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THE FEMALE TEACHER:

THE BEGINNINGS OF TEACHING

AS A "WOMAN'S PROFESSION"

Jane Piirto Navarre

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

December 1977

Approved by Doctoral Committee

I ¿V

©1977

Jane Piirto Navarre

AU Eights Reserved

PLEASE NOTE:

nt on many pages throughout dissertation is broken, light indistinct. Filmed as received.

Pritheand

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS.

/C

ABSTRACT

This study examined the reasons for the feminization of the

teaching profession in the United States in the nineteenth century,

where, by the end of the century, 7 out of 10 teachers were women,

when only 1 out of 10 had been at the beginning of the century. It

focused on the influence of private seminaries and academies in

the growth of the profession, before public normal schools were

established. It also focused on schools in the state of Ohio, which

was settled during the period of the academies, and which had,

during the century, over two hundred of them.

Chapter I. summarized the philosophy for educating women in

the late 18th and early 19th centuries, beginning with Rousseau. The

ideas of Mary Wollstonecraft, Hannah More, James Fordyce, Ben­

jamin Rush, and Noah Webster were discussed. Chapter II. viewed

the contributions of three pioneers in women's education--Emma

Willard, Catharine Beecher, and Mary Lyon. Their "innatist" and

"antifeminist" philosophies, informed by their evangelical Christian

views, were very influential in establishing how a "female teacher"

should be. Chapter III. summarized school legislation history in

Ohio, which made it possible for the seminaries and private colleges

to flourish in the state. Chapter IV. narrowed the focus to two insti-

«tutions in Ohio--Western Female Seminary (later Western College for

Women) in Oxford, and Lake Erie Female Seminary (later Lake

Erie College) in Painesville. These were Mary Lyon/Mount Holyoke

"little sister" schools. Chapter V. discussed other seminaries in

Ohio, most notably those in Granville and in Steubenville.

Many primary materials were used in the study, including

unpublished letters and diaries. One purpose of the study was to

show what life was like in a female seminary in the 19th century.

Another purpose was to show the influence of the clergy and the

various evangelical churches on the development of the profes­

sion of the self-sacrificing, low paid, highly moral "female

teacher. " The profession was viewed as a natural extension of a

woman's innate nurturing nature, an extension of her domestic

self. Teaching took women out of the home and into a respectable

alternative to marriage and family.

The unmarried woman could become a female teacher; she did

not need to depend on the largesse of her male relatives; she could

be self-supporting. She could teach school and use her superior

moral influence in molding the children of the nation. She was a

woman with a special mission. She became a respected member

of her community and, though she was often conservative and evan­

gelical, anti-suffragist and pro-temperance, she had a great influence

on the society, perhaps a greater influence than the more liberal

feminists of the day.

This Study is Dedicated,

in Grateful Acknowledgement,

to

Lynn Piirto Waara

my aunt, and a female teacher

for many years

//

TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

INTRODUCTION ................................................................... . . . i

ChapterI. THE PHILOSOPHY FOR THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN

IN AMERICA IN THE LATE EIGHTEENTH AND EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURIES ....... 1

Rousseau ................Wo11stonecraft .............More . . .................................. ....Fordyce . . . . . .. , , , . , . , . . . .Constantia . . ... ..... . . . . .Rush ....... . . . , . . . . . . . .Webster .................Hitchcock ................

268

1622242831

11. THE BEGINNING OF THE SEMINARY MOVEMENT:EMMA WILLARD, CATHARINE BEECHER, AND MARY LYON ................ 34

Emma Willard .36Catharine Beecher ............ 49Mary Lyon ................ 73

III. THE ACADEMY/SEMINARY MOVEMENT IN OHIO . .88

Sample Laws of Incorporation. ... . , .93 List of Secondary Schools (Miller). . . 106 List of Secondary Schools (Boyd). . . . 100 Commissioner’s Charts ......... 113

IV. MARY LYON IN OHIO........................ 123

Western Female Seminary ........ 123Lake Erie Female Seminary ....... 145

V. CURRICULA, ORGANIZATION, AND LETTERS FROM OTHER SEMINARIES IN OHIO ....... 173

Granville Female Seminary . Young Ladies' Institute . , Granville Female Academy Steubenville Female Seminary Methodology and Curricula .

. 176

. 181

. 186

. 197

. 211

EPILOGUE ............... ........................ 216

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................... 219

Primary Sources ....... » ...... . 220

Se con da ry Sources . 229

APPENDI CES 2 33«I •. «

/A

INTRODUCTION

This study proposes to examine the development

of the profession of "female teacher" in the United

States, as it developed in the private seminaries in the

mid-1800's, as an outgrowth and a modification of the

philosophy for educating.women in the late seventeenth

and early eighteenth centuries. This philosophy has

variously been called "domesticity," "sentimental

womanhood," "antifeminism," "innatism," "fascinating

womanhood," and "total womanhood," and it had a great

impact on the teaching profession, which developed as

an extension and an expansion of the traditional sphere

of women.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century in America,

approximately ten out of every 1Q0 teachers was a woman;

by 1900, according to the Twelfth Census Report on Women

In The Professions, 73 in every 100 teachers was a woman.

This dramatic increase in the number of teachers points

to an increase in educational opportunity for women during

the nineteenth century. It also points to a change in

attitudes about the appropriateness of teaching as a

profession for women, for by the turn of the century,

teaching had become a full-fledged"women’s profession,"

a respectable alternative for the unmarried woman.

11

This study examines the beginning of that change

in society's attitudes towards a higher education for

women.

Most studies of teacher education in the nineteenth

century have focused on thé establishment of the public

normal schools. This study focuses on the female semin­

aries and academies, where teachers were educated before

there were co-educational colleges and normal schools.

Since these seminaries were private institutions, they

have often been ignored or dismissed by researchers, but

their impact on the development of the teaching profes­

sion cannot be overlooked. This study may begin, for

researchers, a correction of that oversight.

Most studies of the beginnings of the teaching pro­

fession in America focus on Massachusetts and New York,

which are indeed important states in the history of

education. However, the nineteenth century is unique in

American history for the movement westward and for the

tremendous influx of immigrants, as well as for the

growth of industrialization. These immigrants often had

to pass through Ohio, which holds the place of a national

crossroads even today. In fact,, Ohio was "The West"

at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

From 1803 to 185Q, hundreds of private institutions

were chartered in Ohio, and thousands of teachers were

Ill

trained. These teachers often journeyed farther west

with the tides of migration, but they often went East,

or stayed in Ohio to teach, also. This study focuses

on the seminary movement in Ohio; first, because of Ohio's

geographic and historical position; and second, because

of Ohio’s school legislative history, which encouraged

the development of private institutions.

The "female teacher" was a respected person by the

end of the century, largely because of the influence of

church people and of the clergy. Clergymen were them­

selves among the most respected and well-educated indi­

viduals in the society, and they cast their influence

upon the education of women, encouraging them to become

teachers, as an extension of their basic nurturing natures

The "schoolmarm," the "old maid" schoolteacher had, by

the end of the nineteenth century, become an American

stereotype, an image of moral rectitude and proper conduct

As a result of their close connections to the (most-

often) Protestant, evangelical churches, these ladies

were viewed as veritable pillars of conservative virtue,

and embodiments of the Christian ideals, while still

being pitied for not being married, and sometimes scorned

for their very propriety, Lucy Webb Hayes, the wife of

Rutherford B. Hayes, attended Ohio Wesleyan Seminary in

IV

Delaware, Ohio, before she married. In one of her letters

she described her "old maid" teacher, showing that the

stereotype had already been established:

Miss Jacobs and Mr. Nye » . . have -determined to unite themselves in the holy bonds, or as my old teacher, Miss Baskerville says, are about to leap into the well of matrimony from which there is no escape. Miss B is an old maid-of uncertain age, though considerably past sixty, so we may allow her to speak in no very flattering terms of the act. She is emphatically a Man- 'hater. I have received much good advice from her, though this morning she advised me to catch some nice young Chillicothean, in order to settle her. . , .1

The stereotypical "female teacher," besides giving good

advice and being a "man hater," was self denying, often

accepting little pay for her teaching. One of the reasons

for the acceptance of female teachers into the schools was

economic; they worked for less money (and with more dedi­

cation) than men teachers did. This study will show how

the economic argument was connected with the Christian

philosophy of self-denial in-the encouragement of the

growth of the profession of "female teacher."

Self-denial was a Christian virtue much touted by clergy­

men and by such pioneers as Mary Lyon, Emma Willard, and

Catharine Beecher, and the female teacher was a very noble

and self-denying person. By 1878, such accolades as the

following, about the great value of having female teachers,

were common. The following is from thé minutes of the

■^Lucy Webb Hayes, "Letter to-R," 5 Sep 1851. In Rutherford B. Hayes Library, Fremont, Ohio.

V

Cincinnati Trustees of the Common Schools:

To say nothing of their influence in control­ling the waywardness and softening the feelings of their pupils, the power that women of intellect and high moral principle exert over the young can hardly be estimated. It is not merely in the formation of a correct taste but in the higher power of giving tone to the moral sentiments, that we regard the female teacher as indispensable to the healthy vigor and permanent success of our school system. It is to the self-denying efforts of the estimable ladies who compose our excellent corps of instructors that we attribute a large share of the prosperity and h£gh standing of our schools.2

In order to show the development of the profession of

"female teacher," it was necessary to begin with the

general philosophy for educating women, and to proceed

to the specific curricula they studied. Many primary

materials were used, and the speakers have been permitted

to speak for themselves. Part of the purpose of this

study has been to allow the reader to get a first-hand

taste and feel for the lives of these people, both the

pioneers such as Emma Willard, Catharine Beecher, and

Mary Lyon, as well as the students in the schools they

influenced.

Chapter I deals with the philosophy for educating

women at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of

the nineteenth centuries. Chapter II focuses on three

educational reformers who were instrumental in estab­

lishing teaching as a "women's profession"—-Emma

o"Minutes," Cincinnati Trustees of Common Schools, 1878

In Cincinnati Historical Society Archives.

vx

Willard, Catharine Beecher, and Mary Lyon. Chapter III.

narrows the focus to Ohio, with a discussion of Ohio

school legislation and its influence on the development

of private schools. Chapter IV narrows the range even

further, with a discussion of two Mary Lyon institutions

in Ohio—Western Female Seminary in Oxford, and Lake

Erie Female Seminary in Painesville, This chapter is

organized so not to be repetitive, since the two insti­

tutions had somewhat parallel histories, with the early

history of Western Female Seminary being discussed, and

the later history of Lake Erie Seminary following. Chap­

ter V. shows other seminaries in Ohio, most notably those

in Granville and in Steubenville, with an emphasis on

their clientele and curricula. The Appendices contain

copies of the types of materials available, to'■the’. :.research-i

er poking in archives trying to find out what has been

saved for a hundred and more years—catalogs, letters,

announcemen ts.

During the course of this research, the researcher en­

countered many helpful and friendly people and she thanks

them here: the archivists at the Ohio Historical Society,

at the Cincinnati Historical Society, at the Miami University

Libraries, at the Lake County Historical Society, at the

Great Lakes Research Center, at the Toledo Public Library,

at the Rutherford B. Hayes Museum, at the Lake Erie College

library, at the Denison University Library, at the Bowling

Vil

Green State University inter-library loan office, which

found, from obscure libraries, obscure addresses and

books and pamphlets.

A special thanks goes to thé unnamed descendants of

these ladies, who donated their letters and papers and

scrapbooks and memorabilia to the historical societies

in hopes that they would be of value, as they have been.

Bowling Green, Ohio 1977

I

CHAPTER I.

THE PHILOSOPHY FOR THE EDUCATION

OF WOMEN IN AMERICA IN THE LATE EIGHTEENTH

AND EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURIES

The Philosopher complains of their levity and giddiness. The man of sentiment inveighs against the frivolousness of their-taste and the frothi­ness of their conversation. He who courts their society from motives of fashion, and makes it a system to say every thing but 'tr'uth, pronounces them greedy of flattery in the extreme, and capable of swallowing that undeserved praise, which is the severest satire in disguise. The scholar is disgusted with their ignorance and insipidity, the lover with their coquetry, cap­rices and inconstancy in the tender connections, and he, who seeks them with the most honorable views, for the companions of his life, is ter­rified with the prospect of that fondness for gaiety, which would sacrifice every emotion of the heart to splendour and parade, and instead of making his retirement a Paradise, threatens to convert it into a dreary wilderness of vex­ation and remorse. From all quarters they have been attacked; and whilst their form is confessed to be enchanting, they are treated, by the bulk of men, as fit for little else but some domes- tick drudgeries, or some indelicate enjoyments.

The Rev. John Bennett in writing this description,

in 1795, was defining a group of people regarded with a mix­

ture of contempt and of fondness: they had levity and gid­

diness, frivolousness and frothiness; they were greedy &>r

1 John Bennett, Rev., Strictures on Female' Education (1795; rpt. New York: Source Book Press, 1971), pp. 16-17.

2

flattery; they were ignorant and insipid,' coquettish, cap­

ricious, and inconstant; they were fond of gaiety, yet vex-

acious and remorseful; they had bodies that were pleasant to

look at and their place was in the home. This group of

people was, of course, women, and the problem they presented

to men was the problem of their education.

How women should be educated has always been a topic

for discussion, in any age. It has always been taken for

granted that the males (at least, the males of superior social

class) should receive some formal education, but whether or

not the females should—and if so, what kind—has not been

taken for granted. What a woman should be educated for, and

what kind of an education she should receive, has depended

upon the prevalent philosophy as to the true nature of the

female. This introductory chapter will concentrate on the

American philosophy for educating women, beginning with that

philosophy's roots in Rousseau's ideas. The writer makes the

assumption that the American philosophy for educating women has

its genesis in the Judeo-Christian ethic.

In 1762, Jean Jacques Rousseau published his Emile, in

which he delineated the ideal kind of education for a male

baby from birth to adulthood. His ideas met with much,

discussion in France and England,, for his naturalistic phil­

osophy posited a type of education different from the prevailing

type. His ideas are well known and do not need summary here.

3

Of especial interest here, though, are Rousseau's ideas

about how the ideal mate of his ideal male should be educ­

ated, for Sophie's education produced almost as much discussion

as Emile's did. Sophie was, of course, viewed as existing

for Emile. Rousseau postulated the difference between the

sexes thus: "In everything that does not relate to sex the

woman is as the man: they are alike in organs, needs and

capacities."

He then went on to describe these sex-related differences,

which to him made up bis philosophical woman: "It is. the

part of the .one to be active and strong, and of the other to

be passive and weak. Accept this principle and it follows

in the second place that woman is intended to please men."

He suggested that women please men by their resistance (to

their attentions); by their retreat (from thel'r advances);

and then by their submission (to their charms): "By giving

woman the capacity to stimulate desires greater than can be

satisfied, nature has made man dependent on woman's good

will and constrained him to seek to please her as a condition

of her submission." He thought that if women were to be educated

in the same way as men were, they would be mas-culinized: " . . .

the more they resemble men the less will be their power over

men, and the greater their own subjection." Therefore, Rous­

seau suggested, "the special functions of women, their inclin­

ations and their duties, combine to suggest the kind of education

they require."

4

With this philosophy about the nature of women, it is not

surprising that Rousseau advocated that the kind of education

women should have . . must be wholly directed to their

relations to men." Women had as their whole life and being,

To give them pleasure, to-be useful to them, to win their love and esteem, to train them in their childhood, to care for them when they grow up, to give them counsel and consolation, to make life sweet and agreeable for them: these are the tasks of women in all times for which they should be trained from childhood.^

He then went on to detail how these should be accomplished.

Rousseau's ideas had a great influence. His concept of

the female nature and of the way women should be educated

was merely a reflection of the attitudes popularly held in

eighteenth century France; few people disputed that women

were, indeed, to be educated, if at all, to serve men. It

should also be noted that France had a highly stratified

society in which men were born to their class and in which

the only way women could rise above their class was through

marriage. This was rare, however; and men could not rise

above their class at all.

England in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen­

turies was a place of rigid social stratification, like

France. Even after the French Revolution, things didn't

change much. In England, education for women was one way

for a family to achieve social mobility, so there were a surfeit

2Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, ed,. William Boyd (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), pp. 130-135.

5

of young ladies' boarding schools in all price ranges,

where a crass girl could be educated to be a real lady,

and thus, her family hoped, to: capture a husband from a

higher class, thereby improving her family's, as well as

her own lot.. Petei J. Miller suggested that "unquestionably

thé most-important reason for the popularity of the schools

was the opportunity they offered for social advancement

through marriage."3 Miller said that without a fancy education,

with "the knowledge, graces', manners, accomplishments and

female artifices" that a boarding school provided, a girl

marrying out of her class would have been almost impossible.

Jane Austen's Emma describes such hopes for social mobility.

Social critics of thé day attacked the existence of the

schools; Miller quoted a Miss Hatfield writing in 1803, as

complaining that thé lower orders of society were "overleap­

ing the bounds by which they ought to be limited, and encroach­

ing upon certain branches of education, belonging exclusively

to ladies of rank and fortune.'"* 4 So it can be seen that one

aspect of the philosophy for educating women was that educ­

ation would prepare them to rise above their stations, and to

make something more of themselves than their birth status

decreed. This mobility would, of course, come through mar­

riage to someone of a higher class; therefore this idea is

a continuation of the belief that a woman's utility was in her

relationship .to -a. man, her husband.

Speter John Miller, "Women's Education, 'Self—Improvement' and-Sbcial.Mobility—A'..Late Eighteenth Century Debate," History of Education Quarterly, (Fall, 1971), 306.

4rbid. , 309.

6

Most people, women, included, accepted this philosophy

unquestioningly; few wondered whether woman's nature was

indeed nurturing and domestic. One person who did question

this belief, though, was Mary Wollstonecraft, who wrote in

A' Vi'ddicatlon of the 'RighTts "of Women a reaction to Rousseau

and his followers, commenting that the women of the time

have had their "strength and usefulness" misrepresented and

"sacrificed to beauty":

One cause of this barren blooming I attribute to a false system of education, gathered from the books written on this subject by men who, consid­ering females rather as women than human creatures, have been more anxious to make them alluring mis­tresses than affectionate wives and rational mothers; and the understanding of the sex has been so bubbled by this specious homage, that the civil­ized women of the present century, with a few ex­ceptions, are only anxious1 to inspire love, when they ought to cherish a nobler ambition, and by their abilities and virtues exact respect.

Wollstonecraft noted the physical weakness of women raised

to be hothouse flowers, and she advocated for women the

same "natural" education that Rousseau advocated for men:

Consequently, the most perfect education . .. . is such an exercise of the understanding as is best calculated to strengthen the body and form the heart. Or, in other words, to enable the individual to attain such habits of virtue as will render it independent. In fact, it is a farce to call any being virtuous when virtues do not result from the exercise of its own reason. This was Rousseau'’s opinion respecting men: I extend it to women . . .

In fact, Wollstonecraft even advocated co-education, not an

acceptable idea until late in thé nineteenth century.

7

She also disputed Rousseau's theory that the basic nature

of woman rendered woman docile and sensual:

Rousseau declares that a woman should never, for a moment, feel herself independent, that she should be governed by fear to exercise her ‘natural cunning, and made a coquettish slave in order to render her a more alluring-object of desire, a sweeter companion to man, whenever he chooses to relax himself.. . . , But Rousseau, and most of the male writers who have followed his steps, have warmly inculcated /si_c7 that the whole ten­dency of female education ought to be directed to the one point:—to render them pleasing. Let me reason with the supporters of this opinion . . .

Wollstonecraft then went on to argue for equal educational

experiences for both sexes, because virtue could only be

achieved through enlightenment:

Liberty is the mother of virtue. .women, considered not only as moral, but rational creatures, ought to endeavour to acquire human virtues (or perfections by the same means as men, instead of being educated like a fanciful kind of half being . . ."5

Radical as Mary Wollstonecraft's views were considered

for the times, she was still a creature of her time in that

she believed that the purpose of educating women should be

to make them better wives and mothers, and also, in the

event of their widowhood, to prepare them so they would be

better able to manage the affairs of their husbands. It

should also be noted that Mary Wollstonecraft's ideas had

little influence on the society, though she was a respected

editor at the time she wrote Vindication.■

§Mary Wollstonecraft/ A' ■ :Viìjdi:ba;ti'oh.. of 'thé.'RiJgbts of Women, in Alice Rossi,' The Eetóini&'t Pap'ers : Frotri- A'daJms' to De BeauVoir (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973),pp.. 40-55.

8

Of more pertinence to this study are the works of another

Englishwoman, Hannah More. While Mary Wollstonecraft's works

have assumed more popularity among today’s feminists, Hannah

More's works were more widely read in her time. Hannah

More was a dramatist, novelist, poet, essayist, and Christian

tract-writer of great fame. She hobnobbed with the likes of

Pepys and Samuel Johnson in London, before she went back to

the .country, to work among the poor, and to write evangelical

works. Her collected works fill eight volumes, which were

published in 1835, two years after her death at the age of

89. Her novel,' Coelebs in Search -Of A Wife, published in

1809, went through twelve editions in a year; 30,000 copies

were sold in America.®

Her Strictures- On The' 'Mddebh Syst'emi of- Female Education

(1799), which was an elaboration on her "Thoughts of The

Cultivation of the Heart and Temper In The Education of

Daughters," in her Essays' Oh Various' Subjects (1785) went

through thirteen editions and sold nineteen thousand copies.

Strictures was greeted with great approval by the reading

public: Richard Cecil considered it "one of the most perfect

works in all its parts that any century or any country has

produced,"7 and the Bishop of London recommended it to all

6 Mary Alden Hopkins,' Hannah- -Moire' And Her- Circle (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1947), p. 223.

^A.M.G. Jones, Hannah :More (Cambridge: The University Press, 1952), p. 119.

9

the clergy in his diocese, as

... a work which presents to the reader such a fund of good sense, of wholesome counsel and sagacious observation, a knowledge of the world and of the female heart, and of high-tone morality and genuine Christian piety, and all this enlivened by such brilliancy of wit, such richness of imagery, such varied felicity of allusion ... as are not , . , easily to be found . . . in any other work in the English language.8 *

The thesis of' Stri-dt-hibs- :Orf The Modern System of Female

Education was that the modern system concentrated too much on

womanly accomplishments of an ephemeral nature, and that an

education should prepare a woman for the time when she must

"lay down beauty," for the time when she no longer excited

admiration, when she must have resources to be able to turn

into her own mind for sustenance and comfort. More said,

"... one of the great objects of education is the forming

of habits," such as humility, sobriety, meekness, attention,

application, and industry. She berated the current system,

which allowed girls to read frivolous novels that didn't

have a Christian moral.9

She firmly believed that women's minds were different

from men's minds, and that the purpose of female education

should be to train the inferior female mind so that women

could appropriately function within their God-ordained sphere

She said, "We have heard of many female wits, but never

of one female , logician—'of many admirable writers of memoirs,

8Jones, p. 20.

... -......^Hannah More, ■■'S't-^i-0tynesk Gh .Thé- Mbdérn Systern.of' FemaleEducatibn, in The- Works' of Hannah: llore, VII (1835) , 20,6 7.

10

but never of one chronologer," Men and women are

different, she said, and "it appears that the mind in

each sex has some natural kind of bias, which constitutes

a distinction of character "; and not preserving this dis­

tinction would lead to unhappiness for both sexes.She,

along with other writers, called for a Useful education:

Merely ornamental accomplishments will but indifferently qualify a woman to perform the duties of life, though it is highly proper she should possess them,- in -order to furnish the amusements of it. . . «A lady may speak a little French and Italian, repeat a-few passages in a theatrical tone, play and sing, have her dressing-room hung with her own drawings, and her person covered with her own tambour-work, and may, notwithstanding, have been very badly educated. . . . though well-bred young women should learn to dance, sing, recite, and draw, the end of a good education-is not that they may become dancers, singers, players, or pain­ters; its real object is to make them good daughters, good wives, good mistresses, good members of society, and good Christians.0 11

Their education should be practical, for "their knowledge

is not often, like the learnings of men,, to be reproduced

in some literary composition, nor ever in any learned

profession; but it is to come out of conduct." A woman’s

level of education and quality of education was to be shown

in her good manners and womanly ways. She should study in

order to act as a woman should, and not in order to conduct

debates. The books she read should be read not so she could

talk about them, but to bring improvement in her habits and

l0Hannah More, "Thoughts On The Education of Our Daughters," in' The Works' 'of Hah'rtafr More,' I (1835), p. 13.

iilbid. . pp. 372-3.

11

truth to her principles: "The great uses of study to

a woman are to enable her to regulate her own mind, and to

be instrumental to the good of others."12

Besides, said More, even if a womandid exhibit genius

ancb mental, accomplishments like a man’s, she would meet with

disfavor, and would not get her due recognition, simply

because she was' a woman:

But there is one human consideration which could perhaps more effectually tend to damp in an as­piring woman the ardors of literary vanity. . . which is, in thé judgment of her performances, she will have to encounter the mortifying cir­cumstance of having her sex always taken into ac­count; and her highest exertions will probably be received with the qualified approbation that- it is really ektrabidihary for a woman. Men of learning . . . are inclined to consider even the happier performances of the other sex as the spontaneous productions of a fruitful but shallow soil; and to give them the same kind of praise which we bestow on certain salads . . . not in­deed as being worth much in themselves, but because of the lightness of the earth and à happy knack of the gardener, these indifferent cresses spring up in a night, and therefore we are ready to wonder they are no worse.13

One wonders if Hannah More was speaking from experience. But

even if she was, it seems that she accepted the rebukes of the

"men of learning," as her Christian due; as a woman she should

expect not to have her intellect taken seriously.

More vowed never to read Wollstonecraft’s Vindication

because of its radical reputation,and she wrote, in Strictures

^2S t rTct:urbs, p. 13B.

13Ibid. , p. 141.

14Jones, p. 115.

12

this: "... the imposing term of rights has been produced

to sanctify the claim of our female pretenders . . ." who

didn't comprehend that it was not in the true interests of

women to encourage them to assume or to aspire to stations

outside of their own, domestic, sphere,

. . . to fill with fantastic dignity a loftier but less appropriate niche. ... Each sex has its proper excellences ... Is it not desirable to be the lawful possessors of a lesser domestic territory rather than the turbulent usurpers of a wider foreign empire? ... to be the best thing of one's own kind, rather than an inferior thing, even if it were of a higher kind? to be excellent women, rather than indifferent men?15

One of More's friends, Mary Berry, was amused to dis­

cover, however, that Hannah More and Mary Wollstonecraft

were in unexpected agreement "on all the great points of the

education of women." Mary Berry wrote in a letter, "Hannah

More, will I daresay be very angry when she hears this. . v

In fact, the essential difference between what More said and-

what Wollstonecraft said seems to be More's insistence on a

Christian, or religious, consciousness, that would pervade

what women studied. Women were innately different from men

because St. Paul said they were, and that innate difference

implied a subordinate position for women; therefore, they

should receive a different type of education so that they

could fill their subordinate positions with gracefulness

15Strictures, 145. See also Marabel Morgan, The Total Woman, New York: Pocket Books, 1973; and Helen Andelin, Fascinating Womanhood, New York: Bantam, 1974. Both use the s ame arguments and beliefs as Hannah More.

16Jones, 115.

13

and "to the glory of God" and man. This Christian conscious­

ness had a great influence on the feminization of the teaching

profession in America, as this study will show.

As a result of the proliferation of boarding schools,

in England and among the privileged classes in America,

there was a high degree of literacy among women by the end

of the eighteenth century. Peter Miller commented that even

though there was a great emphasis in these schools on "ac­

complishments," such as sewing, music, and dancing, "it

seems apparent that, by the time her formal education was

completed, the 'young lady' was fully literate. "I? This in­

crease in literacy led to a proliferation of periodicals for

women, among theiri The New Lady 1 s Magazine , The Lady ' s Maga­

zine , and the Enterfaihihg CoMpa/P-ion For The' Fair Sex in

Britain, with similar periodicals in America.

What women read reinforced the belief that their nature

was to nourish and nurture, that their duty was to provide

a moral force in society and in child-rearing, and that God

had ordained this to be so. These periodicals contained

material similar to that contained in so-called "women's"

magazines^-serialized novels, fashion news, household hints.

Miller noted that the periodicals seemed to be influenced

by "the new 'sentimentalist' image of woman and her world

17Peter John Miller, "Eighteenth Century Periodicals for Women," History 'of Education Quarterly, 13 (Fall, 1971), 2 79 For an excellent treatment of the influence of women's period­icals, especially Go dey 1 s Lady's: Book, on female education, see Eleanor Thompson,' EdUdaf-lon- for Lhdies;, 1830-1860 (New York: King's Crown Press, 1947), pp 24ff.

14

which was created in the late eighteenth century and has

remained intact to the present day,"18 Perhaps it would

not be too strong a comment on the influence of popular

culture to say that the increase in literacy contributed to

keeping women's education stereotypically "womanly," by

reinforcing, through the popular magazines, what women had

been taught in church and at home about themselves, through­

out the centuries.

The new colony on the continent of North America retained

this idea of the true nature of women. The Puritans taught

their women to read, mainly so they could read the Bible and

keep the accounts, but the domain of women remained hearth-

bound, subordinate to and complementary with men. However,

life in the new colonies dictated that women assume wider

roles, and a modification in this traditional philosophy for

educating women occurred. The new colony did not also have

such a history of class consciousness as in Europe.

Nevertheless, the debate continued on both sides of the

Atlantic over whether women did indeed have intellects, and,

if it could be proven that they did, whether women could

aspire to having intellects equal to those of men, Thomas

Woody, in his classic two-volume study, A History of Women1s

48Miller, "Periodicals," 283.

15

Education, in the United St at es, recounted this great

debate. On the one hand were those, such as this unnamed

author, who argued, "The great argument against the exist­

ence of intellect in women is, that it does not exist," On

the other hand were those who took a less patronizing but

hardly more liberal view: that it was necessary to educate

women (whether or not they had equal intellects was not

important; of course they didn't) in order that they be better

wives and mothers, more superior moral forces in their families

lives.I® There were strong social sanctions against educated

women:

. . . the idea prevailed that an educated wife was, after a fashion, an infringement upon the domain of man; that the wife of Gov. Winthrop lost her mind because she left her proper domes­tic duties and indulged herself in literary pur­suits; and that, at any rate, to seek culture of the mind was to transgress the law of God. who had given her a home and fixed her in it. ®

The discussion came to be called the "querrelle des

femmes, and it went on for at least a hundred years. One

American whose writings had a great folk impact as well

as a great literary and political impact, Benjamin Franklin,

in Reflections on Courtship and Marriage, published even

before Rousseau's Emile (1746), argued

. . . for the creation of a system of female education which would make women rationally convinced that their true happiness lay in marriage and would

19 Thomas Woody, A History of Women's Education In The United States , I (New~YorK:' The Scien ce Press ,1929), 88,"..

20Ibid. , 93.

16

develop in the female mind only those traits and tendencies likely to find satisfaction in domestic life.21

Another innatist2?/ of considerable influence in the

United States was a Bostonian, the Rev. James Fordyce, whose

Sermons To Young Women (1787) and' The Character and Conduct

of The Female Sex:- The Advantages To Be Derived By Young

Men From The1- SoCieiy of Virtuous- Women (1781) were widely

circulated. Fordyce was not a misogynist but an apologist

for women, and he did not countenance the comments of some

men who found women vacuous and dumb: "The truth is," he

said, "that neither the most frivolous, nor the most violent,

deciaimers against women can endure the thought of being

neglected even by the meanesi of them." He said that men

and women "of enlightened understanding and polite behavior"

are alike everywhere, as they are unlike "the vulgar of

whatever rank."21 22 23

21in Jill K. Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," HEQ,16 (Spring, 1974),

22 .....The term inhat'ist is used by Marlow and Davis, in a re--

cent study of various American views of the true nature of woman H. Carleton Marlow and Harrison M„ Davis. ’ The American Search&>r Woman, Santa Barbara: Clio Books, 1976. Chapter 2, "The Inferior but Fascinating Woman," pp. 17-1Q5, describesinnatists as those who believe woman are innately subordinate. Others have used the term an 11. f emin 1st s, because innatists were often opponents of feminism, and still are. The term innatist will be used here, because it seems more precisely to describe the philosophy that informed the establishment of female semin­aries and the growth of the teaching profession in America.

23James Fordyce, The- Character and Conduct of the Female Sex (Philadelphia: Thomas and Andrews, 1781), p,H>.

17

Fordyce also found that the education in the boarding

schools was unsatisfactory, especially with regard to what he

called the teaching of Domestic Accomplishments, such as

. . . the learning to write a fair hand and socast accounts with facility; the looking intothe dispositions and practices of servants;the informing yourselves about the prices ofeverything needed for a family, together withthe best methods, and properest seasons, forproviding it; the observing whatever.relatesto cleanliness and neatness in the furnitureand apartments of a house; the understandinghow to deal with domestics, tradesmen?,, andothers; above all, the obtaining every possiblelight with relation to the nursing, management,and education of children—These and such likearticles will, if I mistake not, furnishample scope for the exercise of your faculties.24

In addition to domestic accomplishments, he advocated

that a girl’s education should provide her with some Elegant

Accomplishments, also. Needlework was' one of these, for

it had the approval of the writers of the Scriptures, but

Fordyce suggested that girls work "brighter and freer pat­

terns" than they usually worked, so that their eyesight

would not be strained. Drawing "pretty works" was another

Elegant Accomplishment he saw as necessary, as well as some

skill in music.Other writers were beginning to doubt

the value of these traditional "boarding school" subjects

for study, but Fordyce would have kept them.

His prescription for the female Intellectual Accomplish

ments,. in.Sermon VII, was informed by his assurance that "to

24James Fordyce, Sermons' To Young Women (Philadelphia, 1787), 160-61. ------- ” ~

25i’ordyce, Sermons, 174.

18

men and women the Almighty has allotted very different pro­

vinces. . # "26 Go(j ordained that women were

. magnificently intended to he the mothers and formers of a rational and immortal offspring, to be a kind of softer companions, who by name­less delightful sympathies and endearments, might improve our pleasures and soothe our pains; to lighten the load of domestic cares, and by that means leave us more at leisure for rougher labors, or severer studies; and finally, to spread a certain grace and embel­lishment over human life, , ,27

That did not mean that women should not have some sort of

traditional (masculine) curriculum in their schooling, however,

for one of the most important of thé Elegant Accomplishments,

to Fordyce, was the art of conversation, and no man would

wish to converse with a woman who knows nothing. However,

there was such a thing as enough accomplishment :

For my part, I could heartily wish to see the female world more accomplished than it is; but I do not wish to see it abound with metaphysi­cians, historians, speculative philosophers,or Learned Ladies of any kind, I should be afraid, lest the sex should lose in softness what they gained in force . . . I think at this moment of one lady, in particular, who to an extensive knowledge in philosophy and languages ancient and modern, with some portion of poetical genius, and a considerable degree of literary fame, has the sense and worth to join every domestic quality that can adorn a woman in her situation.* 2 *°

Tn other words, an educated and accomplished woman

should be educated and accomplished enough not to show her

26Fordyce, 'ChaWbhei* ahd Conduct, 14-15.

2 7F or dy ce , Sermons, 144.

28Ibid. , 139.

19

knowledge in public conversation, for Fordyce was certain

that "men are frighted at Female pedantry," and that "a woman

that affects to dispute, to decide, to dictate on every sub­

ject," who "watches or makes opportunities of throwing out

scraps of literature, or shreds of philosophy," showed a

"boundless intemperance of tongue,"29

He had recommendations for the types of books she

shouldi-study : history in the form of biography and memoirs;

geography in the form of travel and voyage accounts; poetry

in which "a strict regard is paid to decorum"; a small

number of novels and romances, but only those in which there

was a moral—where description was tied to precept. She

should dabble in astronomy and have some knowledge of natural

and moral philosophy.30 These would give her the Intellectual

Accomplishments necessary.

Fordyce said similar things in Character and Con duct,

to the young men, about the pleasures of keeping company

with virtuous and accomplished young women as opposed to more

frivolous, or even immoral, young women. Page Smith has

pointed out., in Daughters of thé Promised Land, that by

the end of the eighteenth century in America, mothers and

daughters had been put on such a pedestal, "it was appar­

ently not uncommon for men who could afford to to have

mistresses and for those who could not to have recourse to

29Fordyce,' Se-rimo-ns-,' p, 24,

SOibid. pp. 25ff.

20

prostitutes," for, in repressing and even denying that women

had a sexual nature, the society encouraged a polarity

in "having diminished the role and often the character of

women to that of fragile, delicate creatures." The world

of women became divided into bad girls and good girls. "The

bad girls represented sexuality, the good girls purity of

mind and spirit, unclouded by the shadow of any gross or

vulgar thought."®^

Fordyce, called the good girls the "handmaids of Wisdom,"

and the bad girls, the "handmaids of Folly," and warned the

young men that "the company of artful women is always dan­

gerous and often fatal." He blamed "the swarms of foolish

and of worthless novels," for this decline in morality, as

well as the fact that "female education is too often directly

calculated to feed and flatter female vanity." These combined

to destroy, in young, lively girls, "all sober reflection,

every rational study, with every virtuous principle; and to

introduce in their room" such demons as "impure ideas, extra­

vagant desires, and notions of happiness alike fantastical and

false." Not only should the young men not spend themselves

in wasteful dissipation with prostitutes, but they should

also stay away from those selfish and forward, vulgar and

uninstructed, artful and cunning, silly girls. He went on

to warn his female audience about the dangers of being

disagreeable:

31Page Smith, Daughters of the Promised Land (Little, Brown, 1970), pp. 68-73.

21

Ah, my female friends, did you in particular, did you but know, how deeply the male heart is enchanted with those women, whose conversation presents the picture of simplicity and grace, of ease and polite­ness, in a group; the spirit of whose conversation is a compound of sprightliness, sense, and modesty; who seldom dispute, and never wrangle; who listen with attention to the opinions’ of others, and de­liver their own with diffidence, more desirous of receiving than of giving conviction, more ambitious to please than to conquer! Such, believe me, are sure of conquering in the noblest sense.

Paint to yourselves, by way of contrast, a woman who talks loud, contradicts bluntly, looks sullen, contests pertinaciously, and instead of yielding challenges submission. How different a figure!How forbidding an object! Feminality is gone:Nature is transformed: Whatever makes the male char­acter most rough, and turbulent, is taken up by a creature, that was designed to tranquilize and smooth it. In place of a ''cftarmer, charming never so wifely," what do we behold? A clamorous, obstinate contentious being, universally disgusting and odious; fit only to be chased from the haunts of humanity . . . he sought a partner and he..found a plague: he expected a soft, affectionate, sympathizing friend, and met with a bosom foe . . , But 0 my brothers, how delightfully is the heart vanquished and captivated, when an unpretending female appears before it, with Reason, Fancy, and Virtue in her train/ /wi th/ the loveness' /sic/ of smiles and sympathies, of placid address, -and gentle insinuation . , .

. . . why the most accomplished of our sex are fond of conversing with the most agreeable of the other is because with them they are relieved from that rival- ship of genius, and those convictions of opinion, which too often impair, not to lay poison, the enjoy­ments of male society. Sentiment, imagination, variety, complacence, and all the pretty playfulness of minds that only wish to please and to be pleased . . .33

CO° This is, to this researcher, one of the most clear and eloquent phrasings of the innatist philosophy. Note the use of the words "please," "nature," "modesty," "nature," "creature," "submission," and "designed".

33Fordyce, Character and Conduct, pp. 16ff.

22

Such rhetoric from the mouth of a respected preacher

(and, as Smith pointed out, "the clergy were the most sought-

after group of males in America,"34) was hound to have an

influence on readers and hearers, both male and female, No

woman, within earshot would want to be considered a loud

talker, a blunt contradictor, a pertinacious contestor; nor

accused of losing her femininity because she is educated;

nor of being clamorous and obstinate, contentious, disgustful,

and odious. The modest woman, modestly educated, who demon­

strated sprightliness, diffidence, and decorum, who pleased

and teased and gently insinuated with playfulness of mind

and manner, would seem to have been then, as now, infinitely

more attractive.. No man within earshot would choose the

former over the later either, if preachers like Fordyce had

their words taken heed of. This raised another interesting

question that was to be debated in the late eighteenth and

full nineteenth century: How much education was enough

education for a woman?35 Obviously' she should have some edu­

cation, but when should she stop? Is a little learning as

dangerous for a woman as for a man?

An American, woman writer and magazine poet, Judith

Sargent Murray, who published under the name Constantia,

in.. to feel that enough education for a

34Smith,' Premised Land, p. 177.9C

Researchers in the late 1970s have, found that "enough education,” in terms of marriage continuation, is- the acquisition of a bachelor's degree. Women who have-less than, and those who have more than., a bachelor's degree, have higher divorce rates.

23

woman was what was enough for a man.. She related the

plight of women who wanted more learning than was avail­

able to them:

What can she do? to books she may not apply; or if she doth, to those only of the novel kind, lest she merit the appellation of a Tehrhed lady ; and what ideas have been affixed to this term, the observation of many can testify.

Constantia said that the sexes were equal, and that the

so-called dullness and frivolity of females could be

attributed to the females' inferior educations:

Now, was she permitted the same instructors as her brother (with an eye however to their par­ticular departments) for thé employment of a rational mind an ample field would be opened.In astronomy she might- catch a glimpse of the immensity of the Deity, and thence she would form amazing conceptions of the august and supreme Intelligence. In geography she would admire Jehovah in the midst of his benevolence; thus adapting this glove to the various wants and amusements of its inhabitants. In natural philosophy she would adore the infinite majesty of heaven, clothed in condescension; and as she traversed the reptile world, she would hail the goodness of a creating God. A mind, thus filled, would have little room for the trifles with which our sex are, with too much justice, accused of amusing themselves, and they would thus be rendered fit companions for those, who should one day wear them as their crown. . . .36

Here it can be seen that even someone who dared argue for

equal education for equal sexes was herself quite conventional

by today's standards, for she too propounded the "sphere” argu­

ment of the innatists. In fact, most educational reformers

who accomplished the most change in the education of women

Were themselves good Christians, and they never faltered

‘Wi Constantia, "On The Equality of the Sexes,"' Massachusetts Magazine, II (March 1790), 132ff; in Aileen Kraditor, Up From The- Pedestal (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1968), 32-33.

24

in their belief that woman was innately different from

man, and that woman had a special sphere in which to op­

erate, as did man.

Another famous innatist was Dr. Benjamin Rush, the

man called the Father of American Medicine. (People in

all professions had something to say about how women should

be educated.) Rush gave his "Thoughts Upon Female Education"

in an address delivered on the 28th of July, 1787, at the

Young Ladies’ Academy in Philadelphia. The address was

reprinted and distributed. Rush emphasized that the

education of girls in America should differ markedly from

the education of girls in Great Britain and France. He said

that the education of American girls should emphasize the

practical, rather than the elegant, and he gave five reasons

why this should be so.

(1) People in the United States married earlier than

people in Europe, and therefore there was less time for

formal education; it followed that the curriculum should be

confined to practical, useful subjects.

(2) Because of the shortage of people and because of

the great amount of work to be done, the women were needed

to work alongside their husbands, and to be the "stewards,

and guardians of their husbands' property."

(3) In the United States, the education of children was

left to the women because the men were engaged in their pro­

fessions; educating children was the most important duty

of mothers and the mothers themselves must be educated properly

25

in order to educate their children properly. (Perhaps this

was an early evidence of the child-centeredness of American

culture.)

(4) The United States was a noble experiment, never

before tried, and mothers must be educated in the principles

of liberty and government, so they could in turn educate

their sons (Rush didn't mention daughters) to be wise voters

and good citizens.

(5) In the United States, the servants were less able

than those in Europe to take over great responsibilities in

the home, and "hence, the ladies are obliged to attend more

to the private affairs of their families than ladies . .

of the same rank in Great Britain."30

The curriculum Rush proposed in order to fulfill these

educational goals contained nine recommendations. In order

to be considered well-educated, a girl must be able to per­

form the following tasks:

(1) In order to read, speak, and spell the English

language, a study of English grammar was recommended;

(2) In order to write "a fair and legible hand," the

study of penmanship was recommended;

(3) In order to have "some knowledge of figures and

book-keeping," skills which were "absolutely necessary to

qualify a young lady for the duties which await her in this

country," a study of mathematics was recommended;

30Benjamin Rush,' Essays/ 'Lite-rary., Mor'aT,- and Phi lbs op h- ical (Philadelphia: Bradford's, 180*6), "Thoughts Upon Female E'ducation, Accommodated To The Present State of Society,Manners and Government, in the United States of America," pp. 75-6.

26

(4) In order "to qualify her not only for a general

intercourse with the world, but to be an agreeable companion

for a sensible man," she should have some acquaintance with

geography and some instruction in chronology so she could read

history, biography, and travels, and a study of the first

principles of astronomy, natural philosophy, and chemistry,

"particularly such parts , . ., as are calculated to prevent

superst ition. "37

(5) So she could join in singing psalms in church, and

"to sooth the cares of domestic life," Rush recommended the

study of vocal music: "The distress and vexation of a hus­

band—the noise of a nursery, and, even, the sorrows that

will sometimes intrude into her own bosom, may all be relieved

by a song . . Rush also recommended singing from a phy­

sician's point of view, noting that exercising the organs of

the breast by singing seemed to prevent consumption and other

diseases common to people in this climate;

(6) In order to promote health, and to render the

"figure and motions of the body easy and agreeable," a girl

should learn to dance, "an agreeable substitute for the

ignoble pleasures of drinking and gaming . .

(7) In order to subdue the female passion for reading

novels, the reading of history, travels, poetry, and moral

essays was recommended;

(8) In order to feed the spiritual nature of women,

instruction in the Christian religion and in comparative

37One sees Rush the scientist, and eighteenth-century rationalist speaking here.

27

religions was recommended, even though the Bible had lately

been "improperly banned from our schools," Furthermore,

said Rush,

. . . the female breast is the natural soil ofChristianity, and while our women are taught-.to believe its doctrines, and obey its precepts, the wit of Voltaire, and the stile of Bolingbroke will never be able to destroy its influence upon our citizens.

(9) Finally, in order to promote good habits, Rush

urged that strict discipline should be imposed upon the

girls.

Rush was a pragmatist. He argued against the study

of instrumental music by young ladies, because the prices

of the instruments, the fees for lessons, the time taken up

in practice was "by no means accommodated to the present

state of society and manners in America," where women must

prepare to work hard at their duties and in building a new

country, not in tinkling on a harpsichord.38

Some people believed that educating women would just

make them, less manageable, but Rush disagreed:

If men believe that ignorance is favorable to the government of the female sex, they are cer­tainly deceived; for a weak and ignorant woman will always be governed with the greatest dif­ficulty. . . . the cultivation of reason in women is alike friendly to the order of nature and to private as well as public happiness.

The effects on the society of having educated females would

be entirely beneficial, Rush believed. He said that with

38Rush, 76-85.

28

educated women around, men would refrain from speaking

double entendres in public, and would refrain from using

language that was less than decorous, for fear of being

banished from the society of women. Men would work harder

at their jobs and would be more patriotic, for fear of

losing their wives' approval; children would gain a respect

for womanhood, because they would realize what a boon it

was to have an educated mother. He noted that behind every

great man there was a teaching mother.39 Here again, as with

Fordyce and More, one can see that Rush had no doubts that

the meaning of women’s existence came from their relation­

ship to men and children, and even, though he urged that

women's education be practically-oriented, he saw that the

purpose of educating them was to educate them for work

within their sphere.

Noah Webster, the famous lexicographer, also had ideas

about how women should be educated. In his occasional prose,

A Collection of Essays' (Boston, 1790), in the essay "On

The Education of Youth in America," he, like Benjamin Rush,

differentiated between a showy education and a good education

for American girls, emphasizing that their education should

not be the same as the education of girls in Paris or London.

Also, like Fordyce, Rush, et al. , Webster believed that it

is important to educate women because "the women of America

39Rush, 92-3.

29

(to their honor it is mentioned) are not generally above

the care of educating their own children." Therefore,

women should be educated, in order to "implant in the

tender mind, such sentiments of virtue, propriety and dig­

nity, as are suited to the freedom of our governments, . , "

Also, like the writers mentioned above, Webster asserted

that not only because they had the primary responsibility

for the education of children,, but also because they were

entrusted with forming the manners and morals of the nation,

should women be educated. "A fondness for the company and

conversation of ladies of character may be considered as a

young man's best security against the attractives /"si_c7

of a dissipated life," Webster said,

A good education, according to Noah Webster, in any

country, "is that which renders thé ladies correct in their

manners, respectable in their families, and agreeable in

society." However, any education which raised a woman's hopes

that she might marry into a higher social class was a failed

education, he warned:

Nothing can be more fatal to domestic happiness in America, than a taste for copying the luxurious manners and arguments of England and France. Dan­cing, drawing and music, are principal articles of education in those kingdoms; therefore every girl in America must pass two or three years in a boarding school, though her father cannot give her a farthing when she marries. This ambition to educate females above their fortunes pervades every part of America. Hence the disproportion between the well bred females and the males in our large towns. A mechanic or shopkeeper in town, or a farmer in the country, whose sons get their living by their father's employments,

30

will send their daughters to a-boarding school, where their ideas are elevated, and their views carried above a connexion with, men in those oc­cupations.. Such an education, without fortune or beauty, may possibly please a girl of fifteen, but must prove her greatest misfortune. This fatal mistake is illustrated in every large town in America, •• In the country, the number of. males and females, is nearly equal; but in towns, the number of genteelly bred women is greater. , . ,in some towns . . . /the ratio is7 three to one , . ,Fortunes are scarce in America . .. . thus awrong education, and a taste for pleasures which our fortunes will not enable us to enjoy, often plunge the Americans into distress, or at least prevent early marriages.40

In order that these egalitarian and populist views be

upheld, Webster recommended a practical, useful curriculum

for young ladies. First, they must learn to speak and write

English ".with purity and elegance." The study of French,

common in boarding schools, was merely a luxury, according

to Webster, and was not at all necessary. Second, they

must have some knowledge of arithmetic. Third, they must

study geography. Fourth, "Belles letters /sic7 learning

seems to correspond with the dispositions of most females,

A taste for Poetry and fine writing should be cultivated,"

Fifth, a course of reading of those writers who wrote about-

human life and manners, and of periodicals such as the Spec­

tator should be undertaken. Webster, like the others, ad­

vised against the reading of novels: "Young people, especially

females, should not see the vicious part of mankind." Sixth,

Webster advised that such traditional female studies as

40Noah Webster,' A :Cpl?lédt:i‘on; of Essays' (Boston, 1790), "On The Education of Youth in America," pp. 29-30.

31

music, drawing, and dancing be given a subordinate rank

in the curriculum, for "no man ever marries a woman for

her performance on a harpsichord, or her figure in a

minuet," thus emphasizing that a woman's merit came not

from social accomplishments and the flattery she received,

but from her domestic accomplishments: ". . . real honor

and permanent esteem, are always secured by those who pre- 41side over their own families with dignity."

Enos Hitchcock, a clergyman, chose a different form

than the essay or the speaker's rostrum to make the point

about the ideal type of female education. He wrote a "memoir

of a family who raised their children properly, especially

their female child, Rozella. This novel-like pxee^, a

series of letters, reminiscences, and prescriptions for the

proper kind of domestic education, called Memoirs of the

Bloomsgrove Fatal ly, shows the ideal, Mrs. Bloomsgrove, in

a letter to her daughter, wrote: "The great object of female

education, through the whole course of it, should be to

qualify females for the important station they are to hold

in domestic society," that station being to be a useful

wife. "Domestic concerns are the province of the wife,"

she said. But women also had another important job—to be

the educators of their children: "To the mother, nature

has committed a most important trust; the education of girls

^Webster, p. 41.

32

wholly, and of boys, until they become proper subjects for

the regular discipline of the father, , ."42

This memoir is interesting because it concludes with a

rhapsodic catalogue, several pages long, of the virtues of

the ideal woman, educated properly-, Rozella, the daughter,

as the book ends, was ready to become a wife herself. Among

her virtues were these: a respect for her parents, a love

of virtue, kindness to those less fortunate, skill in con­

cealing her superior understanding in front of men and

servants, politeness without ceremony, and lack of a gossipy

tongue. Rozella also knew how to shop thriftily, how to

preside over a table, how to be kind but firm to servants,

how to receive the benediction of poor people. She had

sweetness of face, which meant that she looked interesting,

but not dazzling. She was skilled in the art of sprightly

and sentimental conversation, she didn't talk too long when

she was playing cards, and she showed a modest reserve with, 43strangers.

This, then, was the state of the philosophy for educating

women at the end of the eighteenth century, twenty-five years

after the nation was founded. The subject of women's educa­

tion was debated by popular writers as well as serious essay­

ists, by preachers and doctors, politicians, and scholars? Most

reacted against the traditional boarding-school education.

There was a call for an education that was useful and practical

42 ......................................................................Enos Hitchcock,' Memoirs'.-’of the'- Blbomsgro've' Family (Bos­ton: Thomas and Andrews,' T79 Q ), p, 25.

43ibid. . pp. 293 ff.

33

an education that would prepare girls to be wives and

mothers, workers in the home. There was a concern that

women had duties to their society and country also, and

that duty was to be good teachers of their children. There

was a question as to how much, education was enough education

for a woman. All of these concerns would be echoed in the

nineteenth century, as the nation moved westward and as

the population increased, as the sphere of women remained

bound by domesticity, still a sphere, but a broader one,

extending their responsibilities outside of the home into

the schoolroom.

CHAPTER II.

THE BEGINNING OF THE SEMINARY MOVEMENT:

EMMA WILLARD, CATHARINE BEECHER, AND MARY LYON

As industrialization and westward expansion increased,

one would suppose that the need for educated women would

increase, for their labor would be needed in the creation

of a nation. This, indeed, is what did happen, as the

utopianist Fanny Wright noted in 182Q:

. . . in no particular is the liberal philosophy of the Americans more honorably evinced than in the place which is awarded to women. The pre­judices still to be found in Europe, though now indeed somewhat antiquated, which would confine the female library to romances, poetry, and belles-lettres, and female conversation to the last new publication, new bonnet, and pas seul, are entirely unknown here /in the U.'S//.The women are assuming their place as thinking beings, not in despite of the men, but chiefly in consequence of their enlarged views and exertions as fathers and legislators,1

She theorized that the frontier nature of the society con­

tributed to this liberality, in that women's labor was

necessary in the pioneer setting. She was also optimistic

about the future of education for women, if such education

would receive public support: . as their education shall

become, more and more, the concern of the state, their char­

acter may aspire in each succeeding generation to a higher

standard." Yet Fanny Wright, like Mary Wollstonecraft

regarded as a radical, was a creature of her time in that

^Frances Wright, .."Education," in Alice C. Rossi, ed., The Feminist Papers: Fr-gm' '-Adams'- ’-to BQ&uvbir (New York: Columbia Univ. Press , ui9’73y,’ "pp. 103-107.

35

while she advocated equal educational experiences for males

and females, she did not believe that men and women were

equal. This belief in male/female equality did not arise

until the mid twentieth century, Fanny Wright could perhaps

be classified as an enlightened innatist, rather than a

feminist. She said, for example,

Now, though it is by no means requisite that the American women should emulate thé men in the pursuit of the whale, thé felling of the forest, or the shooting of wild turkeys, they might, with advantage, be taught in early youth to excel in the race, to hit a mark, to swim, and in short to use every exercise which could impart vigor to their frames and independence to their minds.2

So educating women for social and professional equality was,

at this time, a radical proposal: while people like Mary

Wollstonecraft and Frances Wright advocated co- and equal

education, a concept daring and liberal, they still believed

that women were innately different, and in this they were

similar to théir less liberal and more influential sisters.

In fact, it was not people like Wollstonecraft and

Wright, but women of a more conservative bent who proposed

a new societal role for women, a role compatible with their

innate natures, the role of female teacher, who changed the

education of women. There arose to prominence in the early

nineteenth century, several women who made a daring proposal,

that there should be institutions founded whose purpose should

be not only to train mothers, but to train teachers. Three

of these women were Emma Willard, Catharine Beecher, and

"Wright, in Rossi, p. 107.

36

Mary Lyon. Emma Willard was the first to gain fame as an

advocate of teacher training, and Catharine Beecher and

Mary Lyon were to be influential in the setting up of

seminaries to train teachers in Ohio and farther west.

Fmmia; Willard

Emma Willard (1787-1870) was an early proponent of the

need for educated women in America, She was married, with

children, when her husband's finances began to fail. She

had taught a school in her town before marriage, and so,

in order to help, she opened a school in her own home, in

Middlebury, Vermont, and called Middlebury Female Seminary,

in 1814. During the next few years she developed her

theories for the education of girls, which she summarized in

a Plan which she sent to the governor of New York, Dewitt

Clinton, in 1818. In 1819 she presented the plan to the

New York state legislature, in a request for public funding.

She didn't receive the funding, but she did receive a

charter for the Waterford Female Academy, which she opened

in the spring, in Waterford, New York, where they had moved.

This academy was open for two years, until 1821, when Emma

Willard received offers from the city of Troy, New York, of

funding if she would come there and open a seminary. The

Common Council of Troy raised $4,QQQ.QQ in a special tax,

and the Troy Female Seminary (which, became so famous world-

37

wide even Lafayette, on a visit to the U,S,, visited it,

and then Emma Willard) ,was established. 3

In her 1819 Address to the Public: Particularly to the

Members of the Legislature of New York, Proposing a Plan

For Improving Female Education,4 Emma Willard gave her reasons

that education should be available for females as well as

males, arguing that the present treatment of girls in their

educations was not only a distinct disadvantage for the

society, but also unjust to the girls:

How often have we seen a student who, returning from his literary pursuits, finds-a sister, who was his equal in acquirements, while their advantages were equal, of whom he is now ash­amed. While his youth was devoted to study, and he was furnished with the means, she, with­out any object of improvement, drudged at home, to assist in the support of the father's family, and perhaps to contribute to her brother's sub­sistence abroad; and now, a being of a lower order, the rustic innocent wanders and weeps at his neglect.

However, she did assure her hearers that she was not an

agitator wanting to take women out of their sphere:

I would not be understood to insinuate, that we are not, in particular situations, to yield obedience to the other sex. , , . Neither

3Louise Schutz Boas, Women's Education Begins: The Rise of the Women's Colleges (Wheaton Col1ege (Norton, 1935), p7 lOT“fT7T a Iso - A‘ lma ~ Lu t z, ‘ Emma Willard: Daughter of Demo­cracy (Cambridge, Mass.: The Riversade Press, T92977 ch r on o- logy, N.p.

^Published in Middlebury, Vt., 1819, This Plan is rarely reprinted in its entirety, though it is sometimes excerpted. The-entire Plan is-in the Harper & Brothers' Distaff Series. Anna C. Bracket’!; ( ed. , Woman And The Higher Edu­cation (New York: Harper &. Brothers, .1893), pp, 1- 46,

38

would I be understood to mean, that our sex should not seek to make themselves agreeable to the other.

But it did not seem right, she said, that "the taste of men"

should be the touchstone for the formation of a woman's

personality:

A system of education, which leads one class of human beings to consider the.approbation of another, as their highest object, teaches, that the rule of their conduct should be the will of beings imperfect and erring like them­selves, rather than the will of God, which is the only standard of perfection,

Willard then reasoned that it was the duty of the legis­

lature to look into the future and to insure the prosperity

of thé nation; and she asserted, as so many others had and

would, that it was the mothers of the nation who formed the

character of the nation, and that therefore thé mothers

and future mothers should be provided with a good education,

Willard's Pian was presented, she said, because the

education of girls had in the past been left to "the mercy

of private adventurers" While male education was flourish­

ing, because of the attention and support given by the

legislators, female education did not receive any attention

and support. She also was convinced that females should be

educated by females: "Feminine delicacy requires that girls

should be educated chiefly by their own sex, » ," Most tea­

chers at this time were men.

In the section of the Plan entitled "Benefits of

Female Seminaries," Willard differentiated between a boarding

school education as it was known, and a seminary education as

39

it could be. When, a father in the past had sent his

daughter to a boarding school, he imagined that her potential

would be developed and that thé school would return her to

him excellent in both mind and manners. Instead, he often

found out that she returned "improved in fashionable airs

and expert in manufacturing fashionable toys"; and he found

"he sought in vain for that refined and fertile mind which

hé had fondly- expected." He realized then that his daugh­

ter had received an inferior education in the boarding school,

and he was in a quandary- wondering whether he should send his

other daughters to a boarding school, whether he should pro­

vide them with a male instructor (Willard thought not, because

"thé distinguishing charms of the feminine character" would

be destroyed by a male instructor), or whether he should

provide them with a private female tutor (Willard thought

not, because that female tutor would herself have been educated

in a boarding school and would perpetuate the faults in that

type of an education). Willard then listed the benefits of

female seminaries as she envisioned them.

If the legislators would move to establish publicly

supported female seminaries, these benefits ..to the society

would ensue: First, such seminaries "would constitute a

grade of public education superior to any yet known in the

history- of our sex, and through them thé lower grades of female

instruction might be controlled." She recommended that certain

entrance requirements be established, so that the education

40

would be conducted at a higher than basic level.

Second, such seminaries would, by hiring trained "in­

structresses," free the common schools' present (male)

teachers to other, more important work, by placing "the

business of teaching children in hands now nearly useless

to society , . ."This is one of the first statements by an

educational reformer, that teaching would be a good pro­

fession for women who were otherwise unoccupied, Willard

elaborated on this point, explaining why women were innately

suited to be teachers of children:

That Nature designed for our sex the care of children, she has made manifest by mental as well as physical indications. She has given us a greater degree than men the gentle arts of insinuation, to soften their-minds and fit them to receive impression’s; a greater quickness of invention to -vary modes of teaching to differ­ent dispositions; and-more patience to make re­peated efforts. There are many females of abil­ity to whom the business of instructing children is highly acceptable, and who would devote all their faculties to their occupation.

They would have no higher pecuniary object to engage their attention, and their reputation as instructors they would consider as important; whereas, whenever able and enterprising men engage in this business, they consider it merely as a temporary employment, to further some other object, to the attainment of which their best thoughts and calculations are all directed. If, then, women were properly fitted by instruction, they would be likely to teach children better than the other sex; they could afford to do it cheaper; and those men who would otherwise be engaged in this employment might be at liberty to add to the wealth of the nation by any of those thousand occupations from which women are necessarily debarred, (pp, 35-36)

In this passage one sees the themes which would be

repeated and repeated throughout the nineteenth century,

41

as the teaching profession became increasingly feminized.

The theme went like this: Female teachers were preferable

to male teachers, because’ Nature had made them physically

and mentally suited to dealing with children, especially

younger children. Female teachers had more patience and

were more virtuous than male teachers. There were many

unoccupied women around, who had much ability, and who

would gratefully work more cheaply than the men. With

female teachers in the classroom, the men who were not

engaged in worthier pursuits now, could leave the schools

and go on with the business of business. All that was

needed was a suitable education, for these female teachers.

A third benefit of establishing female seminaries,

Willard said, would be to insure that the new republic

remained a republic; she appealed to the patriotism of

the legislators. She reminded them that "other republics

have failed," and that some people believed "that our

present form of government, though good,, cannot be perma­

nent." One reason other republics had failed, she theorized,

was that they took no thought for the education of their

women, and women "give society its tone, both of manners and

morals." Uneducated women were susceptible to corruption,

but if the new republic would take it upon itself to educate

them, women would "... be expected to act more from the

dictates of reason and less from those of fashion and caprice.

If they were educated, women would he taught "systems of

42

morality, enforced By the sanctions of religion," and

they would become more egalitarian in outlook, without

having the "contempt of useful labor" that many uneducated

women had.

If the republic would educate its women for their

domestic duties, Willard reasoned, housewifery would become

"a higher and more interesting occupation," less boring,

"a regular art." If thé republic would educate its women,

they would compete with each other about matters that were

more worthy and intellectual than the frivolities they

competed about then, the matters of fashion and furniture.

If the republic would educate its women in moral philosophy,

the women would take their duties as the molders and mothers

of children more seriously:

. . . to watch the formation of their characters with unceasing vigilance, to become their instruc­tors, to devise plans for their improvement, to weed out the vices of their minds, and to implant and foster the virtues. And surely there is that in the maternal bosom which,, when its pleadings shall be aided by education, will overcome the seduction of wealth and fashion, and will lead the mother to seek her happiness in communing with her children, and promoting their welfare, rathér than in a heartless intercourse with the votaries of pleasure, especially when with an ex­panded mind she extends her views to futurity, and sees her care of her offspring rewarded by peace of conscience, the blessings of her family, the prosperity of her country, and, finally, with ever­lasting pleasure to herself and them. ^-p. 43-4)

She appealed to the sympathies of the legislators, saying:

... barbarians have trodden the weaker sex beneath their feet; tyrants have robbed us , . . Nations calling themselves polite have made us the fancied idols of a ridiculous worship, and we have repaid them with ruin for their folly.

43

Here in Willard's' Plan we see the themes of the

eighteenth century philosophy that a woman's-place-is-

solely-in-the-home given a nineteenth-century addendum: that

a woman's place is in the home and her duty is to teach her

children, or to teach children in general, outside the home,

in the schoolroom. However, Willard did not only general­

ize about the education of female teachers in her' P Ian ;

she spoke of specific ways to achieve her goals through a

diversified curriculum.

The curriculum she proposed for the public female

seminary was divided among four branches—the religious and

moral, the literary, the domestic, and the ornamental.

(1) Religious instruction would be the foundation of

the studies, and would be regularly given. No teachers who

had any qualms about giving' religious instruction would be

hired. Besides the daily instruction, Willard proposed that

on Sundays, the girls should spend some of their time "in

hearing discourses relative to the peculiar duties of their

sex."

(2) Willard was not specific about what exactly would

constitute the literary studies, saying that each girl's

age and level of achievement would determine that (an early

advocating of individualized instruction). She did emphasize,

however, that every female student should have an understand­

ing of how the mind works, and that every girl should study

natural philosophy:

44

Natural philosophy has not often been taught to our sex. Yet why should we be kept in ig­norance of the great machinery: of Nature, and left to the vulgar notion that nothing is cur­ious but what deviates from her common course?If mothers were acquainted with this science, they could communicate very many of its prin­ciples to their children in early youth. From the bursting of an egg buried in the fire I have heard an intelligent mother lead her prattling inquirer to understand the cause of an.,earth­quake. But how often does that mother, from ignorance on this subject, give her child the most erroneous and contracted views of the causes of natural phenomena—views which, though he may afterwards learn to be false, are yet from the laws of association, ever ready to return unless the active powers of the mind are continually upon the alert to keep them out. A knowledge of natural phil­osophy is calculated to heighten the moral taste, by bringing to view the majesty and beauty of order and design, and to enliven piety, by enabling the mind more clearly to perceive, throughout the manifold works of God, that wisdom in which He hath made them all. (p. 22-3)

Willard was not sure that women could study natural philosophy

in the same way as men did, though.' She supposed that the

present textbooks in natural philosophy would need revision

because they presupposed knowledge which females would not

have, and because, the textbooks had sections which girls would

not find very interesting.

(3) Since the primary duty of women was "to regulate

the internal concerns of every family," domestic instruction

should be a major part of every seminary's curriculum. Since

there was no one method of running a household and therefore

no methodology written down, she advocated that domestic

instruction be given by the laboratory method, and that a

skillful housewife from the community be put in charge of

45

instructing the girls in domestic matters, using this

demonstration method. Since most instruction was given by

rote and recitation, this represented a pedagogical inven­

tion, one that would be taken note of by educational reformers

throughout the' century-.

(4) Contrary to some of the earlier, eighteenth century

writers on the education of females, Willard believed that

certain ornamental skills should be taught to the girls,

among them painting, drawing,, music, "elegant" handwriting,

and dancing ("the grace of motion"), She did not, however,

believe that ornamental needlework should be taught. The

domestic studies would give a girl what skills she needed to

keep her family's clothes in repair, and the skills to keep

herself clothed: . . the use of the needle for other

purposes than these, as it affords little to assist in the

formation of character, T should regard as a waste of

time."

Herself a lover of dancing, who used to set her pupils

to dancing as- a recess from their studies,5 Willard thought

it helped form character, as well as giving a girl a chance

to exercise and socialize. Some people thought that dancing

was sinful, but Willard said, "If it was entirely prohibited,

5Alma Luta quoted a letter Willard wrote in 1817: "When it was so cold that we could live no longer, I called all my girls onto the floor, and arranged them two and two in a long row for a country dance; and while those who could sing would strike up a stirring tune, I with one of the girls for a partner, would lead down the dance, and soon have them all in rapid motion. - After which we went to our school exercises again." Lutz, p. 37.

46

they would he driven to seek it by stealth, which would lead

to many improprieties of conduct. . She hastened to

assure the legislators she did not advocate balls; but

dancing, with people of the same sex, and under supervision,

was a form of exercise "to which Nature herself prompts them

at the sound of animating music,"

Some other people would have forbade the teaching of

painting and of music, because of their alleged frivolity,

but Willard dismissed these objections as being "founded on

too limited a view of the objects of education.," These

ornamental studies do help form a girl's character, she

insisted. It was not necessary that a lady play the piano

as well as her teacher, nor that she decorate her living

room with her own paintings, rather than those of her

instructor; the student still gained from having studied

these subjects: ”. . . the harmony of sound has a tendency

to produce a correspondent harmony of soul," and the study

of nature which one gets through painting nature "enkindles

the latent spark of taste—of sensibility for her /Nature's/

beauties. . ."

Willard thought the seminary education should last about

three years on the average, and, with the entrance requirements,

pupils would probably not be ready to enter until they were

about fourteen years old. So it can be seen that a seminary

education was a secondary, or high school, education. Women

were not to be admitted to colleges for some years (Oberlin

was first in 1833), and seminaries; would not become colleges

f or some ye ars.

47

Willard also thought that, of the four branches, the

ornamental studies would be optional, at the discretion of

a girl's parents, but that the other three, the religious,

the literary, and the domestic, would be mandatory. She

recommended that a diploma or certificate be issued to

those who completed the course of study, but she wasn't

sure how the examinations would be given. Men's academies

had public, oral examinations, but Willard demurred at this,

saying "public speaking forms no part of female education."

In later female seminaries, however, the public, oral

examinations were very popular.

This Plan was not to be adopted by the legislature,

and public female seminaries were never to be, but Lutz

noted that even fifty years later, Willard's plan was re­

printed still, and circulated, and that, in 1893, Thomas

Wentworth Higgins, writing in' Harper' s' Bazaar, commented,

When in 1819,..Mrs. Willard published her address to the public, particularly to the members of the Legislature of New York, introducing a plan for improved female education and establishing her school under State patronage at Waterford, she laid the foundation upon which every woman's college may now be said to rest.

In addition to her influence on higher education for women,

Emma Willard is considered——and indeed, considered herself,

to be the founder of the first normal school for teachers.

She said,

I continued•to.educate and send forth teachers,

Z* ...............!...»•> ....................°Alma Lutz, Daughter of Deiribcr'Acy,■ p. 75.

48

until two hundred had gone from the Troy Sem­inary before one was educated in any public normal school in thé United States.‘

Although she was an advocate of education for women,

she was no advocate of suffrage; in fact, the story goes that

when she heard of the girls conducting a secret meeting

in order to argue about an upcoming Presidential election,

she was very disturbed that they should betray an interest

in politics. She did not want her girls to be called "hyenas

in petticoats." She told them that the sexes were innately

separate, that the man was the oak. tree and the woman was the

apple tree. Lutz commented:

Thus, a woman with remarkable vision and zeal for the advancement of her sex, closed the door of her mind to thé-consideration of women's political rights. Doubtless, her mind was so filled with the cause of women's education, that no other movement seemed important in comparison.3

She did not change her mind through the years, and she

did not attend the Seneca Falls Convention for women's rights

in 1848, nor did she make any note that survives that the

convention was being held in her area, though she was certainly

aware of it. She continued to hope that through their charity

and the goodness of their hearts, thé men of politics would

do their duty in providing women théir educational freedom.

She thought that certain public duties should be turned over

to women: the running of elementary schools, the secondary

and higher-education of girls (but not of boys), the caring 7 8

7Lutz, p. 98.

8Ibid. , p. 101.

49

for the poor, and the guarding of public morals.

In a poem she wrote in 1830, called "Prophetic Strains,"

she said:

There shall be a council held Of matrons, having powers to legislate In woman’s province, and to recommend To man's prime rule . . .

Such council yet shall be; but distant far the day And let no woman's rash, ambitious hand Attempt to urge it . . .

Let woman wait, till men shall seek her aid.A day will come, when legislative men . . .Will see how woman's power, .wealth, influence And mind of quick invention, might be turn'd By right machinery of great account.

In this anti-feminism Emma Willard was similar to two

other ladies influential in the establishment of teacher

education and in the establishment of the profession of

"female teacher"—Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon.

Catharine' Beecher

Catharine Beecher was thé oldest child in the large

family of Lyman Beecher, a famous Calvinist revivalist. She

was her father's constant companion during her younger years,

attending his sermons, roughhousing with him, eternally dis­

cussing Calvinist theology and hér attempts to become converted

(she never was) with him. Shé was; academically talented and

wrote poems and plays for the school's and the town's enter­

tainment. She was not much interested in the domestic tasks

hér .mother..had .her . do, pref erring instead to be out in the

9Lutz, 232-233.

50

world, socializing and studying. This is ironic, since she

gained much of her fame (and substantial book royalties)

through her later book,' A ’Treatise On ' DbnfesTid 'Economy

(1856), which she wrote along with, her sister, Harriet

Beecher Stowe, and which became as important in the households

of the late 1800’s as Dr. Spock was in the households of

the mid 1900's.

Her mother died when Catharine was sixteen, and she

took over the running of the household for her father, taking

care of the seven younger children., the youngest less than

a year old, until hef father remarried a year later. She

may have gone on to be a wife and mother, leading a conven­

tional life of domesticity, had not her fiance, a professor

at Yale, died in a shipwreck in 1823, when she was 23.

Being unmarried, the older sister, with no husband in

sight, she began to occupy herself with being a teacher, and

that same year she founded the Hartford Female Seminary. She

was involved with this project until 1831, when she moved

with her father to Cincinnati, Ohio, where he became a teacher

at the Lane Theological Seminary, True to her interest in

female education, Catharine Beecher founded the Western Female

Institute in Cincinnati in 1833, As staff, she hired her

sister Harriet, Mary Dutton, and two other teachers who came

to Cincinnati from the Hartford Seminary.

Catharine Beecher did not spend much time at her new

school, but instead became involved in fund-raising and in

speaking for the cause of educating women to be teachers.

51

She began to travel back and forth from Cincinnati to the

East, speaking and writing about the need for teachers in

the West, urging that female seminaries be established to

train these teachers. On April 20, 1835, she read an essay

she had written on the subject, called Es'say: On ■Thé Education

of Female Teachers' For' Thé Unil'ed S tat es, before a group of

women gathered at the American Lyceum in New York. The

note in the front of this essay says, "Such was the interest

excited, that measures were immediately taken to secure the

publication of several thousand copies, by subscription."^-9

In Essay' on1 -the' Edhéa/tibn of Female Teachers, Beecher

sounded the same theme as Emma Willard, that "the most

important and peculiar duty of the female sex" was "the

physical, intellectual, and moral education of children."H

She said,that female education at the time was, at best, desul

tory: ". . . they are sent .first to one school, and then

to another; they attend a short time to one set of studies,

and then to another." Shé noted that there was rarely a

system nor a plan of governance in female schools; that if

the woman who ran the school should quit teaching, or should

move on, the school itself would fold. Beecher called for a

new way of looking at female education, and she called for

stability..in .the .organization of the schools.. She felt that

^Catharine Beecher y'Eseay* On The Education of Female Teachers for the' United States (New York: Van Nostrand and Dwight, 1835), front note.

•^Ibid. , p. 5.

52

if the schools would be established under a corporate

board, stability would ensue, and the schools wouldn’t

stop functioning if the teacher left.

She urged her audience not to take the task of educating

their daughters lightly. She argued that a woman's job is

the most important, and said that a mother must have a

disciplined mind in order to do her job properly:

Is a weak, undisciplined, unregulated mind,, fitted to encounter the responsibility, weariness, and watching of the nursery; to hear the incessant care and perplexity of governing young children; to accommodate with kindness and patience to the peculiarities and frailties of a husband; to con­trol the indolence, waywardness, and neglect of servants; and to regulate all the variety of domes­tic cares?

She reminded her audience that no longer was the "model of

female loveliness," the same as it was in the past, "the

fainting, weeping, vapid, pretty play-thing," but she said

that a new model for ideal womanhood was emerging, where

"qualities of the head and the heart" would be admired.

She said that teachers have a strong influence on the

development of their pupils, not only in helping the children

to learn from books, but in forming the children's characters

and habits. She deplored the fact that teachers were not

educated to be moral models:

. . . mankind are not aware how much might be ef­fected by teachers, in the most important part of education, were they properly trained for these duties, and allowed sufficient time and opportun­ity for the discharge of them.

Beecher felt that the establishment of publicly endowed

53

female seminaries would take care of that need for trained

moral leadership, as well as the need for a well-organized

course of study for future teachers:

The establishment of institutions for the education of female teachers would also most successfully re­medy all the difficulties with regard to female education which have been exhibited. When female teachers are well trained for their profession, a great portion of the higher female schools will be entrusted to their care, and they will be prepared to co-operate in propagating a uniform and thorough system of female education, both intellectual and moral.42

Beecher told the women that she herself, within the

past' two years, could have placed teachers in a hundred towns

and hamlets in the west, and that these towns would have wel­

comed the teachers, and would have liberally supported them

if they had Been available. She admired the Prussian system

of education, which had a ratio of one teacher for every

ten children, and said that in one of the middle states,

there were 30,000 people who had had no education, and who

had no schools to attend should they want to go to school.

In another large midwestern state there were 400,000

people, children and adults, "thus destitute,” she said; and

even "in one of the best educated western states," at least

one-third of the children had to go without schools. She

totalled her figures and came up with one-and-a-half million

children, and the same number of adults "in the same deplor­

able ignorance, and without any means of instruction." As

if this situation weren't bad enough, Beecher reminded her

audience,thousands and thousands of degraded foreigners,

42Beecher, Ess ay, pp. 18 ff.

54

and their ignorant families, are pouring into this nation

at every avenue." These foreigners would all become voters :

How long will it take, at this rate, for the major­ity of votes, and of the physical force of- the. nation, to be in the hands of ignorance and vice? . . . Here, we have no - despotic monarch to endow seminaries for teachers, and to send every child in the nation to school for even seven -successive years, to place a Bible in every school, and enforce a system of moral and religious instruction. Tt is the people who must voluntarily do it, or it will remain undone,

Beecher called for the wealthy* to open their coffers,

for "men of talent and piety" to support this missionary cause

of establishing female seminaries to educate teachers: "sem­

inaries for teachers, with their model schools, must be es­

tablished in every state." She noted that Prussia had forty-

five seminaries, and France had a system of Normal schools,

but that in all New1 England, there was only one institution

for the education of teachers (probably this was a reference

to Emma Willard's seminary), and that was in New York, and

the movement was just beginning.

Then she sounded the theme that would become her special

cause: teaching was a respectable profession for women to

enter, because women were peculiarly fitted to the tasks in­

volved, for teaching was a logical extension of the domestic

sphere. She also noted a very practical, rather than a philo­

sophical reason for encouraging that women entered the teaching

p r o f e s s i on : they wo rke d che ap e r,

When we consider the claims of the learned pro- .......... fessions, . the .excitement and profits of commerce,

^Essay,’ p. 24.

5®

manufactures, agriculture, and the arts; when we consider the-aversion of most men to the seden­tary, confining, and toilsome duties of teaching and governing young children; when we consider the scanty pittance that is allowed to the majority of teachers; and that few men. will enter a business that will not support a family-, when there are multitudes--of other employments that will afford competence, and lead to wealth;' it is chimerical to hope that the supply of such immense deficien­cies in-our-national education is to come chiefly - from that sex,■. It is woman, fitted hÿ disposition, habits,'. andci‘rcim3'sWnc’eS'T,..forsUChJdUt'iés,' who,'to-.', a - very wi‘dé«.«é^të»t-r!' must 'ài'd -in- - edüc'a't'ing the Childhood - an d y outh* ' of ■ this- nation; an d therefore it -is, that f-emalest-muet be trained and. educated for this employment. And, most happily, it is true, that thé education necessary to fit a woman to be a teacher, is exactly thé one that best fits her for that domestic relation that she is primarily designed to fill.

There were many idle women, Beecher said, who would

joyfully welcome the chance to be employed usefully: "...

extensive acquaintances, correspondence, and travelling,

have led to the conviction that there are hundreds of

benevolent and self denying females," she said, "who

are actually pining" to do something "more worthy" than

what they were doing "in their limited spheres."15 Beecher

noted that few people realized how much "Christian benevolence

which is slumbering in female bosoms," nor how many females

would answer thé ancient Bible call, "Who shall we send?"

with the ancient answer, "Here am 1, send me, send me!"

Give us the opportunity of aiding to preserve the interests and-institutions of our country,

44Beecher, Essay, p, 21.

15Ibid. , p. 23.

5 6

Send us to the thousands of destitute children whom we should rejoice to train up in virtue, and prepare for Heaven. We. relinquish the pursuit of wealth, the paths of public honor, and the strife .for patronage and power; give us the humble, sacred, delightful pleasures of benevo- len ce.

One can imagine that Beecher's rhetoric kindled enthusias­

tic responses from her audiences, and it did. But enthu­

siasm was one thing, and action was another. The mainly-

female audiences who heard her were dependent upon their

husbands for financial support, and the men that Beecher

called for to establish these stable, endowed, well-organized

teacher-training institutions were not often forthcoming.

The publication of this Esgay- simultaneously in New York

and in Cincinnati by thé American Lyceum was geared to help

her in a fund-raising campaign she was conducting in Cincin­

nati in 1835. Thé campaign failed/ for complex reasons,

as Kathryn Kish Sklar noted in her biography of Beecher,

Catharine Bee cher : A S tudy in' Ataeri'can Dém'e'sl'i'ci ty. 17 Lane

Theological Seminary, where her father, Lyman, taught, was

embroiled in an abolitionist controversy. Cincinnati's Old

Guard favored slavery, as many of thém were southerners, and

they regarded the liberal sentiments of many of the seminarians

and their teachers as tantamount to treason. As a result,

Lyman Beecher and his family were regarded by genteel society

as being not quite their kind. Catharine Beecher herself

exacerbated.the.controversy with her evangelical and

i « ........... .......oBeecher, Essay, p, 26.

17 (Yale University Press, New' Haven: 1973), pp. 115 ff.

57

essentially middle-class ways, which many people found offen­

sive. Edward King, one of Cincinnati's aristocrats, was

particularly offended, according to Sklar:

In an extremely revealing letter Edward King des- scrihed how awkwardly Catharine's frank vitality fit into the household . . » Catharine visited the Worthington home in Chillicothe in 1835, and Edward King accompanied her on horseback tour of the countryside. With patrician disdain Edward King described Catharine's inexhaustible curiosity.. . . "She expressed great delight at the splendid views and asked more questions than anyone could answer in a day . . . Why the fields were so square!Why there were not better houses! Why the current ran where it did! Whose property was this and that! Whether the land was good! . . .. She devoured all before hei ^at the dinner tabTe7 and licked her fingers! . . ,"18

Lacking local support, Catharine Beecher sought a national

forum, and she travelled in the East again, in 1836, advo­

cating the establishment of an agency that would send tea­

chers to Cincinnati to be trained, before they assumed their

duties in the farther West. She was met with respect and

interest, and she stayed in the homes of prominent ministers

and teachers. The Beecher family was well-known and respected

among Christian circles, contrary to the attitude towards them

in Cincinnati. She returned to Cincinnati in October, and the

Western Female Institute failed for lack of students and for

lack of funds and for lack of consistent administration, in

the spring of 1837. Catharine Beecher did not start another

school immediately, but became involved in the abolitionist

movement, and engaged in a printed debate with the Grimke

sisters., about•• the moral duties of women in the anti-slavery

18'Sklar, Catharine Beecher, pp. 117-118.

58

issue. She also worked on her writing and took care of her

health, which was precarious, Sklar said,

Nearly forty years old, she could easily have slipped permanently into the role of the spinster aunt whose basic needs were met by various members of her family in return for her assistance in operating the household.

This was a common fate for unmarried women, who stayed home

spinning, whereby the term "spinster." But Catharine Beecher

gained financial independence of a sort, through the publica­

tion of the first edition of her Treatise on Domes tic

Economy, in 1841, and she began again to sound the theme of

the crying need for female teachers. Sklar noted that she

was "one of the most widely known women in America."

In 1846, Harper's published Catharine Beecher's address,

The Evils Suffered By American Women and American Children:

The Causes And The Remedy, a speech she had given to ladies

in Washington, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, New York,

and other cities. Again she used statistics to impress her

audience with the need for reform: there were nearly a million

adults who couldn't read nor write, and two million children

who were illiterate. Ohio and Kentucky, the two states best

supplied with teachers, were themselves asking for five

thousand teachers in order to have the same teacher-student

ratio as Massachusetts had; ten thousand teachers for more

than two hundred thousand pupils were needed in these two

l9Sklar, p. 138.

20ibid., p. 169,

59

States alone.21

Beecher then quoted a report by a county superintendent

in New York in 1844, where he described the "self-styled

teachers, who lash and dogmatize," and who were low, vul­

gar, obscene, .intemperate, and utterly incompetent to teach

anything good." She said that there were organizations to

preach temperance, organizations for ministers, organizations

for colleges in the west, organizations for sailors and con­

victs, organizations to free the slaves, but no organization

to promote the proper education of two million American chil­

dren. She pointed out that American women were victims of

a caste system; domestic servants were not as available as

they once had been, because those who would have been house­

hold servants were now going to work in the factories.

This situation was causing the institution of the Amer­

ican family to suffer, because the young women who must take

over the domestic duties didn't even know how to run their

own homes because they had not had the proper type of edu­

cation. As if that were not enough of a problem, there was

another one, caused by the westward migration of young men:

The next cause which bears severely on the welfare of our sex, is the excess of 'female population, in the older states, from the disproportionate emig­ration of the other sex. By the census we find in

2^Catharine Bee çherThe Ev;i'ls: 'Suffered By- American Women (Harper's: 1846), pp. 2-3.

22 Ibid. , p. 4. Beecher never footnoted her sources, and so: it is impossible to check her references.

60

only three of the small older states, twenty thou­sand more women than men, and a similar dispropor­tion is found in other states. The consequence is, that all branches of female employment are thronged, while in our new states,, domestics, nurses, seam­stresses, mantua-makers, and female teachers are in great demand. In consequence of this, women at the East become operatives in shops and mills, and at the West, men become teachers of little chil­dren, thus exchanging the appropriate labors of the sexes, in a manner injurious to all concerned. 2

The reader will note that Beecher also believed that certain

labors were "appropriate" for women and not appropriate for men.

She then documented the exploitation of women's labor in

the East, saying that ten thousand women in New York City alone

were seamstresses, earning twelve and a half cents for a twelve-

to fourteen-hour day. And these were not just ignorant immi­

grants, she said, but American women who found themselves in

need of work: "... some have been rich, many have enjoyed

the ease of competence; some are young girls without homes;

some are widows; some the wives of drunken husbands,"* 24

As a further documentation of "the depression of our sex,"

she described the working conditions of the "operatives," the

women who worked in the shops and factories. She had taken

a trip to Lowell, Massachusetts, where she observed the condi­

tions in the textile mills. In describing the working conditions

she observed, she said the wake-up bells rang at 5 a.m. and

22EVi Is Suffered, p. 7.

24Ibid. Godey's !Lady:'s; Bobfc,- XLV (1852) , said that there were two million children needing twenty thousand teachers, and since finding men teachers would be impossible, young women should be trained because they made, the best teachers, as well as being cheaper to hire. However, thé editor, Mrs. Hale, urged, this training of girls as teachers was not designed "to make a class of celibates," but to make girls better mothers after they've taught for four or five years, p. 193.

61

the women rushed to work by lamplight. There they stood up,

working, until noon, when they were given a half-hour for

lunch, including the time spent going to and from. They con­

tinued working until seven, when they returned to their rooms

in boarding houses to wash, dress, and eat. With ten hours

remaining for recreation and sleep, and with eight hours of

sleep being certainly necessary, there were only two hours

remaining for shopping and mending, "making, recreation, social

intercourse, and breathing the pure air."2® There was no time

for intellectual pursuits, such as reading:

I asked one of the young operatives if they could not take turns in reading aloud while sewing. She replied that they were all either too tired, or they wished a little time to talk, and so they never succeeded when they attempted it.®

There was no solitude for meditation and other religious ac­

tivity, for the women lived six or eight in a single room, "so

that even on Sunday they never have a half hour to be alone,"

and so they had to exist in the perpetual buzz of machinery or

conversation." Beecher also told the middle-class ladies who

made up her audiences, about the dangers to the morals of these

young ladies, whose average age was twenty-three:

Every pleasant night, six thousand women and two thousand men (except when too much fatigued) are turned out to roam over the adjacent fields, or through streets lined with tempting articles of

25Evjis guffered, p, 9. The underlining is Beecher's, and it points up another concern she was to crusade for during her lifetime. She was a leader in writing about the health of women at the time, and she wrote much about how to preserve the health of young girls in the schools with proper clothing, food, and calisthenics.

26Ibid.

62

dress or confectionery, while the customs and the wages tempt the young and thoughtless to ex­travagance. I found, too, that theaters and dance assemblies attracted many to use up their remaining strength in hours which ought to be given to repose, while I had abundant evidence that extravagant dress and dangerous appliances for increasing personal beauty abound.

I heard one of the lady editors lamenting also the increase of flirtations between young men of that and of adjoining places, and the women, whom they would never think of marrying. I was told that the dining-room of every boarding house was always given up evenings for such purposes, if requested, and to as late an hour as was wished. When I stated to one of the agents the impropriety of this custom, and asked why a. rule was not enforced requiring all company to depart, and all thé operatives to retire at ten o'clock, I could learn no other reason except that it would be very Unp opular.2?

The average age of these unfortunate women was in the early

twenties, and the average wage was $1.75 a week, but they

were paid by the piece, and many of them earned far less,

while the overseers, who were men, got incentive pay for

getting more production from them. Fewer than one thousand

of the women had bank accounts, and those did not total more

than $100.00 for depositors who had worked there for three

years. After she finished describing these conditions, in

which women were working out in the world, in jobs that were

not within their domestic spheres, Beecher asked her hearers,

", . . would it not be better to put the thousands of men

who are keeping school for'young children into the mills, and

employ the women to train the children?"28 ,she told them that

27 Beecher, Evils, p, 9.

28 Ibid. . p. 10.

63

the states that had the best educational systems employed

female teachers; for example, in Massachusetts, five out of

seven teachers were women. But in depressed Kentucky, she

noted, five out of six teachers were men. Again one can see

Beecher's essential female chauvinism, in that she didn't

seem to think that the appalling conditions in the mills were

unsuitable for male workers.

She continued her cataloguing of the "evils suffered,"

and a third cause of the general decline in the status of

women was the fact that ."there is no profession for women of

education and high position, which, like law, medicine, and

theology, opens the way to competence, influence, and honor,

and presents motives for exertion." Women should never marry

"except under the promptings of pure affection," she said;

she found it deplorable that women should marry for security

or for position. This was necessary, though, and not because

God hadn't provided that there was a true profession for women,

but because custom and practice had not permitted women to

assume their God-ordained profession:

The educating of children, that is the true and noble profession of a woman—that is what is worthy of the noblest powers and affections of the noblest minds, y

However, there was another problem, and that was also

societal, and that was "the contempt, or utter neglect and

indifference, which has befallen this only noble profession

29Evils Suffered, p. IQ,

64

open to women." She noted that even the military profession,

which essentially celebrated the killing of human beings, was

given a noble place in the society, but

. . . the employment of teaching children is re­garded as the most wearying drudgery, and few resort to it except from necessity: and one very reasonable cause of this aversion is the utter neglect of any arrangements for preparing tea­chers for this arduous and difficult profession.2®

Because there was no professional training required of those

who would be teachers, and because anyone could set up a

school and say they were training teachers, there was no

respect given to the profession. Beecher did not go into

detail about what professional training should entail, except

to assert that teachers should have moral training because

of their great moral influence on their pupils. She also

thought that training in domesticity was important. She

might have been selling her "Treaiisb oh 'Domestic Economy ,

but she was also asserting that teacher-training was not so <

very different from training to be a good wife and household

manager, and, most importantly, to be a good mother.

Beecher then appealed to the moral women of the country

"to exert the great power and influence put into their hands,

to remedy the evils which now oppress their countrywomen. „

The plan is, to begin on a small scale, and to take women already qualified intellectually to teach, and possessed of missionary zeal and bene­volence, and, after some further training, to send them to the most important portions of our land, to raise up schools, to instruct in morals and piety, -and-to teach the domestic arts and virtues. . . . so great is the number of

3°Evils Suffered, p. 11.

6.5

educated and unemployed women at the East, and so great the necessity for teachers at the West, that as soon as the stream begins to move, it will grow wider and deeper and stronger . . . 1

The word "missionary" was a key one. As these women teachers

went out, their influence would be so good and so great Beecher

thought, that soon a demand for new workers would be felt,

and the teacher could bring her other friends out there—the

nurse, the mantua-maker, and the seamstress, who would use

their divinely-ordained moral natures, and be the teacher's

"auxiliaries in good moral influences, and in sabbath school

training." Then the church would come, and ministers would

be sent:

Thus, the surplus of female population will grad­ually be drawn westward, and in consequence the value of female labor will rise at the East, so that capitalists can no longer use the power of wealth to oppress our sex.* 32

In her Educatfbhal Reminis cences, written thirty years

later, in 1874, when she was in her seventies, Catharine Bee­

cher acknowledged that no such thing happened, and that the

young, idealistic women who went out to teach were often met

with situations that were as hard and as ugly as those in

the factories. They were preserved by their faith in their

mission, and by their faith in God, though; and they seem to

have borne their trials surprisingly well. Here is an ex­

cerpt from a letter sent to Catharine Beecher by a female

34Evi Is Suffered, p. 12.

32 Ibid.

66

teacher. No date or place is given in' RémihTscéncés:

I arrived here the 17th of January, and opened school in a small log house. I now have forty- five pupils, one-half of whom are boys, and some of them grown up. They all seem anxious to please me, and I find no difficulty in governing them.

The inhabitants.here are chiefly from North Caro­lina, Tennessee, and Germany. All are farmers, and their chief object is to make money. They seem desirous to have their children educated, but they differed so much about almost everything, that they could not build a school-house, I was told, also, when I came that they would not pay a teacher for more than three months in a year. At first they were very suspicious, and watched me narrowly; but, through the blessing of my Heavenly Father, I have gained their good will and confidence, so that they have built me a good frame school-house, with writing-desks and a black-board, and promise to support me all the year round.

I commence school every day with reading the Bible and prayer; this was new to them, but they made no objections. The people here spend Sunday in hunting, fishing, and visiting. I have commenced a Sabbath-school and invited the parents to come with their children. They seem much pleased, and many come three and four miles. They never heard of a Sunday school before , . . there being no church nearer than seven miles, the people think it too much trouble to go to it. I have persuaded them to invite the nearest clergyman to preach in my school-house next Sunday.

My greatest trials here are the want of religious privilences /sic/, the difficulty of sending to the distant post-office, the entire want of social sympathy, and the manner in which I am obliged to live. I board where there are eight children and the parents, and only two rooms in the.house. I must do as the family do about washing, as there is but one basin and no place to go wash but out the door. I have not enjoyed thé luxury of either lamp or candle, their only light being a cup of grease with a rag for a wick. Evening is my only time to write, but this kind of light makes-a disagreeable smoke and smell so I cannot bear it, and do without light except the fire. I occupy a room with three of the children and a niece who boards here. The

&7

other room served as a kitchen, parlor, and bed­room for the rest of the family,

I have read your D bmes-t:i C-ECohbmy, through to the family, one chapter a day. They like it, and have adopted some of your suggestions in regard both to order and to health. They used to drink coffee three times a day, Now they use it only once a day. Their bread used to be heavy and half-baked, but I made yeast by the receipt J_s±cJ in your book, and thus made some good bread.. They were much pleased with it, and I have made such ever since.

The people here are' Vbry ignorant; very few of them can either read or write, but they wish to have their children taught. They spend Sunday in visiting and idleness, and the fact that I kept Sunday-school for them without pay convinced them that my real object was to do good. The people in the? settle­ments around are anxious to have more of the teachers come out ... •

When I came here I intended to stay only one term; but the people urged me so much to remain, and have done so much in building me a school-house, that I concluded to stay longer.32

This same teacher wrote to Catharine Beecher that" she had

contracted scarlet fever in a later epidemic while she was watch

ing at the bedsides of some sick students, and so she decided

to leave for a healthier place, where there were over eighty

children without a school. This teacher was educated in a

female seminary, perhaps one supported by the ladies Beecher

spoke to in her podium-and-pamphleteering forays.

As a result of Catharine Beecher's efforts, many church

ladies' groups donated one-hundred dollars each, which was the

amount she was requesting of the hearers of Evils Suffered; and 33

33 Catharine Beechbf/, Educational' Eehlihis-cen Ce s (Harpers: 1874), pp. 75ff,

68

such, groups as the Boston Ladies' Society for Promoting Edu­

cation at the West contributed several thousand dollars within

a decade.34 35 * Catharine Beecher's brother-in-law, Calvin

Stowe, had been acting as an agent, but he found it too wearing,

and so in 1846, they began to search for a new agent. After

many letters, they requested and got the aid of a former

governor of Vermont, William Slade, who took the job after

being encouraged and pressured to do so by Horace Mann, Among

other supporters of Catharine Beecher's efforts were several

other important educators, including Henry Barnard, Thomas

Burrowes, Samuel Lewis (head of the Ohio Dept. of Education),

and Gorham Abbot.

Governor Slade moved to Cincinnati in 1847 and he took

over the newly-formed Central Committee for Promoting National

Education. He found Cincinnati society unreceptive (and

perhaps he found Catharine Beecher domineering), and so he

moved, within three months, to Cleveland. He then changed

the name of Beecher's benevolent society for raising money

to train female teachers to "The National Board of Popular

Education." This Board sent out about four hundred and fifty

teachers to the West, before it folded in. the middle 1850's.33

Catharine Beecher found that once Slade took over, he wanted

to run the-organization, and not merely be her agent; she

34Sklar, Catharine Bee Cher, 175,

35Ibid. . 177.

36Ibid. , 182-3. Eleanor Thompson,' EdUcait'i'on '-for •Ladies, p. 71. Thompson quotes Godey 's: La:dies: Book for her figures.

69

found she was treated like a secretary, and she didn't like

it. Sklar commented, "After her dramatic public role Cath­

arine was not content to play this secondary one."37 After

a period of ill health which prompted her later interest

in physical education and calisthenics for women,38 Catharine

Beecher founded the American Women's Educational Associa­

tion in New York in 1852. She also founded two more semin­

aries, one in Milwaukee, and one in Dubuque, Iowa.

In Educational ReminiscencesCatharine Beecher des­

cribed what had been her model plan for these institutions

of teacher education:

The plan as I presented it to the most influential ladies as well as gentlemen in those Western cities, was briefly this: To establish high schools at cen­tral points on the college plan of a faculty of co- equal teachers, instead of having a principal with subordinates; to have the trustees of.. the'Ins titu­bions’ represent the chief religious denominations, and also the faculty of instructors so far as it could be done without sacrificing the requisites of superior experience and culture in the teachers sel­ected, thus avoiding the great obstacles of sectar­ianism; to have a Normal Department in each, including every advantage obtained in Eastern Normal Schools, and one which would be far more economical than the Eastern method; to have a boarding-house for this Normal department, so endowed as to serve as a home for teachers in all emergencies; to have committees of ladies from the larger denominations, both East and West, to aid in the selecting, training, and

37Sklar, 182.

38Beecher was not alone in her interest, Sara A, Burstall, in The Education of Girls In The United States commented abourthe increase in the Teaching of physical education in the mid to late 1900's, citing the German influence and the Swedish System, as well as the Delsarte System that was used.

70

care of teachers, both from abroad and the State where the institutions were located; to have these institutions in large towns.or cities, where pupils abound and can live at home, thus avoiding large outlays for buildings and expenses for board; and finally to employ women as agents, with proper salaries, as men employ agents of their own sex, to raise up and endow their colleges and profes­sional schools.3®

Catharine Beecher was a vocal advocate of women running their

own schools, and she herself was an example of what determin­

ation and tenacity could do for women. However, she did not

consider herself a feminist, like the suffragists. An

innatist, like Hannah More, antifeminist to the end, she

commented in Reminis cen ces that if women would only be

taught to assume their God-given duties, all would be well:

At this time the agitation about women's rights and wrongs was exciting public notice, and while I deeply sympathized in the effort to remedy the many disabilities and sufferings of my sex, it seemed to me the most speedy and effective remedy would be to train woman for her true profession as educator and chief minister for the family state, and to secure to her the honor and pecuniary reward which men gain in their professions,40

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, one of the leading proponents of

woman suffrage, and an editor of The Women's Bible (1895),

which was written to combat the paternalism many feminists

felt Christianity perpetuated, recalled in her memoirs a

discussion with Catharine Beecher:Catharine said she was opposed to woman suffrage, and if she thought there was the least danger of

3®Educational Reminiscences, 138-9.

4Qlbid. , 1Q1. The reader will note the similarity in Beecher's rhetoric with the rhetoric of the antifeminists in the late 1970's.

71

our getting it, she would write and. talk against it, vehemently. But, as the nation was safe gainst such a calamity, she was willing to let the talk go on, because the agitation helped her work. "It is rather paradoxical," I said to her,"that the pressing of a false principle can help a true one; but-when you get the women all thor­oughly educated, they will step off to the polls and vote in spite of you."44

There is no record of Catharine Beecher's reply.

But Catharine Beecher's importance to the feminization

of the teaching profession cannot be denied, and her innatism,

or her belief in what Welter called "The Cult of True Woman-

42hood," and her refusal to reject the Judeo-Christian ethic

with regard to woman's place in the world, are important

influences in the development of the teaching profession as

we know it in America. Even today there is a belief that

teachers must be more morally upright, more noble, than

people in other professions. They are expected to set moral

examples to their students in many communities; it is not

enough to know the subject(s) they are teaching and to teach

them well; the teacher, and especially the female teacher,

is expected to be an example of moral rectitude, according

to many people, and school boards.

Catharine Beecher's influence in what Phillida Bunkie

called "the professionalization of woman's sphere" was great.

Bunkie described this professionalization, thus: "Since the

4lin June Sochen, Herstery'i A Tom ah" s' View of -Ameri can history (New York: Alfred Press, 1974), p. 107.

42Barbara Welter, "The Cult -of True Womanhood," 'Amer­ican Quarterly, 18 (Summer 1966), 151-175.

72

essence of motherhood was teaching, saving grace could be

more effectively disseminated if women extended their moral

influence into the classroom."43 Catharine Beecher's wiiole

life was dedicated to that proposition. Willystine Goddssll

was accurate in calling Emma Willard and Catharine Beecher

. . . pathfinders, fired by the vision of a new liberal education for women which should make them not only more intelligent wives and mothers but more skillful teachers.44

What Willard and Beecher began was taken up by influen­

tial men, and in Massachusetts, in 1839, the first two normal

schools were founded by Horace Mann, Mr. Carter, and Mr.

Brooks. However, this establishing of public normal schools

was not taken up in the rest of the nation, and the growth

of the normal school movement was slow; therefore, the edu­

cation of teachers was left to the academies and seminaries

and a few colleges. By the outbreak of the Civil War, only

fourteen normal schools had been established in the country, °

At this same time, hundreds of seminaries were begun and

flourishing or floundering, and thousands of girls were being

trained as teachers.

43Phillida Bunkie, "Sentimental Womanhood and Domestic Education, 1830-1870." History of Education Quarterly (Spring1974), 20.

44Willystine Goodsell, The1 Education of' Woman:' its Social Background and Problems (New York, 1924), p. 17...

43Dexter,

73.

Mary- Lyon -

A third important influence in the female seminary

movement was Mary Lyon (1797—1849). She was a protegee of

Joseph Emerson, who was one of the most respected men in the

field of female education. He ran the Byfield, Massachusetts,

academy, where Mary Lyon taught in 1821. Joseph Emerson was

a minister who set up a short-lived seminary for teachers

after hearing of Emma Willard's efforts.

While teaching at Byfield, Mary Lyon met Zilpah Grant,

who was to set up the famous Ipswich Seminary, where Mary

Lyon later taught. Joseph Emerson was an. evangelical Chris­

tian, and he converted Mary Lyon to a fervent Christianity

which was to influence her and her educational philosophy

greatly. Mary Lyon was perhaps the most fundamentalist of

the three women being discussed here, although Emma Willard

and Catharine Beecher were certainly given to speaking much

about the Christian duty of women, Mary Lyon's influence was

great, in that she prompted the idea that education for women

should not be confined to the upper classes, and in that she

likened the teaching profession to missionary work.

In 1832, Mary Lyon and Zilpah Grant drew up a proposal

for a seminary to be called The New England Seminary for

Teachers, where there would be boarding facilities and a plan

for higher education for girls, Zilpah Grant's health failed,

and she had to withdraw from thé solicitations for funding, so

Mary Lyon carried on alone. In a letter to Professor Hitchcock,

74

of Amherst, Massachusetts, on February- 4, 1832, Mary

Lyon said that she had in mind establishing a "permanent

female seminary," which would be "destined to outlive its

present teachers," She also thought that there should be

one or two such schools in each state, not only for the

education of very young girls, but instead "designed ex­

clusively for older young ladies preparing to teach, . ,"46

The efforts of Miss Grant and Mary Lyon met little

success locally, and in 1834 Mary Lyon left her friend and

the Ipswich Seminary, with hopes of beginning her own school.

On May 12, 1834, she wrote to her mother:

I do not expect to continue my connection withMiss G. after this summer, I have for a great while been thinking about those young ladies who find it necessary to make such an effort for their education as I made, when I was obtaining mine.... I have not felt quite satisfied with my present field of labor, I have desired to be in a school, the expenses of which would be so small, that many who are now discouraged from endeavoring to enjoy the privileges of this might be favored with those which are similar at less expense.

The course of instruction adopted in this insti­tution ... I believe is eminently suited to make good mothers as well as teachers. . . . 0 how im­mensely important is this work of preparing the daughters of the land to be good mothers! If they are prepared for this situation, they will have the most important preparation which they can have for any other; they can soon and easily become good teachers..,... . ,46 47

46 Mari on Lansing, ed. Mary: -Lyon' Through Her Letters (Boston: Books, Inc., 1937), pp. 104—105.

47Ibid. X34-5.

75

This letter shows Mary Lyon’s great concern with

cutting the expenses of a seminary education; the plan she

developed, summarized in Mary Lyon Through' Her Letters,was

based on this philosophy. First, she proposed that a fund­

raising campaign be undertaken to build the buildings, and

that they be placed, mortgage-free, in the hands of a board

of trustees. Second, she proposed only to hire teachers

who had such a missionary zeal that they would be willing

to work for low pay. Third, she advocated a very simple

and luxury-free life for the pupils. Fourth, she proposed

that no maids be hired, but that the domestic work be

performed by the pupils themselves. Fifth, she proposed

that tuition and board be set at as low a cost as possible.

Sixth, she felt that, as in other missionary operations, no

extra income would go to the teachers if there should be

surplus money; nor should any extra to to the superintendent

of the domestic tasks. Any extra money should be put into

the common treasury so that the expenses of the pupils

could be reduced even further.4'8

In a brochure prepared in 1835 for prospective students

Mary Lyon put it this way:

The grand features of this Institution are to be an elevated standard of science, literature, and refinement, and a moderate standard of expense; all to be guided and modified by the spirit of the gospel. Here we trust will be found a delight­ful spot for those, "whose heart has stirred them

L.; through Hen •Letters', p„ 130,

76

up" to use all their talents in the great work of serving their generation^- and of advancing the Redeemer's kingdom, » , ,

. . . This Seminary is to he for adult young ladies; at an age when they; are called upon by their parents to judge for themselves to a very great de­gree and when they can select a spot congenial to their taste. The great and ruling principle—an ardent desire to do the greatest possible good, will we hope, be the presiding spirit in many hearts, bringing together congenial souls, . . .

. . . It has been stated, that the literary stan­dard of this Institution will be high. This is a very indefinite term. There is no acknowledged standard of female education, by which an insti­tution can be measured. A long list of branches to be taught, can be no standard at all.

Then she quoted from the catalog of the Ipswich Seminary

in which the following subjects (or branches) of study

were listed. There were three levels, the Primary, the Junior

Class, and the Senior Class. The last two levels were called

the "regular course." Branches studied in the Primary level

were mental arithmetic, written arithmetic, English grammar,

First Book of Euclid's Geometry, modern and ancient geography,

government of the United States, modern, and ancient history,

botany, and Watts On The Mind.

The studies of the Junior Class were these: written

arithmetic completed, English grammar continued, the Second,

Third, and Fourth Books of Euclid's Geometry, natural phil­

osophy, .chemistry, astronomy, intellectual philosophy, and

rhetoric.

49 ' .......... ■' ' ......... .................................Mary Lyon,’ Mouht Holyoke : Female S emin ary. Old South

Leaflets, No. 145 (Boston, Mass. : The Directors of the Old South Work, n.d.), pp. 426-/,

77

In. the Senior Class, "Some of the preceding studies"

were "reviewed and continued," and the young ladies also

studied algebra, ecclesiastical history, natural theology,

philosophy of natural history, analogy of natural and

revealed religion to the constitution and laws of nature,

and evidences of Christianity.

In addition, Mary Lyon noted that "Reading, Composition,

Calisthenics, Vocal Music, the Bible and'several of the

above branches of study, will receive attention through the

course."3® Deficient spellers and writers would receive

special help. Linear drawing would also "receive attention.

Before entering the Seminary, the young ladies were expected

to be "skilful in both mental and written Arithmetic, and

thoroughly acquainted with Geography and the History of

the United States."

Like Willard and Beecher no feminist, Mary Lyon was,

as Lansing said, "skilled in the art of dealing with the

gentlemen,"3-^ and she gave them "a large place in the sun,

larger than that conceded by some of the other women leaders

of the time." She was certainly skilled in the art of

flattery:

This institution is to be founded by the combined liberality of an enlarged benevolence, which seeks

5Q01d South Leaflet, pp. 428-29»

SYjiary Lyon Through Her Letters, p, 155.

78

the greatest good on an.extensive scale. Some minds seem to be cast in that peculiar mould, that the heart can be drawn forth only by individual want. Others seem best fitted for promoting public good. None can value too much the angel of mercy, that can fly as on thè wings of the wind to the indi­vidual cry for help as it comes over in tender and melting strains. But who does not venerate those great souls-—great by nature—great by education— or great by grace—or by all combined, whose plans and works of mercy are like a broad river swallow­ing up a thousand little rivulets. How do we stand in awe, when we look down, as on a map, upon their broad and noble plans, destined to give untold blessings to the great community in which they dwell— to their nation—to the world. As we see them ur­ging their way forward, intent on advancing as fast as possible, the renovation of the whole human family—and on hastening the accomplishment of the glorious promises found on the page of inspiration, we are sometimes tempted to draw back their hand, and extend“ itr forth in behalf of some-traveller by the wayside, and those of a thousand other individuals included in their large and warm embrace.

This is the class of benevolent men who will aid in founding this Seminary; these the men who are now contributing of their time and money to carry for­ward this enterprise.52

In other words, she was a practical politician. She set up a

board of trustees that was made up of men who supported her

concept of female education, and she set out to raise money.

She raised twenty seven thousand dollars, and she chose

South Hadley, Massachusetts, as the site for her seminary,

which was granted a charter on February 10, 1836. It was to

be called Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, and it opened on

November 8, 1837, "the first established by appeal to public

philanthropy," according to Woody,53

5201d South Leaflet, pp, 425-6,

53Woody, His tory -of Women's EducatTon, • I (1929) , 359 .

79

Both Zilpah Grant and Catharine Beecher took issue with

Mary Lyon's plan for securing superior teachers and then pay­

ing them low salaries, because Grant and Beecher felt that

low salaries would encourage those of less talent. In June,

1836, Catharine Beecher wrote to Mary Lyon:

The profession cannot be sustained by a missionary spirit—that spirit will send men forth as ministers and missionaries, but rarely as teachers. Therefore all plans that tend to sink the price of tuition will probably be discountenanced by the most liberal and expanded minds that are engaged in this enter­prise. It is on this place that I fear you are starting wrong,

Catharine Beecher then proposed a plan to Mary Lyon, whereby

aid would be given to those who could not afford a high tui­

tion, but where tuition would be kept high or medium-priced

for those who could afford it, in order to "support competent

teachers and enough of them in the female schools . . ."®4

Mary Lyon responded, on July* 1, 1836, saying that the

terms "high, low, and moderate" had different meanings to

different people, depending upon what part of the country

one was talking about, and that she intended to set tuition

fees at what New England people would call "moderate." She

went on to say that between twenty and forty thousand dollars

would have to be raised, and that that accomplishment alone

"would form almost an era in female education." In order to

raise such a large sum of money, Mary Lyon said there were

two ways:(1) to ask one or several wealthy men to endow

54Mary Ly on Through Her '•Le’tt'e:rs, ■ p. 194-5.

80

the institution; and (2) to ask support from many people.

She said she had opted for the second course, and gave an

indication of her dedication to the project: "We have

enlisted for the work. I have regarded it as a work for

life.,"5®

In this extraordinarily- informative letter, Mary Lyon

told Catharine Beecher of how they- had avoided all extravagances

in their planning, and of how good management in the boarding

department would permit them to save money:

. . .we have held up to New England people the ad­vantages of a teachers' seminary, with ample facil­ities for boarding and instruction, free of rent, of so superior a character that a supply of scholars could be secured without receiving those who were immature and ill-prepared, and who are always a heavy tax on the teachers. We have shown that the same money will, in this way, do more to provide instruction for young women qualifying themselves to teach, than it would, do in our country academies.After these professions, shall we ask for higher tuition, at the same time that we are asking for benevolent aid . . .?

. . . if any injury should result to the cause of education from our adopting this moderate standard of tuition, it will be as nothing compared with the great good to be accomplished; less far than the injurious results of Paul's example, on the support of the gospel ministry, which results he so carefully- guards against in the ninth chapter of I Corinthians,

Mary Lyon then went on to tell Catharine Beecher that there

were two motives for becoming a teacher: first, in order

to practice loving one's neighbor as oneself; and second,

in order to make money. The first was preferable; besides,

women•didn't .need.high salaries, because of their subordinate

®®Letters, p. 197.

81

positions in the divine plan:

I am inclined to the opinion that this' ^pecuniary considerations^ should fall lower on a list of motives to be presented to ladies than to gentle­men, and that this is more in accordance with the system of the divine government. Let us cheerfully make all due concessions, where God has designed a difference in the situation of the sexes, such as woman's retiring from public stations, being generally dependent on the other sex for pecuniary support, &c. 0 that we may plead constantly forher religious privileges, her equal facilities for the improvement of her talents, and for the privi­lege of using all her talents in doing good’^6

In other words, women should teach for low salaries because

God had ordained women to be dependent. Mary Lyon practiced

what she preached, and though she never married, and though

she was not dependent on a husband or a brother for "pecun­

iary support," she never took more than $200.0Q a year for

all her expenses, even after the board of trustees tried

to raise her salary. On the other hand, though Catharine

Beecher's missionary zeal was great, she never swore a vow

of poverty .

The argument that women would and should work more cheap­

ly than men in the teaching profession was often given by

those who advocated that "female teachers" be hired. Perhaps

this fact contributed more than any other to the dramatic rise

in the number of female teachers in the nineteenth century,

Horace Mann, writing in 1848, in the Boston Board of

Education's 'Eleventh Annual Report, toted up the savings

3®Letters, 198-99.

i

82

that could be made in. hiring female teachers:

Let this change be regarded, for a moment, in an economical point of view. If, in 1846-7, the relative proportion of male and female teachers had been the same as it was in 1837y then, in­stead of having 2,437 male teachers, we should have had 3,051; and instead of having 5,238 fe­male teachers, we should have had but 4,624;— that is, we should have had 614 more male teachers, and the same number of female teachers less. Now, the average wages of male teachers, last year, inclusive of their board, was $32.46 a month, and the average wages of .female teachers, also inclusive of board, was $13.60, and the average length of the summer and winter terms varied but a small fraction from four months each /female teachers taught in the summers when men were needed in agriculture/. The cost of 614 male teachers, at $32.46 à month, would be $19,930.44; and the cost of the same number of female teachers for the same term of time, at $13.60 a month, would be $8,360.40, The difference in expense, there­fore, for a?single year, is $11,580.04—-or, about double the expense of the three State Nor­mal schools, for the same length of time. Such is the economy of employing female teachers , . .But I am satisfied that the educational gain,— the gain to the minds and manners of the children,— has been in a far higher ration than the pecuniary.57

Mann, who was known as a vocal and active supporter of female

education and of the idea of females as teachers, went on, in

this Rep ort, to denounce the low salaries being paid to female

teachers, noting that female factory workers often made six

or seven times as much. "What inducement," he asked, "has

a young woman who has a prospect of obtaining only $33 a year,

—or even twice that sum, if she keeps both summer and winter

school,—to spend either much time or money in preparing

herself for the employment?" He noted that many women spent

more money for a single dress than many female teachers made

57in Theodore Rawson Crane, ed,, The Dimensions of Amer­ican Education (Reading. Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1974),pp, 69- 72. Crane called this Report "Feminization,"

83

in a year.

Mary Lyon may not have supported a higher wage for

female teachers, hut her Mount Holyoke Plan had great impor­

tance in the female teacher/female seminary movement, combining,

as it did, low tuition and high academic standards with an

emphasis on the missionary quality of the teaching profession

and an emphasis on self-sacrifice. The Mount Holyoke Plan

was exported to The West, and two of the most successful and

long-lived female seminaries in Ohio, Lake Erie Seminary at

Painesville, and Western Female Seminary at Oxford, were

"little sisters" of Mount Holyoke.®3

, This "family" terminology was important, for Màry Lyon

regarded her pupils as "daughters," and the school community

as a family. The girls were not "boarders," being waited on

by domestics, but they did all the domestic work themselves.

Mary Lyon was always careful to emphasize that the domestic

work was not "manual training," but that its purpose was to

save money and to provide the young scholars with needed

exercise. She said, "It is no part of our design to teach

young ladies domestic work. This branch of education is im­

portant, but a literary institution is not the place to gain

it." She then went on to say that a girl should receive such

instruction from her mother, and not at school, ®y "•[s

not a. reflection on- both mother and daughter," she said, 38

38See Chapter IV for detailed descriptions of these schools 59 Catharine Beecher believed thé opposite, and even

wrote a textbook so that "domestic economy" could be taught in schools.

84

"when, the daughter cannot perform with skill and cheerful­

ness any domestic labor which is suitable for her mother?"60 *

Letters from the first pupils attest to their support

of the domestic system. Lucy Fletcher described in her

journal her turn at getting breakfast ready:

This morning ... I was cal,led about 4 o' clock and obliged-to get up, though sorely against my inclination, and went down into Domestic Hall, looking as sleepy as would be and feeling all the time as if I- wished I were back in bed. How­ever, I moulded, and mixed, and stirred, and I believe went through all the necessary perfor­mances till the pudding was boiled, and the bis­cuit baked, and the kettles set in order when I went into breakfast with an appetite in no way impaired by my morning's work,64

Another pupil, Nancy Everett, described the feeling of freedom

the "family" had, in the absence of snooping servants:

There are just seventy-nine scholars, which with three ;ïèach^'iis.iiliïss-''’:£y;bn'-,... and the superintendent of the domestic department make a family of eighty- four. You can hardly imagine what a formidable lipe we make going to church, or taking our daily

’walks. I believe, if ever there was a happy family, it is this. We are so independent; that is if we wish for anything or do anything--we are at per­fect liberty to door get it, without a parcel of hired girls, scowling Upon us, or wishing us out of the way.62

Another distinguishing feature of the,Mount Holyoke Plan

was its emphasis upon evangelical Christianity. Though the

schools were nondenominational, there was a great emphasis

®°Seminary circular, quoted in Woody, I, 360.

^Le tters, p. 231.

62Ibid. , p. 233.

„-85

upon salvation, and revivals were not uncommon. The diaries

and journals of people who attended Mount Holyoke and its

little sisters often contain descriptions of revivals. Per­

haps the most famous pupil at Mount Holyoke dropped out,

though, after all attempts to save her failed. She was

Emily Dickinson. She was one of the recalcitrants who never

got saved, who never became a wife, a missionary, or a teacher.

She called Mary Lyon "The Dragon," and seemed to regard her

experience at Mount Holyoke as not very beneficial,®3 Other

students regarded Mary Lyon as nothing less than a saint,

as shall be seen in Chapter IV,

After her death in 1849., and at the first anniversary

thereafter, in 1850, Dr. Edward Hitchcock, President of

Amherst College, in an address: titled "The Character of

Mary Lyon," described her as having a "largely developed"

brain, "in proper proportion to produce a symmetrical char­

acter." (Phrenology was popular at the time.) He said

She possessed, in an eminent degree, that most striking of all the characteristics of a great mind; viz., perseverance under difficulties.When thoroughly convinced that she had truth on her side, she did not fear to stand alone and act alone, patiently waiting for the hour when others would see the subject as she did. This

®3In a letter written from Mt, Holyoke on May 16, 1848, Emily Dickinson said, "Abiah, , » , L regret that last term, when the golden opportunity was mine, that I did not give up and become a Christian, . . it is hard for me to give up the world." in Letters of E m i ly BleKlh^on, I, ed, Thomas H. Johnson (Cambridge: B'elknap Press, 1958')',“ p'. 67. Wm, Luce, in The Belle of Amherst (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976) has Emily Dickinson say , " I’ was sixteen when I graduated -from Amherst Academy and entered..Mount Holyoke Female Seminary-, which was run by a dragon . . . I liked Miss Lyon, even though she laid down strict rules for her girls." p. 26,

86-

was firmness, not obstinacy; for no one was more open to conviction than she; but her con­version must result from stronger arguments, not from fear or the authority of names. Had she not possessed this feature of character.Mount Holyoke Seminary never would have existed, at least not on its present plan.

Hitchcock also extolled "her great power to control the minds

of others":

And it was done, too, without their suspecting it; nay, in opposition often to strong prejudice.Before you were aware, her well-woven net of argument was over you, and so soft were its silken meshes that you did not feel them. One reason was that you soon learnt that the fingers of love and knowledge had unitedly formed the web and woof of that net. You saw that she knew more than you did about the subject; that she had thrown her whole soul into it; that, in urging it upon you, she was actuated by benevolent motives, and was anxious for your good; and that it was hazardous for you to resist so much light and love. And thus it was that many a refractory pupil was subdued, and many an individual brought to aid a cause to which he was before indifferent or opposed.84

He then went on to say that this perseverance and knowledge

was informed by religious conviction, that "all her plans

and efforts were baptized and devoted to God." She was one-

minded about her seminary and its vagaries, and, Hitchcock

said, "Very few females have done so much for the world while

they lived, or have left so rich a legacy when they died."85

Perhaps the rhetoric of this tribute is a bit overblown,

84Edward Hitchcock, "The Character of Mary Lyon," Old South Leaflets No. 145, pp. 11-13.

85Ibid. , p? 14.

87

true to the oratorical mode of the time, but it may not be

out of place to say that all three of these pioneer female

educators left a rich legacy, not only for the teaching pro­

fession in America, but for female education. Although the

schools they started were not public schools, due to legis­

latures’ prejudices, the schools were influential.

All three of these educators were innatists and fervent

Christians. All three were determined to make a respectable

professional place for women. All three believed that

teaching was a "natural" profession for women to pursue.

All three believed that a teacher, especially a female teacher,

had a moral responsibility to uplift the goals and aspirations

and behaviors of the world and the children they taught.

CHAPTER III. ’

THE ACADEMY / SEMINARY MOVEMENT IN OHIO

By 1850, Ohio had 206 academies, with 474 teachers,

and 15,052 pupils. That same year, there were 26 colleges

in Ohio, with 180 teachers, and 3,621 pupils. There were also

11,661 public schools, with 13,886 teachers and 484,153 pupils

The population of Ohio had risen from 45,365 in 1800, to

almost two million people (1,980,329) in 1850.4 The Westward

movement and the great immigration of foreigners had changed

the state from a wilderness to a thriving crossroads for

the nation. The need for a well-developed system of edu­

cation was making itself felt.

The term "academy" was used to include the seminaries as

well. Academies were private schools, and their existence

was* a preliminary stage in the establishing of free public

education. However, very little has been written about

them. Theodore Sizer, in The Age of Academies, attributed

this dearth of scholarly writing in the- history of Ameri­

can education to the fact that these schools were not

public schools. He said that most studies of the academy

movement were made early in this century, and that since then

the movement has been neglected, and its influence upon

the development of public education has been overlooked.2

’'"Henry Barnard, "Educational Statistics in the U.S. in 1850," The Arnerican JournaI of Education, I (1855), 363,

2(New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1964), p. 46;

89

Sizer also pointed out another difficulty in charting the his­

tory of the academy movement, that those academies that were

most well-known were often not truly representative of the

whole movement. He said that educational historians have

hurried over the nineteenth century academies, using such

elite New England models as Andover and Exeter to represent

the entire academy movement.

These college-preparatory, high-tuition, all-male schools

modeled on the Latin Grammar Schools were indeed important

types of academies, but there were other types as well. Some

academies, as in the South, were primary schools, directly

competing with the public elementary1 schools. Some offered

a college course; some were secondary schools; some were co­

educational; most were single-sex. They were called seminaries

and literary institutions, or just so-and-so's school, as

well as academy ; they were nondenominational, and they were

denominational, founded by religious groups in order to pre­

serve sectarian beliefs; they were aided by the state and were

charted to serve special groups such:as,the halt and idiotic,

as well as- the intellectually acute.

Many were short-lived, failing as soon as the head teacher

quit teaching and went on to something else, or failing as soon

as the funds ran out. Others institutionalized their adminis­

trative processes, and continued admitting and educating pupils

for upwards of fifty years. Academies were established in

every state, and in 1850, throughout the nation, there were

90

6,185 of them, serving a quarter of a million pupils (263,096)

In 1850 there were 239 colleges nation-wide, serving 27,821

students.3

Most academies were begun by interested men who organ­

ized boards of trustees. They often used their own money to

get the schools going, or they asked the state for a charter

and for grant money to initiate the schools. Some formed

stock companies, though there was little hope for stockholders

to reap dividends. Then they sought buildings, students,

and teachers. Tuition was a most important means of support,

and though the tuition was seldom high, few students' parents

were even able to pay that, and many of the academies took

their tuition in the form of barter goods, lumber, labor, and

crops.4

Many of the academies were not private, but semi-public,

for they received state aid in many states and, as Kandel

noted, they provided a substitute for the public secondary

schools that were not in existence yet. Many states had

laws that students had a right to free public secondary

education, but few states had public secondary schools in

any great number. Therefore, academies provided the needed

secondary education , and facilities , and their number increased

3Barnard, "Educational Statistics.''

4Sizer, pp. 22-23,

91

as the demand for more than an elementary school education

increased.® Indiana, Iowa, Vermont, and Michigan had what

were called "county seminaries," and "county grammar schools,"

which were essentially privately run academies supported

by public sanctions.® The quality- of education in the acad­

emies varied, as did the level of education, and this prompt­

ed Thomas Burrowes, editor of thé PehnsyTVahia School Journal,

to write, in 1855, his concerns about the mixing of ages

in these schools:

Upon the reputation and ultimate success of these institutions the consequence of this degradation of rank cannot but be injurious; and especially will this be the result in female Seminaries. In these, it has, unfortunately, been too much the case that the reputation of having "finished" at the "Seminary" is often more thought of than the amount of knowledge acquired.

Now, even in this narrow view of the subject, nothing could be more destructive of "fashionable reputation," 'than the fact that little girls, in addition and subtraction—Tn primary geography and third-class reader—are admitted in company with Misses in the 'ologies the 'alogies, the ' onomies and the 'atics.* 7

Burrowes predicted that the time would come when "Academies

. . . will be dispensed with entirely and the common school

of the higher grade will take their place." This did not

happen until later in the century, though the academy movement

®I.L. Kandel, History of Secondary Education (Riverside Press: Cambridge, Mass., 1930), p. 397.

®Sizer, p. 23.

7Thomas B. Burrowes, "Ungraded Academies and Seminaries," Pennsy1vani a School J óurha 1, IV (Dec. , 1855), 161-2.

92

in Ohio was beginning to decline by the mid 1850's.

Ohio has always had a majority of people who opposed

a strong, centralized state government, being from its in­

ception a Republican stronghold, with a preference for local

control and private capitalistic entrepreneurship, not only

in business and in agriculture, but in education. As early

as 1838, State Superintendent Samuel Lewis pushed for laws

that would make it possible for townships to provide free

secondary education. But no such legislation was enacted,

and, as a result, the academy (seminary, institute, etc.)

privately chartered by stock companies or by churches, was

the prevailing type of secondary school in Ohio until mid-

century. One hundred and seventy-two academies and semin­

aries were incorporated in Ohio between 1803 and 1850.

E.A. Miller, in his Hfsfbry; 'of Bduca'tDdnal Legislation

in Ohio From 1803 to 1850, attributed the phenomenal growth

in the number of academies and seminaries in Ohio to a

state educational policy that was too focused, too trusting

in private enterprise. Ohio had no plan for developing a

system of elementary, secondary, and higher education, but

state law emphasized only public elementary education, per­

haps because there were so many private secondary schools

and private colleges. Another reason for this lack of a

cogent educational policy was perhaps that the three town­

ships given for public higher education were in the Ohio

Company's purchase and in the Symmes Purchase. The insti-

93

tutions were local and did not receive students from through­

out the state. Because there were no clearly recognized

state colleges, there was no pressure to have a system

of secondary schools supported by the state. Besides,

secondary education was regarded as a luxury and not a

right, and it was thought that those who wanted such an

advanced education would be aptly served by the private

schools chartered for that purpose. Therefore, the move for

publicly supported secondary schools did not come until the

general and nation-wide high school movement, which began in

the 1850's.8

In fact, no law dealing with secondary education was

passed in Ohio before 1850, except for laws incorporating

individual private institutions. The principle seemed to be

that the state would encourage local attempts to establish

secondary institutions., by acting to incorporate them, and

by setting guidelines on their activities and on their

property holdings, but would not initiate their establishment,

nor control the schools once they were established. Following

are some sample articles of incorporation of these schools:^

C. L. , I, 117 April 16, 1803. The Erie LiterarySociety; David Hudson and twelve others; board of trustees of ten to fifteen members; to support a seminary of learning, either a college or an academy. ¿This was the first academy in 0hio7

£ ■ ■■ ........................... .......... . ' .................E. A. Miller , History.-of' Educ'a-ti'bn'a-1 -L^i's’la'tioh in Ohio

from 1803 to 1850 (Chicago, 1920; rpt. New York: Arno Press, 1969), p. 117.

®Ibid. Selected from Miller's Appendix A, pp, 128-143,

94

C,L, IX, 39, January 26, 1811. An academy at Steubenville; Lyman Potter and .fifteen others, twelve trustees; stockcompany, sharesfive dollars; annual income not to exceed five thousand dollars.10

C. L, , XX io ca 1, 2 7 Jan uary 30, 1822. The Ur­bana Academy;‘ John Reynolds and sixothers; seven trustees; stock company; annual income not to exceed-two ■thousand dollars; no religious tenets peculiar to any Christian sect to be taught.

C.L,, XXXII, Loca 1, 85, February 17, 1824. Norwalk À'cadémÿ "change d to Norwa lk Seminary ; trus tees to be appointed by the Ohio Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church; no teacher shall be allowed to teach any student the peculiar tenets of any sect or religious denomination without the consent of parents or guardian,

C.L., XXX, local, 141, February 7, 1832. Huron Insti­tute; Eb"enezer "Andrëws "an d nineteen others ; twenty trustees; to afford instruction to the youth of both sexes in the higher branches of an English education, the learned languages, and the liberal arts and sciences, and the trustees . , . may erect a separate or additional departments for the pursuit of these and any other branches of a polite and liberal education, and may provide the requisite manual labor such-portion-of- théir time as their health and other circumstances may require,"

C.L., XXXI, 188, local, February 21, 1833. The Chilli­cothe -EemhTe "Eemihafy; Jôhh" Wobdb?ridge and five others to Ross County; five trustee's; annual income not to exceed two thousand dollars; property.and funds shall be converted to no other use than the promotion of female education.

C.L. , XXXIII, local 87, February 19, 1835, The Gran- viïle Fema/Le1 'Geminary Henry’ "Carr andT eleven others ; annual income not to exceed two thousand dollars; for aiding and promoting literary and scientific pur­poses, and for the construction and purchase of said buildings for said seminary,11

10Lyman Potter's Steubenville Female Seminary is discussed in Chapter V. of this study,

^Hen-ry Carr's Granville Eemale Seminary is discussed in Chapter V. of this study.

95

C.L. , 'XXXVI’,' Tbcial,'' 98, Tefofr'u&ry T9,' 1838. M as - s'i'l' Ion Fema le S emin ary. Stark County; 0. N. Sage and ten others; stock company, shares fifty dollars each; "moral, physical and intellectual improvement and education of young females."

C. L. , XXXVII, local, 80, February' 27, 1839. OxfordFemale Academy; John W. Scott and six others; seven trustees; property not to exceed ten thousand dollars; education of females in the town of Oxford. I-2

C.L., XXXVII local, 172, March 12, 1839. TheBarnesv'i'ïïe Male Academy, Be lriiont County ; IsaacHoover and twelve others; thirteen trustees; stock company, shares ten dollars; capital stock not to exceed twenty thousand dollars; property to be used only for education; to cultivate and train the intellectual faculties -of the youth who may resort to it for instruction, and rigourously to discountenance the inculcation of the peculiar tenets of any Christian sect or denomination.

C. L. , XLVi, lodal, 135,: February 14, 1848. TheFelicity Semin ary, Clermon t Coun ty ; R ob e r tChalfert and fourteen others; three trustees; stock company, shares twenty-five dollars each; stock not to exceed ten thousand dollars; that instruction in said seminary shall not be confined or restricted to pupils ©f any separate sect or denomination of religion.

C. L, , XLVIT, local, 637, March 22, 1850. XeniaFemale Academy ; Thomas C. Wright and eleven others; nine trustees; stock company, shares fifty dollars each; the arts and sciences and all necessary and useful branches of a thorough and useful education such as may be taught in the best female seminaries and colleges.

From this sampling of summarized laws incorporating these

institutions in Ohio, one can gather that they were called

"academy," "institute," "seminary," and even "high school";

that they had to aver their nondenominational character in

l2This seminary catered to daughters of professors at Miami University. Another seminary in Oxford, incorporated in 1853, Western Female Seminary, is discussed at length in Chapter IV of this study.

96

order to receive state support, although they could be

established by denominational groups; that some were co­

educational (especially as co-education became more and

more acceptable); that some were for boys, and some were

for girls; that some were established to train teachers;

that all had small budgets.

In fact, although these schools were mostly nondenomin-

ational,-1-0 their religious sponsors were empowered to teach a

morality that was traditional and Biblical (but not sectarian).

One assumes that the philosophy of innatism, as a Christian

belief that was well-accepted, was also taught.

Another interesting observation is to note that even

today there exists, legislatively, in Ohio, a close link between

parochial schools and public schools, a link that is not as

close in other states, and in Ohio the philosophy prevails that

parochial schools have a right to state aid because they

educate children the state would otherwise have to educate.44

One can see the roots of this legislative practice in the

13Miller said, "The denominational influence does not seem to have been great in founding these secondary schools, , . .In 1836 a general law was passed which gave any religious soc­iety incorporating after that date the right to apply property not exceeding an annual value of one thousand dollars to the support of public worship and such institutions of learning and charity as might be connected with such society. How far the rights extended here were used by the churches to found schools of secondary grade the laws themselves give no hint. Only a careful search of church records could do this. . . . The comparatively small denominational influence exerted on secondary schools was not due to any lack of religious or sectarian interest. Numerous sects and varied religious beliefs were common, but this very multiplicity was a source of religious toleration." p.84,

44In contrast to the neighboring state of Michigan, which established public secondary schools early, with the Kalamazoo decision,and where parochiaid is at a minimum, even today.

97

legislative attitudes of the first fifty years in the state's

history, where private academies and seminaries took up

the burden of providing secondary education for the students.

W.W. Boyd pointed out another close link between

church and state in the West, and particularly in Ohio. He

noted that the secondary schools fused several ideals in

establishing themselves and in establishing their curricula:

From New England came the classical and literary ideal;

from the Pennsylvanians and New Jersey settlers came the

ideal of a practical education such as Rush and Webster

advocated; from the Southern settlers came the ideal of the

finishing school to furbish the student with manners and

cultured ways; from the churches came the need to conserve

their memberships by keeping the children within the fold,

in a church-established academy. Boyd noted that the

itinerant preachers common in the early nineteenth cen­

tury were often the best educated people in the towns they

travelled to serve, and the preacher taught what no one

else could teach, and the young people became interested in

him and his church, because "through him they came to know­

ledge."43

Therefore, the proliferation of church-supported

academies and colleges in Ohio, a proliferation that is unique

in the nation, and. where such private colleges as Kenyon .... !

46W.W. Boyd., ..'^Secondary..Education..in Ohio Previous to the Year 1840 ,Ohio» Aicha'ebTbg'idaT' and HTs t'oiicaT Society Publications, XXVTr9 i6 ), Y18-l2lo ; ”

98

and Antioch and Wittenberg and Heidelberg and Otterbein

and Urbana and Ohio Wesleyan and Ohio Northern still flourish,

can be attributed to the time in American history when

Ohio was being settled. Ohio was being settled during the

period of the academy, and so many academies were founded.

And though the academies floundered, the colleges didn't,

as the denominations threw their support to higher education

when public high schools were established, believing they

could conserve their memberships through, a denominational

emphasis on the college level.

Another reason for this proliferation of academies

and colleges in Ohio can perhaps be found in the Consti­

tution of the State of Ohio, framed in Chillicothe from

November 1 to 29, in 18Q3, the year after Ohio was admitted

to the Union. Again, the constitution-writers were cognizant

of the issues of the time, and performed their framing in

logical sequence in the history of the United States, as

the Westward movement was beginning. Small settlements

were springing up all over the state, but mostly along the

Ohio River, and these settlements were usually ethnically and

religiously singular, not diverse, Elwood P, Cubberly pointed

out that the Ohio Constitution contains two sections that

reflect the time when it was written,4® These sections,

quoted below, were to have a strong influence—on the one

46Elwood P. CubberleyRe-adihgs- 'in? 't'h-ë History' 'of Education (Houghton Mifflin: New York, 1920), p, 423.

99

hand, for the rise of the academies in Ohio, and on the

other hand, for the fall of the academies in Ohio. One

article took a strong stand for religious freedom, and the

other took a strong stand against discrimination against

poor children in the schools:

ARTICLE VIII-

That the general, great, and essential principles of liberty and free government may be recognized, and forever unalterably established, we declare—

Sec. 3. That all men have a natural and indefea­sible right to worship Almighty God according to the dictates of their conscience; that no human authority can, in any case whatever, control or interfere with the rights of conscience; that no man shall be compelled to attend, erect, or sup­port any place of worship, or to maintain any ministry, against his consent; and that no pre­ference shall ever be given by law to any reli­gious society or mode of worship; and no religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office of trust or profit. But religion, morality, and knowledge being essentially necessary to the good government and happiness of mankind, schools and the means of instruction shall forever be encouraged by legislative provision, not incon­sistent with the rights of conscience.

Sec. 25. That no law shall be passed to prevent the poor in the several counties and townships within this State, from an equal participation in the schools, academies, colleges, and univer­sities within this State, which are endowed, in whole or in part, from the revenues arising from the donations made by the United States for the support of schools and colleges; and the doors of said schools, academies, and universities shall be open for the reception of scholars, students, and teachers of every grade, without any distinction or preference whatever, contrary to the intent for which the said donations were made.

The academies and seminaries and private colleges that abounded

in Ohio were established under Section 3’s. strong statement

100

for religious freedom. The academies and seminaries failed,

at least partially, because they were unable to provide low­

cost education to all people.

Nevertheless, during their heyday, while the histori­

cal and economic and political situations in the U.S, were

right, they certainly abounded, Exactly how many there were

in Ohio, and where they were located, and who established

them is not clear. Various scholars mentioned various in­

stitutions and gave different lists of seminaries and aca­

demies,' For example, W, W. Boyd gave a list of secondary

schools, dividing them by county. He cautioned that his

research had not been, very thorough, and hoped his list 17would be enlarged and completed, Boyd's list follows.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OHIO PRIOR TO 1840 18

Ashtabula County:Grand River Institute (Austinburg) ............................................. 1831

Athens County:Academy of Ohio Univ. (Athens) ............................................. 1808

(1st legislative act, 1802; 1st building, 1807)Auglaize County:

Mission School taught by Quakers ................................. .... 1809(Taught manual arts and agriculture until 1832)

pp. 121-125. are obviously for girls.

The starred schools (*) are schools that They total twenty-six.

ISßoyd often adds notes about the schools,

101

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OHIO PRIOR TO 1840 (contd. )

Belmont County:*St. Clairsville Female Seminary..................................................... 1836

St. Clairsville Institute & Teachers' Seminary.....................1837(Boys' school)

Brown County:Ripley College Academy.......................................................................1828

* Ripley Female Seminary..................................................................... 1832Butler County:

Dorsey Select School (Oxford)..............................................................1812Miami University Grammar School (Oxford)............................. 1818Wallace School (Hamilton).................................................................... 1814Hamilton Literary Society..................................................................... 1818(A Classical Academy)

* Oxford High School for Girls................................................................1830Hamilton and Rossville Academy........................................ 1835Furman's Private School (Middletown)........................................... 1833

Champaign County:Urbana Academy.........................................................................................1820

*Urbana Female Seminary........................................................................1824Clark County

Smith's Academy (Springfield)..........................................................1814Torbert's Grammar School (Springfield)....................................1824

Clinton County:Taylor's Latin School (W ilmington).................................................1820(Taylor was a Presbyterian minister)

Columbiana County:Salem Academy............................................................................................1809New Lisbon Academy................................................................................1814Friends' School (Salem) ..........................................................................1822Sandy Spring School................................................................................... 1839

Cuyahoga County:Cleveland Academy.....................................................................................1821

*Young Ladies' Academy (Cleveland)..............................................1825Darke County:

Swallow Grammar Schools.................................................................... 1815(Swallow was an itinerant preacher)

Delaware County:Morgan A cademy (Delaware)............................................................1815

* The Female Seminary (Delaware)...............................................1820

102

SECONDARY SCHOOLS PRIOR TO 1840 (contd. )

Delaware County (contd. ):Quitman's Academic Grove (Delaware)...................................... 1823(Quitman became Governor of Mississippi)

Fairfield County:Booth's Brick Academy (Lancaster...............................................1820Howe's Academy (Lancaster).......................................................... 1835Lancaster Institute............................................................................... 1838Greenfield Academy (near Hooker1 s Station)..........................1830

Franklin County:Dr. P. Sisson's Classical School (Columbus).................... .... 1817Lusk Academy (Columbus)................................................................. 1818New Academy (Columbus).................................................................. 1820

The Columbus Academy......................................................................... 1820* A Female Academy (Columbus)....................................................... 1826* The Columbus Female Academy.................................................. 1829

The Trinity Church Schools (Columbus)................................. 1820A High School by Horace Wilcox (Columbus)........................ 1832

* High School For Young Ladies (Columbus)........................... 1838Worthington Academy.......................................................................... 1820

Gallia County:Gallipolis Academy............................................................................... 1811

Geauga County:Burton Academy...........................................................................................1804Chardon Academy.................................................................................. 1825Parkman Academy............................................................................... 1830

Hamilton County:Reily's Academy...........................................................................................1792The Lancaster Seminary..........................................................................1815(Became Cincinnati College).............................................................

* Locke's Female Academy (Cincinnati)..........................................1823* Picket's Female Institution (Cincinnati).........................................1826

Kinmont's Boys' Academy (Cincinnati)........................................... 1827Woodward Free Grammar School (Cincinnati)............................1826(Afterward Woodward High School)

Hughes High School (Cincinnati)Ohio Mechanics' Institute (Cincinnati)............................................ 1828

* Western Female Institute (Cincinnati)............................................ 1833The Hentz Seminary (Cincinnati).................................................... 1834Institute of Science and Languages ( Cincinnati)................ 1836Institute of Cincinnati Adelphi Seminary.....................before 1830Cincinnati Academy............................................................ before 1830St. Xavier Academy (Cincinnati)..................................................1831

103

( SECONDARY SCHOOLS PRIOR TO 1840 , contdr )

Harrisen County:Alma Mater Academy (New Athens)................................. 1824(Afterwards Alma College, then Franklin)Cadiz Academy................................................................................ 1823

Highland County:Hillsboro Academy.................................................................. . . 1827

❖ Oakland Female Academy............................................. . .Huron County:

Norwalk Academy........................................................................ 1826❖ Norwalk Female Seminary...................................................... 1833

(Eliza Ware)❖ A Female Seminary.......................................................... 1837

(Harriet Bedford)Jefferson County:

Buchanan Academy (Steubenville)..................................... 1814(Edwin M. Stanton a pupil)Well's Academy (Steubenville)..............................................1818Ackerly Academy (Steubenville).................................................1.820Scott Academy (Steubenville) ................................. 1830

❖ Beatty's Seminary for Young Ladies................................. 1829(Afterwards Steubenville Seminary)Richmond Academy(Afterwards Richmond Classical Institute, and then

Richmond College)Knox County:

Sloan's Academy (Mt. Vernon)..........................................1815Kenyon College Academy (Crambier)................. ..... 1825Martinsburgh Academy....................................................... 1837

Lake County:Huntington's Private School (Painesville) ...... 1816Painesville Academy...............................................................1820Western Reserve Teachers' Seminary (Kirtland). . . 1838

Licking County:Granville Academy (Congregational)......................... 1827

❖ Granville Female Institute (Baptist)......................... 1832Denison University Academy (Baptist) (Granville). . 1831

❖ Newark Seminary for Young Ladies ......... 1837Newark High School (Pay School).......................... .... 1838Creek School (Etna)................................... .... . 1830

Lorain County:Elyria High School............................. ...................................... . 1831(Maintained by a board of trustees)Oberlin College Academy 1833

104

(SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OHIO PRIOR TO 1840, contd. )

Mahoning County:Sharon Academy ................................................. 1836Wadsworth Academy . ................................................. 1837Abbeyville Academy........................ 1837

Miami County:Piqua Seminary .................... 1818Grammar School (Troy) . ..................... .... 1826

’¡‘Select School for Young Ladies (Troy) .................................. 1838Montgomery County:

Dayton Academy ........... . ............................... 1807*Miss Dionecia Sullivan's Private School for Girls. . 1815Glass' School (Dayton) ............................................................... 1823Inductive Academy (Dayton).................... 1820

*Ma.ria Harrison's School for Young Ladies.................1832Muskingum County:

Stone Academy (Zanesville) ..... ........ 1808’¡‘Seminary for Young Ladies (Zanesville).........................1810’¡'Moravian School for Young Ladies (Zanesville) . . . 1819

Zanesville Academy ................................. .... 1824Howe's Seminary (Zanesville) .............................1830

' xMelntire Academy (ZanesVilLe). ..............................1836*Putnam Classical Institute .............. 1836

(Afterwards Putnam Female Seminary)Muskingum College Academy (New Concord) ..... 1837

Perry County:Somerset Academy......................................................................Weddell Select School ............................. .... .........................St. Mary's Academy .......................................................................1830(Now St. Mary's of the Springs -- Dominican)

Pickaway County:Circleville Academy ............. Before 1837

Ross County:Chillicothe Academy ....................................................................... 1808(A Lancasterian School)

. * Chillicothe Female Seminary .................................................. 1820Scioto County:

Wheeler Academy (Portsmouth) .............................................. 1818Seneca County:

Seneca County Academy (Republic) . ..................................1836Stark County:

* Canton Female Seminary ..... ...................................... 1838Summit County:

Western Reserve University Academy (Hudson) . , . 1827 Joyce's Private School (Akron) .......................................... . 1836

105

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OHIO PRIOR TO 1840 (contd. )

Summit County, c ontd.Mrs. Dodge's Private School (Akron)................................................1836Akron High SchoolConducted by Miss Hawkins......................... 1837(Private)Cuyahoga Falls Institute......................................................................... 1837Richfield Institute....................................................................................... 1836

Warren County:Robinson Grammar School (Lebanon)..............................................1810

Washington County:Muskingum Academy (Marietta)....................................................... 1797Institute of Education (Marietta)................................................... 1830Marietta Collegiate Institute................................................................ 1833(Afterwards Marietta College)

Wyandot County:Mission School at Upper Sandusky...................................................1823(Manual training, agriculture, domestic science)

Boyd also noted that the federal census of 1840

gave the relative standings of the states in the Ohio Valley,

with Kentucky having 116 academies and grammar schools, with

490.6 pupils; Ohio having 73 academies and 4310 pupils;

Indiana having 54 academies and 2946 pupils; and Illinois

having 42 academies and grammar schools, with 1967 pupils,

Michigan in 1840 had 12 academies with 485 pupils, and

Wisconsin had only two, with 65 pupils. These figures

are official, hut are probably not accurate,, as these

various lists giving Ohio institutions show.

106

Miller, working at Oberlin at about the same time as

Boyd (Boyd's article came out in 1916, Miller's book in

1920), made a chronological, rather than a by-county list

of those seminaries and academies established in Ohio

from 1803 to 1850. Miller also gave a disclaimer, saying

that his list was incomplete, and included only those

schools that were incorporated by the state legislature.

Miller's list follows.

SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS IN ORDER OF CHARTERING, ‘ 1803-5019

1.2.3.4.56.7.8. 9.

10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20. 21. 22.23.24.25.

* 26.27.28.

ERIE LITERARY SOCIETY, BURTON . ....................................................1803DAYTON ACADEMY................................................................................... 1808WORTHINGTON ACADEMY ...... ............................................... 1808CHILLICOTHE ACADEMY . .............................................................................. 1808NEW LISBON ACADEMY .................................... 1810STEUBENVILLE ACADEMY ................................................................... 1811GALLIA ACADEMY, GALLIPOLIS . . . ..................... .... . . 1811CINCINNATI LANCASTER SEMINARY . . . . . . ... . . 1815MONTGOMERY ACADEMY ....... .......................... 1816TALLMADGE ACADEMY. . ........ ................................ . 1816FLORENCE ACADEMY..................... ..... .............................................................. 1818CADIZ ACADEMY . . . ................................ .................................... 1819UNION ACADEMY, MUSKINGUM COUNTY. ............................................... 1819LANCASTER ACADEMY . . .............................. ...........................1820THE ACADEMY OF ALMA, NEW ATHENS. . ..................................... . 1822URBANA ACADEMY........................... .............................................................. . 1822RUTLAND ACADEMY . .................................................................. ....... . 1822FRANKLIN ACADEMY, MANSFIELD .......................... 1824NORWALK ACADEMY. ..... ............................................... ... 1824BELMONT ACADEMY, ST. CLAIRSVILLE......................... 1824CIRCLEVILLE ACADEMY. ............................................................................... 1824NELSON ACADEMY..................... ..... .......................................................... . 1828HILLSBOROUGH ACADEMY . . . ...............................................................1829THE HIGH SCHOOL OF ELYRIA . ... ................................ '. . 1830WOODWARD HIGH SCHOOL, CINCINNATI .......... 1831COLUMBUS FEMALE ACADEMY ........ . . . 1831ASHTABULA INSTITUTION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY . . .1831 DELAWARE ACADEMY ..................................... ..... 1831

•107

29. KINSMAN ACADEMY........................................................................................ 183230. CANTON ACADEMY........................................................................................ 183231. FARMINGTON ACADEMY ......................................................................... 183232. ASHTABULA ACADEMY ................................................................................*183233. HURON INSTITUTE ..... .......................................................... 1832

”34. CHILLICOTHE FEMALE SEMINARY............................................ ..... . 183335. RAVENNA ACADEMY.......................... 183436. UNION ACADEMY, WAYNE COUNTY................................................. 183437. VINTON ACADEMY ................ .183438. SPRINGFIELD HIGH SCHOOL ..................................... ..... . 1834

5539. FEMALE ACADEMY OF MT. VERNON . . 183440. STEPHEN STRONG’S MANUAL LABOR SEMINARY. ..... 183441. THE RICHMOND CLASSICAL INSTITUTE .. ....................................183542. KINGSVILLE HIGH SCHOOL................................................................... 183543. CONNEAUT ACADEMY..................................... ......................................... 18 3 544. WINDHAM ACADEMY . .............................................................. 1835

};45. GRANVILLE FEMALE SEMINARY.......................... 183546. FELLENBURGH INSTITUTE, BRUNSWICK, MEDINA CTY. . . 1835

"47. WESTERN FEMALE SEMINARY, MANSFIELD ....... 183548. WADSWORTH ACADEMY . .................................... 183549. ACADEMIC INSTITUTION OF RICHFIELD . .................................... 1835

:;50. HAMILTON AND ROSSVILLE FEMALE ACADEMY...............................1835"51. CIRCLEVILLE FEMALE SEMINARY ..................... ...... 1835

52. BISHOP’S FRATERNAL CALVINISTIC BAPTIST SEMINARY . 183553. UNIVERSAL SCHOOL OF MASSILLON .......... 183554. PUTNAM CLASSICAL INSTITUTE.........................................................183655. SENECA COUNTY ACADEMY . ..... ..................................... 183656. MADISON LIBERAL INSTITUTE............................................... ..... . 183657. WOOSTER ACADEMY ........................................................................................ 183658. SHAW ACADEMY.......................... 183659. ACADEMY OF SYLVANIA . . . .............................................................. 183660. GRANVILLE ACADEMY ................................................................................... 183661. SHARON ACADEMY ........................................................................................ 183662. MEDINA ACADEMY.................................................... 183663. CLEVES INDEPENDENT SCHOOL...................................................... .. 183664. MIDDLEBURG HIGH SCHOOL..........................................................183665. WARREN ACADEMY .......................................................... ..........................183 766. SHEFFIELD MANUAL LABOR INSTITUTE ..................................... 183767. NEVILLE INSTITUTE, COLUMBIANA COUNTY ........................... 183768. NEW HAGERSTOWN ACADEMY ............................................................... 183769. BEREA SEMINARY ................. 183770. PHILOMATHEAN LITERARY INSTITUTE, ANTRIM . . . . .183771. MONROE SEMINARY, MONROE COUNTY ......... 183772. TROY ACADEMY .................. 183773. NEW PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY ............ 183774. MASSILLON ACADEMY ................ 1837

”75. CLEVELAND FEMALE SEMINARY ............ 183776. AKRON HIGH SCHOOL . .............. .183877. CAMBRIDGE ACADEMY, GUERNSEY COUNTY ....... 1838

"78. MASSILLON FEMALE SEMINARY ............ 183879. WESTERN RESERVE WESLEYAN SEMINARY, STREETSBOROUGH.1838

108

80. EDINBURGH ACADEMY ............................................................................... 183881. WAYNE ACADEMY......................................................... 1838

"82. NORWALK FEMALE SEMINARY .............................................................. 183883. CHESTER ACADEMY, GEAUGA COUNTY ..................................... . 183884. EATON ACADEMY..................... .............................................................. 183 885,. SANDUSKY ACADEMY......................................................................... 183886. UNION ACADEMY, UNION COUNTY............................................... 183887. DOVER ACADEMY, TUSCARAWAS COUNTY ... ..................... 18388 8. MARION ACADEMY, MARION COUNTY ...............................................183889. BIGELOW HIGH SCHOOL, XENIA............................... 183990. MARTINSBURG ACADEMY, KNOX COUNTY ........ 183991. BLENDON YOUNG MEN'S SEMINARY . . . .................................... 183992. ASHLAND ACADEMY, RICHLAND COUNTY . .................................... 183993. WESTERN RESERVE TEACHERS' SEMINARY, KIRTLAND . . 1839

"94. OXFORD FEMALE ACADEMY ... . . . . . . . . . .183995. ASBURY SEMINARY, CHAGRIN FALLS ... .......................... 1839

’"9S. WORTHINGTON FEMALE SEMINARY .......... 183997. UNI VERSALIST INSTITUTE, OHIO CITY.......................... 1839

198. PARKMAN ACADEMY, GEAUGA COUNTY . ......................................... 183999. BARNESVILLE MALE ACADEMY ........................................................ .. 1839

IQO. BROOKLYN CENTRE ACADEMY ... ........... 1839101. AUGLAIZE SEMINARY, WAPAKONETA .... i ... . 1839102. LITHOPOLIS ACADEMY ...... . . . . . . . 1839103. MEIGS COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL 5 TEACHERS' INSTITUTE . 1839104. MT. PLEASANT BOARDING SCHOOL . ......... 1839105. CUYAHOGA FALLS INSTITUTE . '. ... . . . . . . . 1839

5: 106. RAVENNA FEMALE SEMINARY ............ 1839" 107. NEW HAGERSTOWN FEMALE SEMINARY . . . . ..... 1839

108. BASCOM SEMINARY OF WAYNESBURG ........ .1840109. GREENFIELD INSTITUTE .............. .1840110. STREETSBOROUGH HIGH SCHOOL . . . , . . . . . . . 1840

-111. WILLOUGHBY FEMALE ACADEMY ........... 1840112. PROTESTANT METHODIST ACADEMY OF BRIGHTON . . . . 1840113. EDINBURGH ACADEMY . . . . ... . . . . . ... 1841114. BURLINGTON ACADEMY ............... 1841.

-115, ATHENS FEMALE ACADEMY ............. 1841116. CANTON MALE SEMINARY ............. .... 1841117. MIDDLETOWN ACADEMY AND LITERARY ASSOCIATION . . 1841118. GUSTAVUS ACADEMY......................................................... ...... 1841119. PINE GROVE ACADEMY, PORTER . r..................................... 184212 0. CANAAN UNION ACADEMY .........................................................................1842121. TALLMADGE ACADEMICAL INSTITUTE .......................................... 1842122. BATH HIGH SCHOOL......................................................... 1842123. NEW LISBON ACADEMY . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 1843

-124. ST. MARY'S FEMALE EDUC. INSTITUTE, CINN. . .. . , 1843125. MAUMEE CITY ACADEMY ..................................................................... 1843126. LEBANON ACADEMY........................................ . . . . . .. . . 1843

- 127. OAKLAND FEMALE SEMINARY OF HILLSBOROUGH , ... .„ . 1843128. WEST LODI ACADEMY . . 7 . . . . . . . . . • .. < 1844129. FRANKLIN ACADEMY, PORTAGE COUNTY .... . ... .. 1844130. SALEM ACADEMY .................................................................... ..... 1844131. LORAIN INSTITUTE, OLMSTEAD ..................................... ... 1844

109

132. WAYNESVILLE ACADEMY .......................................................................... 1844133. KEENE ACADEMY, COSHOCTON COUNTY . . ................................. 1844134. TALLMADGE ACADEMICAL INSTITUTE, 2D INCORP .... 1845135. BEDFORD SEMINARY .................................................................................. 1845136. CINCINNATI CLASSICAL ACADEMY ............................................... 1845137. COLUMBUS ACADEMICAL 8 COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE . . , 1845138. AURORA ACADEMICAL INSTITUTE, PORTAGE CITY .... 1845

" 139. COOPER FEMALE ACADEMY, DAYTON................................ 1845140. AKRON INSTITUTE .. . . . ... . .......................................... 1845141. ROCKY RIVER SEMINARY.......................... 1845142. FINDLAY ACADEMICAL INSTITUTE . . . . . . . . . . 1845143. VERMILLION INSTITUTE, HAYSVILLE ........................... ... 1845144. COTTAGE HILL ACADEMY, ELLSWORTH..................................... . 18 45145. NORMAL HIGH SCHOOL, CARROLL COUNTY ............................... 1845146. LONDON ACADEMY, MADISON COUNTY .......................................... 1845147/ WEST JEFFERSON ACADEMICAL INSTITUTE . .. ..............................1845148. BALDWIN INSTITUTE, MIDDLEBURG . . . 1845149; LOUDONVILLE ACADEMY ..... . . .......................................1846150. NORWALK INSTITUTE .................................... 1846151. LIVERPOOL SEMINARY.......................... 1846152. MANSFIELD ACADEMICAL INSTITUTE .................................... . 1847153. XENIA ACADEMY ...... ....................................................... 1848154. RICHLAND ACADEMIC INSTITUTE ....................................................1848

55 155 . FELICITY FEMALE SEMINARY, CLERMONT COUNTY .... 1848155% MEDINA ACADEMY . . . . . .. . ....... ... 1848

* 156. OXFORD FEMALE INSTITUTE .. ...................................................................1849157. MILLER ACADEMY, WASHINGTON ..................................................... 1849158. POMEROY ACADEMY ...... .......... 1849

55 159 . SPRINGFIELD FEMALE SEMINARY .. ........................................................1849160. CADIZ HIGH SCHOOL .. ................................................................................1849

" 161. MANSFIELD FEMALE SEMINARY ............................ ...... 1849162. MT. PLEASANT ACADEMY . .. .............................. 1849

5: 163. ELLIOTT FEMALE SEMINARY, IBERIA . ................................ . 1850164. VINTON HIGH SCHOOL.................................................................................. 1850

" 165. DEFIANCE FEMALE SEMINARY ............................................................ 1850166. WESTERN RESERVE ECLECTIC INSTITUTE, HIRAM ... . 1850167. TIFFIN ACADEMY, SENECA COUNTY . 1850

5: 168. XENIA FEMALE ACADEMY................................ 1850169. HARTFORD HIGH SCHOOL.............................................................................1850

" 170. SOEURS DE NOTRE DAME FEMALE INST., CHILLICOTHE. . 1850

-^Miller, pp. 78-83. Those institutions starred (*) are obviously schools for females.

11Q

Summarizing, Boyd listed these schools that were obviously

schools for young ladies:

St. Clairsvilie Female Seminary Ripley Female Seminary Oxford High School for Girls Urbana Female Seminary Young Ladies' Academy (Cleveland)The Female Seminary (Delaware)

*A Female Academy (Columbus)High School for Young Ladies (Columbus) Locke's Female AcademyPicet's Female Institution Western Female Institute Oakland Female Academy

♦Norwalk Female Seminary A Female Seminary (Huron County)Beatty's Seminary for Young Ladies Granville Female Institute Newark Seminary for Young Ladies Select School for Young Ladies Miss Dionecia Sullivan's School for Girls Maria Harrison's School for Young Ladies Seminary for Young Ladies (Zanesville) Moravian School for Young Ladies (Zanesville) Putnam Classical Institute/Female Seminary St. Mary's Academy for Young Ladies

♦Chillicothe Female SeminaryCanton Female Seminary Mrs, Dodge's Private School

Miller listed these schools that were schools for females:

♦Columbus Female Academy♦Chillicothe Female Seminary Female Academy of Mt, Vernon Granville Female Seminary Western Female Seminary, Mansfield Hamilton and Rossville Female Academy Circleville Female Seminary Cleveland Female Seminary Massillon Female Seminary

♦Norwalk Female Seminary Oxford Female Academy Worthington Female Seminary Ravenna Female Seminary New Hagerstown Female Seminary Willoughby Female Academy Athens Female AcademySt. Mary's Female Educ, Institute—Cinn,

-Ill

Oakland Female Seminary' of Hillsborough.Cooper Female Academy—Day tonFelicity Female Seminary—‘Clermont CountyOxford Female Institute.Springfield Female Seminary Mansfield Female Seminary Elliott Female Seminary—Iberia Defiance Female Seminary Xenia Female AcademySoeurs de Notre Dame Female Educ. Inst.-Chillicothe

The starred seminaries appear on both Miller's and Boyd's

lists. As one can see, there is not much duplication in the

lists, though both men were listing academies and seminaries

from essentially the same time period, though Miller includes

1840 to 1850, also. This shows that there were many insti­

tutions for young ladies, but that no one knows exactly how

many there were, not even the Ohio Commissioner of Statistics

in 1860.

The flourishing of academies and seminaries can be

said to have reached its peak in Ohio by the end of the

1840's, and to be on the decline beginning in the middle of

the 1850's. The public high school was arriving. The Ohio

Commissioner of Statistics, in his annual report in 1857,

said, in the section entitled "Of Academies and Seminaries" :

Sixty countiesreturn (153) one hundred and fifty three of these, and there are doubtless more than two hundred in the State, This class of institu>T tion is, however, becoming rapidly superseded, by the establishment of the High Schools. The Public High Schools now number about (60) sixty, and they are really "the Colleges of the People," The High Schools of Cincinnati and other large towns, where the money raised for school purposes is sufficient­ly large, are already-prepared to give the pupils of the Common Schools, as they are advanced up, an education fully equal to that obtained in the

112

colleges of the country. The fact is apparent from the subject of study pursued, the discipline enforced, and the methods of instruction.20 * * *

Indeed, if the Commissioner of Statistics' statistics

are to be believed, there was a large decline in the number

of academies and seminaries and institutes by the time he

made his Third Annual Report, in 1859, where he tabulated

the "Number of Academies, Seminaries, and Female Colleges,

With the Number of Pupils and Teachers," by county, and

he came up with ninety institutions, with 404 teachers,

and 8,221 pupils, a large decline from the number reported

by Barnard and by Miller,24 Again., the reader will note

that many counties had no seminaries at all, while such old

and rich counties as Hamilton County had a large number.

The table also shows what the teacher/student ratio was,

and how many schools had only one teacher. Most of the

institutions appear to have been nondenominational:

20Inaugural Address .knd Rep:orts: Made' To The General As-semb ly and Governor oi 'the' S tat e of 'Ohio for 'the' Year1 1857, Part II (Columbus, 1&>8), p, 538. This was only the secondannual report-in the state's history, so earlier listings arenot available.

24Third Aunua'I Repbrt 'of the 'Cofnmiss'ioner' of Statistics to the Governor of the State ••'of Ohio, 1859 (Columbus.; Richard Nevins, State Printer, 1860), pp, 131—32, See report, following.

IX 3-

STATE OF OHIO NUMBER OF ACADEMIES, SEMINARIES, AND FEMALE COLLEGES, WITH THE NUMBER OFTEACHERS AND PUP: LS, 1859

Countieso X3. o

Zi y W

CDm Sh O OX! _• O

,2 «ö Z oH

M-lO w

4Remarks

Adams . . . .Allen................Ashland . . . Ashtabula . .Athens ..........Auglaize ......Belmont..........Brown...............Butler...............Carroll............Champaign. . .Clark.................Clermont. . . .Clinton...............Columbiana. . . Coshocton. . .

Crawford. . . . Cuyahoga....Dark....................Defiance..........Delaware. . . .Erie....................Fairfield..........Fayette.............F ranklin..........Fulton...............Gallia.................Geauga............Greene............Guernsey. . . . Hamilton. . . .

4111132121

17211

205

57350&06680

400130

Roman Catholic

Roman Catholic

2213

2

1

1

1121

11

Hancock....................Hardin.........................Harrison.......... 1Henry.........................Highland.......... 2Hocking............ .. . . .Holmes......................

13 281

2 5040 359

200

80

4 80

1 502 60

18 1413 30

116 1, 636

3 80

17 212

2 Protestant & 1 Roman Catholic

Reform School.

Episcopal Methodist.

United Presbyterian 2 Catholic & 2 Presbyterian; others no denomination

1 Episcopal Methodist

114

<EbntiiSafed. *.. : State of Ohio Number of Academies, Seminaries, and Female Colleges, With the Number of Teachers

Counties

No.

ofSc

hool

s

No.

ofT

each

ers

No.

ofPu

pils

FFn r on.........................Jackson..................Jefferson................. 2

22

168

204142250

Knox...........................Lake...........................Lawrence.................Licking................. . . 3

3

11 147

fewLogan. .................... .Lorain................. .. .Lucas......................... 1 2 very fewMadi son............. .. .Mahoning................. 1: 2 80Marion................. . .Medina................. .. .Meigs...................... .. 2.

135Mercer....................

Miami.........................80

Monroe.................... .Montgomery. .... Mo rgan......................

3 16 201

Morrow............... . .Muskingum. ..... 2 1J 200Noble.........................Ottawa................. -. .Pan Id infr................Perry................. .. .Pickaway.......... ..

1 10 60

Pike............... .. . .Portage............... .. . 2 9 576Preble................. .. .Pntna m............... ..Richland............ .. .Ross................. ..Sandnsky............... .

24

21

90148

Scioto................. ..Seneca............ ..Shelby...................... ..

1

Roman Catholic

2 Roman Catholic

Roman Catholic

1 United Presbyterian 1 Presbyterian

Remarks

1 Baptist, 1 Episcopal, 1 Congregational

115

(Continued. . . . : State of Ohio Number of Academies, Seminaries, and Female Colleges, With the Number of Teachers and Pupils; 1859

Counties

No.

ofSc

hool

s

No.

ofT

each

ers

No.

ofPu

pils

Stark......................Summit. . .............Trumbull.............Tuscarawas. . . .

21

62

25060

Union......................Van Wert...............Vinton....................Warren................W ashington..........

22

3

1094

5106 5

550Wayne....................W illiams...............Wood...................... .Wyandot. . .............

90 404 8, 221

Remarks

In another table of this Thir d Annual Report„ the Commis­

sioner listed 161 institutions which had received articles of

incorporation in Ohio up until 1860. Miller listed 170, up

until 1850, and many were incorporated after 1850. This dis­

crepancy points up the variability of statistics available

for this period, and also points up the ephemeral nature of

the schools themselves. Nevertheless, following is the 1859

"official" Ohio list, "Of Academies and Seminaries, Incorpor­

ated from 1803.to•1860."22

22Third Annual Report, pp. 139-142.

1-16

STATE OF OHIO: ACADEMIES AND SEMINARIES, INCOR-PORATED FRONi 1803 to 1860 (1859)

Counties Titles of Incorporation

1. Franklin.................... Worthington Academy2. Montgomery.......... Dayton Academy3. Ross......................... Chillicothe Academy4. Columbiana.......... New Lisbon Academy5. Jefferson............... Steubenville "6. Gallia...................... Gallipolis "7. Hamilton............... Montgomery "8. Huron...................... Florence "9. Harrison............... Cadiz "

10. Portage................. Tallmadge 1111. Muskingum............. Union "12. Fairfield................. Lancaster "13. Harrison................. New Athens "14. Champaign............. Urbana "15. Meigs...................... Rutland "16. Richland............ . Franklin "17. Huron.................... Norwalk "18. Belmont............... St. Clairsville "19. Pickaway............... Circleville "20. Hamilton................. Academy of Fine Arts.21. Portage.................... Nelson Academy22. Highland................. Hillsborough "23. Cuyahoga............... Bricksville "24. Delaware............. Delaware "25. Trumbull............... Kinsman "26. Ashtabula............... Ashtabula "27. Portage................. Ravenna "28. Wayne.................... Union "29. Gallia.................... Viiiton "30. Ashtabula............. Conneaut "31. Jefferson. ............... Richmond Classical Institute32. Portage.................... Windham Academy33. Medina.................... Wadsworth "34. Stark...................... .. Canton "35. Seneca.................... Seneca County "36. Muskingum.......... Putnam County Institute.37. Hamilton............... Madison Institute38. Wayne...................... Wooster Academy39. Cuyahoga............... Shaw "40. Lucas...................... S’yl vania "41. Licking.................... Granville "42. Medina. ....... Sharon "

1.17

Continued. ... : State of Ohio, Academies and SeminariesIncorporated from 1803 to I860 (1859)

Counties Titles of Incorporation

43. Medina............... Medina Academy44. Turnbull............ Warren "45. Carroll............ New Hagerstown Academy46. Miami............... Troy Academy47. Tuscarawas. . New Philadelphia Academy48. Stark................. Massillon Academy49. Guernsey. . . . Cambridge Academy50. Wayne............... Wayne County "51. Geauga............... Chester "52. Preble............... Eaton "53. Huron............... Sandusky "54. Huron............... Marysville "55. Tuscarawas. . Dover "56. Marion............. Marion ”57. Knox................. Martinsburg "58. Ashland.......... Ashland "59. Butler............. Monroe Academic Association60. Belmont. . . . Barnesville Academy61. Cuyahoga. . . . Brooklyn Center Academy62. Fairfield.......... Lithopolis63. Cuyahoga Methodist Academy of Brighton64. Wayne............... Edinburg Academy of Wayne65. Lawrence. . . . Burlington Academy66. Butler............... Middletown Acad. & Lit. Ass'n67. Trumbull. . . . Gustavus Academy68. Gallia............... Pine Grove of Porter69. Wayne............... Canaan Academy70:. Lucas.......... .. Maumee City Academy71. Warren. ..... Lebanon Academy72. Warren.......... Lebanon "73. Seneca,.......... ... West Lodi "74. Portage. *.......... Franklin "75. Ross.................... Salem Academy of Buckskin Twp.76. Warren............ Waynesville Academy77. Coshocton.... Keane "78. Hamilton.......... Cincinnati Classical Academy79..................................... Columbus Acad. & Col. Institute80. Portage.,.......... Aurora Academical Institute81. Jackson............ Jackson Academy82. Hancock............ Findlay Academical Institute83. Trumbull.......... College Hill Academy of Ellsworth84. Madison.......... .. West Jefferson Academical Inst.

118

Continued. . . : State of Ohio, Academies and SeminariesIncc rporated from 1803 to I860 (1859)

Counties Titles of Incorporation

85. Madison............... West Jefferson Academical Inst.86. Hamilton. .....87. Franklin.............88..................... ..

Cincinnati Lancaster Seminary Young Men's Seminary of Blendon Asbury Seminary at Chagrin Falls Western Reserve Teachers Sem. Bascom SeminaryGrand River InstituteHuron Institute in MilanStrong's Manual Labor Seminary Tullenburg Institute in Brunswick Neville InstituteBerea SeminaryMonroe SeminaryBaptist Lit. & Coll. Inst.Wesleyan Collegiate InstituteHigh Falls Primary Seminary Sheffield Manual Labor Institute Cuyahoga Falls InstituteMadison CollegeMarys ville InstituteGreenfield InstituteFranklin Institute of Portsmout h Canton Male Seminary

* Tallmadge Academical Institute ;Akron Institute

89. Cuyahoga.....90. Stark....................91. Ashtabula..........92. Huron.................93. Meigs..................94. Medina...............95. Columbiana. . .96. Cuyahoga.....97. Monroe...............98. Huron.................99. Cuyahoga..........

100....................... .. ............101. Lorain.................102....................................103 ....................................104 ....................................105. Huron.................106...................................107. Stark........108. Summit. .....109......................................110...................................... Vermillion Institute111. Cuyahoga............112......................................

Rock River SeminaryMiddletown AcademyLoudonville Academy

Norwalk Institute113. Richland............114......................................115. Lake. ....................116. Columbiana. . . .117. Cuyahoga.............118......................................

Madison Educational Society Liverpool SeminaryBaldwin Institute of Middlebury Mansfield Academical Institute

119. Logan.................... Richland Academical Institute120. Greene. .......121. Clermont............122. Medina.................123......................................

Xenia AcademyFelicity Female SeminaryMedina AcademyRichmond Classical Institute

124. Trumbull.............125. Clarke.................

Farmington Normal School Springfield Female Seminary

1-19

Continued. . . State of Ohio, Incorporated

Counties

Academies and Seminaries from 1803 to I860 (1859)

Titles of Incorporation

126......................................127. Butle r.................128. Guernsey..........129. Meigs.................130. Richland............Î31. Ross....................132.133.134. Gallia.................135.136. Morrow...............137. Seneca.................138. Defiance............139. Ross....................140.141. Greene.................142.143.

144. Warren...............145.146.147....................................148. Huron.................149......................................150. Warren...............151. Medina.................152. Stark....................153 ......................................154 ......................................155 ......................................156 ......................................157 ......................................158. Athens.................159. Wayne.................160. Summit...............161......................................

Cadiz High SchoolOxford Female InstituteMiller AcademyPomeroy AcademyMansfield Female Seminary Mt. Pleasant Academy Hillsboro Academy Western Liberal Institute Vinton High School Geneva HallElliott Female SeminaryTiffin AcademyDef iance Female Seminary Soeurs de Notre Dame Fern. Ed. In. Hartford High SchoolXenia Female AcademyCleveland Female Seminary Western Lit. and Theological Sem'y

of the Reformed Pres. Church Beech Grove Academy Frankfort Union Seminary North Royalton Academy Sigourney Seminary Olena AcademyMonroe Presbyterial Academy New Jersey Academy Seville Academy Freedom Seminary Cadiz Female Seminary Ravenna Literary Institute Bedford Christian Institute Poland Presbyterial Academy Union Female Seminary Coolville Seminary Grove Female Institute Greensburg Seminary Fredericksburg Academy

120

The reader will note that again, many different insti­

tutions are mentioned, and that tile three lists (Boyd's,

Miller's, and the State of Ohio's) have as much new material

as they do duplication. Whatever the true statistics as to

the number and longevity of the seminaries and academies are

(and this study is intended to give a general, not a specific

idea of their proliferation in the "West,” in Ohio), it is

evident that there were many of them, and that their number

began to decline in the 185Q's. Some academies became colleges,

some failed for lack of support, and some continued as prep

schools.

The reasons for the demise of the academy are several.

Most reasons, however, stem from thé fact that academies were

not, despite the wishes of their founders (i.e. Mary Lyon)

accessible to all people, and an outcry was made that they

were not true to the democratic ideal, as Kandel noted.

The academy was, ..however, destined to be a temporary institution only, since it did not fulfill the demo­cratic ideal of a public system of education, free from the lowest to the highest stage. In most states, it was public only in the sense that it was an insti­tution incorporated under the law; in essence, however, it was private because it charged fees, which in some places were remitted for a few students in re­turn for public assistance. By- the middle of the nineteenth century opposition to the academy began to develop on the ground that it .was a select, ex­clusive, and aristocratic school, catering chiefly to those who could pay fees and providing only for the more able children of the poor, , „ » From this opposition it was an easy step to the argument that the many ought not to be taxed for the benefit of the few (an argument that was soon to be used against the public high school, too), and a movement now

T21

for the establishment of a system of-f ree public high schools, equally open to all . . ,23

Ohio was particularly susceptible to these protests, given

the large number of private academies extant, and given the

provisions in the State Constitution, that no one would be

denied an education because of poverty.

Another reason for the fall of the academies and semin­

aries was that they were rural institutions., The country

was becoming urbanized, and this urbanization corresponded

with the growth of the public high schools. Sizer noted

that the academy was appropriate for a rural population,

spread thinly about the countryside, Day schools were not

appropriate in rural areas, because of the distances invol­

ved, but academies, where board was provided, were eminently

practical, for those who could afford them. Not many people

were wealthy enough to tax themselves' for such support,

though, and as urban centers arose, high schools were founded,

which could serve a large population on a day, rather than

on a boarding basis.24

Therefore, it was inevitable: the seminaries and acad­

emies diminished in numbers as the century wore on. They

had served their purpose quite well considering, though. They

had provided education above the elementary level, and even

an education comparable to college level, in some schools.

They had served a populace which often did not have an op­

portunity for .education beyond elementary school—women.

23Kandel, 405.

24Sizer, 97.

-122

They had been the necessary transitional school while the

nation was building itself up. They provided teachers,

both male and female, for the developing nation. Especially

in Ohio, the academies and seminaries played a very important

part in the history of education in the state, and indeed,

in the history of the nation, for Ohio's geographical posi­

tion in the Westward movement, and Ohio's unique educational

funding laws provided fertile situations for the establishment

of these private institutions.

Although the number of academies and seminaries being

established was diminishing by mid-century, because of growing

urbanization and the resulting development of public high

schools, two of the most important seminaries in the state

had yet to be established. These two seminaries were built

on the Mary Lyon system, and were to play an important part

in the education of young women in Ohio. They were Western

Female Seminary, founded in 1853, and Lake Erie Female

Seminary, founded in 1856.

1^3

CHAPTER IV.

MARY LYON IN OHIO; WESTERN FEMALE

SEMINARY AND LAKE ERIE FEMALE SEMINARY

Western Female Seminary

If any man wishes his daughter to be a fashionable doll, let him not send her here; we cultivate no such plants. If any man wishes his daughter to shine only in the light of artistic accomplishments, let him not send her here; for these we cultivate in strict subordination to another—a higher ideal. If any man seeks simply to make his daughter a mere scholar, there are other institutions where this can be effected as well as here.

But if a man wishes to see his daughter develop her powers in the -line of a true woman's life--if he covets for her the crown of an earnest-minded wo­man, inspired with lofty aims, conscious of power for good, and determined to use it aright—a woman whose disciplined head, and heart, and hand, are all prepared for a life of ennobled Christian action, in any and every field that she mayproperly call her own, then let him send her here.i

This quotation from an address delivered on July 17,

1856, at the first anniversary of the Western Female Seminary,

in Oxford, Ohio, summed up the philosophy of the female

seminaries of the day; the girl who attended one would not

only become a scholar, but a true woman, a Christian woman,

with discipline and a self-sacrificing missionary spirit.

4Samuel W. Fisher, "John Calvin and John Wesley: An Address," Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach, Keys & Co., 1856, p. 50.

124

The Rev. Daniel Tenney was the person who conceived the

idea of establishing Western Female Seminary, In his letter

to the people at the seminary on its: twenty-fifth anniversary

in June, 1880, Tenney quoted from his journal about when he

had the idea for thé seminary:

June 5, 1853—For some length of time I have been hoping and praying that God would make me instru­mental in the establishment of a school of a superior order, modeled somewhat after the South Hadley /Mount Holyoke/ plan.

He had been thinking about it for eight years, and in this

journal entry he wrote about his purpose in wanting to

establish a seminary:

If I can through this undertaking accomplish any-:;? thing to check the frivolity and wrecklessness of our young ladies, then I will bless God and take courage—then I shall not have lived in vain.

In his June 26, 1853 entry, Tenney told the people he wrote:

Thé School matter occupies almos-t every thought.0 for strength and wisdom to accomplish allI have undertaken.

By the end of the month/ he was obsessed with the idea of

establishing a school for girls in Oxford. He prayed and

he thought and he said he finally decided "to present the

matter to a few of my dearest earthly friends . , . "2

He had obviously been talking about his dream to es­

tablish such a school earlier, though, for a letter from

Rev. Lyman Beecher, Catharine's father, dated May 28 1853,

from Boston, encouraged Tenney in his plan. Lyman Beecher

had returned East after being associated with Lane in Cin-

2Daniel Tenney," Letter to Western Female Seminary, ’’June 1880. Westemiana Collection, Miami University Libraries Oxford, Ohio.

125

cinnati, and the two men were colleagues. Beécher, of course,

was an advocate of female education and a supporter of his

daughter's efforts to train female teachers for the West. He

wrote: "I have just learned somehow that you think of set­

ting up a Female Academy after the model of Miss- Lyon's. A

better thing you can not do." He warned Tenney not to name

the seminary after Mount Holyoke, as that would be confusing,

and not to "attempt at once the entire model," but to be

sure to modify the Mount Holyoke Plan to suit Western needs,

perhaps using some of the ideas that Mrs. Washburn had tried

in her school. Beecher admired Mrs, Washburn's school in

Cincinnati, saying of it, "I never knew so good a school com­

bining intellectual culture and the conversion of souls." He

also mentioned to Tenney the interest of Mr. and Mrs. Tichenor

in female education.3

On July 14, 1853, forty-six menl met at Oxford, Ohio to

incorporate a female seminary, Edward Lane, one of the founding

brothers of the Lane Seminary in Cincinnati, was elected to

be chairman, and three men, among them Rev. Tenney, drafted

a preliminary constitution and articles of association. The

preamble set forth the philosophy they held with regard to

female education:

Believing that a system of education more thorough and at the same time more economical than that now prevailing is needed in The West, believing that it is possible to reduce the expenses of an academical course that the highest mental-culture and training may be more generally diffused, and also believing

3Lyman Beecher, "Letter to Daniel Tenney ,"28 May 1853, Westerniana Collection, Miami University Libraries, Oxford, Ohio.

126

that evangelical religion must be the cornerstone of every institution that is to be of public and permanent benefit, we, the undersigned, having in our possession-a subscription for the estab­lishment of a Female Seminary- in or in the vic­inity of Oxford, Butler Co., 0., above the value required by the Statute of the State of Ohio in such cases made and provided, do form ourselves into an association . „ .4 *

Their belief that female education should be (1) thorough,

(2) inexpensive and thereby available to young ladies who

were not wealthy, and Ç3) imbued with evangelical Christian

principles was reflective of the philosophy of the time,

and descriptive of the female teacher who was to be trained

in their institution.

The first name they tried out for the new seminary was

"Beecher Female Seminary," presumably after Lyman, and

not after Catharine (Catharine is mentioned nowhere in the

papers).6 This was later that same day amended to "This

institution shall be called the 'Western Female Seminary',"

The second Article repeated the purpose: "The object of

this institution shall be to combine thorough mental culture

with evangelical Christian instruction ..." The third

Article stated that the physical structures of the school

would be built from funds solicited by donations. The

fourth Article stated that the Board of Trustees would

be made up of fifteen members, "all Protestants and the

majority of them members of some evangelical church." The

^"Articles of Incorporation," Westerniana Collection,Miami University Libraries, Oxford, Ohio.

5lbid.

127

fifth Article listed the qualifications they wanted in their

teachers. No academic degree was necessary, but the tea­

chers did have to be Christians:

The Teachers of this Seminary shall possess distinguished qualifications for the duties of the various departments assigned them and shall be professing Christians of some evan­gelical denomination. After thé election of the Principal Teacher by the Trustees the appoint­ment of the others shall be with the full con­currence of the Principal.

The sixth Article stated that "daughters of indigent

Western ministers" would receive a fifty percent reduction

in tuition and expenses. The seventh stated that real

estate security of double the value of any loan proffered

by the school would be required, while the eighth stated

that if funds were "diverted from their appropriate objects,

the property would be transferred to the American Home Mis­

sionary Society. Among the signers of these articles was

Mr. Tichenor, who had been mentioned by Lyman Beecher, and

who became one of the principal donors. In a letter to

Mrs. Sarah Howe, who wrote a manuscript history of Western

Female Seminary, Mrs. Cornelia Little Griggs, of the class

of 1862, wrote this:

My revered father, Rev. Henry Little, D.D., was greatly interested in the founding of the insti­tution, and for years one of thé Board of Trus­tees; was for a time President of the Board. I distinctly recall his -first mention at home, with great enthusiasm, the probability of the establishment of a Mary Lyon-school where girls should receive at small cost, the opportunity to avail 'themselves of a thoroughly practical edu­cation, according to the principles of Christianity

128

and common sense.

My father turned aside for a time from his work as Superintendent of the work of Home Missions in In­diana to solicit money for thé needs of the incipient undertaking. One of the early gifts was $50,0006 from Mr. and Mrs. Gabriel.Tichenor of Walnut Hills, a most devoted couple who, having lived in the South, in advance of their time freed their slaves and removed to the North to clear théir consciences of responsibility for thé evils of slavery and to be free from association with it. The "early graduates" remember the Tichenor Guest Room, furnished by them with quaint but imposing old-s*ty le mahogany. 7

Besides this large donation from the Tichenors, there

seemed little money available, and thé Executive Committee's

Second Annual' Report, in 1855, recited the troubles. Al­

though they had set out to raise $75,000 at first, they

then decided to up thé amount needed to $100,000, and then to

$125,000. Tenney wrote:

Many difficulties met us at thé very commencement.But one institution of the kind had ever been estab­lished in the United States, and this in a remote section of the country. And although that Seminary had been for eighteen years the glory of New England, still it was but little known in thé field in which we were called to operate, there was much unbelief as to the success of thé enterprise. The churches upon whose sympathies we chiefly relied we found to be very poor, often struggling for existence, un­able to sustain their own ministry in almost every 'instance, and in very many, cases embarrassed and exhausted with heavy debts.

At the time of making the contract for building, about $40,QQQ had been subscribed, mostly towards the permanent fund. It was supposed that one-hun­dred- dollar subscriptions from those who might wish

6This is a possible typing error by the transcriber of the manuscript, since the amount is listed differently in the Rep or t.

7 " ...........Sarah Isabella Howe,' Life 'of- Helen Peabody. Unpublished

ms.in Westerniana collection of Miami University Libraries, n.d. (c. 1900).

129

to avail themselves of the privileges of such an institution might be secured in an amount sufficient to put up the building. . . » Very soon after the work commenced those terrible reverses in the com­mercial world were experienced, the entire land was drained of its currency, and it became impos­sible for our agents to obtain cash subscriptions requiring immediate payments.8

The Board of Trustees then permitted subscribers to take

six or twelve months to pay, and in some cases, two or three

years. This forced the Board to borrow money. The "paper"

as it was called, was not, however, held by banks, but by

"warm personal friends of the Institution, who are willing

to hold it until it can be taken up by the notes of our sub­

scribers." Daniel Tenney, during this time had secured

$31,650.00 in cash subscriptions and $24,000.00 in real

estate, as well as $3,000.00 in railroad stock. J. J. Slocum-

had secured $20,182.60 in notes; L.R. Booth had $8,700,00

in notes and $300.00 in real estate; Thomas Tenney had

$6,745.00 in notes; I.Beach had $1,050.00; and W, W.

Wright had gained $500.00 in pledges. Along with the

residuary legacy of Gabriel Tichenor, in the amount of

$20,000.00® the institution had promises of $113,127.00

of which $12,063.17 had been collected.

In this same Second Annual Report, Daniel Tenney,

who was the executive director, warned them of their

holy cause:

8Second Annual Report. 1855» Westerniana Collection, Miami "OniversT^Tibraries, Oxford, Ohio.

^Discrepancy with Mrs, Griggs’ figure.

130

In. the prosecution of this work great caution is needed lest we shall mingle with it too much of a worldly element and think to carry it forward as the merely selfish enterprise of thé day are prosecuted.

He urged the Trustees to continue their work "with a self-

denying missionary spirit and entirely for the glory of

God." Again the Trustees emphasized that Western Female

Seminary was different, in that it was established for

the express purpose of training teachers:

The West is indeed crowded with "seminaries" and"colleges" and "institutes" for thé education of young ladies, but among them all we know of none that can be regarded as established expressly to educate the educators of our youth.

They are filled with all classes and ages, who are drawn together by every variety of motive; Some because their parents-wishit; others because the school is fashionable, and others to perfect them­selves in some one art or accomplishment, leaving all other branches of education out of view. The result has been that it is exceedingly difficult to find thoroughly educated, practical young ladies for the more prominent and public stations to which in the providences of God many of them come to be called.

The Report also emphasized that the students would not be

frivolous, "daughters of fashion,"who loved "mere pleasure

and adornment," but would he those who "thirst" for an

education which would be a Christian education. These would

be girls "whose means are . . . very limited," but who were

"determined to fit themselves to do good in the world."

The first catalog for Western Female Seminary had been

approved by the Board of Trustees at its "seven and a-half

o'clock, A.M," meeting on July 28, 1853, although the Seminary

did not open its doors until July 17 of 1855. The circular

131

assured its readers that adequate transportation would soon be

available to Oxford, Ohio: "Before the opening of the Seminary

this town will be connected by railroad with all parts of

the North, South, East, and Test . , ," The circular also

noted that the grounds would encompas-s thirty acres of

a "charming variety of hill, dale, and woodland."Id

Elsewhere in this circular, the philosophical views of

the founders were stated, regarding the purpose of female

education: ". . . the intellectual privileges of young

ladies should be much greater than are commonly afforded

them," in order that they may have "complete preparation" to

assume "the highest station of woman in society," Of greatest

importance in this complete preparation would be "moral

and religious culture," which would be especially important

"if we should see our daughters in the great social temple,

as ’cornerstones polished after the similitude of a palace'."

The founders stated that God should claim the girls' entire

"affections," and that their style of life should be that of

"self-denying benevolence."

Of secondary importance to moral and religious training

would be the education of their intellects. This education

would be given "not by ornamenting the surface with the mere

tinsel of accomplishments," but by the stimulation of the

energies of the mind.

Of third importance in the education of young ladies, as

the trustees saw it, was physical education, for "A well

10First Circular for the Western Female Gblriiiiary1853. in Westemiana Collection of the Miami Uni vers ity Libraries, Oxford, Ohio.

132

furnished intellect and a glowing heart, if connected with

a dormant and enfeebled body, can be of little worth."

This first circular also described the qualifications

of the teachers, and it was repeated that their main quali­

fication was that they were "professing Christians," prefer­

ably Presbyterian; "and it shall be an object of daily personal

attention with them to promote the religious interests of their

pupils," although the instruction was avowed not to be sec­

tarian nor denominational. The other qualification was that

the teachers have "distinguished" backgrounds, with "tho­

roughness" being emphasized. In fact, it seems the major

qualification was that they themselves be graduates of Mt,

Holyoke, for this was mentioned several times.

Among the first teachers at Western Female Seminary were

Miss Nutting, Miss Abbie Goulding, Miss Parsons, and Miss

Harrington.H Miss Harrington and Miss Nutting taught there

only one year. They were all Mount Holyoke alumnae, and

Miss Nutting kept the Seminary' Jottrn'al, which was exchanged

yearly with the JournaI of Mt. Holyoke, so that the people

at the parent school could have some idea of what was hap­

pening at the "little sister" school, and vice-versa. Here

is an excerpt from that journal for the year 1855-56:

We have not yet told you about our pleasant Western home, and we are rather reluctant to attempt a des­cription, lest it should fail in making it seem as delightful to you as it does to us. However we are vastly comforted by the consideration that if you do not like our word-picture, we can invite you to come

41Howe manuscript, page 3.

133

and see for yourselves. ... At present we must ask you to imagine yourselves on the way from Hamilton to Oxford in an old-fashioned coach-and-four, with abundant leisure to look about you while the horses walk up the long hills. The scenery is so like New England that you fancy you are almost home, and you find yourself watching for the familiar outline of the mountain ranges which the next turn of the road must bring to your view. . . , These trees are taller than you have at home, to be sure, and that corn is head and shoulders- higher than any Yankee corn that ever grew . « ,

Did you notice the large stone-colored edifice on the right, whose top was just now visible above the trees? When the coach stops at yonder white gate you will have a front view of it and we would bespeak your special attention, for it is The Western Female Seminary. As you walk along the winding carriage-drive, and approach the little bridge at the foot of the orchard, you observe that the buil­ding is of oblong.form, fronting west,-102 feet by 76 on the ground and five stories high. Each story has a balcony running about two thirds of the length of the front, supported by slender iron pillars, and surrounded by an ornamental iron balustrade.

You ascend the broad staircase to the first portico, and turning to the right, you enter one of the side doors. There is a corresponding door to the north end of the porch, and each leads into a hdll passing from the front to the rear of the building. Between these halls are the parlors, the windows of which open upon the verandah, and adjoining the parlors is the Seminary hall. Each end of the building is occupied by a range of private rooms. The above are similarly divided by two halls running from side to side of the building. In each story the front part of the space between these halls is appropriated to public rooms; the rooms for wood and water are in the centre, and beyond these, accessible by a narrow pas­sage looking across from one hall to another, are several private rooms, looking eastward upon the beautiful forest scarcely a stone's throw distant.At each end of all the halls are sash doors, those in front leading to the balconies, and the others simply guarded by iron railings. In fine weather these doors are usually open, and we can assure you that pure air is by no means a rare luxury in any part of the house. If you enter the young ladies' rooms you will observe that they are very much like

134

those at Holyoke, though the general plan of the two Seminaries is very different.

There are in all about seventy pupils.42

This building burnt down a few years later, in 1859, a common

fate for Seminary buildings. One first year student described

the heating and lighting conditions, which makes it easy to

understand why fire was such a threat:

Of course many of the modern conveniences were un­known in all boarding schools of that day. We did not have candles for lights, as I saw it stated not long ago, but we had lamps with burning fluid that gave from two wicks considerably-more light than candles with one little wick did. We had, at least in the teachers' rooms,- open stoves with their bright fires of snap-pine wood, so that our carpets were riddled with holes half across the room.4-3

Miss Parsons, another teacher in that first year, was de­

scribed by a correspondent to Miss Howe: "Miss Mary Parsons

was- an early graduate of Mount Holyoke and she reigned supreme

in the domestic hall that first year, and was also a faithful

teacher, besides caring for a Section of her own."^4

The Principal was Miss Helen Peabody, who remained in that

post from 1855 to 1887. Besides her, these were the teachers

during 1856 and 1857, the second year: Miss Philena McKeen,

Miss Adelia C. Walker, Miss Jane Tolman, Miss Ph ebe McKeen,

Miss Mary E. Foster, Miss Sarah Utley, Miss Eliza M. McCabe,

Miss Maria A. Beardslee, L. Amanda Whiting, Eliza J. Strong. * 14

43Howe manuscript, p. 2

14Ibid. . p. 28.

45Ibid. , p. 25.

135

Miss Foster, Miss Strong, and Miss Whiting were recent

graduates (1856) of Mount Holyoke, and thus barely older than

their pupils.4®

Miss Peabody was also a graduate of Mount Holyoke, and,

as Mrs. Cornelia Little Griggs, class of '62, said in her

letter to Miss Howe, Miss Peabody was considered "a fine

example of the realization of the ideals of the sainted

Mary Lyon." She continued:

The strongest general impression of Miss Peabody retained in my memory is that she was always in command of the situation and always held the balance of power. Whether in a time of epidemic sickness, of , . , insubordination, or an infec­tious alarm of burglary, intensified in the minds of the imaginative to an assurance of a visitation of ghosts, Miss Peabody was thoroughly resourceful and calmly possessed of adequate generalship.

Well do I remember a time when, morning after morn­ing, the breakfast table was gruesome with tales of gliding scapes through the halls, mysterious bell ringings and noises of all descriptions making the small hours of the night frightful.Miss Peabody quietly stationed relays of teachers on guard duty in positions commanding halls where the midnight intruders had been reported, and an effectual quietus upon excited fancies resulted when announcement was made that sentinel duty had been done for several nights, disproving, beyond a poradventure, the possibility of the reality of the imagined disturbance.4®

Mrs. Griggs also described Miss Peabody as having "superior

mental ability, well balanced rather than brilliant,” and

said that Miss Peabody was so devoted to The Western, as they

called the school, that she might have been married to it.

Such dedication from the administrators and teachers at

4®Howe, 23.

l6Howe, 27.

136

female seminaries was common. The remuneration was low,

less than $200.00 per year at The Western, and therefore

dedication and loyalty were necessary.

Two others among the first teachers were sisters, Miss

Phebe McKeen and Miss Philena McKeen. They were teachers

all their lives and they often taught in the same institu­

tions. Theynever married. One of the letters in the Howe

manuscript described their careers and their education.

Before they came to Western, they taught in Haverhill, New

Hampshire, and Peacham, Vermont, as well as at Mount Holyoke.

They remained at Western for three years, and then they went

to teach at Abbot Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. Phebe

McKeen was a writer and taugfrt literature. She wrote under

the name of Jenny Bradford, such works as' The Little Mother

and Her Christmas, and Theodora Cameron. They had another

sister, Catherine, who sometimes taught with them, before

she died in 1858.

Their father had taken charge of their educations early.

As was often the case with female teachers in the early 1800’s,

their father was a clergyman. Miss Howe quoted a PiEOfessor

Park as describing their childhood household thus: "I

recall no household excepting that of the Brontes, where so

intense an intellectual life permeated the atmosphere."17 He

attributed their dedication to education and to teaching

l^Howe, 15.

:i'37

to their early childhood.

Reared thus in an atmosphere of good learning . . . every one of its members wrote as natur­ally as they talked and slept. The father used to wake his daughters in the morning with an original couplet, and the one who would most readily give the corresponding rhymes was looked at with admiration by all the others.

Another unnamed writer thought that the success of

the Western Female Seminary was that there were teachers of

the quality and calibre of the McKeen sisters teaching there

from the very beginning. One correspondent, Eliza Strong

Merritt, spoke of them thus:

Among the teachers of those days the McKeens were especially useful. Not only highly educated, there religion was a healthy cheerful, everyday kind such as made one of the wildest girls say to a teacher, "If I could be; such a Christian as you are I would like to be one." Miss Philena McKeen was gifted with great good sense and in any perplexity seemed to know instinctively the wisest thing to do. What a life of privilege was hers! able to care for and help young ladies even to the last. "I am seventy-five years: old and well," she once wrote me., "so life is crowded with opportunities for service."

Teachers in these institutions seem to have been quite

mobile, moving from institution to institution, but teaching

only in female institutions, probably because they weren't

encouraged to teach at coeducational or male schools. Miss

Jane Tolman, one of the early teachers, eventually ended up

at Mills College in California, another "daughter" school

of Mount Holyoke. Other teachers taught both at Western

and at Lake Erie Seminary.

48Howe, pp. 15-17.

138,

One important, perhaps the most important, aspect of

seminary life was the evangelical fervor. Revivals were com-

19mon and it seems that even though the school was not specifi

cally denominational, it was certainly fundamentalist. The

teachers and the founders seemed to take it upon themselves

as part of their responsibility, to try to convert each pupil.

Conversion seems to have been a prerequisite for truly belong­

ing, and there are implications that those girls who weren't

saved were regarded as less than acceptable, as Emily Dickin­

son noted in her Letters. The pressure to become converted

seems to have been enormous. Miss Nutting, in her journal

about the first year of The Western, wrote:

There has been constantly more or less evidence of the Holy Spirit's presence among us, in the thought­fulness of some among the impenitent which in a few instances has seemed to deepen into true convic­tion and conversion; as well as in the returning to duty of others who had sadly wandered. Yet our faith has been sorely tried by many circumstances which have occurred among us; and we have been compelled again and again to resort to the Mercy Seat as our only hope. A little band for whom we had labored and prayed much and over whose hopeful conversion we had rejoiced, had been led into sin. To conceal their fault, they had resorted to a course of de­ception, long-continued and of an aggravated

19Francis Shepards on, in Defr'is oW- •Lftii'v’eWi'ty-, ■ 1831-1931,

A Centennial History (Granville, Ohio, 1931), commented on this and quoted a letter from Rev. Henry Carr, pastor of the Granville Baptist Church, published in the' Cross’ and Journal, Jan. 22, 1836, which read: "You have doubtless heard of the revival which we have recently enjoyed. It has been a glo­rious work. It commenced in our female seminary and in a very short time, every young lady in the boarding house, except two or three little girls, professed to entertain hope in Christ. It then appeared in our college, and since that time about twenty or upwards have expressed hope that they have passed from death into life." p. 179.

139

character. Long after their guilt was known to us, they persisted in an unqualified denial of the whole and it was this which grieved us most.We were at length compelled to write to their friends in regard to the course they were pursuing; but before this fact became known to the young ladies in question, they were led, as we trust, by the Spirit of God to make a full confession.All except one seemed as penitent and humble that they were permitted to remain, on condition of making a public acknowledgement of their misconduct to the school. The other young lady, probably less guilty but more unyielding was sent home. She was a girl of fine mind and strong character and deeply as she grieved us, we love her still and still pray that she may be reclaimed.29

One wonders what it was these girls did in their "course of

deception"; did they pretend to be converted when in fact

they were not? did they fail to keep curfews? It is a

tantalizing question. This comment by Miss Nutting also shows

that it took more than a "fine mind and stro^^character"

to survive the faculty- and peer-pressure at a Mary Lyon school.

Another description of the importance given to personal

conversion was written by Eliza Meritt:

. . . not only at Oxford but all over our land God was preparing the people for the time of sorrow and sacrifice which was so soon to come with the terrible war. One instance I have always remembered: One of our most talented and attractive girls had long been thoughtful, and much earnest prayer had been offered for her, but the thought of her friends at home seemed her hindrance. At last she yielded her heart to her Savior and wrote to tell her friends of her new found joy, when the mail the same day brought the same joyful intelligence from home friends.* 21

The story of Belle Riggs is another anecdote Eliza Merritt

told to Miss Howe, and it not only serves to illustrate the

evangelical- atmosphere of the Western Female Seminary, but to

29Howe, 12.

21Howe, 20.

140

describe the vagaries students went through to get there:

Among my section the first year was Belle Riggs, who had come from her far-away home among the Indians. In absence of any other mode of convey­ance, as well as lack of places of refreshments, they journeyed with their own horses across-the prairies, camping where night overtook them, being several days on their way before reaching civili­zation. I had known of her parents as devoted missionaries and was greatly surprised when Belle classed herself with the "not Christians." All that year she seemed almost persuaded and the next passed under the influence of Miss McKeen. The morning of the day of prayer Miss McKeen came to my room and called me out, saying, ’.'.I want you to come with me to pray for Belle Riggs, you know the promise is to two or three, and it seems impressed upon my mind that this is a day of crisis for her." I can never forget the earnestness and directness of her prayer, and it was answered and the Christian life Belle began that day led her to China, where she and her eldest daughter laid down their lives not long before the Boxer outbreak in that region, which compelled Mr. Williams to escape by way of Siberia.

The graduates who became- missionaries were much respected

and much beloved, and there are accounts of how their letters

to The Western were received with gladness. One graduate

went out as the wife of a missionary: "In the fall of 1857

Mrs. Quick, Maria Thatcher of first year’s pupils at the

Seminary went out with her husband to Ceylon." A letter giving

an account of their voyage was "read to the school at missionary

concert a year later." Some went out as teaching mission­

aries: "Miss Mary Spooner, class of ’58, very soon after her

graduation went out as a teacher to the Cherokees." Other

missionaries were Sarah L. Woodin ("Mr. Woodin and myself

in the summer of 1859 were appointed by The American Board

to join its mission at Foochow China , . ."), and Mrs. Shedd

141

(Jennie Dawes, *59), who went to Persia.24

Girls who finished the entire course of study often

remained at the school to teach, and therefore the population

at many seminaries was very young. Mrs, Woodin..noted that

"I was the youngest member of the first faculty, only nine­

teen when I went directly from Mount Holyoke Seminary to

Oxford."2® Mrs. Griggs, whose father was an early board

member, and who was quoted above, was "a member of the class

of '62 of the original Western Female Seminary, and a teacher

there during the two following years,"26 Miss Foster, one

of the first teachers, later remarked upon her lack of

experience-when she taught there during her callow youth:

How crude I was in those days. It seems as though I could do much better now if I were a teacher.Life, after all, is the best school, and I weredull indeed if I had not learned some lessons,27

Little mention is made in the Howe manuscript of letters

of reminiscence about life at The Western, nor in other

letters, about the girls' involvement in their studies, nor

of the pedagogical methodologies employed at the seminary,

perhaps because they were so interested in each girl's sal­

vation, and perhaps because it was taken for granted that

they studied and had classes, and such recounting makes dull

stuff for letters of recollection. Therefore, information on

24Howe, 25.

25 Ibid,

26Ibid., 26. Pagination in the ms.is repetitive; there are several sections.

27Ibid. ,21.

142

the intellectual content of the seminary experience must

come from the courses of study. Before they were even ad­

mitted to the school, the girls had to have "a good knowledge"

of these basics: English grammar, modern geography, written

and mental arithmetic, the history of the United States,

and Watts On The Mind. They were also urged to have acquired

some skill in orthography, in reading, and in penmanship.

If they wished to pursue instrumental music, it was suggested

that they have "some previous skill," and, in fact, the

Circular discouraged pupils from planning to begin to study

instrumental music at the Seminary:

♦Note: If the pupil at the time of her admissionto this institution is wholly- acquainted with the elementary principles of piano music it will be utterly impossible to make her a finished per­former of the same without greatly impairing her standing and scholarship in the more practical and far more important studies of the course.28

One of the criticisms of female seminaries and academies

at this time was that they attempted to teach too much in too

little depth, and so the curriculum planners of the course

of study at Western Female Seminary took care to inform the

students and their parents that the course of study had as

its aim to be "practical and thorough." They announced

that "It will not be made so much an object to have the pupils

pursue a great number of studies as to thoroughly master a

few." They assured the readers that the purpose of the course

was "not to heap upon them a mass of undigested facts, but to

28Circular of the Western Female. Seminary Published For The Benefit of its Friends and Patrons, 1853.

143

and discipline their minds . . , " They assured them that

"Nothing is put here for the sake of show," and emphasized

the practical nature of the studies.

There were three classes, the Junior Class, the Middle

Class, and the Senior Class, and it was thought that those

who were "well prepared" when they entered, could complete

the entire course of study in three years. Not all students

wanted to study for three years, however, and they were ad­

mitted for one year, or for two years, although they were

expected to pursue the regular course.

During the first year, or Junior Year, the girls

studied these "branches":

Review of English Grammar Ari thmeticGeography (with outline maps)Analysis of the English Language Ancient GeographyNatural Philosophy Philosophy of Natural History AlgebraGeometry (commenced)Latin (Grammar and Reader)HistoryParker's Aids and Exercises in Composition

The Middle Class studied these:

Latin (Exercises and Virgil)Ge ome try (comp le ted)Plane and Spherical Trigonometry MensurationBotany (completed)BookkeepingRhetoricChemistryAstronomyPhysiologyEvidences of Christianity HistoryExercises in Composition

144

The young ladies in the Senior Class studied these:

Latin ÇCicero and Tacitus)Geology Mineralogy Natural Theology Mental Philosophy Moral Philosophy Political Economy Butler's Analogy Logi cCritical Readings in English Classics Exercises in Composition

What were called the "accomplishments" were also avail­

able to the pupils, but on a less formal basis:

Attention will also be given to Vocal and Instru­mental Music (Piano), to Linear and Perspective Drawing, to Painting and to French.

Calisthenics were also a part of the regular curriculum,

and a student could study Greek: "To those who may desire

it the Greek Language will be taught as far as the Grammar

and the New Testament."

All these subjects were taught by the few teachers

mentioned on page 136, and so one must wonder if the Seminary

did or could live up to its aim to be "thorough," especially

since there was a two month summer vacation. The year was

divided thus: there were three terms—the first, of fourteen

weeks, beginning in the middle of September and lasting until

Christmas; the second, of thirteen, weeks lasting from January

until April; the third, of thirteen weeks lasting from the

middle of April until the middle of July.

In the first years of the Seminary, board and tuition

costs totaled $60.00, with fuel and light furnished "at

145

cost," and with no extra charge being levied for music les­

sons, nor for painting and drawing lessons. Clergymen's

daughters were given special assistance in meeting finan­

cial obligations.

The Western Female Seminary continued to educate

young women throughout the nineteenth century and through

most of the twentieth century. It became Western College

for Women in 1904. It was closed as a separate college in

1974, when it joined Miami University. Its history

closely parallels that of its sister school on the other

side of the state, in the Western Reserve.

Lake Erie Female Seminary

Lake Erie Female Seminary in. Painesville, Ohio, was

another Mary Lyon institution in Ohio. It was an outgrowth

of the Willoughby Female Seminary, which was founded in

1847. The Willoughby Seminary was moved to Painesville

in 1856, after its building burned, and its name was

changed to Lake Erie Female Seminary, An association with

Mount Holyoke was begun in 1859, ten years after Mary Lyon's

death. The booklet printed for the alumnae of the insti­

tution on its twenty-fifth anniversary in 1884 described

the Willoughby effort. Clergymen had been exploring the

chances of starting a seminary since 1834. They were con­

vinced of the need for female education and conferred with

146

women wild were running successful girls' schools, including

Emma Willard of Troy, New York, but they had no building and

no money. Then the Willoughby Medical College was moved to

Cleveland and their building was vacated. One of the

founders described their further efforts:

It was to Mt. Holyoke Seminary, which then had been in successful operation for ten years, that the committee how turned; and Miss Lyon, whose sympathies had always been strongly enlisted for the growing West, entered into their plans with great interest. She recommended as Principal of the proposed school, one of her own graduates,Miss Roxena B. Tenney, 20 who had already de­clined an invitation to become a teacher at Mt.Holyoke Seminary and in other places in New England, under the strong conviction that she could, be more useful as a teacher in the West. Miss Tenney being favorably disposed towards the new enterprise, the College building.was refitted with recitation rooms and music rooms, and one large hall which could accommodate two hundred pupils,30

The Willoughby Seminary flourished, and in its second

year it had one hundred pupils and four graduates. Miss Tenney

was principal there for seven years, and the number of students

increased yearly, "till applicants were refused for want ot

room." The students were not housed in. the rebuilt medical

college/seminary building, but they rented private rooms from

town residents. By 1853, there were 226 pupils: 41 in the

preparatory department, 149 in the Junior Class, 21 in the

Middle Class, and 14 in the Senior Class. After the reclaimed

medical building burned in 1856, the board of trustees considered

2®Miss Tenney seems to have been from "the West," but in­vestigation has not come up with what would seem a natural con­nection, with Daniel Tenney of Western.

/ •. ...................................................30"Twenty-Fifth Anni vers'arv' of Lake Erie Sfiminary,"

Cleveland: 0 Savage, 1883), p. 5.

.147

what to do, while classes were held in improvised rooms all

throughout Willoughby. Nearby towns were making bids for

the school, and the Painesville bid was among them.

The agent for Mount Holyoke, whose main responsibility

in the Cleveland area was fund-raising, a man by the name

of Rev. Roswell Hawks, was consulted and was in favor of

moving the seminary to a larger town, and so the Painesville

offer was accepted and Lake Erie Seminary was incorporated,

in 1856. Mr. Hawks, or "Father Hawks," as he was called,

was also in favor of constructing facilities large enough

so that the Mount Holyoke Plan could be carried out complete­

ly; in Willoughby the domestic plan could not be followed

because the girls boarded out. Hawks pushed for a situ­

ation where the girls could board at the school and be

together all the time, and not just for classes, and so

Mary Lyon's plan for the creation of a "family" at all

her schools, with the domestic duties to be shared by the

pupils for at least one hour every day, in order to cut

down on costs and to teach responsibility, was instituted

at the new seminary.

The building was located on a plot of fourteen acres,

on easily drained, thus healthful sandy soil, and maple trees

and evergreens were planted among the oak trees and chest­

nuts. The students could see Lake Erie from the top floor

windows, which were four stories high. One hundred eighty

by sixty feet, the building was designed to accommodate one

148

hundred and fifty persons in the Lake Erie Seminary "family".

The building was completed, and in September, 1859, seven

teachers, most of them Mount Holyoke graduates, opened school.

The principal was Miss Lydia Sessions. Two of the one hundred

and twenty-seven pupils graduated that first year.

Miss Sessions was principal until 1866, when she married

one of the local Congregational ministers, and the teachers

ran the school without a principal until another Mount Holyoke

graduate, Miss Anna Edwards, took over as principal. In its

first twenty-five years, Lake Erie Seminary enrolled 2800

students, of whom 230, or about eight percent,: completed

the full course. One hundred and fifty of these graduates,O 1

or about 65 percent, became teachers. This reason was

given for thé low total of students who completed the full

seminary course:

The Seminary has been ambitious in extending its course of study, and its strict adherence to Latin and Mathematics as essential to graduation, has seemed, to some, to lengthen the time of study overmuch.32

A letter from Mrs. Edna Lyman Wilbur, who graduated from

Lake Erie in 1862, and who taught there after graduation,

before moving to the Dakota Territory, gave a picture of life

at the Seminary:

Jamestown,.Dakota, June 18, 1884

31 ■-Twenty-Fif th Ann iversary," p. 9 .

32Ibid. , p. 10.

149

.... Mr. Avery received thé new comers that morn­ing at the east door, conducted them to Parlor A, and presented them to Miss Sessions. When I arrived, morning worship had already begun in the chapel.Would I go in? The door were silently opened as I bowed assent. Miss Mary P. Bronson, thé first Associate Principal, was on the platform, with an open Bible before her. T remembér her earnest, plead­ing voice better than her words, but r also remember the hymn sung. It was the hymn beginning "How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord," sung to the air, "Home, Sweet Home," There is nothing in all the past that comes back to me now with so much sweetness and force as the hymns we used to sing. . . . And not hymns only, but thé merry songs when the full wagons came home through the moonlight along the Mentor road after a merry day at Little Mountain; and those we sung while busy fingers were making evergreen wreaths and mottoes just before Thanks­giving; thé songs we sung at our Flag Raising, and on one moonlight evening in response to the martial music of our soldiers on thé eve of departure for the seat of war.

Mrs. Wilbur also wrote about her memories of the visits, before

and after his death, of Abraham Lincoln:

. , . Again, on a bright spring morning, with many a laugh and a jest, we are loaded into picnic wagons

. and drive away towards thé depot. Abraham Lincoln, President-elect of thé United Btates, is to pass through Painesville today, on his way from Spring- field to Washington, to enter the duties of his office. We wait to see him. Everybody else does too. What a crowd, and how happy everybody looks!Thé engine gives one quick, jubilant scream. The cars all decked with flags roll up, and stop. The band plays. Our Chief steps upon the platform.Cheers rend the air. He speaks. His face is ra­diant with goodness. ...

Another morning comes,—a rainy morning,—more than four years after; a few of us are still at the Seminary. We put on our hats, shawls and rubbers, take our umbrellas and walk silently through the rain towards the depot. Our Chief is going back today,—back from Washington to Springfield. He will pass through Painesville on the early morning train. We shall not see his face

150

today. . . Bis still form lies wrapped in that flag for the love of which hé lived and died. . .Oh! the wail of that locomotive! ... We can see it through the car window. We can see, too, the place where Tittle Willie lies, covered with white immortelles. The engine has taken in water. It puffs and begins to move. ...

Mrs. Wilbur used her descriptive talents to talk about the

ceremonies at Lake Erie Seminary, also:

It is Anniversary Day. We form in the white-robed procession, pass out thé front door, under the young trees, and then turn towards the grove. Class after class pass before us. . , Thé first, the two Marys, who stood side by side and went through But­ler's Analogy without a faltering step. Then, the nine of '61 and thé twelve of '62, the latter being the first class whose entire course of study was taken here. The dark days of thé civil war were over us then. There were only seventy pupils in the school. The class of '62, or several members of it, held a long consultation in the Library one day as to whether it were not better to go to some older, more firmly established seminary to finish their course, but concluded to remain true to Lake Erie Seminary ...

Mrs. Wilbur was known among thé alumnae as an accomplished

journalist. In the same long letter, she recalled the teachers

at Lake Erie Seminary:

Can you not once more, see Miss Prescott looking over the populous Domestic Hall? We did not know then how much we owed to her, but often, since, when we have been at our wits' end, catering for a family of eight or ten, or transiently, for fif­teen or eighteen; when we have been exasperated by ignorant and unskilled help, then we have added in imagination to our burden ten or fifteen times . . .33

33The "burden" referred to was the student work required by the Mary Lyon domestic system. Many of the girls came from homes with servants, and so domestic work such as cooking and cleaning was new to them.

151

Can you not see Miss Fisher's calm, triumphant face looking down over her Algebra class at a public examination? The calmness- of assured victory look­ing out upon us from those eyes controlled our nerves and allayed our fears. She expected us to succeed, therefore we did succeed.

Or is it Miss Dorr who-.dawns upon us in the sick room, full of hope and cheer, of balm and blessing, even after a night of watching. Or-is it Miss Harriet Smith after her dark, yearning, mournful eyes?34

The teachers at Lake Erie seem to have been as dedi­

cated as those at Western Female Seminary. In a letter to

the alumnae in 1894, Mary Burton Shurtleff of the class of

1860 recalled their dedication and loyalty:

What and how great an enterprise was undertaken by the first teachers of Lake Erie Seminary we may be able to estimate more fairly, after the lapse of so many years, than while the work was in progress. Probably it did not occur to the trustees, or indeed, to any of the girls who gathered there for study in the fall of '59,.that thé task of the eight ladies, placed in charge-,- was an--especially difficult one.

-• • «'"• « • « « • « • « t « ♦ » • « « « « * * *These, then, were the tasks to which the first tea­chers set themselves. Besides the main requirement of thorough35 instruction in a liberal course of study, they arranged and supervised all the work needed to be done in a family of one hundred and twenty-seven, in a building without modern conven­iences, and looked carefully after the habits, health, and morals of this large number. It will be seen that these were an immense addition to the ordinary duties of the teacher.

Another burden which lay upon the first band of teachers was thé lack of means for the proper equipment of the various departments of study.

34 Twenty Fifth Anniversary, 52-53.

35 Note the use of the word "thorough" again, to describe a seminary education (which must have been anything but thorough, given the number of offerings and the limited preparation of the teachers).

152

There was no apparatus, no cabinet, almost no library,36

Mary Burton Shurtleff went on to note that these teachers’

salaries for the first year were "$16O.QO each, an amount

often paid in these days to domestic help." They received

$200.00 the second year, and $250,00 the third year, and

this was their top salary. These salaries compared with

those received by the teachers at Mt. Holyoke, so they

didn't complain. Sacrifice for the greater good to the

glory of God was part of the Mary Lyon creed,

Shurtleff then described the first principal at Lake

Erie, Miss Lydia Sessions, who taught full-time in the Senior

branch, as well as being administrator of the school. She

was always composed and "eminently methodical," making sure

to allot enough time for all her duties:

She was never hurried, never idle, and very rarely hindred by illness or fatigue. She was a grand illustration of New England ideas of thrift and management. After taking one-tenth for benevolences, she so used the remainder of her small salary that no lack of what was becom­ing or appropriate ever appeared in her wardrobe or surroundings. A few flowers or plants, some inexpensive pictures and well chosen books, with a touch here and there from her deft hands, trans­ferred her plain room into the cheeriest, most delightful place in the whole house.

Miss Sessions had the ability, it seemed, to gauge the

capabilities of each pupil, and to demand that each do the

best she could. Although Shurtleff said Miss Sessions taught *

36 The Seminary Record, VII no. 2, pp. 241-44,

153

all the branches of study very well, it appears she excelled

most at teaching the Bible:

None of us who gathéred in chapel for morning devo­tions, will ever forget her glowing face, her rever­ent reading of scripture/- followed occasionally by brief impressive comments, and always by such earnest petitions as carried us into the very presence cham­ber of the "King invisible."

Miss. Sessions had taught at Mt. Holyoke, and when she came to

Painesville, she brought Mary Burton Shurtleff with her to

Ohio, and Mary Shurtleff became one of the first graduates.37

Shurtleff went on to teach at Oberlin for many years. In the

letter being discussed here, she recalled the first public

examinations at Lake Erie Seminary':

Does anyone here remember how the people of Paines­ville came out to the public examinations of that year, filling the old chapel and the space about the doors? It was a trying ordeal to the two Seniors, but our teacher was so calm, so entirely her every day self, that we forgot our trepidation and did our very best, because she expected it of us.

Financial concerns were always great at these seminaries,

partly because the public did not view female education as

being as important as the education of boys, and partly be­

cause a secondary school education was rare for both sexes,

and many people thought that people should be made literate

on a very basic level, before money was spent on "higher"

education. Lake Erie Seminary had its share of financial

difficulties. The accounts of thé early years tell of the

attempts to raise funds. The Seminary did not begin its life,

as Mary Lyon would have wished, "free of encumbrance.," They

37cf. Mrs. Wilbur's reference to "the two Marys", on p.152.

154

started out heavily in debt, and that debt was not paid off

until after the Civil War, Current expenses on a year-to-

year basis were met, according to thé writer of the Twenty-

Fifth Anniversary pamphlet, "by wonderful self-denial on •

the part of the teachers" 38 as well as by. circumspection

on the part of the trustees. Thé primary contributor during

the early years was thé Hon. Judge Reuben Hitchcock who,

through his railroad interests, was growing more and more

wealthy. He was a member and sometimes president of the

board of trustees, and in 1871, for example, he gave a Christ

mas gift to the seminary, of ten thousand dollars. He made

attempts to find natural gas on the seminary property, so

that the building could be heated and lighted: "With an

inexhaustible supply at his own beautiful home over the

river, it did not seem too sanguine an undertaking." It

was never mentioned that they did strike natural gas.

Additions were built onto thé building periodically,

and furniture and othér comforts were added. The students

were properly grateful for these amenities, often provided

by donors. One student even wrote a poëm about a new carpet

Thrice the daylight dawned and darkened Ere the stitches all were taken,Ere the carpet all was finished.Noise of hammers then succeeded;Quick upon the floor we. laid it,Then, when all was done, surveyed it,And with pleasure gazed upon it,Gazed upon it with a pleasure Ne’er before vouchsafed to mortals,Wêary. mortals who had made it.

3 8"Twenty-F i fth. - p. IQ.

155

Wondrous carpet! Much we wonder-.What will be thy fait ..hereafter..Ye who, in the future, tread it,Tread it lightly, and rememberThose who bought it, those who made it.Time, deal gently with our carpet,Spare its brightness and its beauty,Spare it long to do its duty.39 *

One cannot read this without smiling, either in amusement or

disgust, but such creative writing was apparently taken

seriously, for a piece of that very carpet was used to cover

a platform in the chapel, and an alumnae of the class of 1863

wrote a further poem about thé carpet: ,

Shade of the mighty, can it beThat this is all that's left of thee?49

But carpets were necessary, as well as were the other

expenses of running a school for two hundred teen-aged girls

and their teachers. Dr. H.C. Haydn, a member of the board

of trustees at the time of thé twenty—fifth anniversary,

and a former pastor of a large church in. Cleveland, as

well as one of thé more successful fundraisers for the

Seminary, spoke (perhaps a bit bitterly) about finances:

If anybody thinks that to carry forward so modest an undertaking as this for a quarter of a century is a holiday affair, he needs to have his mind en­lightened. . . . Success has been a costly thing— most of all in wear and tear of precious life. No munificent friend founded it or has stood by it.No large gifts have come to it at all, as compared with many other schools of Christian, culture. . , .All who have been here, from thé first, have had

39 ' Twenty-Fifth, • ' p . 4 8,

4QIbi d. , p. 49.

X5B

their education at less than thé. cost. The terms were made so low that none worthy to enjoy the advantages need he debarred. They so continue.. . . Try to get considerable money for the edu­cation of girls—for such a Seminary as this—and you will know what I mean, We are not in New England, where the education of young women has made such a- magnificent stride ahead. We are in Ohio, which, in this respect, is twenty-five, or fifty, or maybe a hundred years behind New England, though we are a good way ahead of the Turks.41

Dr. Haydn went on to speak about the importance of edu­

cating girls, saying that it was no trouble to obtain "splen­

did endowments" to educate boys, but even though girls would

be the homemakers and the trainers of sons (he didn't mention

daughters), as well as thé teachers "of thé schools of the

future," and the receivers of "unparalleled openings for

women's work" all over the world, no one wanted to support

their education. Haydn made his remarks in 1884, after

twenty-five years of begging for funding. His comments

show that little progress in the education of girls had

been made during the century.

The board of trusteés, because of the great difficulty

in raising funds, considered making the seminary sectarian,

so that it could stay open under thé aegis of one religious

denomination. Dr. Haydn said it would then have been

easier to get funds, for "so long has education in Ohio run

in sectarian grooves." Be commented that the teachers and

principals often had had higher-paying jobs offered to them

elsewhere, but that they had refused: "Again we were face to

41 Twén ty-F if th. ’ pp. 77 ff.

157

face with Mary Lyon and the Christ in her, and, praise to

God! self-sacrifice triumphed."

Haydn wished that Painesville was within the Cleveland

city limits, so that they could get funding:

Cleveland has begun to hear of us; Cleveland was about a thousand miles away for a good part of this quarter of a century. We are beginning to get her girls. We have had a little of her money, but more praises than .cash, thus far. Having her girls and her praises, it will be a new thing under the sun, if we do not get something else, Cleve­land is generous—to herself.

Another early trustee of the institution was, perhaps,

typical of those men who supported female education and who

served on the boards of female seminaries. The Rev. Hubbard

Lawrence graduated from Marietta College in 1838, and he went

to Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati, where he studied

under Lyman Beecher and Calvin Stowe.42 He took a pastorate

in Toledo, which was a home missions area. While in Toledo,

Rev. Lawrence tried to establish a school to prepare boys

for college, and girls for advancing beyond the districtA

schools’ curricula. While in New England searching for a

teacher for his school, he met Mary Lyon, and as had many

other men, he became very interested in her principles for the

higher education for women. He spent much of his time as a

financial agent for Western Reserve College (for men), but he

eircourjagexl. ancLlnelped young women who were interested in

42 The writer is struck by the repetition of names and insti­tutions within the female seminary movement in Ohio. The Beechers, Lane Theological Seminary, the Tenneys, the Hubbards, the Hitchcocks, the Haydns, etc, keep coming upon boards of trustees as well as in personal accounts.

158

furthering their educations, to attend institutions that

combined higher learning with Christian principles, and

especially encouraging them to attend Lake Erie Seminary.

He contributed, during his life, over $4QQQ.0Q to

institutions such as Lake Erie Seminary, Marietta College,

Western Reserve College, and Oberlin College; this sum

was amazing for a man who often earned little more than

$400.QQ a year, and who had his own family to support. He

also gave private gifts to individual students in need,

and.these were never totalled. Rev, Lawrence’s own daugh­

ter attended Lake Erie Seminary, and then she taught there,

in the Lajtin and history department,: as well as spending

some time as a missionary in Constantinople. He died in

1895.43

These dedicated men, mostly ministers and professional

persons, did preserve the ideal of womanhood their predecessors

had preached. They went about from seminary to seminary

giving addresses on graduation days and founders days about

the value of female education., considering the true nature

of woman and her place in her God-given sphere, and giving

the reasons women should be educated. Each speaker had a

different style, a different rhetoric, but the message was

the same. Typical of these speeches was the first anniver­

sary address at Lake Erie Seminary, by the Rev. Henry Storrs.

Storrs seemed to be echoing Eordyce (Chapter I, p. 18) in that

he saw the purpose of female education to be to educate

43The Seminary Record, VIII (1895), p. 325.

159

women so that Intelligent men could talk to them about in­

tellectual matters:

It seems to us a grand thought, to go forward in such institutions as this; the thought of bringing up the average intellectual position of the American woman until, as a whole, she shall occupy a plane of intelligence higher than that now occupied by the best. our-educated and thinking men findlittle in telle ctual,companionship in female society; a gulf is recognized as widening between the sexes; and for intellectual conversation they must resort to men. They fear to venture thé higher themes into conversation with women—the dead blank of an inanimatey unresponsive attention, or some attemp­ted reply, sadly out of joint, has so often proved their best reward.

And this divorce of intellectual life between them goes on increasing with their years. , . , The man has been outgrowing his sister, in the habits and powers of reflective thought; of mental creation, not less than in the positive acquisition of high knowledge.

The evil effects of all this can hardly be over­stated. Involving, as it does, cessation of equal and appreciative and mutually influential companion­ship in intellect, this divorce or separation affects both parties disastrously. Deprived of the influence of woman’s readier faith, man becomes arrogant, infidel of intellect; and woman, unaided by man's energizing strength, becomes insipid, fragmentary, effeminate. Mutual understanding and healthful relations cease.44

' 44Henry M. Storrs, Address ’at Lake Erie Seminary, July 19, I860, n.p. 24 pgs. Apparently the subject of female educa­tion was a favorite topic at female institutions. See the citations for similar addresses by Henry Day, George Emerson, Charles Elliott, Samuel Fisher, Henry Goodwin,- 3.W. Hall,L.P. Hickock, Joseph Matthews, and John Scott, in the biblio­graphy of this study. The influence of these clergymen in preserving the innatist view, and in encouraging antisuff­ragist and anti.feminist attitudes can not be underestimated.

160

The things Storrs was saying were not new; that women were

more easily and naturally religious and faithful; that men

were the energizers; that the sexes were essentially and

innately different was an old and familiar sermon. Storrs

went on to attribute the fact that women were not trained

to use their intellects to a dearth of professional role

models among women, and hé suggested that the graduates

keep up on their reading of serious matter (but not novels),

that they keep practicing thé arts of good conversation (but

not domineering conversation), that they keep practicing

their writing skills, in order to be "intellectually satis­

fying and . . .spiritually saving" powers to brothers,

husbands, and sons.

The theme that women's education would also educate

women to take proper positions outside of their homes was

also a common one at Lake Erie. In 1884, Miss Ella Parsons,

who taught at Lake Erie Seminary for seven years, and who

then went to Constantinople to become an associate principal

at the American Home School, before returning to the United

States to teach psychology at Mt. Holyoke, wrote an essay

called "The Seminary For Thé World," in honor of the twenty-

fifth anniversary. In this essay she urged that students

at the seminary be fitted for real life, which was a life

in which women functioned within théir spheres, which in­

cluded doing charity work and ministering to the poor and

sickly and aged:

161

The Seminary for the world must mean for the world as it always has -been and always will be—for there is a woman's lot, and a woman’s work, as Sophocles says in his Antigone of the unwritten laws of God:"Know no change: it is not a thing of to-day nor of yesterday." So her purity and loftiness of personal character-will be called for from woman to the end of time. -So the ministry of charity will always need her, as it has been always admitted to be her proper sphere, and the poor we are to have always with us. There are the sick ever to be nursed, the aged to be cared for, the little chil­dren to be reared and trained in time to come as in the past. The Semin ary--cannot do better than go on developing character, making women of girls, and cultivating the old fashioned virtues of our grandmothers, patience -and faith, hope and love, on the old Bible basis, This demands conservatism.45

For the same occasion, Miss Frances J, Hosford, of the

class of 1872, who was the daughter of a professor at Western

Reserve College, and who taught at Lake Erie before accepting

posts teaching in high schools in Elyria and Cleveland, wrote

in an essay called "Wfrat Does The World Want of Us?":

Wanted: a hundred women to take responsible positionsin s ocial life. Qualifications: refined manners, quiet tastes, culture of mind and speech, and active Christian principles.

Wanted: well trained teachers to educate the minds, bodies, and hearts of our youth.

Wanted: women for mission work, to enter doors that are closed to men.

Wanted: Mothers who are ready to do general home­work . The requirements include a culture of heart and mind deep enough to stand the test of the intim­acies of home life. Special duties defined on application.40 * 48

45Twenty-Fifth, p. 57.

48 This is probably a reference to the profession of governess.

162

Furnish these to the world, 0 Alma Mater, and you will he doing what the world wants of you . . .47

This quotation shows what employment opportunities were avail­

able to educated women in thé last quarter of the nineteenth

century. Teaching was near thé top of the list, and was

now thought of as a "woman's profession." Other careers

that were acceptable were those in thé mission field, and

only in situations where 'men missionaries could not. go with

equanimity. Settlement work was also beginning to be an

acceptable career for women. Thé rest of the work was directly

home—related; educated women could bé wives and mothers,

social scions, and, if they were unfortunate enough to be poor

and unmarried, they could bé governesses.

It seems that educated women were somewhat lonely in

society, probably because there were so few of them, for

Hosford in her essay commented that thére was a lack of

good intellectual company "among ladies in general society,"

a comment that indicated that few women, were educated, or

if they were, that they were hot educated to the standards

of the seminaries in 1884. Miss Hosford wished that women

knew that there was more than one way to read a book, and

that they knew that books were not merely for entertainment

and for the whiling away of precious time. She said: "Let

girls be trained to read both slowly and analytically; rapidly

and comprehensively." They should learn to read books from

47,JTwenty Fifth, '' p. 59.48Ibid.

163

the viewpoint of the authors, as well as from the viewpoint

of the readers, and above all, they should, after reading

a book, be able to tell others what thé book was about:

More attention to this point would make better conversationalists among our women and more efficient members in thé many literary „assoc­iations and other societies of our day.

One wonders whether Miss Hosford had experienced exasperation

while attending literary society meetings. She was writing

to people who had attended a seminary, who were alumnae,

and she took the space to "teach" them how to read and

discuss a book. This points up thé type of life many educated

women led in the second half of thé nineteenth century, the

club woman's life. Literary societies were formed while the

girls were in the seminaries; they were similar to soror­

ities in the loyalties they engendered in the alumnae.

Miss Hosford also called for thé alumnae to urge that

the seminaries teach women to pay more attention to organiza­

tional principles Çi.e. Robert's Rules of Order) so that they

would function bétter in "the literary circle, the musical club,

the missionary, temperance, and othér benevolent societies."

The lives educated women lived are described her and the

picture of the seminary graduate as a clubwoman begins to

emerge. Hosford, of course, believed that the education of

women should instill in them the principles of Christianity,

since "it is only an active Christianity which can thwart the

present tendency of our age toward infidelity."

164

Miss Hosford thought the purpose of education should be

to make women tranquil, rather to agitate them to take

action that is disruptive:

A course of study should be so regulated that it will develop power for quiet, steady action in .the world. Thé craving for variety- and change should be restrained. The world wants women with more repose of character, more of "tranquil strength". Then an uneventful life would not seem prosaic; an eventful life would not so soon exhaust vitality,40

Although this particular geographical area of Ohio was

one in which one of the first women's suffrage conventions

was held,49 50 and one in which considerable suffrage activity

took place,51 the question of suffrage seemed not to involve

the minds and activities of the women at Lake Erie Seminary

very much, if the alumnae bulletins and the school newspaper

are any evidence. Miss Hosford, in this same anniversary

address, dt<T refer, however, to thé 'l'néVifabf li'fy of

suffrage, as she argued for the addition of studies in poli­

tical science, as well as those she urged in reading and in

group order, to the courses at the seminary. She said, "Slowly

but surely, whether we wish it or not, the higher education

49 ..................................... ■ ■ ""Twenty-Fifth; Anniversary., ’ p, 61.

5°in Akron, on May 28 and 29, 1851, This is where the famous Sojourner Truth speech, "Ain’t I A Woman?" was given, as the clergymen ridiculed the women.talking about equality. Keynote speaker on education was Mrs, E. Robinson, who said,"It can be nothing but an educational -prejudice that objects to exercising the elective franchise. . . . The injustice that has been practiced on woman in cramping the powers of her mind, re-acts like a withering scourge on all the race," The Proceedings’ of the Woman'* s' R'fghts' ConVen/fi-on- Held 'At Akron, Ohio. M ay 2 8 an a 29/ 1851 (Cin cinn at1: Ben Franklin Books, 185‘lj, 24-5.

51-‘-Anthony,. Susan B. ; Matilda Gage; and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, eds. History of WCirian Suffrage (Rochester, N.Y. :Charles Mann, 1887).

465

of women, the co-education of thé sexes', the opening of

trades and professions to our sex, with other causes, are

bearing us on to woman's suffragé." She said that, what

with temperance reform and reform in. education, women

should know how the affairs of thé country were administered,

and that "mothers in the home circle" would particularly

benefit from courses in political science, because they

would soon have the right to vote.

In 1885, a year after thé Jubilee celebration at Lake

Erie Seminary, Susan B. Anthony did speak there, and the

college archives contain a letter by her written on May 21:

My dear Miss Evans:

I have ordered our publisher to send you a set of our History of Woman-Suffrage-to-be placed in your Seminary Library—History- Hep'a-TtMelrt—or wherever they will cat ch thé eyes of 'y'éur* gi'r-ls— for I want every one to see them and read them and learn to know of the early struggles of the_ little handful of furious women to gain there' JsiçJ chances now so full and freely and open to all—

Give my kindest regards to the teachers and the students alike—I enjoyed that morning's look into the faces and talk into the heads and hearts of those dear young girls that morning very much—

’With great respect 85 love Susan B. Anthony

However, the evidence shows that suffrage and women's

rights were not common topics at the seminary. The ministers

who spoke at the graduations and reunions did not speak of

such things; instead, they sounded the same themes of women's

place and women's sphere and women as companions for men.

166

In 1884, the Rev. Sylvester Scovel, D.D., the president of

Wooster University, repeated the clergy's call for a familiar

type of girl graduate, the Christian ideal woman:

Oh, for the woman who will he simple for the sake of husband and children, and for the sweet adjust­ments, by Christian charityr of the inevitable inequalities among men. Oh, for the women who will be simple that they may make théir sisters, who, like themselves, stoop— thé vine with the fruit they bear—happy, and that they may lighten the homes of heathenism with the smile of Christ.®2

In this same address, Rev. Scovel stated that "'Pretty woman'

is much like petty woman," and hé warned that women were not

perfected yet, "being still capable of offering apples to

Adam." The temptations offered upright men by pretty women

were often spoken of in these addresses, and they illustrate

the two types of women Smith mentioned. The plain, sober,

housebound woman was less of a temptation and more of a help­

mate to the religious man. Scovel stated that there is intel­

lectual merit in the home, even though women's professions were

reaching outside the home, as well.: He thought it fine that

women worked outside the home in professions suited to them,

but he didn't think that women were or ever would be suited

for the ministry, though in the church "everything is possible

to her through pen and teaching, hut the actual office itself

. . ." Scovel said women should,be grateful that the "bur­

dens of public life" were not put upon them, and he thought

that women were "unwisely, I think," claiming the right to

vote. Scovel was echoing the eighteenth century preachers

52 Twe n ty-Fi f t h Ann i've rs ary, ■■ pp. 8Q-8T.

167

showing that little had changed in the philosophy about

woman's proper place in the last hundred years, although

educational opportunities for women had improved.

An editorial in The Seminary Record in 1895 noted that

women's voices were beginning to sound too strident, and

the student writer called for a device that would lower

the voices of women, noting that a pleasant voice showed

"good breeding and gracious manner," and that "every woman

of real culture and refinement possessed a gentle voice»"34

This editorializing about being cultured and refined and

feminine was very common in the student newspaper, reflecting

the concerns of the girls that they render themselves pleasing

above all. However, more scholarly concerns did occupy the

students, and debating societies were as popular as literary

societies at the seminary. The list of topics to be debated

during the school year of 1895 may show what the girls and

their teachers considered to be important issues:

Feb. 16: RESOLVED, "That & girl should attend a coeducational institution."

Feb. 23: RESOLVED, "That it is more of an edu­cation to read the papers and magazines

.than the works of standard authors,"

Mar. 2: RESOLVED: "That an educational institution should be situated in the country."

Mar. 16: RESOLVED: "That anticipation is greater than participation,"

54The Seminary Record, Vol, VII, No, 3 (1895), 260-1,

168

Mar. 23: RESOLVED: "That trains should not be run on Sunday."

Mar. 30: RESOLVED: "That caps and gowns should be adopted at Lake Erie Seminary."

Feb. 21: RESOLVED: "That the Sunday newspaper is a moral evil.'î

Feb. 28: RESOLVED: "That the textbook method is preferable to the lecture system."

Mar. 7: RESOLVED: "That thé reading of magazine stories is intellectually detrimental."

Mar. 14: RESOLVED:-- "That Lake Erie Seminary become a college." ®®

Lake Erie Seminary did become a college in 1898. Few

curricular or other changes were necessary, because the

course was already of college quality, as Miss Evans, the

long-time principal, noted in ah essay in 1898.®6 (Miss

Evans was principal of Lake Erie Seminary/College from

1868 to 1922.) By 1895, Lake Erie Seminary had depart­

ments of instruction in these areas:

PhilosophyAnatomy, Physiology, Hygiene Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy Languages (Latin, Greek, French,

German., English)DrawingChemistry and Natural Sciences MusicPhysical TrainingDomestic TrainingChristian Culture and the Bible

®®The Seminary Re co rd, VII, 275ff.

56"The College Ideal and The Home Ideal,” Alumnae Bulletin (1898), p. 50-52.

169.

Another writer, in the Alumnae Bulletin of 1898,

noted that the status of Lake Erie could only he helped by

its becoming a college:

It is not necessary that we be like Vassar orWellesley or Smith. Members of the same family do not necessarily dress nor look alike, have the same taste, nor choose the same work in life. So Lake Erie has the right to be individual, to follow thé bent of her own genius, and to develop her own ideas, after conforming to the1 e'ss'ent-laT require­ments of the College world. She has been as a seminary, "sui- generis," why not as a college? 57

She went on to speak of the strengths of Lake Erie Seminary/

College, saying that in English,' physiology, literature, and

art, they had always excelled. She said that the real

strength' of the school came from its emphasis on the Bible,

not only as literature, "but as an unerring guide and supreme

authority in morals," and she also thought that the Mary Lyon

domestic system gave thé new- college an edge, since one of

the most important new pedagogical subjects of the day was

"Household Science." Thé writer then went on to call for

a chair of Household Science and a chair of Pedagogy to be

endowed when the seminary became a college, so that Lake Erie

could continue to be in thé forefront:

Many of our graduates become teachers, and there is no more crying need to-day, outside that of wise mothers, than that of training teachers. One reason why there is such a demand everywhere for college graduates as teachers, is because people suspect they make the best, but they are beginning to suspect that something besides a degree is neces- sary--t'hat_ there is such, a thing as thé art of

57, -, - -Alumnae Bulletin-, • (1898), p» 32./

170

teaching, and that a special training for it is necessary just as much as for any- other art. The institution that catches this idea and seizes the opportunity could be an enormous success.58

This is the first mention that special course work in how

to teach was necessary in training teachers at the seminary.

The unique feature of the Mary Lyon/Mount Holyoke Plan,

the sharing of domestic work among the students, continued

at Lake Erie until the middle 1920's. Tuition was, of neces­

sity, raised after this feature was dropped, and Lake Erie

College, like Western College for Women, became an insti­

tution that catered not to the poor daughters of middle-class

families and clergymen, but to those who could afford it.

Miss Ainsworth, the registrar at Lake Erie College until 1977,

herself attended the college in the 1920s, and she recalled

that the domestic system had been discontinued the year before

and that the domestic work of thé college was done by hired

maids, Finnish immigrants from nearby- settlements on Lake

Erie.59 Today Lake Erie College is co-educational, and is

making efforts to connect with nearby- two-year vocational

schools to offer four-year degrees to their students. The

college also offers one of the only degrees in equitation,

and students may bring their own horses to the college stables

while they get their college degrees.

.... The study of horsemanship seems a long way from Mary

38AÎurnhaé Btrllét-in <1898)7 p " 33?

5®Personal interview with Miss Ainsworth, April 28, 1976.

171

Mary Lyon's hopes for providing a quality education for girls

of less than ample means, hopes echoed by Miss Hosford in

her 1884 Jubilee celebration letter:

Every intelligent and earnest woman ought to revere the name of Mary Lyon, But why? Because she founded Mt. Holyoke seminary, planned a course of study and invented the system of domestic work?These are the dry bones only. Was it not rather that she opened the door for the higher education of women; that her wise tact contrived a plan by which economy might be made dignified and useful; above all . . . she drew to herself the best and noblest women of her time and made them better and nobler by the power of her personality, . . .

I hope never to see Lake Erie Seminary a fashionable school or a school for fashionable girls. It is said that the ideal college is one where the college is rich, but the students are poor. I believe it. May the Seminary become very rich . . . but may the girls, at least the majority of them, not make their fortunes until they have graduated!61

In summary, it can be said that the Mount Holyoke Plan

conceived by Mary Lyon created two seminaries in Ohio which

survived the nineteenth century and most of the twentieth.

The relations between the two seminaries were always close,

and the Mt. Holyoke influence was always felt. Faculty

moved from seminary to seminary, and they often "colonized"

new seminaries, such as those in Kalamazoo, Michigan, in

Utah, in Illinois, in California. Their world was a narrow '

one, in that they moved within similar social circles where-

ever they were.

The ladles who taught at these-seminaries were dedicated

Christians, mostly unmarried, pillars of their communities and

6lTwenty-Fifth Anniversary, p. 63.

172

active in church work in Protestant churches. Many were

active in temperance work, members of the W.G.T.U.; many

were avid abolitionists; a few were suffragists; all

were evangelicals. Their students, if they likewise did

not marry, taught school and lived lives as female teachers,

similar to the lives led by- ¡their female teachers. If

they did marrythey taught school until they got married,

when they retired to do the work they had been taught that

they were innately suited for—motherhood.

It was said that to marry a minister was to be a success,

and many of the graduates or alumnae of seminaries did marry

clergymen. A few became missionaries, and those who did

were greatly admired. Many became settlement workers after

Jane Addams (who attended the Rockford, Illinois, Mary Lyon

seminary) popularized that field. They worked for charities,

attended literary society meetings' where they discussed ac­

ceptable books, and were staunchly- conservative. They were

proud of their bloodlines- and were suspicious of the immigrants,

even as they were taught to help them. They were suspicious

of Roman Catholics, especially southern Europeans. They held

in common a belief, engendered by countless admonitions by

their teachers and by the ministers who ran and influenced

their schools, that women were bound to a certain sphere; they

did not overstep that sphere's bounds. These were their guide­

lines for being women, and they did not question them.

Other.seminaries were also established in Ohio.

CHAPTER-V.

CURRICULA, ORGANIZATION, AND LETTERS FROM

OTHER FEMALE SEMINARIES IN OHIO

The Ohio Historical Society contains the manuscript of

an interesting handwritten autobiography, by a "female tea­

cher" of the nineteenth century:

Maria Pierson was born in the village of Martins­burg Knox County Ohio January 1828. Her first home was a little log cabin on the South east corner of the Barnes Block which was afterward torn down and a building erected adjoining the Barnes dwelling.In early childhood she attended the public school in a small brick school house located in what is now the public park of the village. There are vivid memories of that prison like place with its filthy gray walls having never been whitewashed and dirty windows festooned with cobwebs, a foul smelling place where no effort was ever made to render it sanitary or pleasant. Her first years were spent amid such 'scenes where the teacher's rod and ferule struck terror into the hearts- of the pupils assem­bled there.

In this school opportunities were very limited of course, but there we obtained therudimentsof an English education. The Rev, Henry Hervey pastor of the Presbyterian church many years in Martins­burg became much interested in educational work and started a school of higher grade for young ladies which was called a Female Seminary. From this be­ginning another school originated called the Mar­tinsburg Academy for young men which became a prominent factor in building up the village and greatly benefitted aspirants for something better than the district schools afforded,4/

lThe Martinsburg Female Seminary is not listed on any of the lists—Boy d's,Miller's, and the State of Ohio's— in Chapter II, which shows that some institutions were not counted. The Martinsburg Academy ‘appears on Boyd's and The State of Ohio's lists (pp. 103 and 117),

17.4

To my meager education, was given me one term in the Seminary . . .2

Maria Pierson Berry lived a life perhaps typical of

that of the "female teacher" of thé mid 1800’s. She

attended a seminary, receiving a rudimentary secondary edu­

cation, and failing to graduate, teaching summers and

attending school winters. When she was seventeen, in 1846,

she obtained a teaching certificate, "authorizing me to

teach in the public schools of Kiiox County two years , . .

in a little log school house in. thé woods," Before she got

married, she had taught for twenty^eight years:

The school was small and ungraded with many text books. The wages given for that term were one dollar per week and board among the scholars teaching six days per week and seven hours a day. That fall ta^ught a short term in the brick schoolhouse in town and attended school in the Seminary during the winter. , , » The next summer returned to the McWilliams School and received a slight increase of wages with some more advanced pupils added—Thé following winter taught a term in Harrison Township in a small room over the spring house on Mr. Elliorfc's farm. In the spring went to West Carlisle Coshocton County teaching one summer in that village. The next year taught near West Bedford in a log school house—boarding among the scholars—I then returned to Knox County and taught many terms in the Cook district and the Peagh School north of Martinsburg, also in the Rice district south east of town. A number of terms were taught in the Clutter district west of town in Morgan Township. One whole year in the public school of Martinsburg. Two more winters in Harrison Township, one in an old log dwelling house and the other in the Mt, Tabor log meeting house. There were other terms in Cochocton County as Guilford, Goshen, and Mohawk Valley. Several terms were taught in Licking County, one in the old

. ...Gardner.log-.meeting house below Failsburg, besides

2Maria Pierson Berry, 'Short Sketch of a Lohg Life," handwritten manuscript at Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio. n.d.

175

several others—One or two terms were taught in the neighborhood of Owl Creek Church in Knox County. In the winter of 1859 and 1860 made a visit to Ogle County-, Illinois, and remained there the following summer teaching one term.The field was most inviting in that State, with better wages than in Ohio , « .

She returned home to take care of her ailing mother. Her

brothers migrated to rilinois, but Maria Pierson stayed

in Martinsburg, until, "compelled by failing health and

inability to teach school and keep house," she joined her

brothers-in Illinois. Because her "nerves were all unstrung

and necessity was laid upon me to find some other means of

obtaining a living than confinement in a schoolroom," she

felt it was necessary to move, though she was reluctant,

because "I had been self supporting for so many years how

could T bear now to become dependent? It seemed almost more

than I could endure." She said that her way "seemed to be

completely hedged up," and there seemed nothing to do but

put herself on the beneficence of her brothers. Then she

received an offer of marriage from a man she had known years

before, whose wife had died. She thought over his proposal

and decided to accept it, travelling from Bloomington, Illinois,

to San Jose, California, in six days, where she married Mr.

Berry in the hotel, two days after her arrival. The rest

of her autobiography recounts their years lived in California.

What stands out in this understated account is the

mobility of the woman in her teaching posts (she seemed to

176

teach in. a different school every few years), and her pride

in her ability to support herself and not to be dependent

on others. Lacking a seminary diploma, she still had a full

and responsible career. Her family loyalty also stands out,

in her fidelity to her ailing mother. Her bravery and

willingness to take risks is also notable, in that she

would just pick up and travel across country to marry a

virtual stranger in a hotel in California, and to begin,

in her middle age, a whole new life there. Maria Pierson

Berry seems to have been wbat Catharine Beecher would have

wished the "female teacher" to be,

Little else is available on the Martinsburg, Ohio, female

seminary, though it seems typical in that it was started by

a clergyman who was probably the' most educated person in the

community, and who believed in female education. It also

seems typical in that it suffered the deprivations common

to schools for girls, as compared to schools for boys,

Other seminaries in Ohio left more complete records.

Among them were three schools in Granville, Licking County,

where Denison University is now located, and where Shephard-

son College for Women used to be located. These were all

denominational institutions, by far the most prevalent type

of female seminary; that is, they were chartered as being

nondenominational, but they were run by clergy from a specific

church and they catered to girls of that samé denomination.

The first female school to be established in Granville

was the Granville Female Seminary, which opened in December,

177

1832. One of the founders was Charles Sawyer,, who began

as a sadler in Granville after arriving there in 1817, but

who accumulated much property and who was active in the

Baptist church. He helped to found what is now Denison

University (then thé Granville Literary and Theological

Institution), in 1830, Sawyer then acquired property to

put up a girls' school nearby. He maintained the girls'

school, which ‘received its charter from the State of Ohio in

1835, with its fifty-or-so pupils, until the financial burden

became too heavy. The Granville Female Seminary, a Baptist

institution, was then sold to the Episcopalians, in 1838,

and its name changed to the Granville Episcopal Seminary.

There was great resistance, in the early 1800's, to the

idea of co-education, and that is why both Protestant and

Catholic often established separate schools for each sex, often

in the same town, for thé education of their young people.

An advertisement in the Baptist Weekly Journal announcing

the fall term of 1833, made special note that the female

seminary was indeed separate from the Literary and Theological

Institute:

It may be worthwhile to remark, that the Female Sem­inary is in’ the town of Granville, while the Insti­tution is more than a mile distant. This statement may obviate the objections which might arise in the minds of some.3

It was also convenient to have a denominational girls' school

in the same town as that denomination's theological seminary

3Baptist Weekly Journal, 23 Aug 1833. Denison University.

178

for the training of ministers, for ministers were vocal in

théir call for the need for educated wives, and what better

place to find an educated wife than at a female seminary?

Though these seminaries were run by ministers of cer­

tain denominations, they took special care to assert that

they were nondenominational, in order to keep théir state

charters. Thé catalog for the Granville Female Seminary for

thé year 1837 takes care to note that the school did not seek

to convert its pupils to the Baptist principles:

While attentive to thé morals, and all that per­tains to the good name of the pupils—-the teachers have no interference whatsoever, with their denom­inational tenets and prepossessions. They entirely disavow every design to proselyte to any of the parties of the day.4

The statement of purpose in this same catalog said the

Seminary aimed to prepare the young ladies "to move with ease,

respectability and influence, in any circle of society, or

sphere of action." A list of the pupils showed that most

were from Ohio, though there was one from Richmond, Iowa;

one from Tchula, Mississippi; and one from Toledo, Michigan.

Students could enter the seminary at any time, but they were

encouraged to enter at the beginning of a term, and preferably

in the fall. The terms were twenty-two weeks long, and there

were two terms per year. Each term was divided into quarters

of eleven weeks.

5'Cataiégue:. of 'thé-.. Of f i de:rs: gild..Pupils-. 'éf . 'thé Gr'an-vllle Female Seminary, ( Cha r ' t e r e d by :thé 'Légiélé-'t'üré 'of' Ohio)' f or thé Acadériîi'éal1 Year' 1837 (Columbus: Cutler and Filsbury, 1837), p. 5. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

179

Tuition was $4.00 per quarter in the English Branches,

with $2.00 additional fee being charged for French, Latin,

or Greek, and $2.00 extra for drawing and painting. If a

girl wanted to take piano lessons, it cost her $4.00 extra.

In addition, the students paid $1.50 per week for the "use

of room and furniture" at a boarding house, with $.37i per

dozen being paid for washing. Fuel, lights, etc. were charged

at cost.

The course of studies at the Granville Female Seminary

was comprised of reading and spelling, grammar and rhetoric,

geography, history, mathematics, natural philosophy, "chimistry,"

botany, astronomy, anatomy and physiology, intellectual and

moral philosophy, French, Latin, Greek, and instruction in

drawing, painting, music, and needlework. Students were

told they could pursue these studies "to a greater, or less

extent, and with a selection to suit the tastes, wishes,

age or circumstances" of the individual. "A Choice Library"

was available to be used, for a small additional fee.

Most of the teachers were Baptist, and even after the

Rev. Alvah Sanford came to take over the. school for the Epis­

copalians, many of these teachers stayed, and the school

received "liberal Baptist patronage," according to the anon­

ymous3 historian whose manuscript this information was taken from.

5Perhaps Frances-ShepardsonIs manuscript for his history of Denison University, since the language matches that in the centennial volume: Frances W, Shepardson, Denison University 1831-1931 (Granville, 1931), Box 20, Denison Archives.

-180

The Granvi lle Episcopal Seminary "was in exist ence in GranviTTe

from 1838'to T8G0, when the Episcopalians moved it to Mans­

field. One of the reasons for thé move was that the Baptists

had decided to establish their own school in Granville in

1858, and many- of the young ladies'- were attending that school,

called the Young Ladies’ Institute, This left the Episco­

palians with fewer students and the local Episcopal church

made a resolution. The board of St«, Luke’s Parish felt

that the selling of the seminary property to the Baptists

(this happened in I860, two years after the Baptist seminary

was established) was "a breach of fai.th":

Whereas, the Granville Female Seminary was originallv purchased by the members jTn 18387 of this church and afterwards sold to Rev, A. Sanford for the nom­inal sum of about $1,500, with thé understanding that at the end of twenty years, the property should revert to the church, also with the express under­standing and agreement recorded upon the records of the board of trustees of said seminary, that the institution, was to remain an Episcopal institution so far under the direction of a board of trustees that no teacher should be employed in said seminary without the approval of said board and their suc­cessors. And whereas the seminary has without the consent or any notice given to this vestry been sold; it is therefore

Resolved, That the sale and transfer of the Granville Female Seminary to the Baptist denomination is a breach of faith unjustifiable and uncalled-for on the part of those interested in. its sale,b

Nevertheless, the Episcopalian hierarchy did sell the property

despite the local church's protests, and they moved their female

seminary to Mansfield, where it thrived,

Thé preliminary announcement for the (baptist) Young

6Shepardson, p, 180.

181

Ladies' Institute, on August 16, 1859», noted that "The

Baptists of Ohio have long felt the want of an Institution

of their own, where young ladies could obtain a thorough

practical education, at a moderate cost." They noted that

Denison University was growing in popularity, and that it

would be convenient for parents to send their daughters to

the same town as the one they sent their sons to: "Parents

who have sons in the University, and who have also daughters

to educate, would much prefer to send them both to the same

place. " And so, interdenominational squabbling notwithstanding,

the Young Ladies' Institute was established.

Yobng La'dies '- 'Ins-thhhte

The first

ton, "well and

the State, and

principals were the Rev. and Mrs. N.S. Bur-

favorably known throughout the denomination in

of known and tried ability as teachers." Facul­

ty members from Denison University were to give instruction to

the girls, in their spare time (although the boys and girls

were hot to attend classes together). Tuition was set at

$5.00, per quarter, and board (including fuel, room, and lights)

was $2,50 per week; a "Prudential Board" made up of "judi­

cious and experienced ladies" provided board with "unexcep-

tionable families."

Mrs. Burton, the wife of the Rev, Burton, and co-principal

with him, took over most of the organizational chores.. She

was we II-respected throughout the denomination. Herself the

182

daughter of a. clergyman, Micaiah Fairchild, she was born

in Troy, Ohio, in 1825. Both. Tier parents were teachers,

and she entered Oberlin College in 1841, being "unable

to attend the expensive 'Female Seminaries" of thé East."

Shepardson said she was attracted to Oberlin by its "broad

and liberal policy," and by its two educational innova­

tions, "viz: thé admission of women and a welcome to colored

students, both of which strongly appealed to her and her

parents." Though she intended to pursue the full college

classical course, she was struck with a severe eye infec­

tion, and she graduated in 1848 from wiiat was called "The

Ladies' Course" at Oberlin, a course which omitted Greek

and Latin from the studies.

She then went to Michigan to teach school for a year,

and then she returned to Elyria, Ohio, to marry the pastor

of thé baptist church there, in 1850. He was the Reverend

Burton. They served parishes in Ohio, Michigan, and Massa­

chusetts, before Rev. Burton answered thé call of Granville

to be the pastor of the Baptist church there, in 1854. Shep­

ardson described Mrs. Burton as a "noble wife," with "enthu­

siastic zeal for the higher education of women," and with

"rare executive ability":

Mrs. Burton was queen in her own home, and yet she strikingly exemplified the Savior's teaching, "I am among you as one that serveth." Pastor's dedi­cated wife, faithful mother, a loving daughter minis­tering to her aged-mother, she was home-maker and hospitable hostess.

183

Loving and strong in her domestic relations; intel­lectual and gifted in social life; she was pre­eminently the practical and efficient leader in every department of church and benevolent activities.7

She was credited with maintaining the enthusiasm needed for

beginning the Young Ladies' Institute,

The Burtons ran the Institute for a few years, and then

Dr. Marsena Stone took over, until 1868, when ill health

forced him to retire. For years, thé board of trustees had

been trying to persuade the Rev, Daniel Shepardson, who was

the principal of the Woodward High School in Cincinnati,

to take over the school, and finally, in 1868, he bought

it from Dr. Stone. Mrs. Shepardson in her reminiscences

described their arrival: "A close inspection of the premises

disclosed a very discouraging state of affairs. Dr. Stone

had been ill for two years, and everything was in a run-down

condition." The rugs were worn out, plaster was falling,

furniture was collapsing, paint was chipping. They organized

a work force of male seminarians, and when school opened in

the fall,

. . . every room had been repainted, walls coveredwith neat, tasteful paper, every nook and corner was scrupulously clean, and every little detail carefully attended to.3

The Young Ladies' Institute gained the nickname of "Old

Brown Sem," from the brick-colored exterior. In 1911, one

of the first graduates (class of 1869) of the institution * 8

^Shepardson, 180-81.

8Ibid. , 187.

184

after it came under the Shepardsons' aegis, reminisced

about life there in the Denison Alumni Bulletin :

The equipment in general would seem meager enough in these days of scientific study and laboratory methods, but even Denison had not at this time an over supply of apparatus for study nor had she introduced the new methods. As the school was a private enterprise, no better facilities could be hoped for. Life in the old school was simple, cor­responding perhaps to the environment. Social fun­ctions were infrequent and not distracting. Perhaps their infrequency made them more enjoyable,, The girls in their innocence believed that they were sent to school to study and fit themselves for a life of service to the world.

Good times, however, were not lacking. « . ,Many pranks were played, especially on Saturday nights which was the calling hour for the college boys. . . . The literary societies afforded on Friday nights an opportunity for meeting the stu­dents from thé hill, . » . The examination, the bugbear of school life, had this peculiarity. As if not satisfied with the, written test we were sub­jected to an oral examination as well, to which the general public was invited and politely requested to ply us with any questions the subject might sug­gest. These examinations were held in the chapel at the close of each term.

A regular program was made out and the last few days of the term were devoted to this work. Each class filed into the chapel as its turn came, and ranged itself on the platform and was for an hour at,the mercy of the teacher, college professor, towns­people or college student. Nor were the music . pupils exempt. It was their term recital and they helped vary the program.®

The/most popular examinations, according to Mrs. Davies, were

the rhetoric examinations, where the girls brought their compo

sition notebooks and read what they had written, answering

®Mrs. Davies, "Old Brown Sem," Denison Alumni Bulletin (October, 1911), pp. 4-5.

185'

questions on théir topics. Thé audience, she said, was not

"slow to select the one of thé class they wished to test.

The subjects were sometimes wise and sometimes otherwise,"

In a similar reminiscence about the Young Ladies' Insti­

tute, Mrs. E.S. Shepardson noted that in'.its three decades,

the Old Brown Sem graduated 273 women, of which 18 became

foreign missionaries,(which gave them high status among their

peers); 27 were involved in Home Mission Societies as pastors'

wives or as "teachers in schools for negroes in the South,

Indians in the West, and Chinese on the Pacific Coast," Thir­

ty-five of these graduates, and more than fifty who never

graduated, married ministers. Many became wives of college

professors, "with wide fields of usefulness." Some had

received doctorates in colleges in the East, but "the majority

of graduates and undergraduates have been and are teachers,

a noble body of women doing incalculable good."10

By 1876, the trustees of the two institutions, Denison

University and the Young Ladies' Institute, were trying to

raise money in a joint effort, but the demands of the University

took whatever funds came to the girls' school. Therefore, in

1887, the Young Ladies' Institute became Shepardson College

for Women, separate from but friendly with Denison University.

Dr. Shepardson thought this would help the girls' school in

fund-raising, and he offered the land and the buildings and

....... l°Mrs. E.S . Shepardson., ..-"Old Brown Sem, " Den'i's'on' AluiriniBulletin,- (October, 1912), p. 5.

186

the asset's of the Young Ladies' Institute to the Baptists of

Ohio if they would raise $100,000, of which $70,000 would

be set aside in a permanent fund which would use its inter­

est for current expenses, and of which $30,000 would be

for buildings.

Both the Preparatory Department (the former seminary

courses) and a new Collegiate Department were instituted

at the new Shepardson College by 1891. The annual reports,

however, noted that the Collegiate Department studies were

not very popular, and that the young women enrolled in college

courses kept dropping out. Shepardson said,

There was a period, evidently, during which the thought of women graduating from the college, with the same sort of curriculum behind them as that of their brothers, had to win favor.I1

Nevertheless, by 1892, the option of studying for a Master's

degree was available for the women at the Baptist-owned

Shepardson College.

' GranviTle Fetaalg' Ac a: demy

The little town of Granville certainly did its part in

the history of female education in Ohio, for there was still

another seminary located there. This was the Granville

Female Academy, later to be known as the Granville Female

College. The Granville Female Academy was a Presbyterian

seminary for.girls, ■ The 1839 catalog shows 74 pupils in

-^Shepardson, p. 207.

187

the Preparatory Department. These were mostly girls from

Granville and nearby towns, since they were under thirteen

years old. The course of study in the preparatory depart- 12

ment included the following branches:

ReadingMrs. Sigourney's Reading Book for GirlsSpellingWritingRay's Eclectic Arithmetic Colburn's First Lessons Elements of Geometry Adams' Arithmetic (commenced)Galaudett's Natural Theology American and Malte Brun's Geography Smith's Grammar Book of Commerce Goodrich's History of the U.S.Book of NatureMiss Beecher's Moral InstructorCompositionCalisthenicsVocal Music

The same catalog showed 170 pupils in the Academical

Department, with students from as faraway as New York City;

Braintree, Vermont; Woodland, Louisiana; and Andover, Massa­

chusetts, as well' as from all over Ohio, The Academical

Department was made up of the typical three classes to be

found in female seminaries—the Junior, Middle, and Senior

Classes. The Junior Class studied ancient geography, ancient

and modern history, and other subjects, using these textbooks:

Worcester's ElementsGoldsmith's Greece, Rome, and England Grimshaw's France"Day's Algebra Haywar d rs Phy s i ology

42Catalogue of the Officers and Members of Granville Female Academy f Gran vil lé”/ Ôhio, 1839-40 (Columbus: Cutler 8s Vr igtrt')“,’ "17

188

Outline of Botany ,.z . ,Corns tock~rs Natural Philosophy Murray's Grammar and Exercises Pope's Essay on Man

These were the books used by the Middle Class:

Playfair’s Euclid (all four books)Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History Beck's B ot any™ and "’Chemist ryNewman' s TiKet or i cMarsh's Ec'clesi'as t ical HistoryAbe r c romb i e's On The ~Tnte1le cfua1 PowersMansfield's PoTitical EconomyGeology ’ ’Pollok's Course of Time

The Senior Class studied from these texts:

Wilkin's Astronomy Olmsted' s'TfaturaTTPhi losophy Wayland's Moral Philosophy Whately's LogicPaley's Natural Theology Beck's Botany 'A1e xan de rf s' E v i den ce s of Christianity Butler's Analogy Milton's Paradise Lost

All students received training in the Bible, and in composition,

reading, spelling, vocal music, and calisthenics, and they had

the option of taking Latin and French, as well as instrumental

music, linear, and perspective drawing, and common, mezzo-

tinto, and Chinese painting.^3

In 1839 at the Granville Female Academy, admission re­

quirements were flexible, and although no one could enter the

Junior Class without having passed an examination on the prep­

aratory studies, girls could take particular courses without

being classed, especially if they intended to remain at the

839-40 Catalogue, p. 18—19.

i89

academy "only a short time." . There were two public examin­

ations per year, one at the end of the first term, and one

at the end of the year. Tt appears as though few girls

classed themselves and went through, the entire course, but

rather they did as Maria Pierson did, came to school for

a term, went out to teach, came back for more studies, went

back to teach, etc. In 1839 there were only two girls grad­

uating, only three girls in the Senior Class, only eight in

the Middle Class, and only fourteen in the Junior Class. That

totals only aboQt 15 per cent of the total enrollment in the

Academical Department.

The Granville Female Academy- is not listed on the lists

in Chapter III., but it seems to have been an innovative and

flourishing school. In. 1839“, only a few years after Mary

Lyon had begun Mt. Holyoke, with its domestic system, the

Granville Female Academy was using a similar system:

The domestic work of the family is performed by the young ladies under the direction, of a Matron.The labor is divided equally among the young ladies; and no one can be a member of the family without performing her share. The time thus oc­cupied is one hour daily. This-, so far from re­tarding their progress in. study, is found rather to facilitate it by the health, and vigor it imparts.14

However, by 1852, the domestic system described in the 1839

catalog appeared to have been abandoned, for the catalog of

that year said "No domestic labor is required of pupils, except

the daily care of their respective sleeping rooms."15

141839 Catalogue, p. 20.

15Catalogue of the Granville Female Academy, 1852, p. 10.

e

190

The catalogs stressed that the students would be under

a certain moral and religious influence; though church, at­

tendance was not specifically denominational, it was required.

The 1839 catalog stated that "Every lady will be required to

attend, statedly, that place of worship which her parents

or guardians may choose," and if no choice was made, she

was required to attend with the instructors, presumably the

Presbyterian church. The 1852 catalog said, "All the pupils

are required to attend church, twice on the Sabbath, at

such place as their parents or guardians may designate; also,

a Bible exercise on Sabbath afternoons and Monday mornings."

In 1852 there were 155 students at the Granville Female

Academy, with 7 students in the Senior Class. In 1855 there

were 184 pupils; in 1856 there were 147 pupils; in 1857 there

were 183 pupils. Most were from Ohio, though there were

students from Davenport and Washington, Iowa; from New Hope,

Missouri; from Brandon, Mississippi; and from Adrian, Michigan

as well. u

One feature found in all the female seminary catalogs

was that of the solicited testimonial telling about the high

quality of the school and the instructors and administrators,

For example, the 1852 catalog of the Granville Female Academy

recommended the principal, Mr. Kerr, thus:

by Benj . J. 'Lower Mr. Kerr is an experienced teacher, and has the reputation of-a ripe scholar, and an accurate, skillful, and

l^CataTogues, 1839, 1852, 1855, 1857.

191

thorough-going instructor. . .

by 'John Pratt: (Rev.. & Professor at Denison) Mr.Kerr, the Principal, graduated with the honorsof his class,- and has had not a little experienceas a teacher, first in Granville College-, andafterward in Granville Male Academy. . , . Ishould trust a daughter of mine to his care, ■and that of his accomplished and amiable lady,with great confidence and satisfaction.17

The public examinations wbre also, evidently, an impor­

tant way to judge the quality of a school, and the 1858 catalog

printed this testimonial from one Dr, Bartholomew, "for several

years one of the most thorough and successful Teachers in

Ohio," about the quality of the public examinations at the

Granville Female Academy:

By the especial invitation of Professor Kerr, the Principal, I attended the semi-annual Examination of the Female Academy in Granville, Ohio . . .

The examination was conducted mainly by the Teachers . . . but with such fairness as to warrant the con­clusion that there had been, no selection and allot­ment of (parts to the pupils. At the same time all visitors were permitted, and'even urgently solicited, to propose to the classes any questions touching the matter then under discussion. No one, who has attended many examinations of similar. Institutions, can have failed to notice 1 ... » the’ fault which might s , .. be called common, of putting leading questions—-putting questions in such shape as to suggest the answer, so that a pupil naturally apt, would be able to pass a creditable examination on a subject to which she had given no attention whatever. Against this fault the teachers have seemed to guard themselves with particular care—thus compelling each student to stand or fail upon herown merits. Somefailed.18

^ÏCaib-ldg-ue'- 'of. .-the- 'Of Ji-ceiis !and Meiribers; bP ’the' 'Grab.vi lle Female Academy-, 1852, p, 25.

18Ibid. ,p. 15.

1-92*

Testimonials were also solicited from parents. One parent,

T.W.B. Hibbard, from New York City, whose daughter had been

a pupil there for three years, thought that thé teachers were

well qualified and that thé instruction was thorough. However,

he had one complaint, and that was that "kindness and forbear­

ance have been exercised too much toward thé wayward." Never­

theless,. he said, a girl could receive "a polished, finished

education in all the ornamental branchés, such as Music, Oil

Painting, Drawing, Modern Languages, &c., &c,, &c., equal

to those in any of our first class schools, and at a lower

price."40

A woman whose initials were J.E.W. wrote in 1879 about

the class of 1851. There were eight members of the class,

and "The greater number of thé class spent the following year

in teaching." Tt was customary to teach for awhile before

getting married: "Miss Sarah Lang was, I think, the first to

break the ranks of single life." J.E.W. continued her history:

Miss Louisa Philbrook moved with her father’s family to Illinois, where she engaged in teaching for a time, then married a Mr. Crocker , . . Miss Lucy Goodrich spent six or seven years in teaching and then married Rev, S.G. Dunlop, a gentleman favorably known amongst the Presbyterians of our own and other states. . . . Miss Martha Lynn taught in this institution several years. During these years. her sister Susan taught in Cincinnati and Troy. Eventually they united in taking charge of a flourishing school in Newton, N.J. - From thence-they were both married. Martha, to Rev, R.A. Sawyer,-who is well known both in this state and in New York.'. , .Miss-Dorothy Baker, after spending some years *

49Catalogue, 1858 p. 16.

.193

in teaching, both in this state, Illinois, Minn­esota, and Missouri, was married to Mr., ..Cadwallader. . . . All have, though “in quiet spheres, fulfilled the promise of their school life,' being active, energetic workers, in the fields to which Providence has called them.29

This again reaffirms now common it was- for seminary alumnae to

become female teachers.

Life for students at the Granville Female Academy seemed

similar to life at any of the seminaries. Friendships were

established, girls got homesick, there was interest in. young

men, and in what they were learning in classes, Martha Creeger

from Tiffin wrote Tetters home about her arrival at the Gran­

ville Female Academy on Sept, 19/ 1842:

Dear dear Sisters and brother,

Hear I am at last in the Academy after a some­what. long and tedious journey- for so it appeared to me. ... I am beginning to feel quite at home here, at first I thought“ that I never could feel right whilst I staid here as there was no room prepared for our reception and I was a stranger among strangers, but now we are very comfortably situated we have a very pleasant room it is a front room in the building it is in the third story ...

We have three very pleasant teachers one is the principle of the school she is an old maid, one of the others is a beautiful girl her name is Arms, the other is also very good looking. How much will you give me for mv description? A jug of hard cider I presume when I return home.

I think Granvill is a right pleasant little vil­lage it is surrounded with, beautiful hills every way we turn our gaze we see naught but hills they are covered with beautiful trees, the bell has just rung for school and I must stop. Good evening 20

20Denison ATutanT Bulletin „■ (June, 1914), p. 81. One wonderswhy alumnae from the Granville Female “Academy should be writingfor the Denison alumni publication, unless it was that J.E.W. wasthe wife of an alumnus; for dating girls from the seminaries was common.

-194

Sisters I have just returned from the school room and from supper as we eat our supper here directly after school . . . we have hut 24 schollars at present hut they have hut 1.8 at the other. . . .

I must tell you about a girl we have here she is one of the funiest creatures I ever saw she said I should' not get home sick while she was about she set me to laughing until I almost died and I have not been home sick since .. . .

Mr. Jordan is married 1 called to see them last Friday and took Tea with them he has a very plea­sant wife she is tolerably good looking her sister comes to school , . .

We were Serenaded one night they played most beautifully I do wish you could have heard them,I had an introduction to one of the gentlemen, . ,

I was misinformed about not paying in advance the rule is to advance 20 -dollars but Mr. Tell fixed it some way with Mr. Bankruff, if you can send it by Scott when he come down or some other safe person I will be very much obliged, just 20 dollars rember is wanted at present. . . ,24

This letter shows that the concerns of girls in the mid-nineteenth

century were not remarkably different from those in the mid­

twentieth. century, with thoughts of appearance, boys, enter­

tainment, and money overshadowing a concern for studies.

Martha Creeger's December, 1842, letter mentioned an

astronomy phenomenon, which shows she did have some interest

in science:

There has been a quite.-a sensation created here about the planet Venus, there has been a notice in the papers that astronomers have observed flames of fire to pass over its surfise, and that for

. some time- its colour has changed som thing like 21

21Martha Creeger, "Letter to Sisters," 19 Sep 1842. These letters were in -Box 28 in the arch/tve^ at Denison University, Granville, Ohio. They were donated by her grandson and repre­sent a remarkable first person account of life in a female semin- arty.

195

that of Mars which is very red, it was observed by the people here some 2 or 3 weeks since in the after noon about three oclock, and they at first thought it a comet there has been 16 planets, disappeared during thé few las-t centurys and others have appeared, Dear Sisters we ought always be prepared to meet the Lord we know the day nor thé hour when thé sun of man cometh, then we should watch and pray lest we be led into temptation , . .

In the same Tetter she was distracted from such cosmic thoughts

by the ;.g.rrivai of some boys to serenade the girls :

Hark! what sweet music bursts upon my ear, it is a serenade, there is some-of- thé-’Gr-ahÿiTTé Gents before our charming our 'Ibve~ly! study hours, with the sweetest music imaginable, it seems to call up the scenes of other days, they give some splendid serenades.here. that seems something like thé thing don ' t you think so, I still hear them afar, they are going round giving all the girls a serenade, when they-come back I will send them a door farther . . .

In a January 20 letter, she described a debate she

attended, as well as the contents of a sermon the minister

gave. She also, like most students away from home, asked

for money:

. . . they had a debate on thé "international copyright law, thé judge decided in favour of the affirmative. The gentleman that escorted me opened the meeting with an address-,- thé College gentry call to see us occasionally, -there is some first rate fellows among them ...

The minister preached a great sermon ... giving an account of the number deaths during the past year, also the number members, drunkards, number that attend church, etc, etc. The number of Methodists is 171 in the township. They do not keep Christmas here much because they say we have no evidence in the bible that that is the day and we are not commanded to keep it.

Dear sisters the time is drawing near when we will bé permitted to exchange the meeting embrace ...

196,

My bill as near-as I can reckon will be about45 dollars . . , There is a young lady here that intends to rent a room and boasd herself, and she wants me to go in with her/, it would be very cheap, the rent would not-cost me more than 3 dollars,-for the 6 months, tuitions 9 dollars per term, which would be 12 do-——and then the boarding would not amount to much, thé greatest difficulty would be to get home, but I presume I could go in the stage for 5 dollars, making $17 dr. I do not think..it would cost more than 21 dollars in the whole, The reason I wish to remain longer is, I have just got in the way of making any progress & I would-learn a great deal more the next six months, and would be more capable of teaching if I should do so, you say Lydia intends teaching and I would not be able to earn any money if I do come home if Uriah could lend me that much, T return it as soon as I would earn that much again, I would not then return until some time July, if you can let me stay I will want another dark callico dress as the one you purchased for me is all going in holes ...

In a letter written in April, 1843, Martha described

her pleasure in rising early in the morning, and she waxed

poetic in describing when "thé little songsters of the wood

were tuning their harps to warble their notes of praise. . .

in this same letter she talked about her studies:

. . . and how is Uriah's health this winter? I have got through thé history of the U.S. and am now studying Ancient History of the Heavens, Arithmetic, and Pollok, I am going to take up Physiology and Botany, perhaps Geology, although I have not went through, many studies, yet I think I have improved my time to the best advantage, not having the best of memories, I have not studied because last winter I had too many others to take it, & they do not study it in the summer, I- must consequently defer it to some other time, Does Ann Pittenger teach school yet?

In an undated letter, Martha Creeger talked about what types

of books she liked to read:

197

Lucy I have just been reading a treatise on the choice of books for young persons- to read during their leisure moments, I..would like to hear your opinion upon the subject, for my part I do not coincide with the authors opinion,

I should think you might know my taste for read­ing matter by this time Lucy, you know I despise all such dry stuff as history and you might have know it was history & such like he was preaching up, what care I for the history- of other countries and nations, particularly that of our own country, but it is so uninteresting I cannot read it I have tried to read it-several times but always went to sleep over it. I do not-care how our forefathers gained their liberty, so that I can enjoy the benefits of it and have plenty of Novels to read.22

It seems that a seminary education did not. as the critics

and philosophers and commentators on women's education had

hoped, cure the young women of their passion for reading

novels.

Steubenville Female Seminary

One of the longest-lived seminaries in Ohio was the

Steubenville Female Seminary, which was founded by the Rev.

Charles C. Beatty in 1829, Emma Willard, when she founded

her Troy Seminary, corresponded with Rev. Beatty. The Steu­

benville Female Seminary was still in existence in 1873, and

the 1873 General Catalogue of the Steubenville Female Seminary

22Martha Creeger, "Ldtter to Sisters," Dec 1842; 20 Jan 1843; April 1843; N.d. These letters were donated to the Denison

Univers'rfy Archives ..by .her great grandson. The envelopes con­tain "Paid" notices, for they were sent in pre-stamp days.

198

listed a total of 626 graduates in forty-four years (1829

to 1872). The list of those who had become teachers was

also printed, along with the number of students who had

enrolled, but who had not graduated. Most of the alumnae

seem to have taught for less than three years, and one surmises

that they left teaching to get married. One hundred eighty-

seven of the students (not necessarily the graduates) m

the first forty years of.the seminary had been teachers,

and seventeen were still teachers in 1872. Following is

a copy of the way they were listed.

TEACHERS FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SEMINARY

April 13, 1829

(With the year of commencing, previous residence and time of remaining. A few others were connected with the Seminary for a shorter time. Those left blank are teachers now)

Name Yr. Residence Time

Charles C. Beatty 1829 S t.pnbpn vi 1 1 e> DHetty E. Beatty 1829 ft

Caroline Craig ft Princeton, -N.J. liRachel Lambdin tt Pittsburth, Pa. 2Eliza Edwards 1831 Phi1adelph i a, 2Elizabeth Janvier tt Princeton., N.J. 2Elizabeth Sheppard tt Baltimore, Md. 91

" 2Jane Tappan 1832 Hunter, N.Y. .. . 2Phebe Huntington tt New Brunswick, N.J. 1Frances Pratt 1833 Trumbull Co. , 0. 1Mary Wood tt S t e uberi vi 1 le0... 1Mary A. Marvin tt Trumbull Col, 0. liJaén Sordét -tt Geneva, Switz. 1Jane C. Kennedy 1834 Lawr en ce, N.J. de c ' d, 185Q.Mary A. Inskeep ft St. Clairsville, 0, 1Elizabeth Hyde tt New York 1Eliza Webb Tt t! 2iMartha Smith tt Br is t o-1, Eng 1 and 2Mary Proctor 1835 Rowley,-Mass, 20Ann Donaldson 1836 Belfast,• Ireland 18Louisa. Lyman tt .............. Rome, _N.,:Y... .. ............ . li

Etc. The list goes on for pages, giving similar information.

<L99

The 1839 catalog is the earliest this researcher found.

As in all the other catalogs for female seminaries, the

description of the facilities, and the philosophy of the

seminary are remarkably similar to those of other seminaries.

The catalog noted that educating girls had been hitherto

considered unnecessary and even undesirable, except for the

"fashionable distinction of the daughters of the wealthy."23

The writers of the catalog noted that they founded the Seminary

"with a special reference to the wants of our Western country,

and to be conducted upon Christian principles." They said

that the Steubenville Female Seminary had been immediately

popular:

Though no direct efforts to add to the number of its pupils have ever been made,' abroad, they have gradually, but constantly, increased faster than accommodations could be provided for them.

No.enlargement of the facilities was anticipated, though, and

the Beattys thought that parents would be pleased with the

present facilities.

The Seminary was overlooking the Ohio River, in "a

peculiarly eligible" place. Steubenville is one of the oldest

cities along the river, and settlement patterns for The West

made the Ohio River Valley, because of its accessibility and

because of its ease of transport, one of the first settled

regions in the state. Steubenville is not presently noted for

its pure air, but at one time it was:

230h-frllfre and Chthlbgué of- The1 BteubéhvlTTé FeniaTe Seminary For4 The- Year’ Ending1 Tn S'éptéhfber/ T8BB (Steubenvilie: 1839), pp. 1-7. '

200

The undisputed healthfulneser of the surrounding region of country , and the' character of the place for morality and intelligence, particularly commend it to parents. . . . The contiguous buildings are 165 feet in length . . . Most of the lodging rooms (of which there are fifty) are designed to be occupied by only two pupils each. . . In many of the rooms, there is provision made for having a fire, if desired;—but as thé young ladies study in the general hall and recitation rooms, it is thought neither necessary, nor conducive to health, to have fire in sleeping chambers, ft is finally left, however, to thé choice of those who are willing to pay the extra expenses for fuel, and for servants' attendance.

It is apparent that the Mary Lyon domestic system was not in

force at the Steubenville Female Seminary.

In equipment, the institution owned "Maps, globes, and

various Astronomical Philosophical and Chemical Apparatus . . .

for illustration of their studies." The library consisted of

40Q volumes, divided into two departments—one for leisure

reading and one for studies: "scientific and class books for

the use of the scholars and teachers." There was also another

library which had been started by the Society of Inquiry on

Missions, which contained religious works; Dr. Beatty also

opened his own private library to the students.

In organization, the Steubenville Seminary had two depart­

ments, as was common: the Preparatory- Department, which was open

to girls under twelve; and the Principal School, or Young Ladies'

Department, for girls older. Admission to the Principal School

was precipitated upon age or upon having completed the Prepar­

atory studies, so it is possible that a girl could have entered

the school at thé age of thirteen or older, without having

201

the basic skills taught in tbe Preparatory Department. Also,

as was common, the Principal Department was divided into

three classes, the Middle, Junior, and Senior Classes.

These were the branches of study- in the Middle Class:

ReadingWritingOrthographyArithmeticGeography, modern and ancient, with drawing maps History, ancient and modern, but especially of

our own country- English Grammar Composition Natural Philosophy Natural HistoryBiblical, Roman, and Grecian Antiquities Watts On The Mind Human Physiology Political Class Book

&c

Once a girl had passed these studies, she was eligible to

move to the Junior Class, which occupied one year of time,

and thence to the Senior Class, which also took a year. Both

junior and senior classes appear to have taken classes together,

probably because of the small number of pupils who attained

these ranks. Their branches of study were these:

BotanyChemistryAstronomyGeometryAlgebraRhetoric ~CriticismIntellectual and Moral Philosophy LogicEvidences of ChristianityAnalogy of Natural and Revealed Religion

&.C

The girls could, by special arrangement, study music, drawing,

202

etc., but these were not required. Ancient and modern languages

could also be studied or not. A special teacher for vocal

music was employed, and singing was- generally taught to all

students.

Administratively, the Steubenville Female Seminary was

under the direction of a principal and an assistant. These

people's duties included "arranging the various studies,

forming the different classes, and attaching to them the re­

spective teachers, in their appropriate departments," not

unlike the duties of principals today . The principal and

the assistant also taught some of the classes, and did some

supervision, visiting classrooms "to see that the same methods

of instruction, and the same degree of accuracy, are maintained

by all."

In addition to the Superintendent, who was Dr. Beatty,

and the Principal and the Assistant Principal, the Steubenville

Female Seminary employed a Governess, who presided in the

general hall, assembling and dismissing the school, attending

to the sending out and returning of classes, maintaining order

and quiet during recitation hours, teaching penmanship, giving

permissions and excuses, and countersigning the regular reports

to the parents.

The teachers were said to be "selected with the greatest

care," in order that the Steubenville Seminary obtained "the

most competent and faithful." The readers of the catalogue

were assured that the teachers did not have to teach so many

203

subjects that they would be spread too thin, and that the

education and instruction would be "as thorough, as possible."

Recitations were held in. separate rooms from the study rooms,

’’in order that the undivided attention of the class be most

effectually secured," These assurances spoke to the concern

that too few teachers were often made to teach too many sub­

jects, with a resulting lessening in the quality of the edu­

cation received.

Another school official at the Steubenville Female

Seminary was the Matron, who supervised the girls' domestic

servants and other household arrangements: "domestics

are only accessible to the girls’ directions through her

express permission."

When one considers the year this catalog described,

1839, and the details with, which the Steubenville Seminary

was arranged, one can note that the. Steubenville Seminary

was more luxurious in. style, as well as in. tone, than the

Mary Lyon seminaries. Tuition was relatively high, being

$37.50 per quarter, including board, if a girl shared a

room. The year was divided into two sessions, with month­

long vacations in April and October, and with each session

being divided into two quarters, This would total $150,00

for one year of study. Besides this, instrumental or piano

lessons cost an additional $10.00 per quarter, and drawing,

painting, or French lessons cost-an extra $5,00 per quarter;

washing, per dozen, was $.36, and the cost of fire in the

204

sleeping room during tbe winter session was $8,QQ. Tbis

cost is more than it was years later, in 1850, at the Willough

by Female. Seminary, the forerunner of Lake Erie.

At the Steubenville Female Seminary in 18® , the Bible

was "more or less studiedevery day," in contrast to the ob­

ligatory Bible studies required at other seminaries. Tbe

writers of this catalog mentioned that "the religious prin­

ciples inculcated, are those common to all evangelical

Protestants," and the pupils were expected to attend church

every Sunday, but the tone of this catalog seemed to this rea­

der not as evangelical as other seminaries' catalogs'.

In tbis 1839 catalog, as in subsequent editions

(1840, 1855), tbe language describing tbe facilities and

courses of study was identical, indicating that Dr, Beatty

was pleased with bis school, and also that there was little

change in tbe facilities and in tbe courses taught. In all

the catalogs the writers seemed to place a great deal of

emphasis on physical health. The health of women was a

topic of much debate during the nineteenth century, and the

owners of the seminary seemed to want to assure parents that

their daughters' health would be assiduously guarded, with all

the latest knowledge and techniques being applied. By 1855

the institution contained a room called a Calisthenic Gallery,

and the bulletins thereafter stated:

Parents may rest assured that tbe health of those placed under our care will be watched with every attention. It is regarded as a thing of first

205

importance, as- paramount to every other consider­ation,—and it is- constant ly<-kept in view in all the arrangements and regulations both of the school and family. The pupils--are required -to take exer­cise of various -kinds-in the open air, whenever the weather will permit, and not be afraid of common exposures tothg atmosphere, while guarded most carefully -against that liability' to injury- which results from light’ and imperfect- clothing, and enervating habits , - -Bathing rooms are in eluded-in - thé-building, and accessible-To all pupils. ' UaTis- thehTcs , which-is a-system of bodi ly exercises adapted to promote health and graceful motion, is taught as part of thé course.

Human Physiology is a particular subject of study; and thus young-ladies are-taught to understand their own systems,- and guard against thé many evils to which they are exposed. . 1 .24

The 1839 catalog had assured the parents that the class

sessions were short, "that they may frequently change their

posture, from sitting, to standing or walking," and it noted

that there was a recess each morning and afternoon, so that

the girls could have "a free use of their limbs and tongues,

as well as the free flow of animal spirits . . .” The

catalog summarized the effects of the philosophy for educating

women a century ago: The girls were taught never to consider

themselves "under any constraint except such as propriety,

gracefulness, and convenience of others should dictate."

By 1855 the Steubenville Female Seminary had 225 stu­

dents, from Dubuque, Iowa, as well as from Virginia and

Pennsylvania. Ohio, of course, sent the most students.

What had been called thé "Junior Class" was in 1855 called

the "Middle Class." The "Junior Class" was in 1855 the first

24 Twenty-Sixth Annual- Catalog of •the Steubenville Female Seminary for T8b5 -(Pittsburgh, T8557, pp. "13’ 'f'f'.’

206

year of what was now called "The Regular Course," that used

to be called "The Principal Course," The quality and

quantity of educational equipment was improved. Besides

the maps and globes and astronomy equipment of 1839, the

Beattys had made "considerable progress . . . in collecting

a Cabinet of specimens in Geology, Mineralogy, Conchology,

Natural History, &c." The library now. contained over 4,000

volumes.

In 1855, the Junior Class took these courses:

FI RST- SESSI ON > ’ SECOND SESSI ON

Watts on the Mind Physiology; History; ■Biblical Antiquities, 1st pt; English Grammar, with Parsing; Arithmetic, Finished;

These were the Middle Class'

SUMMER SESSION

Ge ome t ry, commen ce d;B o t any; History;Algebra, or Book Keeping;Mason on Self-Knowledge;

The Senior Class studied the

SUMMER

Rhetoric;Intellectual Philosophy;S cien ce of Governmen t;General History;Natural Theology;

The underlined subjects were

the scholars studied composition,

scripture lessons, writing, and grammar, writh parsing

in Milton "once a week, in the higher classes." Latin was

Natural Philosophy . Geography, Ancient;

Biblical Antiquities, 2d pt Parsing, with Grammar, rev'd

/Algebra, commenced,

ctudies:

' SESSION

Geometry and Trigonometry; Chemistry;’ Geology;Algebra, completed; Ecclesiastical History.

e subjects:

WINTER

Astronomy;Moral Philosophy; fames'• Criticism;General Review;~Alexander's Evidences.

optional. In addition,

reading, vocal music,

2Ô7;

also available as a branch of study, and the textbooks, as

in 1839, were "carefully- selected, and but rarely changed."

As a result, it seems the girls studied classic texts, rather

than the edited versions of textbook writers.

This 1855 catalog announced that a Supplemental Course

would be available in 1856; for those who had finished the

Regular Course, a Collegiate Course would be offered:

This class will be entitled to special privileges; and the works used will be such as Karnes' Criticism, Young's Science of Government, and Mansfield's Rights of Women; Shaw's and Cleveland's English Literature, Butler's Analogy, Latin, and such others as may from-time to time be determined on. In this course also, young ladies may pay -much attention to Music, and other optional studies, It is designed that this course whall fill up at least a year, and those who pass over it will be furnished with an Honorary Diploma for the Collegiate Department. None admitted to this department under sixteen years of age.

Neither the 1839 nor the 1855 nor any of the other

catalogs mentioned that they had as a special task at the

seminary to train teachers, and none of the courses offered

were pedagogical in nature (at least by title), although the

statistics showed that most of the girls who attended did end

up teaching, for at least a while (see page 2Q0).

The Steubenville Female Seminary was still going strong

in 1883. However they endowed it (and that information was

not discovered), the Beattys were successful. The course of

study at the school was six years long, including the two

years in thé preparatory department, and thé only requirement

for admittance was that a girl be thé proper age and be of

good character. By this time thére was an Advanced English

208-

Course, as well as the Academic Course, and there were many

electives available. The main differences' between the Advanced

English Course and the Academic Course seem to have been that

the Advanced English Course offered courses in bookkeeping and

psychology, and may have, in fact, been a forerunner of the

"general" or "non-coliege-prep" course. The Advanced English

Course also emphasized natural sciences and de-emphasized

literature and languages.

Following is a side-by-side comparison of the two courses

of study. The Advanced English Course would seem to be more

vocational and practical; the Academic Course seemed more

traditional and classical. Again, neither had any pre-teaching,

pedagogical courses.

ADVANCED ENG. COURSE

En t r an ce Ye ar

Arithmetic, White's Complete English Grammar, Whitney's

Essentials r Geography, Harpers'PhysiologyEnglish CompositionEnglish Bible, Creation to

FloodNatural History History of England

' academi c -course

Ehtraihde Year

Arithmetic, White's CompleteLatin GrammarLatin ReaderPhysiologyEnglish CompositionEnglish Bible, Creation to FloodNatural History 1

Electives •

ElocutionForm, in English words & sent.ArtMusic

209.

ADVANCED ENG.’'COURSE- ■

’Middle- Year

Algebra, Wentworth’sEtymology and Orthoepy Physical Geography General History, Swinton’s ElocutionEnglish Composition ..........English Bible, Flood to Joshua Political EconomyPhys i cs

Elective

Bookkeeping

ACADEMIC COURSE

Middle Year

Algebra, Wentworth'sLatin, Caesar, Chase & Stuart's Physical Geography General History, Swinton's Latin, Prose Composition English Composition English Bible, Flood to Joshua Political Economy Physics

Electives

Elocution, Lectures & Exercises Greek Grammar, Goodwin's English Language, Its Growth Eng. Lit. Earliest to Wm. Langland Chaucer, Canterbury Tales Spencer's Faerie Queene Physics, Heat Lectures General History Art■Music

Junior Year Junior Year

GeometryChemistryScience of Govt., Young Rhetoric, J.D. Hill's English Comp.English Bible, David to

Division of Kingdom Trigonometry, Wentworth's BotanyRhetorical Analysis Minearalogy

GeometryChemistryVirgilRhetoric, J.D. Hill'sEnglish Comp.English Bible, David to Division

of KingdomTrigonometryBotanySallust.

Lledtives

Science of Govt., Young Shakespeare, CritIcal -Studies

in Midsummer's N.D. & Julius Caesar (Hudson's)

Physics, LightGreek,-Xenophon's Anabasis French-,. La Fontaine German, Whitney's Grammar Rhetorical Analysis

210

ADVANCED ENGLISH COURSE

Senior Year

GeologyAstronomyPsychology, Porter'sGeneral ReviewEnglish CompositionEnglish Bible, Restoration

to AdventLogic, Jevon'sEnglish Literature, Shaw'sEthics, CalderwoodGeneral ReviewEnglish CompositionEnglish Bible, New Test. Hist.

' ACADEMIC 'COURSE

" 'Jtürlbr YéaJV,' contd.

MineralogyPhysics, Electricity, Lectures,

ExperimentsShakespeare, Hamlet and As You

Like ItChemistry, Non-metalsGreek, Plato's Apology and Crito,

Borse's ExercisesFrench, La Fontaine, trans 1.Art-Music-. -

Senior Year

GeologyAstronomyPhysiologyLatin Selections, original exer. General ReviewEnglish Bible, Restoration to

AdventLogic, Jevon'sEnglish Literature, generalEthics, CalderwoodEnglish Bible, New Test. History

ElbOUives -

Analytical Geometry, Church's English Lit. Elizabeth. & August. Chemistry, Metals w. Laboratory Pylodet, Classic French Plays German, Schiller's William Tell Anglo-Saxon, Green's Grammar Chemistry, Qualitative & Quant. English Lit., Lake School of Poets Latin, JuvenalGreek, Modes &-Tenses, Demosthenes French,- Le Cid, Moliere, Athalie German, Goethe's FaustAnglo-Saxon, Parables, Cadmon Theism and Evidences of Christianity ArtMusic

21-1

From this course list it can he seen that the courses

offered in the later nineteenth century in thé female seminary-

differed from thé courses offered earlier in the century in

that there were more courses, of a more specific subject

matter. (One wonders how deeply- thé scholars went into the

subjects; recalling that these were sixteen- and seventeen-

year-olds, one recalls that very- few students of that age today

study Anglo-Saxon.) The catalogs of the other seminaries indicate

that this increasing specificity was common.

The Steubenville Seminary continued in existence "at

least as a day school," according to the Rev. William A. Grier,

"until about the close of the century."25

Methodology and CuirfcUla

As has been shown, the curricula in the female seminaries,

though they were geographically and temporally separated, were

similar. The courses were more practical than esoteric or

"fancy," in keeping with the philosophy that women should be

prepared for life and not for college, This philosophy was what

Martha MacLear called central-liberal, and it was the philosophy

of Rush and Beecher.2® Many of the textbooks in the seminaries

25WilH am A. Grier, "Letter to Ohio Historical.Society,"19-Oct-1944« . Grier donated the 1838 Catalogue of the Steuben­ville Female Seminary to thé State of Ohio... The cat alog be longe d to his grandmothér, Hannah Jane Saxton CMrs, Thomas Goodman), who studied-at the seminary, leaving before graduation, to be married in 1838. Grier said she was the only daughter of John Saxton of Canton, who was the founder of thé Canton Repository, and that she was. the cousin of Mrs. William McKinley.

2gMartha MacLear. Thé History of thé Education of Girls > in New York and in/Néw England I80G--IH70 (Washington, D.C. : Howard tin j versitv Press, 1926), pp. 12—2 V?c The "conservatives were the English and the "liberals5’ were the feminists.

212

were similar. Thomas Woody, in his. 1929 History, did

a compilation of courses offered in female seminaries from

1749 to 1851. The Table is reproduced from Volume I, and

Woody explained it thus*:

Taking into consideration the seminaries between 1749 and 1871, 162 in number, one may gain an im­pression as to (1) relative stress' laid on several fields of knowledge throughout the whole period; and (2) the--fluctuation of emphasis on particular key studies. The number of cases is small, but it is believed that the trends and stresses suggested are fairly reliable. Table I shows the per cent of institutions Which Offered,,the thirty-six main studies, 1749-1829, 1749—1871, and between 1830 and 1871. ... Reading across the cable, therise or decline of a subject’s importance may be estimated; reading down, one may see how each subject compared with another. The figures prob­ably have less reliability in some-subjects than others. Calisthenics, for example, may have had some place in an institution but may not have been considered and listed . . . in the catalog,26

PER CENT OE INSTITUTIONS OFFERING CERTAIN SUBJECTS

Subjects 1749-1829 1749-1871 1830-1871i i ,j Li _ -• v z—'•_• • __ n___ \ An /•* ry •_ _(35 schools) (T62 schools) (107 schools)

Spelling . . . • • 43 *1 49 «I » 51 •Reading . . . 89 «» 73 •> 65Writing . . . • « 75 • - 52 ». «■ 41 »Composition . • • 50 « ... 59 * * « 64 %■ « *Eng. Grammar . * « 89 86 * * « 84 r •j. •Logic .... 25 « » •> 50 * * 62 «Mental Phil. . 22 * « «1 * 62 « ». 82 « » %Rhetoric . . . • « 49 * • 75 •t a 88 » «Latin Grammar • • 24 • • « * 47 • » 59 • ♦Greek Grammar • » ' 11 • * 23 » • 29 « »German . . . 9 -•* V 14 16 •> «.French . . ... 46 ‘C 55 60Arithmetic ... ,• 86 v v 81 'V 79Algebra . . . 15 '-'♦k 60 ■v 83 »' *Plane Geometry 27 'V 62 '»* 79 ..Plane Trigon. » « 2 27 40 »■ -Evidences of Christ>■ 11 ♦ a • 36 » » * « 50 » «

26Woody, pp. 417-18.

213

PER CENT OF INSTITUTIONS OFFERING CERTAIN SUBJECTS, contd

S-'ubjects- • 1749-1829(35 schools)

Moral Philosophy .- 36Geography .... .... ”•* 82Natural Philosophy ... 50Chemistry - .. ... ... ... ... 30Geology .. .- .- , ... 2Botany . . ... ... ... ... 24Astronomy ... ... ... ... 46Physiology . . . ... ... ^2Calisthenics . .- ... '•* 3History ..... ... 58Ancient History . • 14Modern Historv- 14U.S. History . . . ... ... 16Political Science.. ... 2Plain Needlework . . '%■ 420 rn amen tai Ndlwo-rk-~. 43Painting .. ... ... ... ... . 25Drawing . , .• ... ... .. 49Music............................. . 21

1749-1871 1830—1871(162 schools) (107 schoolsO

65 ... 80 . •■ 70 ... 63 . »

76 ... 90 .V 70 ... *•? 90 .

r,. 40 ... •*r ‘t' 60 . *62 .. 82 . «

V' », 72 85 * «h•v *»/ 37 ... r' •fr- 55 . •

14 ., •> 19 . «47 ... 41 . »5 «•

••• 35 ... 44 . •-32 ... 41 . ♦35 ... 45 .

*** 23 ... V 34 ..« 12 .- 5 , «« " 23 ... 12 . ,,

37 ... •• 43 .49 « 50 . *

* 27 . « •> 30 .

This large number of courses taught to girls of ages

approximately ten to seventeen years naturally brought charges,

by critics, that the knowledge they gained must of necessity

be superficial. These charges were often answered with a

reminder that these students would probably become primary

teachers or at most, secondary teachers, and depth of field

was not as important as breadth of exposure.

In addition to the large number of courses, there were

a large number of textbooks. Woody also compiled a list of

the textbooks used in women's- colleges since 185Q. This list

is in Appendix IX. The reader will notice that many of the

books mentioned in the text of this study are on Woody's list,

that the books used in "colleges" were also used in "seminaries.

214

As far as the teaching methodologies employed in these

seminaries, what little evidence we have shows that the

Pestalozzian Method was in vogue. Rousseau's ideas about

demonstration teaching rather than lecture teaching had

been taken up by Pestalozzi, and the methodology spread

throughout the European countries and to America. At the

Cincinnati Eemale Academy, founded in 1823, as Jane Sherzer

noted, the demonstration method was used, "by which a

knowledge of things instead of words alone was imparted."

The owners carefully informed the students that the idea

that some people had that the Pestalozzian "tends to in­

fidelity" had no foundation.27 Pickett's Boarding School,

also in Cincinnati, also used "the analytic, or inductive"

method of teaching.28 29 30 Other female seminaries used a com­

bination of the Pestalozzian and the Lancasterian 2® method-

oloties. Mrs. ’’Thayer, in 1856, in her annual report for

the Elizabeth Female Academy in Washington, Missippi, said:

Pestalozzi has developed the philosophy of mind, and shown us what we ought to teach. Lancaster has taught how to impart instruction with facility, to a much greater number than could possibly be instructed in the same time, on the old system.30

o yJane Sherzer, "The Higher Education of Women in the

Ohio Valley Previous to 1840," Ohio ArchaecilogicaT and Histor­ical Quart erly, XXV (1916), 9.

2’8-ri/■ • -• -i ziIbia. , 10.29After Joseph Lancaster, who devised a system whereby more

advanced scholars taught less advanced scholars, thus saving on the number of personnel needed. They used large classrooms.

30 American Journal of Education, 11(1856), 633-7.

215

She also commented that in the old days, both the teachers

and the students got bored, using the recitation method,

but that now, with the new methodologies, the students

could move at.their own paces, and that "sensible objects

are employed for the purposes of illustration."

This adaptation of methodology must have served the

circumstances of the seminaries rather well, for they were

private, with small endowments, and even had there been a

surplus of teachers, these institutions could ill afford

to hire them. Besides, the Lancasterian system was itself

a kind of "student teaching" experience, simulating a

laboratory experience, for the potential teachers attending

the seminaries. As Woody said, many small schools were

probably opened because of this Lancasterian system, which

allowed many students to be taught, inexpensively.31

Whatever the methodologies or curricula, the seminaries

in Granville and in Steubenville contributed teachers to

the state of Ohio and to the West, and they were flourish­

ing institutions that contributed greatly to the secondary

and higher education of women in the United States.

31Woody, I., 427. Boyd also mentioned the use of the Lancasterian system in academies. He said that at the Day- ton Academy for Boys, the trustees adopted the Lancasterian method and built a special building, opening the school in 1820, as the Dayton Lancasterian Academy. "It was claimed for this system that by promoting scholars in each class to the position of monitor on the ground of good scholarship and conduct, one teacher, who needed only to act as a general supervisor, might control, and instruct five hundred scholars, thus saving great expense," However, the plan failed. p. 127.

216

EPILOGUE

This study has shown how the American philosophy for

educating women influenced the development of teacher

education in this country. The need to establish a

respectable alternative for the woman who did not marry

and fulfill her destiny within thé sphere of domesticity,

as well as the need for educated teachers in the West

combined to promote the development of the teaching pro­

fession as an extension of the home.

Americans had a naive faith in the power of education

to uplift them, socially as well as morally. Part of

the American Dream has always been to educate one's sons

and daughters so they could have a life better than that

of their parents. This faith in the power of education

was evident in the great debates over the proper education

for women.

The society was expanding, and teachers were needed, and

the private academies and seminaries provided the teachers,

before the advent of public Normal schools, which began

to gain popularity after the Civil War, The expanding

society had a need for educated women, so there was a very

practical reason for educating them. They were needed

as teachers in order to free the men teachers to more

remunerative and more important work in the building of the

country.

217

The call for seminaries to educate teachers was met

in all states, but especially in Ohio, which was settled

during the period of expansion, and which lay as a cross­

roads on the way West. Hundreds of seminaries and academies

were established in Ohio, because of its educational legis­

lative situation, and because of its geographical and

historical availability. The seminaries were sometimes

modelled on boarding schools in the European tradition,

but they were American institutions in that they had a

mission to create and develop young ladies who could take

teaching positions, as well as be elegant members of

society,

Few of those who attended the seminaries emerged as

suffragists (or feminists). They emerged as schoolmar'ms,

evangelical in religious fervor, conservative and conven­

tional In beliefs and demeanor, active in their churches and

in their communities, patriotic, dedicated to the causes

of temperance and abolition, dedicated to what they thought

was the proper way to educate children. They emerged

from the private seminaries and taught in public schools,

carrying their beliefs with them. Their beliefs formed

the way the public school system was formed, for they were

the people who were in a position to influence, not only

the children they taught, but the people who hired them.

It could be said that the female teacher, who was

218

by belief and predisposition an innatist, an antifeminist,

had a more insidious influence on the society than her

more political sisters. The separation of church and

state is still an issue, as well as is how morality can

be taught to the students. The teacher's beliefs have

a great influence on these issues. Society expects the

teacher to be more than a subject-matter expert. The

advent of the female teacher in the mid 1800's and the

philosophy by which she lived are still influential.

It could also be said of the female teacher that she

did much for women's rights, even with her conservative

and religious, antifeminist and innatist beliefs. She

made it respectable for a woman to work outside the home

in a professional activity. She made it respectable

to be unmarried, without children, and to be considered

both womanly and successful. She was a model of inde­

pendence and self-reliance for both boys and girls, as

she taught her school and led her clubwomen and took

her safaris on summer vacations. The innatist, religious,

conservative female teacher was the person who took women

out of the home sphere into financial independence and

lasting influence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

PRIMARY SOURCES

SECONDARY SOURCES

220

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources

BOOKS

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Beecher, Catharine, Educational Reminiscences and Sugges­tions . New York: J,B, Ford & Co.,~ 1874.

Harper's, 1846.The Evils Suffered By American Women,

____________ Essay on the Education of Female TeachersFor Thé“Unite d States. New Y ork (Van N os t r an d an d WigKF/ 18337“ —~

. The Moral Instructor: For Schools and Families/“Cihcinnhl'i : Truman' Smith', 18 88.

' P°P?estj-c Economy. New York, 1856,

Strictures on Female Education, 1795 Sburce“"B6dk’FFress,‘ "I9‘7l/

For Female Education, Boston: McKee lBSST,"---------

Bennett, ?John, Rev, rpt.'.••• New York:

Bittle, D.F. A Plea and RobérTson,'“'

Comfort, Anna and George Comfort, Woman’s Education andWoman’sr Hea1th/ Syracuse, N,Y, 'T“lhbmaB'‘'W7 Hurston, 1874,

Dickinson, Emily. Letters, Vol, I, ed. Thomas H, Johnson. Cambridge, Mass.: B e lknap Press, 1958.

Duffey, Elizabeth. No Sex in Education: Or An Equal ChanceFor Both Boys ancl Girls, FhTlahe lphia: JTST. "s toddarf , 1874,

Fordyce, James, Rev, The Character and Conduct of the Female Sex. Boston, 1781.

' - . Sermons to Young Women, Philadelphia,. '17877 ”“ — -——• — — —

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■ . i

221

Hitchcock, Enos. Memoirs of the Bloomsgrove Family.

Livermore, Mary A. , What Shall We Do With Our Daughters? Boston: Houghton 'Miff lin To,, 1893/ ' ' '

Mathews, Joseph, Rev. Letters To School Girls. Cincinnati: Swormstedt & Poe, 1853'.'

More, Hannah. Essays on Various Subjects, P rin clpa1ly Designed F or Yd up g Ladi es. 4tff ~e~d.London / 1785 ,

. Strictures on the Modern System of Female~"7 Education.' ' ' xhtyb'l'l/TTT, The Work's of Hannah Mo'r e, 1799.

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Rockwell,"-Julius. Education of American Women. Pittsfield, Mass.: A, Hanford, 1847, ” „

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Emile, ed, Wm, Boyd, New York:/ Columbia University Press, 197Q.

Rowson, Susanna. Mentoria, Or The Young Ladies’ Friend,Phi lade Iphi a: E. Campbell1794.

Rush,, .Benjamin. Essays : Literary, Moral, and Philosoph­ical. Phi la deTphTa:. Bradford’s/' '1806. •

Spaulding, James R. The True Idea of Female Education,New York: John Trow PubUshers, 185'5“.' -

Webster, Noah. A Collection of Essays and Fugitive Writings. Boston, 1790. . '' : ■ ' ' ' , * ■ ■ ■ -

Willard, Emma. Address To The Public: Particularly To TheMembers' of 'the-"LegisTat u r e’~o"f' New Yo'fk, 'Proposing A "Plan For1; improving:1I'emaTe EducatTon,' llSlO/' Ariha Bracket t, ed.' '‘Tota^h^ . New York: Harper

' & Bros./. "18937 — ' -j - -...

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Columbia Univ, Press/ 1973, " ”

222

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PERIODICALS

Alumnae Bul le t in of Lake E rie S emin ary, 1898

Baptist Weekly Journal . 23 Aug 1833, Advertisement

Barnard, Henry. "Educational.Statistics.in the U.S, in 1850," The American Journal of Education, I (1855), 362-65.— -

Beecher, Catharine. "Woman's Profession," Godey's Lady's Book, XLV (Sep, 1852), 484.

Burrowes, Thomas B. "Ungraded Academies and Seminaries," Pennsy 1 vania Schoo 1 Joumal, IV (Dec, 1855), 164-66.

Coggeshall, Wm. T. "System of Common Schools in Ohio," American Journal of Education, VI (Mar 1859), 81ff„

Davisf Caroline. "Female Education," Pennsylvania School Journal. I (May, 1853), 431-42,

"Editor ' s Table," Godey's Lady ' s Book, XLV (1852), p.193.

"Editor ' s Table," Godey's Lady ' s Book, XLV (1852), p. 388.

"Editor's Table," Godey's Lady ' s Book, XLV (1852), p. 483.

"Editor's Table," Godey's Lady's Book, XLVI (1853), p. 173,

"Editor's Table," Godey's Lady ' s Book, XLVII (1853) , 84-85.

"Editor's Table," Godey's Lady ’ s Book, XLVIII (1854), 464.

"Editor ' s Table," Godey's Lady ' s Book, LIX (1859), 274.

"The Education of Young Women in America," Godey's Lady's Book, LXI (I860), 368. ~~~

Hitchcock, Edward. "The Character of Mary Lyon," Old South Leaflets, No. 145, N.d.

Kingsbury, John. "Reunion of the Young Ladies' High School, Providence, R.I.," The American Journal of Education, V (1858), 22—26. ~ "

"The Ladies' Mentor," The Lady's Book XIV (1837), 186.

223

Primary (contd.)

"The Ladies’ Mentor," The Lady 's Book, XIV (1837) j 226.

"The Ladies’ Ment or, " The La. dy ' s Book, XIV (1837), 281.

Lyon, Mary. "Mount Holyoke Female Seminary," Old South Le aflets, No. 145, N.d.

McKeen, Catharine.^— '¿Mental Education of Women," American Journal of Education I (1855), 567-68.

Newcomb, Mary E. Dr. "Lend A Hand," The Seminary Record.V, (1894), 197, ‘

"On the Death of Miss Mary Evans," Thé Lake Erie Record,XXXVI (1922), ’

"Places of Education for Young Ladies," Godey's Lady's Book, LXI (1860), 557. ”

The Seminary Record, VII (1894).

The Seminary Record, VIII (1895).

Shepardson, Mrs. "Old Brown Sem,," Denison Alumni Bulletin (Oct 1911), 4-5. ~

Sigourney, Lydia. "On the Policy of Elevating the Standard of Female Education," Southern Literary Messenger (1834), 160-170. ~ — .....

"Troy Female Seminary," Godey1s Lady's Book, LXI (1860), 368.

"Uneducated Women," Common School Journal, IX (1 Oct 1847),297-98. ”

Vogel, Dr, "German Views on Female Teaching in America," American Journal of Education, IV (185 8), 795-6,

W., J.E. • "Old Brown Sem," Denison Alumni Bulletin, (June 1914), 4-6. ' - " '

"Where Our - Daughters Go To School," Harper's New Monthly,XV (Oct. , 1857) , 674—78. ‘ ~ '

Willard, Emma XIV (1837)

"Female College at Bogota," Lady's World, 279.

Willard, Emma. "What To Teach," Godey's Magazine and Lady's Book, XLV (1852), 294.

Y. , B. "Thoughts On The Happiness of Woman As ConnectedWith The Cultivation of Her Mind," Lady's Book, XV (1835) 204-5.

224

Primary (contd.)

DOCUMENTS AND REPORTS

Articles of Incorporation- of Western Female Seminary.' ”‘i"4’"Jui 185'37 Oxf orcl, Ohio (In Westerniana Collec­

tion, Miami University Libraries, Oxford, Ohio.)

Catalogue of the Officers and Pupils of the.Granville ' Female Senii'nary For Th”e ‘AcademiCaT Year 1837.

dolumbus:' Cu€1er and"FiIskury, IS37. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

Catalogue of the Granville Female Academy, Granville, Ohio.” HS3&/3Üt -c"/f'n Ohio His torleal Society Library, Columbus,

Ohio.

Catalogue of the Granville Eeïriaié Academy, 1852. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

Catalogue of the Granville' Female' Academy.,- 1855. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

Catalogue of' the Granville Female’ A'c'adémyy: 1857. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

"Certificate of Amendment to Articles of Incorporation of The Western College for Women at Oxford, Ohio,"8 Jan 1955. In Westerniana Collection,

Circular of the Western■ ■ Eemaib.• HeriJl'ha’ry’.-Puto’iiShed For The Benefit ’of Its Friends -and Patrons, 28 Jul 1853. In Westerniana Collection, Miami. University.

"Constitution and Articles of Agreement of the Western Female Seminary," Oxford, Ohio." 14 Jul 1853. In Westerniana Collection, Miami University.

First Circular For The Western Female' Seminary,185 3.Oxford, Ohio: 185 37 In Westerniana Collection.

Forty-Fourth Annual Catalog For The Year Ending June 18,1873, With A General' Catalogue of the Teachers and Graduates of the S t e ub en v'l 11 e Female Seminary,From Its Commencement, April 13, 1829. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

The Ohio Female College At Co 11 eg e-Hi' 11, ■ Hamilton Co. ,Oh’io, With The Plans, Reasons,' and En cbur agement For Its Permanent En bowme nt:.As’ A Firs t-Ciass1' Female' Seminary With A Special Object of Educating Competent' Teachers For

22®

Primary (contd.)

The I Here as i ng Millions ■ of. the West' So Soon ToGovern This■ Nation,.Including' Numerous Coftto'endations, of Clergymen, Teachers, -and Others. New York:Edward 0. Jenkins,1862, in Cincinnati Historical Society

Outline and Catalogue of the S t eub en'vllie' Female Seminary For The' Ye'-ar1 'Ending- In- September,' 1839. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio

Out line and Ca talogue''of -the.'S't'ehbé'n'ville'-. Fetoalé Seminary For The Year Ending' In Sep tember, 1855. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio., ,.

Outline and Catalogue of the Steubenville Female Seminary For" The Year Ending in September, 185(T In Ohio Ristori cal’ Go eie iy X"ibr ary, Columbus, Ohio.

Outline and Catalogue' for' thé Steubenvi lie Female' Seminary For’ The1 Year- Ending' in' September,'1885. 'In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

The Proceedings' of the' American- TnëtTthté of Instruction,1831. George B. Emerson, "On The Education of Females," Lecture !, pp. 15-41...

The Proceedings of the Women’s' Rights 'Convention Held At Akron, Ohio, May ¿8 and *S'9/”18^Ï7 Cincinnati :Ben Franklin Books, 1851.

"Report To The College of Teachers," Cincinnati: October 1840. In Cincinnati Historical Society.

"Second Annual Report To The Trustees of Western Female Seminary, 1855." In Westemiana Collection.

Student's Guide: Rules and Regulations' of thé Ohio Female College. N.d.

Third Annual Report of thé Commissioner of' Statistics To The Governor of Thé State' of Ohio, 1859. Columbus: Richard Nevins’, State Printer, 1860. .

Trans action s of the College of Pro fess iona 1’ Teachers : Cincihhali. 1 Oct 1838. Mrs. Phelps, "Educationof Women."

Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of Lake Erie' Female' S'etai-riary, Painesville, Ohio,' 1884. Cleveland: J.B. Savage,1885. ' 85' "pgs .

226

Primary (contd.)

Twenty-Sixth Annual C atalo gu e of t he S t euben vi 11e Female Seminary. 'Pittsburgh, ’ 1835. .

"Western Reserve Teacher's Seminary and Kirtland Institute," Announcement. In Lake County Historical Society.

Willoughby Female' S eminary , S e cond Annual Catalogue, 1848-9. in Lake County Historical Society and Lake Erie College Library.

Willoughby Female Seminary ,- Thi-rd Annua. 1; Catalogue,' 1849-50

22 7

Primary (contd.)

ADDRESSES

Beecher, Catharine. "An Address To The J/rotestant Clergy of the United States," Harper & Bros*, 1846.

Day,.Henry N., Rev. "An Address on Education, DeliveredAt The Annual Commencement of the Ohio Female College, June 30, 1859," College Hill, O.: Ongley & Shain,1859. 25 pgs.

Elliott, Charles, Rev. "Thè Fireside, An Address Delivered Before the Calliopean Society of the Oxford Female Institute," June 28, 1851. Hamilton, 0.: Halsey & McBeth, 1851. 24 pgs.

Fisher, Samuel W. "Female Education: An Address Delivered At The Dedication of-Ohio Female College," Sep 4 1849. Cinn.: Ben Franklin, 1849. 50 pgs.

' . "John Calvin and John Wesley : An AddressDelivered At The First Anniversary of the Western Female Seminary,. Oxford, Ohio, 1856." Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach, Keys, & Co., 1856.

Goodwin, Henry M., Rev. "Funeral Discourse in Memoriam of Anna P. Sill, Principal of the Rockford Female Seminary, 1889,” Rockford: 1889.

Hall, Rev. "Address on Female Education, Delivered July10, 1846, On Occasion of the First Anniversary of the Cooper Female Academy, Dayton, Ohio," Dayton: 1846.16 pages.

Hickock, L.P., Rev. "Female Education: An Address BeforeThe Canton Female Seminary At Their Annual Examination, June 8, 1843," Canton: Daniel Getshall, 1843.

Mathews, Joseph, Rev. ."Female Education: An AddressBefore the Convention of Female Teachers, Assembled in Columbus, Ohio, Dec. 28, 1852," Cincinnati:1853. 9 pg.

Scott, John W., Rev. "An Address on Female Education: Deli­vered At The Close of thè Summer Session of 1840, of the Steubenville Female Seminary." Steubenville: 1840.

Storrs, Henry M., Rev. "Address on First Anniversary ofLake Erie Female Seminary, July 19, 1860," Cleveland:1860. 24 pgs.

228

Primary (contd.)

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Anthony, Susan B. "Letter to Mary Evans." 21 May 1865. at Lake Erie College Library, Painesville, Ohio.

Beecher, Lyman. "Letter to Rev. Daniel Tenney," 28 May 1853. At Miami University Libraries, Westerniana Collection.

Berry, Maria Pierson. Short Sketch' of a. Long Life.Handwritten autobiography, N.d.- In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio. N.d.

Creeger, Martha. Letters home from the Granville Female Academy, 1842-43. In Box 28, Archives, Denison University, Granville, Ohio.

Grier, William A. "Letter to Ohio Historical Society,"18 Oct 1944. In Ohio Historical Society Library, Columbus, Ohio.

Hayes, Lucy Webb. "Letter to ’R’." Chillicothe, 5 Sep 1851. In Rutherford B. Hayes Library, Fremont,Ohio.

Howe, Sarah Isabella. Life of Helen Peabody. Typed ms., approx. 200 pages. N.d. In Westerniana Collection of Miami University Libraries, Oxford,Ohio. !

Tenney, Daniel. "Letter On 10th Anniversary of Western Female Seminary," 1865. In Westerniana Collection of Miami University Libraries, Oxford, Ohio.

\ . "Letter on 25th Anniversary of Western"~Fe‘rriaie" ’Seminary, " 4 Jun 1880. In Westerniana Collection

of Miami University Libaries, Oxford, Ohio.

INTERVIEWS '

With Miss Ainsworth, Registrar, Lake Erie College, April 28, 1976. •

With Dr. Esther Crane, former teacher at Lake Erie College, May 5, 1977.

,229

Secondary Sources

BOOKS

Akers, Wm. J. '..'Clev-eTahd 'ScRóo'IsTTn; -The' Nln-e-teehth ’Century. Cleveland, W.M. Bayne, 1901.

Andelin, Helen B.„ ’ Fascinating Womanhood. Bantam, 1974

Boas, Louise Schutz. Woman's' Education'- Begins: ' The Rise of the Women's Colleges/ Norton, Mass.: Wheaton. College Press, 1935.

Borrowman, Merle L. ed. Teacher Education in America:A Documentary History. N.Y,: Teachers College Press, T o 1 umbia Univ. ' 1965.

Bullough, Vera. L. The Subordinate Sex : A History ofAttitudes T owar d W omeri’. N.Y^Penguin Bo ok s, 1974.

Buras, James J. Educational History of Ohio. Columbus: Historical Publishing Co1905.

Burstall, Sara A. The Education of Girls In The United Sfates. New York: Macmillan Co,7 1894.

Butts, R. Freeman. A Cultural History of Education. New York: McGraw-Hi 117 T94'7^

Crane, Theodore Rawson, .ed. ' The Dimensions of 'American Education. Reading, Mass.: Addison—Wesley, 1974.

Cubberley, Ellwood P. Readings In The History of Educ­ation . New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1920.

Cross, Barbara, ed. The Educated Woman In America. NewYork: Teachers College Press, Columbia Univ., 1965.

Elson, Ruth Miller. Guardians' 'of Tradi ti on '• Airier i can Schoolbooks of -thé Nineteenth : Century. Lincoln,Neb.: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 19ë’4.

Flexner, Eleanor. ' Century- 'of- St'-ruggle:' The Woman's' Rights Movement in the United States. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1966.

Goodsell, Willystine. ' The Education of Women: Its SocialBackground and- Its Problems. New York: MacMillan, 1924.

230Secondary Çcontd»)

Hartman, Mary and Lois i¥. Banner. ' Clio's’ CoHs’di’buSHeSs Raised:■ : New PelspectlyeS- On The-Histery of Women. New York: Harper ColophonTTooks, ' 19"74.

Hopkins, Mary Alden. HahHah -Mere' And Her* Circle. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 19 47'.

Jones, A.M.G. Hannah More. Cambridge,. England: The Univer­sity Press',' 1952.

Kandel, I.L. History of- Secondary -Edii-c'a-tTon.- Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1930.

Kraditor, Aileen. The .Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement. New York: Anchor, 1965.

' ' ■’'J ’ j UP From Thé Pé-deST’al.- Chicago: Quad­rangle Books, 1968.

Lansing, Marion, ed. ' Mary Lyon- Through Her* Letters. Boston, Mass.: Books, Inc. ,1937,

Luce, William. ' Thè Belle’ ’of ’A'nihérS-I,■ Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 19W?

Lutz, Alma. Emma WIHaZrd:- ' Daugh’tè-r’ of Democracy. Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 1929.

MacLear, Martha. The History..of the Education of Girls in New York and Hëw En gland, "T SP’O-18 70. ‘ ' Was hin g t on :H ow ar d Un i ve rs 11: y7 TP r es s' j 1926,

Marlow, H. Carleton, and Harrison M, Davis. The’ American Search for Woman. Santa Barbara: Clio Books” 1976.

Meyer, Annie N. , ed. Woman 's Work in America. New York:Henry Holt and Co. , 1891,

Miller, E. A. History of Educational ’Législation In’ Ohio from 1803 to 1850. Chicago, 1920. rpt. New York:Arno Press, 1969.

Miller, George, The ’Academy’ System of ’the S'fa’te’ ’of New York. Albany: J.B. Lyon & Co,» 1922".

Mock, Albert. Thé ’Mld-WeS'-tSrn’ ’Académy’Mov’émént. Indianapolis, Ind. : 1949".

Morgan, Marabel. ' Thé ’Tétai Woman.- N.Y'. : Pocket Books, 1973.

Oltóny,JamesW ed/ .’ TK’é} •■Lib’ér’al’ Fd’uga’t’i’on; of- Women. New York: A/S. Barnes, Öo., 1873.

231Secondary (contd.)

Rossi , Alice.ed. ' Thé FëiriihisrT Papbrsr:■ ' From AdaSms: To Beauvoir.■ New York: Columbia Univi Press, 1973.

Schneir, Miriam, ed. ' Feminism; The Essential Historical Writings. New York: Vintage, 19’72.

Scott, Ann Firor, ed. The American Woman: Who Was She? Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, 1973’.

Sexton, Patricia. Women in Education. Bloomington, Ind.:Phi Delta Kappa, 19"7^.

Shepardson, Francis W. Denison University: 1831-1931. Granville, Ohio, 1031.

Shotwéll, John B. A History of the Schools of Cin cinn ati. Cincinnati: School Life Co., 1902.“

Sizer, Theodore R. The Age' of Thé Academies. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964.

Sklar, Kathryn Kish. Catharine Beecher : A Study in American Domesticity. New Haven : Yale Uni vers ì ty P ress, 19 73.

Smith, Page. Daughters of the Promised Land: Women in Ame r i c an H i s t'ory ( Little, Brown and Co., 1970.

Sochen, June. Herstory : A Woman’s View of American History. New York: Alfred Press, 19'74.

Thompson, Eleanor. Education for -Ladles:» ' 1830-1860. New York: King's C rown Press, 19477’

Welter, Barbara. Dimity Convi ctions : The American WomanIn The N ine teen th Century. Athens, 0.: Ohio University Press, 1976.

_____ __ . The Woman Question in American History.Dryden Press, 1973.’

Woody, Thomas. A. History of Worileh’s* EdtfdaTToh in the United States. 2 vols. New York: The Science Press, 1929.

2 32

Secondary (contd.)

PERIODICALS

"The Beginnings of Mount Holyoke," Seminary Record, TfI (1894) . ———

Boyd, W.W. "Secondary Education in Ohio Previous to the Year 1840," Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society Publications', ' XXV (1916)/~Tl8-134 . '

Bunkie, Phillida. "Sentimental Womanhood, and DomesticEducation, 1830-1870,.) History of Education Quarter­ly, 16 (Spring 1974), 13-30. J —

Conway, Jill K. "Perspectives on the History of Women’sEducation in the United States,"' History of Education Quarterly, 16 (Spring 1974), 1-12. ’ ”' '

Miller, P.J. "Eighteenth Century Periodicals for Women," History of Education Quarterly, 13 (Fall 1971) 979-2B3.’“ —----- -- ------——

' j ; /• ■ .■ "Women’s Education, ’Self-Improvement’ and Social-Mobility—A..Late. Eighteenth Century Debate,"

. His:tory; Of Education' Quarterly,- 16 (Spring 197«®)/

Sherzer, Jane. "The Higher Education of Women in the Ohio Valley Previous to 1840," Ohio Archaeological and His tori cal Quarterly, XXV (‘ 19T 6j"“,' T-“2-3'. ~

"Three Hundred Years of Education for Girls in America," School and Society, XLII (1935), 105-11.

Wein, Roberta, "Women’s Colleges and Domesticity, 1875- 1918,"' H'is'-Udrv' 'of 'EdubatTon' Quarterly, 16 (Spring 1974), 31-47.

Welter, Barbara. "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860," American Quarterly, 18 (Summer 1966), 151-74.

233 4

Secondary (contd.)

DOCUMENTS' AND- REPORTS

Women's Education' in the W'éS't-érn'^Ré'sér've.■ Western Reserve University, 1926. 35 pages.

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Keller, Arnold J a ck. An • Historical •• Analysis- ■ • of. • the Arguments For Tknd-Ag’ai'nSl.Co’bdScailbhal1 Pub-lid High Schools in The1 United Stales . - Columbia University, 1971. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation.

APPENDICES

234-

I. TITLE PAGE FROM ANNOUNCEMENT

FOR OHIO FEMALE COLLEGE

THE

niì'TiV- :>i?>,,VT?TR FiTT TP fTW villv - T NilizLJjJi - v vJLJjiJ.brlj /

COLLEGE HILL,: HAMILTON CO., OHIO,

..WITH THE

p L A », K E À S 0 B 8, A B 1) E fiC 0 U K A 6 E M E B T

FOB ITS

TWIL EMANENT ENDOWMENT

T i RS T- C L AS S TE M A LB S E MI NT A RX»

a SPECIE 1. OBJECT <l? , "

/EDUCATING 'COMPETENT TE.ACHE1ÎS POR THE INCREASING MILUOXS OP THE

, WEST SO .SOON TO,'GOVERN THIS NATION.

;L- ; T INCLUÙ1SÔ . ./.'•' *

L . A ■ NUMEROUS COMMENDATIONSOF ̂ CLERGYMEN, TEACHERS. AND OTHERS. ' ; ' '

NEW YOLK: W/ ' 1 .

EDWARD, O. JENKINS, PRINTER, • " 20 NORTH WILLIAM STREET. .

lob-

J’S’CWAi. & PWdiSPPMCA

236

II. ' PAGES FROM Student’s Guide For

Ohio Female College

238

5 - 3

fcjfaqeij’s Guile, ©l<io Ji’erry-je College.

During study hours every young lad)- should use the iiih,,..: ;tton not to disturb her companions by conversation or in anv < fway. . j

Visiting from room to room, except ing nt the hours sp.-.-ut. VJ strictly prohibited.

When the.bell strikes at 9 o'clock i>. m., every stud.-nt '?from her room must return to it without delay, and all are t.> p-v • bed and the gas turned off when the. hell strikes at 91 o’chu-k. Aiv» 'retiring, no talking above a whisper is allowable.

Students are not to light the gas in their rooms or >4s,•«•!».•:.• o, f the College, at anytime between 9.} o’clock at night and f. ..-J. £in the morning, except for sickness or other unavoidable ne.-.-.-iv

No student is allowed to visit, any store or go to the «-tty ..ft, i.< 5

than once per month, and even then she must have ¡ter parent'» « j * guardian’s consent. b

Borrowing money from school or class mates, or wearing ,«rti.-l«-» ■of clothing or jewelry belonging-to another is strictly disapproved t

No student is allowed to answer the door bell n.ii- y-> s<> the ; parlor, laundry, dining-room or kitchen without permission. i

The conveying of letters, notes, or cards, to or from board. r > >.» day scholars or other persons without the knowledge of the pi,- is forbidden.

Visits of students in private families in town, will not mu-r*t.» ;he allowed. 1

Deceiving company, except it be at the special ami written r.-n'i.-.l of the parent or guardian, and with, the consent of the Lady 1’.- > . ,pa'., will not be permitted.

Friday evening from tea tilt 9 o'clock, and on SatHi'i.r. si dinner until 0 o’clock r. m., the students are allowed i>> vi-u ;n t;—. ;

College as they may choose, subject to the-rules and autlmri! -u - College, and within the. limits required by order ami dee.num \

No entertainments of any kind are to lie given in lie rooms, and no student is allowed to change her bed loom • ' ’single night, without permission from the Lady 1‘rinrip.il.

.-'4

239

..■ ^tueleij.’s <bidA ©H» 3?c:iiv(le 'Cotteije. ?

1;:■ ■ -r 'Vi ■■

.?.

bF7-4-

'fc, k/: |

w

(7 > ■■ $

t(iivw« V5s'.:

Ji«> nails are to bo driven in any part of the College premises, , ,.v4i'under tbo direction of the Superintendent.

" ' ' Apple cores and parings, also dry -waste matter, such as refuse i'ap*r, tiatr, nut shells, etc., are to be thrown into the box provided

she purpose, and nowhere else. Nothing, under any circumstances, it.iiiht bo thrown out of the windows.

■ Whenever a room is left temporarily vacant, the gas should be toft-M down to prevent waste.

' No visiting or delaying at the doors of rooms, nor lingering in the■

Students are earnestly requested to report promptly to the Lady : pyirwij^l ami also to the Matron, the illness of a room mate.

V / ' IVconun and quiet should prevail throughout the halls and other • pdtfc places, and running, loud laughing, talking, or singing therein,

£■» v«>idi ary to rule.

Vf -'^Indents must not he called away from a recitation or other Col- Jky# vxercise to meet visitors, except for urgent reasons, and a pupil iV{?>0 jmrlor must leave her friends to meet her College appoiut- itjaiidA unless excused by the President or Lady Principal.

.Young ladies wishing to invite a friend to a meal in the College, tassai t»r«t consult the Lady Principal. There, are no accommodations £<•„.<;ded in the College for lodging the friends of students.

A» meals, free and cheerful conversation is encouraged, but where tiiAity are conversing at once, each one should .speak in subdued tones.

The students are expected to be considerate and polite toward : sLdf companions, to maintain a lady-like deportment toward the

»Vtfi-Ants, and to observe the rules of propriety and social etiquette . »»wh prevail in well-bred circles.

, • So ¿Indent is allowed to practice on an instrument at an hour .,Ul liU not been assigned to her by the proper authority, and a

persun is not allowed in the music room during a practice V'-vr, rveept for the purpose of practicing duets.

bwcelineats, cakes, confectionery, and food of all kinds, excepting A4,A /nsiti, will not be received at the College for students, as they •fi* ‘ urevs of sickness and much evil.

i

240

III. RATIONALE FOR TRAINING

CHRISTIAN GIRLS AS TEACHERS:

OHIO FEMALE COLLEGE

zt

OHIO FEMALE COLLEGE. 17

The Importance of the Ohio Female College, and the rea­sons and encouragements for ii-s public endowment.

-instead o( a full discussion on the points presented, our space v ill allon but the briefest outline of the am-iimcnt.

, 1. Increasing Interest in proper Female Education. The nation is fast waking up to the vital importance of such edu­

cation to the best interests of the family, the church, the state, and the world.

The fact that millions of money and millions of acres of public land have been given by the States and by private munificence for the endowment of Male Colleges, while, until recently, almost nothing |las pcen jonc j„ t|lis wtly p(n. education, is now be­ginning to call forth a generous liberality, in the public establish- nient and endowment of a few Female seminaries of the highest character lor our daughters, giving to them the same advantages, so far as adapted to female wants, which have hitherto been enjoyed’ exclush lay, by our sons in our best American colleges.

Ihe pi opt ii'tors ci the Ohio i’emaie College having bv private enterprise and large expense creeled and furnished "the"rerjuisito buildings, and demonstrated the value of such an education for all classes of the community, and brought it within the reach of many of our needy and promising Western daughters, are desirous by tins endowment to extend these high advantages to multitudes of those especially who wish to teach, and will, when educated, occupy some of the most important positions for influence and usefulnessVn Our Western states, in our frontier settlements, and in other lields of labor at homo and abroad,

2. The Character and Value of the Education given by the Ohio Female College,

it aims, by suitable anti well-selected means, to secure the hi,Th*

■J..z

cst possible'culture and development, the happiness and usefulness of our Western (laughters—a sound body, a vigorous and well- disciplined mind, a pure and benevolent heart. Such an education, consisting in substantial and personal excellence of character, is a fortune worth more than all the treasures of earth; one that can never be. lost; one that will raise them to positions of independence and usefulness in society, and one that is beginning to be highly ap­preciated bv many parents, who think that they have icabzed, in a weat, measure, such a fortune in the training of their daughters in the Ohio Female College.

3. The Influence of Woman as an Educator.As public attention lias been turned to this subject, for the last

few years, and the nature and worth of .such, an education has been fully demonstrated, the conviction of the community has been deepened, that female influence, in no small degree, governs the world ; that, woman is the natural educator of the rising generation, especially of lier own sex; and that the great work of education is her appropriate employment. Who has not observed v\ith adtnii.t- tion and gratitude what an all-controlling power a kind Providence has givcn°to the Christian Itlotlier and Teacher to form the charac­ter, and in a great measure to decide the destiny, of the rising gen­eration ? Washington’s mother only could have made a Washington- Wc may predict, with comparative certainty, the future of families or states, from the character of their mothers, and especially intour own country, where the lightning speed of the other sex alter wealth, allows them very little opportunity to exert a moulding influence in the family or the school. -If Providence has so ordained, and histo­ry has so recorded the fact, that woman must, to such a vast extent,educate and control the world for good or evil, is it not a matter ot patriotism, as well as justice and good-will to her, that we give her those educational advantages in this and other kindred Institutions, indispensable to the success ol her high mission and tnc w Gilds progress ?

4 Our Daughters fairly entitled to a large Share in the ‘Work of our National Education, and our College aims to fit them for it.

The fact that woman has hitherto been shut out trom most of the remunerative and professional employments, fairly entitles het to a

241

18 OHIO FEMALE COLLEGE. OHIO FEMALE COLLEGE. 19

large portion of this public service, for which she is so eminently" adapted, and in the performance of which she is evincing such high qualifications. The obvious and universal adaptation of woman for tins great work, and her success in it, have never been more happily exemplified than in New England, and in some other old States, where most of the primary and much of the higher grade of instruc­tion has been given by their daughters, And while we have, thus cheerfully accorded to woman her right as an educator, and ex­pressed our obligations for the benefits of her labor, it cannot be doubted that in the future education of the increasing millions of our youth, our main reliance, under Providence, must be our Female Teachers. And it is to he remembered, that while our new states are beginning to make honorable provision for common schools, that provision can he made efficacious onZy by the raising up of Female Seminaries of high character, to train up thoroughly educated teach­ers to give moral as well as literary character to the primary schools,

5. Increasing Demand and Reward for Female Instructors.While the few hundred well-educated Female Teachers sent to the

West and South, within a few years past, from the East, and by this and other kindred Institutions, have been highly appreciated, and have given a new impulse to Christian education, they have created an urgent demand for a much larger supply, so that any reasonable number of wcll-qan'itied Instructors would find important and use­ful openings, and, in most cases, a comfortable support. But, the supply front the old States being only as a drop in the bucket, our main reliance is to raise up teachers on the ground—our Western daughters—who, being already westernized ami acclimated, and free from the prejudices which are sometimes encountered by teachers from abroad, will be most successful in this great work,

6. Early Conversion and Youthful Piety and UsefulnessIntimately Connected with Christian Female Educa­tion.

The divine assurance that, as the millennium approaches, all shall know the Lord, from the least to the greatest, and the rapid in­crease of the bright examples of youthful piety, tire inspiring a joyful confidence in the church that [lie early conversion of thg great body of her children, instead of growing up to maturity without religion, as in times past, is an event confidently to be expected, to be prayed

for, and to be realized ; and tliat when thus early converted and free from those wrong habits which most have formed before they became Christians, they will come up into Christian life, with an ardor of love, a child-like simplicity of faith, a benevolence and Christian activity in doing good, and with a consistency of piety which will give a new and divine impulse to the cause of Christ.

The marked success which has crowned maternal fidelity in the early conversion of children, has of late greatly encouraged the instructors of our higher schools and colleges, to expect, to attempt, and to realize the early conversion of their pupils as the most vital part of their education—laying the broadest foundation for their future enjoyment and usefulness, arid furnishing the highest motives-: to thorough intellectual discipline and development.

7. The Moral and Christian Element in our General Edu­cation Essential to the Perpetuity of our National Liberties.

The prospective greatness, and the high mission of our country, are now waking up a lively national interest in the education of our ' entire population, and especially in training up Female Instructors.With a country large enough, to make four hundred and fifty States of the size of Massachusetts, and room for five hundred millions of inhabitants, and the prospect of one hundred millions by the. close of this century, and with a territory embracing all the delight­ful varieties of climate; abounding in the richest mineral productions; furnishing on our vast lakes and rivers, and on our extended canals and railroads, the most important facilities for intercommunication —for internal intercourse and trade—spreading out on our broad sea-board erf nearly ton thousand miles the most important advan­tages for commerce with all the nations ef the earth—and opening upon ouv boundless western prairies a home of liberty, happiness, and plenty for the coming millions of our foreign emigrants: -who does not see that this country, when it shall have successfully fought tot its great battle of liberty for all -nations and all time, is probably g*, destined to be the greatest and most powerful nation that the sun ever shone upon? Who can fully appreciate the importance of training thU rising republic, by evevy educational and Christian influence, for its great future destiny, working out the grand problem of liberty and self-government for all nations, and thus becoming the moral lighthouse of the world ? To the success

I

OHIO FEMALE COLLEGE.20 OHIO FEMALE 'COLLEGE.

of tbis great experiment, the education of tbe masses—the cultiva­tion of tbe heart as veil as the intellect—is now admitted to be indispensable.

Our great system of State and national education, without a strong moral and Christian element, will onlv augment our national power for evil—will give us demagogues instead of patriotic states­men to rule over us—and will hasten the downfall of our republic. It is well known that woman infuses more of this moral and religi­ous element into education than the other sex; and one of the most cheering indications of our being able fo secure such an edu­cation amongst our whole youthful population, is found in tbe fact that this great and vital work'is now being committed mainly and most advantageously to ou.r daughters. The empire State taking the lead in this vital work, it has been publicly stated, has out of thirty thousand teachers nearly twenty thousand females, while in the city of New York, out of nineteen hundred instructors seven­teen hundred are ladies. Other States are following this worthy example.

It is a leading object of the Ohio Female.College, while we shall continue to furnish the highest advantages to those not expecting to teach, thoroughly to train our western daughters for instruc­tors; and while we see many of them now occupying most im­portant and responsible posts of usefulness, and bear the frequent demand for more such laborers, most earnestly do we desire to increase their number. Many such teachers have been aided (as lar as was in our power) to tit themselves for their great work; and multitudes of others, with the best talents, longing for education and usefulness, could now be raised up to give the. right education of heart as well ns.intellect.

If the thousands of competent Female Christian Teachers, so soon to he needed for the West, could bo raised up in this and other kindred seminaries, the very best foundation would be laid for the permanent establishment of the gospel, and for the perpetuity of our national liberties.

How vital and important is this work of educating quickly both the intellect and heart of the youth of the West, will be clearly seen when it is remembered how soon they are to make our national laws and decide our national destiny. If the old States will now help to educate and Christianize these youthful millions of the West, so soon *t<5 be our national rulers, they will rule us with

true laws and right judgments; but if we iet them grow uj ignorance and vice, or with a cultivated intellect and a con heart, they will still rule the nation; but it will be with a roi iron, and they will dash us to pieces as a potter’s vessel.

244

IV. ONE OF MARTHA CREEGER'S LETTERS

19 Sep 1842

Dear dear Sisters and brother,

Granville Seminary Ohio Sep ipth/72

246

Hear I am at last in the Academy after a somewat long and tedious journey for so it appeare^to me. I commence? my letter this morning but I do not know how soon I shall finished or send it off tho I presume you would like to hear from me. I presume 'Jr. Toll called v/fren he returned and told you how he left us, at that time I was not very well my neck was very soar and stiff of an evening during our journey however that has all got along with and I feel as well as ever. I am begining to feell quite at home here, at first I thought that I never could feel right whilst I staid here as there was no room prepared for our reception and I was a stranger among strangers, but now we are very comfortat situated' we have a very pleasant room it is a front room in the building it is in the third story, if you will look at that engraving which you have you will see our windows, they are the first two windows on the right of the middle windows. That engraving is a correct representation of it excepting those trees which are in front. I p resume you will sometimes look at that picture and fancy you can see us looking out of those windows for it was of frequent occurrer during a day or two past when we had not much studying to do.

tieschool she is Arms, the description?

have three very pleasant teachers one is the principle of the is an old maid, one of the others is a beautiful girl -her name other is also very good looking.- How much will you give me for my

A jug of hard cider I presume when I return home.

I think Granvill right pleasant.little village It is surrounded with beautiful hills every way we turn'our gase we see naught but hills they are covered with beautiful trees, the bell has just rung for school and I must stop. Good evening Sis ters I have just returned from the school room and from supper as we eat our supper hsrc directly after school, The days appeal’ very short here I presume the cause origonates from there being so many hills surrounding the place when the sun gets behind one of those hill is seems as though it was set they are much larger- than I had any idea of., We have a fine view of the-College from our window. I cannot tell you much about the school yet as it has hardly got organized however I think I shall like it very much of that 1 will tell you more in my next communication. I. saw W. Hedges the day we arrived he called and invited Cararinda to call to see his Sister- bu t not me don’t you think he is Polite, however I do not care for that as Eveline is very pleasant to me. She has been very homesick. She was sorry her brother took her there but I presume she will become more contented after awhile. What do you think she is studying 'Latin instead of English grammar, we have but 2h schollars at present but they have but 18 at the other. I presume I shall tell you about my homesick spell I had since I’ve been here the first day after school I came up to my room and had a good long cry during which time the bell rang for Supper (for I will not call it Tea as we get nothing but water)" and I could not make my appearance at table however I got my Supper. I must tell you about a girl we have here she is one of the fuiest creatures I ever saw she said I shouJ not get home sick while she was about she set me to laughing until I almost, died and I have not been home sick since and don’t think I shall, (do not tell this to any person) Mr. Jordon is married T called to see them last Friday and took Tea with them he has a very pleasant wife she is tolerably good looking her sister comest to school she is a pleasant girl I think. I shall like to visit them very much. Mr. J. say 1 must make his house my second home he told me ther was no engagement before he visited Tiffin, when he returned he was taken sick and she waited upon him. 3ut I must stop about him or I will have no more room to put

Sept. 1$>, /h2247

any more stuf. We were Serenaded one night they played most beautifuly I do wis you could have heard them, I had an Introduction to one of the gentlemen of the place, we arrived at Marion 8 O’clock Sunday evening- Staid at Sands Mr, Sands helped me out the bugy but did recognize. They are all well Mrs. S. said youx* love would have been more acceptable had it been accompanied with a letter but Mr, Toll said he had to pay 25 cts for me there. I saw G. Smith he said should remember him to you, by the way we were introduced to Mr. Sprung he is a real nic little fellow the next morning we walked around the City C. had Sprung I as a matter of company. I want to know how Justin is geting along if you please, tell me everything all I want to know if you hav heard from: Alanson yet I expect you feel lost since he left, give my love to all I did not see before I left particu­larly to I.yia, Mrs. Shawhan The doctor Mr, Crum if you choose also? to Sisters and the whole familys of 'them also to Mr. Sombaugh, and all enquirers,. Tell brother to get my benches and take care of them until I return if be will be so kind, do; not be neglectful about collecting that mony of mine as they will pay more readil; now than hereafter, I was missinforraed about not paying in advance the rule is to: advance 20 dollars but Mr. Toll fixed it'some way with Mr. Bankruff, if you can send it by-Scott when he come down or some other safe

Left-hand margin, first page. .

safe person I will be very much obliged, just 20 dollars rember is wanted at present. I presume you will have a very lively time of it this present week let me know all about it, I think it is time for me to stop now as 1 have a pretty- hard lesson to learn tonight - I am running short of paper don’t you This letter is something like what the scriptures say that, the first shall be last and the last first. I do not know if you can read this as It was written in a great hurry and partly after dusk. I have not writen half I. wanted.

Top of first page.

P.S. Thinking you would life to hear from me was the' cause of my writing so soon, and I also wish to hear from home. I hope you will excuse all imperfections etc» etc. Crara sends her love to you and anyone else that, wants it. four affeetiona Sister Martha

Top of last page.

We have recess now for ten minutes during which Clara and Basssey are dancing Ramsey is that funny girl. (by request of Clara.)

2.48

V. A GROUP OF FEMALE TEACHERS

AT A REUNION, 1905

250

VI. DRAWINGS OF STEUBENVILLE FEMALE

SEMINARY, 1839 and 1883

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DRAWING OF STEUBENVILLE FEMALE SEMINARY9^9

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253

VII. DRAWING OF THE "OLD BROWN SEM,"

GRANVILLE, OHIO

254

4 DENISON ALUMNI BULLETIN j^(f

THE OLD BROWN SEM. /¿-XI.'lary Anderson Davles» *69.

The Old Brown Sem.

255

VIII. ' COPY OF'THE ANNOUNCEMENT FOR

THE SIGOURNEY SEMINARY IN

CLEVELAND, OHIO. (1850.)

1

«T*' setwîwqw.qfwniiw»1 ■^ipr’jTiwnruM'f i■V—

TO AMERICAN WOMEN.

Wb live fit ft period when it is difficult for a woman to address even her own sex upon any subject, with­out being looked upon as deficient in modesty anil womanly propriety; but, when an important end is to be pi rsued, wo must sometimes run the hazard of unjust imputations.

Although, as we believe, the pulpit, the bar. •and the legislative halls are not tier appropriate •spheres, yet she has duties and rcspondbiliti"s f r which she requires an education, the most thorough and substantial, as welt as the most accomplished.

Who can read a poem by Mrs. Hemans or Sigourue,, •or an article from the pen of one of our gifted female iprose writers, written in their simple, yet pure a,.d elevated style, and not think that they touch ce.vdsl in the human heart that none but a woman could.

Women have exerted an influence that has sustained the patriot in the hour of trial; given fervor to ¡.lie eloquence, and strength to the arguments of states­men, and gained the Vote of freemen for truth and fight.

Can any one follow Miss Dix qp her mission of love and mercy to the degraded and suffering of our rr.ee, and not bo convinced that we have .an important, part

1•i

iii carrying out God’s plans of benevolence. Some, too, whose names are unknown to fame, have, by- patient toil, and endurance of privation in the school­houses of our western wilds, planted seeds of virtue and happiness where otherwise the rank seeds of sin and misery had grown, and thus caused the wilder­ness to blossom as the rose. Such have won for themselves, in a better world than this, laurels after which, angels might well aspire.

Others, by devoting to the “ domestic circle ” the energies of well cultivated minds, have scut forth into the world those who have been its greatest blessings.

And V'-'j, it cannot be denied that the number of our sex who are thus well educated, is, when com­pared with tlm highly educated of the other sex, vastly disproportionate, and this too after making the, largest allowance for the difference in our situation and duties. And the question naturally arises, Why this disproportion ? If we examine our primary schools, where boys and girls have the same advan­tages, we. in variably find them making equal advances in knowledge. We also observe that the difference in mental cultivation commences after the age at which youth of both sexes have acquired the rudiments of knowledge. To secure facilities for the completion of the education of the other sex, no effort has been spared that the combined learning and wisdom of our country could devise, to place cur institutions of learn» ing for young men on a broad and liberal basis.

Legislative enactments have been called into requi­sition, and the rich have given of their abundance, and “ the poor widow cast in her two mites ” to give

5

, 3 A i them pcrmancy and stability. Th.e price of tuition is 7 i I, t1n,s reduced for young men to about thirty dollars ~ J per year, which, otherwise,would cost some hundreds,*

wliile young ladies are compelled to pay the full value for all they receive. The writer appreciates the merits

• i'î those female institutions which once shone so I; brightly in the literary firmament. Sim appreciates,

i also, the. merits of tiiosc whose light is yielding a j happy illumination to so many, preparing them .fvrÎ eminent usefulness ; and, it is only to he regretted

ji that their bright rays cannot reach all, and are ever ; liable to be extinguished.i It is proposed that institutions similar to those in; literary merits, should he. established with a permanent i basis, after the manner of our best Colleges, and that ! they be so endowed that their advantage» shall be ex-

g tended to the greatest possible number,

■ Lev. Tbcron Baldwin, Secretary of the Society for■ ' the promotion of Collegiate Edueaiion at the west, in

a letter to the Rev. E. X. Sawiell, sav-«: ''From no small experience in this department of eiiiwt at the

! west, I have been brought to feel that female cdv.ca-i ! tion in this country can never take its proper position,ji till we have a suitable number of institutions^ soI. endowed as to give them something of that stabilityi; which cliaracterizes our Colleges, anti which givesi such advantages to Catholic Female Seminaries, and

also to secure to them the presence of a corps of ex­perienced and competent teachers, that an extended

* According to nu e?ii:uato in L'r, Wa\land’s •• ryptiri,” every grad- up{'‘ from Harvard Vtuvcr?:?y In* received tuition that hascovt the pci li­nt addition to all lie has hi,n«vlf paid, nearly one thousand dollars, which would be two hundred and lil'ty dollars per year.

G

and elevated course of study can be thoroughly taught, and its advantages, too, afforded on a scale of expense so reduced as to bring them within the reach of the great, mass of the community.

In order to secure this, in addition to buildings, library and apparatus, permanent provisions for the support of teachers, like Professorships in Colleges, should he made.

What a noble benefaction it would be, were ladies of wealth to place at the disposal of trustees a few thousand dollars, the interest of which would sustain a teacher to all time. Such foundation ought to be laid, and 1 believe will he, and, perhaps, become common, when our Female Seminaries are placed on n perma­nent foundation, after the fashion of our Colleges.”

llow desirable, also, that Seminaries for the educa­tion of female mind, should be under the direction and control of Ladies. If woman would he elevated, she must make the effort herself. One of our beautiful writers, Grace Greenwood, says:

“ Man is not best qualified to mark out woman’s life-path. lie knows, indeed, all that he derircs her to be, but he docs not yet understand all that God and nature require of her. Woman can best judge of woman—her wants, capacities, aspirations and powers. She can best speak to her on the life of the affections, on the loves of her heart, on the peculiar joys and sorrows of her lot. She can best teach her to be true to herself—to her high nature, to her brave spirit,— and then, indeed, shall she be constant in her love, and faithful to her duties, all, even to the most hum­ble. Woman can strengthen woman for the life ol

setf-saerifice, of devotion, of ministration, of much en­durance which lies before her.

Thank Heaven, woman herself is awakening to a perception cf the causes which have hitherto impeded, her force and perfect dcvciopement—which have .-hut her out from the large experiences, the wealth anl hopes of the life to which she was called.”

The writer proposes to establish, at Cleveland, Old?, a Ladles’ Seminary, for the purpose of carrying • mt these views, to commence on the first of September, 1851, and by the co-operation of the public and the united wisdom of an approved Board of Ladies, hopes to give it a high literary character, yet bring its ad vantages within the reach of many.

T. S. PELTON.

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PLAN OP THE SEMINARY.

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It is proposed to erect for tire Seminary, a building three stories high, the first floor to be used for recita­tion rooms for the young ladies, and school rooms where those in the Primary Department will study, under the eye of their teachers.

On the second floor there will be a spacious room for a chapel, where all will assemble, with their Prin­cipal, morning and evening, for devotion, and where the public exercises will be held.

The thud floor will be divided into rooms for Vocal and Instrumental Music, Drawing, Painting, and Pen­manship, so constructed as to secure the advantages of light and sound.

There will be on each side of the Seminary a build­ing of sufficient size to accommodate one hundred ladies with single rooms, well ventilated and warmed with heated air, and connected to the Seminary by Piazzas, the whole so constructed and proportioned as to form one symmetrical edifice.

An eligible site has been selected west of the Cuy­ahoga river, on an eminence commanding a view of the city and harbor, one mile from the Courthouse, It contains about five acres of land, and is surrounded by scenery admired for its beauty and variety. The Seminary will be divided into two departments, one composed of young ladies who will occupy the build-

in" on the right side oi the Seminary, with the Prin­cipal, a Matron and Teachers; the ether, of young giris between the ages of live and fourtmn, wlm will occupy the building on the left, with the Associate Principal, also a Matron and Teachers.

Each ib partment will constitute a separate family, with suitable persons in each to provide tin-m v.¡thBoard.

17

II

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! 1 l!h

It will he the duty of each Matron to vi.-it daily every room in her department. The one who has charge of the young ladies, will insist upon neatness, good taste and order, be their friend in sickness, and their svmpathizing adviser in all their difficulties; and, with the advice of the Principal, slv will so regulate their seasons of social improvement mat an m..\ properly cultivate them social natme. a idabuse it. .

It. will be her duty to sec that. earl, pit] d is em­ployed one hour each day in domestic ktnors, <>t -me h a lrind and in such a manner as will be be>t to make all independent house-keepers.

Exposed as we are, especially in our cm- sudden reverses of fortune, we ought to pre daughters as well as our sons, to meet then’, rienee. too, lias taught most of us that we c alwavs obtain faithful and competent domestic.--; and a family circle with an inexperienced house-keeper an,d incompetent domestics, presents any scene but one of comfort.

And if our Seminaries.should become such as wo hope soon to see them, so endowed tliat ladies can remain a sufficient number of years to hceoms tho-

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roughly educated, when will they get this knowledge, unless it is incorporated into their system of educa­tion.

Great care will be taken in the selection of the Matrons, especially for the Primary Department, to obtain one possessed of good judgment, kindness, firmness and order Her entire attention will be given to the social, domestic, and physical training of those under her care, mid she will avail herself of all acces­sible information, with respect to the. best, manner of governing, as well as with regard to all the other duties of her department; in fine, she will be a mother to those under her charge.

The School is not to he sectarian. The great truths of Christianity, however, which, all evangelical Chris­tians believe, will he taught, and the. pupils will be

. permitted to attend any of the evangelical churches which their parents may prefer.

The price of Tuition, in all the branches taught in our best Seminaries, including Latin, French, and German, Music one hour a day, Drawing, Painting, &c., will be twenty-five dollars per annum. Board and incidental expenses seventy-five dollars per annum. Pupils remaining in the Seminary during vacations, will be charged at the rate of one dollar and fifty cents per week.

There will be a Board of Directors consisting of twelve ladies, from various parts of our country, and application lias been made to the Legislature for an Act of Incorporation. All funds collected and properly aetjuird, will be controlled by the Directors. They will appoint all the officers, arrange the course of study, terms, vacations, <fcc,

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if • i>,-3 . ! It is proposed to solicit donations sufiick.r.t to create jp-JP

a permanent fund for the support of the t-wcaers. i’i'Gc Five acres of land for Seminary grounds, and fifteen thousand dollars to erect buildings have uh-.urdy l"-'!i pledged by the subscriber and a few fri./i.d'- in Ck-re­bind.

A contribution of two hundred dollars v,-j;l ■•-.usd- tute a permanent scholarship, which will give the con­tributor the privilege, of sending one pupil to tko Seminary, free of tuition, during all time.

BOARD OF DIRECTORS:The following ladies have consented to act as

Directors:MBS. BENJAMIN BOUSE,...........Cleveland.

“ ELISIIA TAYLOR.................» WILLIAM DAY...................." ABC1IABALD MILES........“ SAM’L. STARKWEATHER, ““ BREWSTER PELTON.........

To these others will he added from different sections of the country.

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TESTIMONIALS,

Not;:.—The writer thinks it not inappropriate to add a P*w lestunonhla from t!;o>a who have beau for a longtime aonuainicd willi her.

From Prof Sanborn, Prof. Jladdod-, and Prof. Crod>:j, of Darhno'tlk CuUeye.

IIanovi--.'!, N. il., Oct, -I, J350. This may certify, that we whose «¡nnt.it are under­

written, have, for several years, been personally ac­quainted with Mrs. T. S. Pelion; she is reputed to be a lady of high moral worth. Understanding that she lies devoted herself to the establishment, of a “ Ladies Seminary” in Cleveland, Ohio, we. cheerfully com­mend her to the. patronage, of the friends of education ns u comp'dent end faithtill teacher, end a trustworthy depository of their jiceuniary conlrihuiions.

L. L. SANBORN, CHARLES B. HALLOCK, DIXI CROSBY.

Fxlracl from a Letter by Professor Crosby.Mr Dear Alas. Pelton:—It gives me great idea-

sure to serve you in any way, so that I mav aid you in an enterprise which I know must be good, or you would not engage in it.

Prom. ])r. deintinys,S'i'AMFOliO, Ct., Oct 1, 1350.

Having been requested to give my views of Mrs. Poitou’s qualificai ions for establishing and conducting a Female Seminary, I take, pleasure, in saying that I regard Mrs. Pelton as eminently qualified for suoli work. Along with n sound, well informed, discreet,

/5b 13 :’A

and dLcriminnting mind, Mrs. P. is highly gifted with that- e-'sontia! attribute which “ Sutler.’th long and is kind,'.’ which “sec-keth not- her own, is not easily pro­voked, beareth all things, hopeth all things, enduivth ail things.”

Airs. Pelton ¡ms demonstrated hv a prettv ample, experience, (hat site poisesses in mo .•rdinary d- gree the talent of' happily controlling the mind youth. ..f securing their confidence and affection, ami of win­ning them into the. paths of virtue ami knot» ¡edge.

ISAAC JENNINGS.

j Prom Prnfsgor „Ifaryan, of Qbrrlhi Collette.j Omuu.iN, Nov. j 1, 1350.jl This may certify. that. Mrs. T. S. IMten, in the.' o writer's opmion, is a la-I v of imc- mur -a h,"l-'m c. ji b-.th by nature ami grace—of great .•:>i-rgv , f- hare,'il ter, w-d uutinug p-. rs- vererce in th,> A-m '.-oieri ,-.-.-r¡i pipes in v.ldeh she engages. >’!ie »>,..<«•:, a. i.e. ra". p over ready to sympitPrir.e vi'h ih.os.-. wU . appear I >h ¡teed aid, whether the need pertain to th? ivdv . a thep soul; ami her intrih'i v a.”...! her h:'»ds are ever rotslv i > d render assistance to» the full extent of lar nb;lk\.

She is hereby atlcelif'nn’ely commended t» vim ji Christian confidence and fellowship of ail who iove i our Lord Jesus ChristI JOHN MORGAN.

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From per. F. Tenney.

Lv.me, N. IT., Orb J 1, 1S50. These certify that Mrs. T. ?. Pelton was formerly

of Lyme, N. M., and lived there until some years after her marriage. She was much esteemed by

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IX. TEXTBOOKS USED IN WOMEN'S

COLLEGES

(from Woody, II, pp. 474ff.)

O..................................... .. ........................................ ’ !•

—from Thomas Woody. Bere are the textbooks used ”rarely changed.”APPENDIX—I

AiV,

475

TEXTBOOKS MENTIONED BY WOMEN’S COLLEGE CATALOGS SINCE ISSO

Aesthetics Alison on Taste Baseomb: Aesthetics

AlgebraBailey: AlgebraDavis: AlgebraDavies’ Bourdon: Algebra»Davies: Elementary AlgebraDavis: AlgebraDay: AlgebraLoomis: AlgebraOlney: University AlgebraKey: AlgebraRobinson: AlgebraRobinson: University Algebra

AnalysisBullion; Parsing Green: Analysis

Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon Bible Beowulf and Judith Sweet: Reader

Arithmetic Davies: Arithmetie Emerson: Arithmetic Bay: Higher Arithmetic

istVMpmyBurrit-t: Geography of the Ileay.

onsKhldlo: AstronomyMattison: Descriptive A.kM’-w?

-'.-•tiro: Astronomy

1

Astronomy (Coat’d)Olmstead: Astronomy Olmstead: Astronomy (University

edition)Olmstead and Mattison: Astron­

omyRobinson: Astronomy Smith: Astronomy Snell’s Olmstead: Astronomy Young: Astronomy

Jioolcke eping Mayhew: Bookkeeping

Hot anyDarby: Botany Eaton: Botany Gray: Botany Lincoln: Botany Wood: Botany

Cctcuius Olney: Calculus Robinson: Calculus

Chemistry Beck: Chemistry Draper: Chemistry Eliot and Storor: Manual Gray: Chemistry Johnston: Chemistry Siilirnan; Chemistry Stockhardt: Chemistry Tumor: Chemistry Wells: Chemistry Youmans: Chemistry Youmans; InorganL ’

I

!

Composition Boyd: Composition Parker: Aids to Composition Quackenbos: Composition and

Rhetoric

Conic Sections Bridge: Conic Sections Loomis: Conic Sections

Constitutional HistoryStubbs, Hallam and May: Consti­

tutional History of England

CriticismBoyd’s Karnes: Criticism Karnes: Criticism

ElocutionRussell: Elocution

English Grammar Bullion: Grammatical Analysis Fowler: English Grammar Korl: English Grammar Smith: English Grammar

English LiteratureBotta: English Litcraturo Boyd; English Litcraturo Boyd: Notes on Cowper

■ Boyd: Notes on Paradise Lost Boyd: Notes on Thomson’s Sea­

sonsBoyd: Notes on Young’s Night

ThoughtsBurke on the Sublime Chambers: English Literature

. ChaucerCleveland: English Literature Fowler: English Literature Goldsmith: Analysis of Prose and

PoetryHallam: English Literature Harrison: English Language Mil’s: English Literaturo Milton: Paradise Lost Montgomery; Lectures 0!1 Poetry

English Literature (cant’d)Schlegel: General Literature Schlegel: History of Literature ShakespeareShaw: English Literature Spalding: English Literature Spalding: History of English Lit­

erature

French/tlbert: Littérature Française Andrews and Batchelor: French

InstructorAndrews and Batchelor: French

Pronounccr and KeyArnold: French Composition Bocher: Modern French Plays Bolmar: Colloquial Phrases Bolmar: Grammar Boyer: Dictionary Buffet: Littérature Chapsal: Littérature Françaiso Chardciial: Translation from Eng­

lish into French Charles XIICallot: Dramatic French Reader CorneilleDo Fiva: French Reader Fusqucllo: Colloquial French

ReaderFasquollo: Corinne Fasquello’s Dumas: Napoleon Fasquclle: Grammar Fasquclle : Racine Fasquclle: Télémaque French Testament George SandHcnriadoHoward: French Prose Composi­

tionKnapp: French Grammar and

Reading BookLa Fontaine: Fablc3 L'Allemagne Lamartine La Sainte Bible

26 3

LA. ■ V .7

/•"Ai i

470 WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

I’rsnfi/t (cont'd)Madame de SevigaSMerimdeMoliereMoliere: Lea Femmes Savantes Noel and Chapsal: Preach Gram­

marOllendorff: Preach Grammar Otto: French Grammar Perrin: Pablos PicciolaPicot: French Header Finney and Arnoult Rowan: French Header Victor Hugo Vic de Washington Williams: English into French

General ScienceBigelow: Application of Science’

to Useful Arts

GeographyHarrington: Physical Geography Colton: Physical Geography Hew: Ancient and Modem. Geog­

raphyPitch and Colton: Physical Geog­

raphyGuyot; Physical Geography Long: Atlas of Aucient Geog­

raphyMitchell: Ancient Geography Mitchell: Geography Hitter: Physical Geography Somerville: Physical Geography

GeologyHana: Geology Gray and Adams; Geology Hitchcock: Geology St. John: Geology Ter.ncy: Geology Wells: Geology

GeometryChauvenet: Solid and Snherieal

APPENDIX—I

Geometry (co-nt’d)Davies: GeometryDavies! Legendre: GeometryDavies’ Legendre: Spherical Ge­

ometryLoomis: Geometry Robinson: Geometry Smyth: Analytical Geometry

GermanAdler: DictionaryAdier: Handbook of German Lit-

eratureAdler’s Ollendorff: Grammar Adler: Progressive German Reader Eoker: IntroductionEgmontFoilen: Grammar German Testament Goethe: Faust Goethe: Iphigenio HerderLessing: Minna von Barnhelm Lessing; Prose Otto: German Grammar Schiller: Jungfrau Schiller: Maria Stuart Schiller: Thirty Years’ War Schiller: William Tell Storm; Immonseo

. UhlandWebber; Dictionary Wenckebach; Grammar Whitney: .Grammar and Reader .Woodbridge: Eclectic -German

ReaderWoodbury; Elementary Reader . Woodbury: Grammar and Reader Woodbury; MethodWoodbury; Shorter Course ■

Greek • ■ , ,Adams’ Lemprier; Antiquities. Aeschines: Do Corona Aeschylus; Ppmcthous Bound Arian

Greek (coni ’d)Aristotle: Polities Arnold: Greek Prose Composition Boise: Xenophon’s Anabasis Brooks : • Greek Lessons Brooks: Collectanea Evangolica Bullion:-Grammar Bullion: Greek Reader Crosby: Greek Grammar and Les­

sons 'Demosthenes: De Corona Demosthenes: Oedipus Tyrannus .Euripodes: Alcestis Euripedes: Medea■Graces. Ma j ora Graces. Minora ■Greenfield: Greek Testament Harkness and. Goodwin: Greek

GrammarHerodotusJones: Greek ProseHendrick: GrammarLiddell and Scott: Greek LexiconLonginusLucianMerry’s Homer: Odyssey

. Ollendorff: GrammarOwes:, Homer•Owen’s Xenophon; Anabasis PindarPlato: ApologyPlato; CritoPlato: GorgiasPlato: PhaedoPlato: Protagorasplato: RepublicPotter: Grecian AntiquitiesRobbins’ Xenophon; MemorabiliaSeptuagint^Sophocles; AntigoneSophocles: ElectraStrong’s Harmony: Greek Testa­

ment■ Taylor’s Huhncr; Elements of

Greek GrammarM»rv.

477

Greek (cont'cT).Xenophon: Hellenics Xenophon: Isocrates

HistoryEadie: Oriental History

• Goldsmith; England Goldsmith:. Francs Goldsmith: Greece Goldsmith: Rome Goodrich: Ecclesiastical History Grimshaw: Prance Liddell: Rome Smith: GreeceStudent’s Hume (Hist.,-of Eng­

land)Weber: General History Whelpley: General History and

ChronologyWillard: Universal History Wilson: Ancient History Wilson: Modern History Wilson: Philosophy of History Worcester: Elements

International Law Woolsey: International Law

ItalianForest!: Reader Ollendorff: Grammar Tasso: Jerusalem Delivered

LatinAdam: Roman Antiquities Allen and Grconougli: Ovid Andrews: Latin Reader

' Andrews and Stoddard: Grammar Anthon: Aeneid 'V>Anthon: Cicero Anthon: HoraceAnthon: Nepes -jAnthon: SallustAnthon: TacitusArnold: First and Second BooksArnold: Latin Prose Compositiqc

___ - tr------------ * ,—33 ------- :----------------- -

264

478 WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES APPENDIX—I

Latin (co-nt’d)Brooks’ Ross: Latin GrammarBullion: CaesarBullion: CiceroBullion: Latin GrammarBullion: Latin ReaderButler: SallustCatullusChaso and Stowart: Cicero Cooper: VirgilCrowell: Selections from the Latin

BeetsDillnivay: do Scaectute and de

AmicitiaExcorpta Latina Frieze: Virgil Grotius JuvenalLincoln: HoracoLincoln: LivyLucanLucretiusMoore: Virgill’orsiusPlinyPlutarchPropertiusProudfit: Captives of Plautus Quintilian: Dialogues Schmitz and Zumpt: Livy TerenceThatcher: Cicero’s do OfficiisTibullusTyler: Tacitus

LogicEverett: Science of Thought Harris; Theory of tho Syllogism Hedge: LogicJevon: Logic Kant: prolegomena Mansel: Prolegomena Logica Tappan: Logic Whatcloy: Logic Wilson: Logic

Mechanics,

Mensuration Day: Mensuration

Mental Philosophy Abercrombie: Intellectual Powers Abercrombie: Mental Philosophy Bigelow on ReasonChurch: Mental Philosophy Hamilton: Metaphysics Harris: Introduction to the Study

of PhilosophyHaven: Intellectual Philosophy Haven: Mental Philosophy Iliekok: Mental Philosophy Porter: Intellectual Science Schmucker: Mental Philosophy Upham: Mental Philosophy Watts on tho Mind Wayland: Mental Philosophy

MeteorologyBrocklcsby: Meteorology

Mineralogy Brush: Minoralogy Comstock: Minoralogy Dann: Mineralogy Emmon; Mineralogy

Moral Philosophy Abcrerombio: Moral Feelings Abercrombie: Moral Philosophy Boyd: Moral Philosophy Haven: Moral Philosophy ■ Hickolc: Moral Philosophy Hopkins: Moral Philosophy Paley: Moral Philosophy . Valpy’s Paley: Moral Philosophy Wayland: Moral Science

natural History Ruschonburg: Natural History SaelHoi Natural History , Smeliia: Philosophy of Natural

HistoryWare’s Smellio: Natural History

natural Philosophy and Physics Atkinson’s Ganot: Physics

natural Philosophy (cont'd)Gray: Natural Philosophy Johnston: Natural Philosophy

> Lardner: Natural PhilosophyOlmstead: Natural Philosophy (2

vols.)Olmstead: Natural Philosophy

(University Edition)Parker: Natural Philosophy Renwick: Natural Philosophy Siilirnan: Natural Philosophy Wells: Natural Philosophy

natural TheologyChadbourne: Natural Theology Paley: Natural Theology Potter’s Paley: Natural Thoology

PhilologyGraham: Synonyms March: Philological Study March: Study of Anglo-Saxon Oswald: Etymological Dictionary

PhilosophyHarris: History of PhilosophyParkor: PhilosophyOlmstoad: Mathematical Philoso­

phySchweglcr.: History of Philosophy Spencer: First Principles of Phi­

losophyUeberwcg: History of Philosophy

PhysiologyComstock: Physiology

, . Cummings: Physiology (Cutter: Physiology Dalton: Physiology Draper: Physiology

■ Hitchcock: Physiology Lambert: Physiology Luce: Physiology

Political Economy• Hart: Constitution of tho United

StatesMansfield» Constitution of the

Political Economy (cont’d)Story: Constitution Townsend: Analysis of Civil Gov­

ernmentWayland: Political Economy Young: Civil Government Young: Civil Jurisprudence and

Political Economy Young: Principles of Government

PsychologyBrowno: Psychology Dewey: Psychology Hickok: Psychology Hopkins: Psychology Ladd: Psychology Porter: Psychology

Selig ionAlexander: Evidences of Chris­

tianityBascom: Ethics Butlor: AnalogyEmory and Crook’s Bailor: Anal­

ogyFlint: TheismGregory: Evidences of Christian­

ityHarris: Solf-Rovolation of God Hopkins: Evidences of Christian­

ityHorne: Introduction to the Study

of the BibleMcCosh on Divino .Government Nevins: Biblical Antiquities Nichols: Biblical Analysis Nicholl: Introduction to the Study

of tho BiblePaley: Evidences of Christianity Pearson: Essay on Infidelity^ Pierce: Biblical History cn PoTtcus: Evidences of Christianity

’ Thompson: TheismWardlaw: Christian Ethics White: Christian Centuries

Rhetoric

266^’

480 WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE. UNITED STATES

Tthetorio (cant'd)Day: Rhetoric. .Kill: Principles of .Rhetoric Jamieson: Rhetoric Newman: Rhetoric Quackenbos: Rhetoric Whateley: Rhetoric

SpanishCubi: Grammar Don Quijote Newman: Dictionary Novelas Españolas Ollendorff: Grammar Spanish Testament

Spanish (cont’d)Traductor Espafiol Velasquez: Reader

TrigonometryDavies’ Legendre: Plane Trigo­

nometryDavies: Trigonometry Day: Plane Trigonometry Loomis: Trigonometry Olney: Plane and Spherical Trigo­

nometryZoology

Agassiz: Zoology Chambers: Zoology Tenney: Manual of Zoology