptual system.

There are different kinds of metaphors. Some metaphoric concepts enable language about a newconcept (orientational metaphors) others metaphors provide new insights or perspectivesabout a known concept (structural metaphors).

Communication pursued through language is basedon the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting, language is an important source of evidence for what that system is like. (Lakoff & Johnson 1980: 4) . Based on linguistic evidence Lakoff & Johnson have studied metaphors such as ‘ARGUMENT IS WAR’ and ‘TIME IS MONEY’. Both metaphoric concepts reveal

themselves through common language usage (cf. Lakoff & Johnson 1980:____ ):

ARGUMENT IS WARYour claims are indefensible.His criticisms were right on target.I demolished his argument.I've never won an argument with him. TIME IS MONEYYou're wasting my time.How do you spend your time these days? I've invested a lot of time in her.You need to budget your time.He's living on I borrowed time.

These two metaphors, which may only apply to Western or modern cultures, are structural metaphors wherein one conceptual domain is structured in terms of another. Orientational metaphors are for instance TIME ISSPACE.

1.2 Metaphoric language use in Benabena

As in all languages many words have metaphoric meaningextensions. In Benabena, a Gorakan language spoken in the Eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea, body parts are commonly used metaphorically and often play a crucial role in spatial orientation.

(1) baga’a ‘mouth’a. mekapo baga’a

me’i- gapo mouth

‘mouth of the road’ (beginning of a road)b. nagami baga’a

nagami baga’awater mouth‘mouth of the river’ (source)

c. nagami gohi baga’anagami gohi baga’awater container mouth‘lid’ (of bottle)

d. somo baga’asomo baga’apot mouth‘lid of a pot’

(2) lataha’a ‘head’a. yafa lataha’a

yafa lataha’atree head‘top of tree’

b. nohi lataha’anohi lataha’ahouse head‘roof’

(3) hasa’a ‘tsil’a. hepa’i hasa’a

hepa’I hasa’avillage tail‘end of vllage’

(4) si’a ‘bottom’a. hepa’i si’a

hepa’i si’avillagebottom‘the bottom/end of the village

(5) megesa’aa. yafa megesa’a

yafa megesa’atree back‘backside of tree’

In Benabena TIME is also conceptualized in terms of SPACE. As in many languages in the

South Pacific, the conceptualization is vertical, ‘down’ in the past and ‘up’ in the future.(1) Expressions referring to the past

a. ema’aga ema-a-gadown-Nmlz-there‘in the past’ (lit.: down there)

b. ema gana’agaema gana-a-gadown season-Rl-at‘that time (in the past)’

c. goyapa ema gana’aga goyaga ema gana’a-galongstanding down season-Rl-at‘long time ago’

d. emase’na ‘long time ago’ ema-se’nadown-Nmlz‘the past’

(2) Expressions referring to the futurea. ifo’alo

ifo-a-loup-Rl-Loc‘in the up’ (in the furure)

b. ifo gana’aga ifo gana-a-gaup season-Rl-Loc‘at the up-season’ ‘in the future’

Expressions for numerals are derived from the counting method and metaphoric in nature. Here,one finger ‘jumps’ over(3) nayahi suhago mone lehe ko malago

na-yahi suhago mone lehe ko malagomy-hand finished one jumping over

‘six’ (lit: one hand finished, one (finger) jumps over)

2 Bilum construction and metaphoric language

2.1 The bilum and its partsThe word meaning ‘bilum’ (string bag) in combination with the noun yapana’i ‘baby’ also means womb.

(4) yagapana gu’iyagapana’i gu’ibaby ‘bilum’‘womb’ (lit: ‘container holding a baby’)

(5) Yagapana gu’amogu hepuhi nolave.Yagapana gu’-a-mo-gu hepuhi no-lo-i-veBaby ‘bilum’-3Sg.Poss-in sore Prs.Mf-burn.Prs-3Sg-DclShe has got sore in her womb.

The terms used to denote the parts of the bilum are mostly words that have a metaphoric extension. The bottom of the bilumis referred to by the body part term si’a ‘bottom’, the body isthe gu’I ‘womb’, the opening is the baga’a ‘mouth’. Only the term used for denoting the handle (sa’u’a) cannot be traced back to be metaphoric in origin.

Scheme 1: the parts of a bilum

2.2 The looping of a bilum

A bilum is made by means of a looping technique, most commonly by interconnecting figure-eight loops. Making a row of loops means setting up yafa ‘ ‘post(s)’ The evolving loops are referred to by ‘ bu’a ‘eye(s)’.

Scheme 2: yafa li ‘make a post’

The setting up of patterns involves upward and downward loopingand commonly the addition and subtraction of eyes from one row to another

(6) Bu’a loeve moneve nohe’muve Bu’a loeve moneve no-he’mi-u-veEye two one Prs-leave-1-Dcl.1Sg‘I am leaving three eyes.’

or to add posts to a row.

(7) Yafa loemo lito ti’ohuyafa loe.mo li-to ti-ohu-vepost two-Top do.MV.Mf-SS go.up.Pst.Mf-Pst.1Sg-Dcl.1Sg‘I made two posts and went up.’

(8) Yafa loemo lito limi’ohu.yafa loe.mo li-to limi-ohu-ve

post two-Top do.MV.Mf-SS go.down.Pst.Mf-Pst.1Sg-Dcl.1Sg

‘I made two posts and went down.’

The set-up a kundu post involves the gradual addition of three eyes on each side.

Scheme 3: yafa fi ‘set up a post’

The following scheme illustrates the set up of a post. It shows that a post is first looped up when reaching the top it is looped across and then down filling up the post with posts where the additional three meshes could not looped on the way up.

Scheme 4: Illustration of setting up a post

In Benabena language the set-up of a kundu post is described asa walkabout in the highlands: One goes up a mountain or to somebody’s house, one goes down a mountain or to somebody’s house and one walks over land or across to somebody’s house.

(9) Papa Avihi nopoga tiluve.Papa Avi-hi nopo-ga ti-l-u-vePapa Avi-Gen house-All go.up-Fut-1-Dcl.1SG‘I will go up to Papa Avi’s house.’

(10) Papa Tanihi nopoga limiluve.Papa Tani-hi nopo-ga limi-l-u-vePapa Tani-Gen house-All go.down-Fut-1-Dcl.1SgI will go down to Papa Tani’s house.

(11) Daisihi nopogati nolobove. Daisi-hi nopo-gati no-lobo-u-veDaisy-Gen house-from Prs-go.accross.Prs.Mf-1-Dcl.1Sg‘I am coming from across Daisy’s house.’

When one loops one’s way straight downwards with out adding anyeyes one sneaks down. This downward looping is described in terms of a snake walk

(12) Osifa buyu huto nobive.osifa buyu hu-to no-bu-i-vesnake sneak LV.MV.MF-MV.SS Prs-go.Prs-3-Dcl.3Sg‘The snake is sneaking.’

(13) Nani buyu huto nolubuve.Nani buyu hu-to no-libi--vesnake sneak LV.MV.MF-MV.SS Prs-go.Prs-3-

Dcl.3Sg‘I am sneaking down.’

2.3 The bilum pattern construction

The construction of a pattern draws to the metaphorical conceptof building. Building a bilum can be paralleled to the buildingof a fence. When a fence is built, posts are planted into the ground. Once planted, the holes surrounding the posts are covered with mud.In Benabena yafa means ‘tree’ and ‘post’. The building of a garden fence starts with putting posts into premade holes, about a metre deep.

(14) Gegisa yafa nofive. gegisa yafa no-fi-i-vefence post Prs-plant.Prs-3-Dcl.3Sg‘I am planting the garden posts.’

Scheme 5: setting up a fence post

Once the post is in the right position the surrounding hole is patched with soil.

(15) Me’i hekini nolave.ground patch Prs-LV.Prs-3-Dcl.3Sg‘He is patching the ground.’

Scheme 6: hekini lo ‘cover up hole’

The making of a bilum pattern is described analogously. Taking the base or bottom of the bilum, the pattern is set up by planting posts. Any vertically upward looping is refereed toas setting up a post.

(16) Yafa nofuve.yafa no-fi-u-vepost Prs-plant.Prs-1-Dcl.1Sg‘I am planting the posts.’

After “decorating” the post by “writing” around it, the space between the posts needs to be patched up.

(17) Gu’mo hekini nolove.gu’i-mo hekini no-lo-u-vebilum -Top patch Prs-LV.Prs-1-Dcl.1Sg‘I am patching the ground.’

3 Conclusions 3.1 Conceptual metaphorsConceptual metaphors are grounded in the nature of our everydayinteraction with the world. A conceptual metaphor has an experiencial basis. Conceptual metaphors are unidirectional. They map structure of a SOURCE DOMAIN to a TARGET DOMAIN. Given that metaphorical mappings are unidirectional the question arises whether there is a pattern in terms of which metaphorical transfer functions and also which conceptual domains are prone to functioning as source domains. Kövesces (2002) found that the most common source domains for metaphorical mappings are HUMAN BODY, ANIMALS, PLANTS and FOOD and FORCES.Target concepts tend to be more abstract and diffuse lacking more clear delineation (cf. Evans et al (2002: 298). In Benabena, the use of metaphors when referring to the bilum and its parts as well as its construction confirms to these claims. The metaphors are grounded in everyday experience. The metaphorical mapping transfers from a concrete source domain toa less concrete target domain. Body parts are metaphorically extended in meaning to denote parts of the bilum.The word for ‘bilum’ itself as well as its parts are in large parts metaphoric extensions in meaning as the following table illustrates.

Bena Word Literal meaning Figurative meaningbaga’a ‘mouth’ ‘opening’gu’i ‘womb’ ‘body’si’a ‘bottom’ ‘base’bu’a ‘eye’ ‘eye of a loop’yafa ‘tree’ ,‘post’ ‘a mesh’yafa ‘’tree’, ’post’ ‘vertical upright part

in pattern

The description of the construction of a bilum also involves anorientational metaphor of MOVEMENT. Making a bilum with a decorative pattern is a travel through space.

Bena Word Literal meaning Figurative meaningyafa li ‘work a post’ ‘make meshes’yafa fi ‘set up post’ ‘set up bilum post in

pattern’hekini lo ‘patch’ ‘cover up

hole’‘fill space between bilum posts’

ti ‘go up’ ‘go up with loops’lobo ‘go across’ ‘go across horizontally

with loops’libi/limi ‘go down’ ‘go down’Buyu huto limi/limi

‘’sneak down’ (snake)

‘go down’

3.2 Culture specific metaphors

Metaphors are highly culture-specific. There is no evidence, for instance, that Benabena speakers conceptualize ‘time’ as ‘money’. Metaphoric concepts are tightly linked to culture as can be seen on the vocabulary used for describing the construction of a bilum.The making of bilums is conceptualized in terms of ‘building’. Describing the production of a bilum draws in its essential parts on the vocabulary used for describing building a fence, an Important activity in Benabena culture. Setting up a fence is important not so much to mark possession (as one may think) but to prevent pigs from entering the garden ground and eating

from it. The description of making a bilum is analogous to the description of building a fence whereby posts are planted into the ground and the holes are tightly patched.

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