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MMM800: Critical Inquiry

Technology Enhanced Learning Environment

for Self-Directed Learning:

Identifying Critical Success Factors for Singapore Schools

Candidate: Stephen Tay Ghim Chiew

Student Number: 080020B38

Supervisor: Dr Intan Azura Moktar

Date: 27 Apr 2011

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Table of Contents

Content Page

Abstract 4

Chapter 1 Background and Rationale of Study

1.1 Introduction 5

1.2 Problem Statement 7

1.3 Significance of Paper 8

1.4 Objectives of Paper 9

1.5 Research Questions 10

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Technology Enhanced Learning Environment (TELE) 11 and Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

2.1.1 Bridging the Digital Divide 11

2.1.2 Comparison of Effectiveness of Different TELEs 12

2.1.3 Collaborative element in TELE supports SDL 13

2.1.4 Feedback on Self-Efficacy Beliefs 14

2.1.5 Modes of Assessment 14

2.2 Critical Success Factors for developing SDL in a TELE 15

2.2.1 School Leadership and Management 16

2.2.2 Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment 17

2.2.3 Professional Development of Teachers 18

2.2.4 Technical Infrastructure 18

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2.2.5 Culture of Innovation 19

2.2.6 Home-School Partnership 20

2.3 Implications 20

2.4 Limitations of Study 21

References and Bibliography 22

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Abstract

With the launch of ICT Masterplan 3 in 2009 and the introduction of the conceptual framework for the teaching of 21st century competencies in 2010, Singapore schools are actively exploring how to use technology to develop self-directed learners (SDL). Technology Enhanced Learning Environment (TELE) seems to be the answer as it appears to have the potential to help the pupils become more self-directed in their learning which will prepare them well to compete in the globalised economy. However, before we jump onto the bandwagon of using TELE, we have to better understand and appreciate the strengths and challenges of the use of technology in education to develop SDL. From literature research, six critical success factors that support SDL in TELE emerged and these include the following: school leadership and management, curriculum, pedagogy and assessment, professional development, technical infrastructure, culture of innovation as well as home-school partnership. This paper seeks to provide a platform for schools to consider the critical success factors related to the implementation of TELE to cultivate SDL. It argues that no one factor in itself is sufficient for TELE to work well enough to develop SDL. Instead, the presence of all components increases the possibility of achieving SDL within the context of a TELE.

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Chapter 1

Background and Rationale for Study

1.1 Introduction

With the increasing focus on the teaching of 21st century competencies in schools so

as to equip learners with the necessary knowledge and skills to be future ready, self-

directed learning becomes more and more vital for any school system which is serious about

preparing its pupils for life and work after they complete their formal education. Such an

impetus by educational institutions to focus on self-directed learning is based on the fact

that the work environment in the 21st century is likely to be less inclined towards instructor-

oriented teaching and more learner-oriented learning, which requires the learners to

possess increasing measures of self-directed skills (Hofer, Yu, & Pintrich, 1998). In the

meantime, education in the 21st century has also placed more emphasis on the use of

information and communication technology (ICT) for our learners to access real-world

information readily, and use such information for knowledge construction. The increasing

focus of using ICT in student-centred classrooms is strongly related to many contemporary

ideas about teaching and learning and to inclinations towards greater individualisation in

learning, the use of cooperative learning groups, integration of subject areas and a greater

emphasis on the acquisition of higher order thinking skills (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). This

new development of using ICT has also changed the roles of teachers and students as the

teacher now seeks to play the role of a coach, rather than a dispenser of knowledge; while

the learners move from the role of knowledge receptors to become knowledge seekers and

even knowledge constructors. Such a change in the roles is grounded in the concept of

situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Based on

this concept of situated cognition, it highlights the importance and challenges of integrating

ICT in the learning environment to enhance the teaching and learning process and achieve

better learning outcomes.

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Zimmerman's social cognitive model of self-regulated learning1 will be used in this

study to define the characteristics of a self-directed learner. To avoid confusion, this paper

will use the term "self-directed learning" consistently, which is also equivalent to "self-

regulated learning", as it is a term more familiar to Singapore educators. Zimmerman's

model (Zimmerman 1998, 2000) claims that self-regulation is achieved in cycles consisting of:

(1) forethought (which includes the knowledge and beliefs about oneself and about the task

as well as the analyzing of tasks and setting process-oriented goals), (2) performance or

volitional control (which consists of self-monitoring of one's learning), and (3) self-reflection

(which involves the modification of goals or strategies after the use of standards to make

self-judgments about the performance).2 See Figure 1 for Zimmerman's model on the

learning of Science in a self-regulated environment (Zimmerman, 2000, pp. 13-39). This

particular model was widely adopted by European researchers because it is comprehensive

and easy to use.

FIGURE 1. Zimmerman's model of self-regulated learning of Science

One of the more holistic definitions of TELE is the use of ICT-supported learning

activity to "provide a design focus for contextualising learning as an action-reflection

'performance' and process on one hand, and as key to generating the kinds of virtual senses

of [a] learning community which might characterise effective learning as knowledge

construction in both face-to-face and online or [computer] mediated contexts, on the other" 1 Self-regulation from the social cognitive perspective looks at the triadic interaction between the person (e.g.,

beliefs about success), his or her behavior (e.g., engaging in a task), and the environment (e.g., feedback from a teacher). 2 As students continue to cycle through the self-regulation feedback loops, students are expected to enter

successive iterations of the loop with more sophisticated forethought, performance, and self-reflection.

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(Richards, 2006, p. 251). This particular definition of TELE covers both the technological and

pedagogical perspectives on the use of ICT in learning. To assess the achievement of self-

directed learning, this study has tapped on the instrument "Technology Enhanced Learning

Environment- Self-[Directed] Learning (TELE-SDL)" which includes processes as well as

component aspects to evaluate a TELE's potential for supporting self-directed learning

(Steffens, 2006). The process comprises the three stages in the Zimmerman model (1988,

2000). Within each stage in the process, four components were distinguished: (1) cognitive,

(2) emotional, (3) motivational and (4) social (Steffens, 2006). For easy understanding of

how the instrument works, Table 1 illustrates some sample items from the TELE-SDL (Ibid,

p.366).

This question refers to the possibility for the student to easily get an overall idea of the content of the course.

The TELE helps the learner to structure the learning content. Not supported 0 1 2 3 4 5 well supported

For instance, by giving clues or examples on demand, without giving solutions right away.

The TELE sensitises the learner with respect to how problems might be solved. Not supported 0 1 2 3 4 5 well supported

For instance, giving information on the difficulty of a given task and encouraging learners to subdivide it into subtasks.

The TELE helps the learner to cope with the challenges of the task. Not supported 0 1 2 3 4 5 well supported The TELE allows the learner to work together/communicate with her/his peers. Not supported 0 1 2 3 4 5 well supported

TABLE I. Sample items from the TELE-SDL (referring to cognitive, motivational,

emotional and social component respectively)

1.2 Problem Statement

A close examination of case studies in the literature using the TELE-SDL instrument

(Steffens, 2006) could help to surface some issues and challenges that educators in

Singapore would need to pay attention to, if we are thinking of leveraging on ICT to develop

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self-directed learners. This study seeks to give assurance that there is potential in using ICT

to develop self-directed learning. However, beyond TELE, self-directed learning is also highly

dependent on the existence of other important factors such as the quality of the teachers,

leadership style of the school principals and even the wider social setting in which the

school is embedded might help or hamper their learning (Steffens, 2008). It would be

presumptuous to assume that using technology alone could bring about self-directed

learning as TELE is a complex system to develop. Even if self-directed learning is achieved, it

would be hard to assess in our current examination system as "the benefits of [self-directed

learning] are lost in assessments that do not require the student to show any feature of self-

regulation" (Banyard, Underwood & Twiner, 2006). One of the gaps that seem to emerge

from the literature review is that there is currently no longitudinal studies on the impact of

TELE on self-directed learning. This is important as governments and employers would need

to know how schools are preparing the pupils for work in the future and whether such

preparation meets the demands of the workplace.

1.3 Significance of Paper

The context and scope of this paper is on the impact of a technology-enhanced

learning environment (TELE) on the achievement of the Ministry of Education ICT

Masterplan 3's (mp3) goal of developing self-directed learners in Singapore's schools. With

the launch of ICT mp3 in 2009, the focus of Singapore schools is to enrich and transform the

learning environments of our students and equip them with the critical competencies and

dispositions to succeed in a knowledge economy in the 21st century. This goal is also clearly

articulated by the Ministry of Education as it seeks to enhance the teaching and learning of

21st Century Competencies (Ministry of Education, 2010) in all public schools and has

included "Self-Directed Learner" as one of the stipulated student outcomes for 21st century

learning. To achieve this goal, it becomes increasingly important for Singapore educators to

be able to align their personal pedagogies, including the use of technology to the stipulated

national goal of developing Self-Directed Learners.

While the Ministry of Education has given broad guidelines and operational support

for the attainment of the student outcomes since the inception of the first ICT Masterplan in

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1997, schools are given the autonomy to develop teaching and learning strategies to

achieve the stipulated goals based on their pupil profile and school needs. Interestingly, the

policy of having school autonomy to implement ICT programmes has given rise to different

approaches to the development of TELE in Singapore. Depending on the profile and capacity

of the schools, some are further ahead in the journey to develop TELEs to support self-

directed learning than others. As a result, this means that there are some gaps in our

current understanding of what constitutes an effective TELE and how to measure the

attainment of self-directed learning in such a learning environment.

To date, there are hardly any local empirical research studies which address the

impact of TELE on self-directed learning in Singapore. As such, this paper will attempt to

surface the critical success factors in developing an effective TELE to bring about the

achievement of self-directed learning, by looking at empirical research studies carried out in

other countries. This exercise is of significant importance now as ICT mp3 has been

implemented since 2009 and there are still a good number of Singapore schools which need

more information on "good practices" of other schools that they could adopt.

1.4 Objectives of Paper

Based on the author's work as Vice-Principal of Maris Stella High School, he has often

come across questions pertaining to the relationship between the use of ICT and its impact

on academic learning. These questions were often surfaced by the pupils' parents and the

teachers. A good number of them opine that while there are educational benefits in using

technology for learning, such as accessibility to latest information and equipping the pupils

with ICT skills for work in the future, they are uncertain whether the pupils are able to use

technology effectively for self-directed learning.

These parents and teachers believe that technology could be a potential source of

distraction for learning and this might not help the pupils in their learning. To answer some

of these pertinent concerns, the author believes it is important to look at findings of

international research studies on TELE and self-directed learning so that educational

implications could be drawn from such findings. Towards the end of the paper, the author

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would identify the critical success factors that must be put in place before the

implementation of TELE for SDL can yield success.

1.5 Research Questions

The following research questions will be investigated through literature review:

1. How does the Technology Enhanced Learning Environment (TELE) affect the

development of self-directed learners (SDL)?

2. What are the critical success factors for developing SDL in a TELE?

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Technology Enhanced Learning Environment and Self-Directed Learning Research on the use of ICT and its beneficial impact on students' learning has not

always been conclusive even though numerous and varied ICT resources had been made

available to schools (Cuban 2001; Norris, Sullivan, Poirot, & Soloway, 2003; Hernandez-

Ramos, 2005). Most of the research studies could not find extensive evidence of positive

changes on pupils' learning that could be attributed solely to the introduction of technology

to classroom teaching. There were even claims that self-directed learning in a TELE was for

the academically able (Nenniger, 2005). But such sweeping statements could not be taken at

face value and they were indeed challenged by others.

2.1.1 Bridging the Digital Divide A research study in a London primary school with 40 registered languages found that

"the ICT rich learning environment removed the language hurdle that many children

experience in their school work" (Banyard, Underwood & Twiner, 2006, p. 486) and the

"[slower] learners were thriving in the less didactic and more [self-directed] learning

environment that these courses provide." (Ibid., pp. 485-486). It would appear that easy

access to technology in the classroom has helped to minimise the language barrier and close

the digital divide. Such benefit of using technology has a positive impact on the

development of self-directed learning in a multi-cultural globalised classroom.

While it is important to recognise that TELE has the potential to contribute to self-

directed learning, it is also crucial to ask the fundamental question on whether the positive

learning outcomes could be directly attributed to the use of TELE rather than skilful teaching.

It can be argued that both skilful teaching and the use of technology could be deployed

simultaneously to achieve effective teaching and learning. This line of thought is also backed

up by research which hypothesizes that "technology is the necessary condition and

pedagogy the sufficient condition of ICT-supported learning, then, the functions of

communication for engaging and contextualizing teacher–student and student–student

interactions precede and envelop those of information transmission within a constructivist

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perspective." (Richards, 2006, p. 245) From the educational point of view, it is thus

important for the teacher to fully understand the pedagogical capabilities of ICT before

lesson designing and delivery so that he could fully harness the potential of ICT for self-

directed learning.

2.1.2 Comparison of Effectiveness of Different TELEs

Looking at the case studies that employ the TELE-SDL instrument to evaluate the

potential of TELE in promoting SDL, research results have consistently informed us that the

Container System with Tutor is more effective in supporting SDL than Content System

(Steffens, 2006).3 This finding is not surprising given the fact that Container System matches

the five major purposes of using ICT: to access and analyze information on real world

problems; to provide scaffolding; to provide feedback, reflection and guidance; to

communicate with local and global communities; and to access information and tools to

extend learning (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000) whereas the Content System could not

lay claim that it has met all the ICT objectives.

As the devil lies in the details, schools may find themselves selecting the Content

System instead of the Container System without considering all the educational implications

of how such a TELE would impact student learning. One key question remains to be

answered: Who is the best person in the school to make the decision of which TELE system

to use? It might not be an easy question to answer as school leaders might just plunge into

procuring e-learning systems without fully understanding "its implications on school

leadership, management, curriculum, resources and pedagogy" (Ng, et. al., 2003, p. 88). In

retrospect, it is vital for school leaders to fully appreciate the dynamics and challenges of

introducing change to the teaching and learning system. Only when the school leaders put

in place the appropriate TELE to support the development of SDL could the teachers make

good use of such tools to achieve the intended educational objectives.

3 Container systems with Tutor are learning management or information management systems whose content

is provided by the student-user and the tutor provides feedback on the inputs given by the student-user. Content systems already contain specific content provided by the tutor. In that sense, Container systems require students to be very active in learning.

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2.1.3 Collaborative element in TELE supports SDL

Research on TELE shows us that technological-learning platforms could tap on the

social constructivist approach to encourage collaborative learning which has a positive

impact on the development of SDL. There are clear evidence that TELE “can encourage and

support both [SDL] practice and its development. In particular, they seem to foster

autonomy, both in individual activities and in collaborative activities, encourage social

support, help seeking and reciprocal teaching; control and personalisation of the individual

workspace, reflection and meta-cognition, development of individual initiative and

understanding of different learning styles, planning, monitoring and self-assessment”

(Delfino & Persico , 2007, p. 63). Given the abovementioned finding, one may be tempted to

ask whether we could achieve SDL via non-technological platforms.

However, 21st century educators are keenly aware that the "internet is already

embedded in, and embeds, youth culture” (Lewin, Mavers & Somekh, 2003, p. 48). This

means that education in the 21st century has to be in sync with technological developments

to support pupil learning. While recognising the educational benefits of using TELE to

support SDL via social constructivist approach, it is important to remember that such an

approach would take more time and effort, on the part of the teachers, to plan and deliver

the lesson as well as the teacher playing the role of a facilitator rather than a transmitter of

knowledge. But this begs the question of whether our teachers in Singapore are ready to

reduce instruction time and allow students to explore and reflect on the subject matter in a

collaborative TELE.

It is argued that educators would need to strike a balance between "covering" the

syllabus within the given timeframe and ensuring that their students have indeed achieved

the intended learning outcomes, which should include 21st century skills like SDL. Research

has also affirmed the need for educators to play this balancing act well which involves

harnessing "the pedagogical implications of various kinds of ICT infrastructure that are

available, these need to be reconciled, approached and understood in terms of

constructivist learning principles which not only go beyond conventional transmission

models of learning but actively encourage and seek to promote more effective learning"

(Richards, 2006, p. 244).

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2.1.4 Feedback on Self-Efficacy Beliefs

An empirical research on the impact of TELE on SDL in nine European countries4

reveals that "TELEs provide feedback that supports self-efficacy beliefs . . . and [TELEs] have

the potential of facilitating motivational, emotional and social aspects of [SDL]" (Steffens,

2006, p. 372). TELE could help to provide feedback from the tutor at a faster rate and this

feature could enhance SDL. Even so, it can be questioned whether feedback via TELE would

be more educationally effective than face-to-face feedback with teachers or peers. This is

because face-to-face feedback could provide feedback that is richer in quality and afford

opportunities for further clarifications between the instructor and learner. As such, there is

some truth in the assertion that the "strategic student consumes e-learning but is not

necessarily changed by it. Self-regulation is about personal change and personal control

rather than knowledge consumption.” (Banyard, et. al., 2006, p. 486). The challenge for

educators is to create e-learning that is meaningful, memorable and motivational (Buller &

Selinger, 2005).

2.1.5 Mode of Assessment

Ideally, any change in pedagogical approach should be followed by a review of

current assessment practices to ensure that what is taught is also tested. Generally, this is

not the reality on the ground level as there is often a mismatch between traditional modes

of assessment and the new skills that are now taught using TELE (Wood, Underwood & Avid,

1999). Ironically, it has been noted that the "benefits of [SDL] are lost in assessments that

do not require the student to show any feature of self-[direction]. It might well be a better

strategy for students to avoid self-[direction] if they are to achieve the highest marks in the

assessments" (Banyard, Underwood & Twiner, 2006, p. 484). However, it only makes sense

to ask whether SDL skills could still be tested using the existing assessment systems since it

will probably take some time for assessment modes to change. It has been proposed that

students be involved in the design of digital environments as active participants. This is

because such involvement broadens the students’ capacity to construct knowledge through

4 The 'Self-[Directed] Learning in Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments at University Level: a Peer

Review' (TELEPEERS) project was carried out from 1 Jan 2004 to 1 Jan 2006.

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experience which should culminate in tangible collaborative problem-based and authentic

learning experiences (Papert, 1980). This could take the form of co-designing of assessment

rubrics by both teacher and students for a online project that involves SDL skills. Only when

educators are prepared to review and modify current assessment format are we ready to

support SDL in a concrete manner.

2.2 Critical Success Factors for developing SDL in a TELE

From the literature review, six critical success factors emerged (Figure 2) and they

are not ranked or put in a hierarchical manner as there are no empirical studies at this point

to support such a conceptual framework. These six factors are not exhaustive as they are

subject to the demands of the changing educational landscape. From the author's personal

involvement as a School Leader in a 1:1 learning environment5, he has come to appreciate

the importance of having these six factors as the non-negotiable foundation before the

school could develop a TELE that will support SDL.

Figure 2. Six Critical Success Factors for Developing SDL in a TELE

5 Maris Stella High School started the 1:1 Macbook Learning Programme in 2008 by introducing the

programme first to the entire Sec 1 cohort. Currently, all 4 academic levels in the school are on board the 1:1 Macbook Learning Programme.

Self-Directed

Learner in a TELE

School Leadership and Management

Home -School

Partnership

Culture of Innovation

Technical Infrastructure

Professional Development of Teachers

Curriculum, Pedagogy & Assessment

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2.2.1 School Leadership and Management

It is crucial that school leaders have a clear and compelling vision of the school using

technology effectively for learning and, in particular, to develop 21st century skills like SDL.

The personal involvement of the school leaders in planning, resourcing and implementing

the TELE to support SDL is pivotal to the success of the new initiative. School leaders need to

lead with “a framework for recognizing how ICT-supported learning activities provide a

design focus for contextualizing learning as an action–reflection ‘performance’ and process

on one hand, and as the key to generating the kinds of virtual senses of a learning

community and environment which might characterize effective learning as knowledge

construction in both face-to-face and online or [computer] mediated contexts, on the

other." (Richards, 2006, p. 251).

School leaders cannot merely see themselves as providing administrative leadership,

they must also play the important role of instructional leaders, giving direction and focus to

using TELE for developing SDL. Indeed, the school's Teaching and Learning Framework must

encompass the use of TELE for developing SDL and such an emphasis must be clearly

articulated and understood by all, including staff, pupils and key stakeholders, the parents.

Communicating such a vision of using technology for the cultivation of SDL should not be a

one-off event but a continual articulation by school leaders of the direction and focus that

the school is taking in order for the organisation to use technology effectively to help pupils

to acquire SDL. School leaders would need to work closely with the middle managers to

journey with the staff in transforming the learning environment by using technology to

develop SDL through role-modelling. This could take the form of the personal involvement

of school leaders and middle managers in curriculum innovation by working alongside the

teachers in designing suitable curriculum materials for delivery. Teachers are more likely to

buy-in the idea of using technology during their lessons when they see their leaders getting

involved in curriculum design work.

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2.2.2 Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment

One of the major pitfalls of schools that use TELE to support SDL is that the teachers

continue to use existing curriculum and pedagogy to teach. Technology is seen as an “add-

on” as there is no effective integration of technology with curriculum and pedagogy. Hence,

the clarion call is “to make learner interest and applied practice the key to more effective

connections with curriculum or content learning objectives, with theory and with effective

higher-order learning and thinking." (Richards, 2006, p. 249). Re-alignment of curriculum

and pedagogy is important. Any curriculum innovation that seeks to exploit technology for

SDL must not ignore these two key curriculum considerations - enhancing learner interest

and provision of applied practice.

Pedagogy will also be modified in a TELE, as the teacher will focus more on giving

more applied practice to the students since the role of the teacher is more of a facilitator

than a transmitter of knowledge. Such a change in curricular and pedagogical practices

should also be supported by school leaders in terms of providing the teachers with the

necessary time to design and experiment with new pedagogical ideas (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-

Leftwich, 2010, p.262) . Ultimately, the success of the ICT pedagogy depends on "whether

the software design and instructional methods surrounding its use are congruent" (Lee,

2006, p.102) and not just simply an add-on to the current way of teaching.

As discussed earlier, the mode of assessment must also be modified to better

support the development of SDL in a TELE. Otherwise, the "transmission of large quantities

of pre-specified knowledge followed by high profile national tests to ensure that students

meet attainment targets is an approach to curriculum and pedagogy that can never

maximise the benefits of *TELE+.” (Lewin, Mavers & Somekh, 2003, p. 48) Teachers should

be encouraged to explore "other much more contextual forms of assessment, such as those

afforded by the use of portfolios, problem-based assignments, peer refereeing and

evaluation” (Bottino, 2004, p. 558). Again, such a change in modes of assessment must be

guided by the personal involvement of school leaders and middle managers to ensure that

the modified assessment is able to meet the stipulated goal of developing SDL.

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2.2.3 Professional Development of Teachers

It cannot be taken for granted that teachers have the necessary know-how of using

TELE for developing SDL. One of the critical success factors lies in how well the school

supports professional development of the teachers in acquiring the knowledge and skills to

effectively make good use of TELE for SDL. Professional development should always have

the objective of helping teachers "to effectively integrate and use ICTs for teaching or

learning purposes [by understanding and applying] basic pedagogical as well as

technological principles of interaction design in order to develop ICT-supported learning

environments relevant to their particular educational purposes and contexts" (Richards,

2006, p. 239).

Such programmes to enlarge the teachers' capacity should also leverage on team

learning principles. This is because teachers gain confidence as they work collaboratively

with one another to solve common issues faced in the classroom, in particular, how to

grapple with the use of TELE for SDL. Through such professional development sharing, the

less confident teachers are also able to pick up important knowledge and skills from those

who are more skilful in the use of technology (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010, p.262)

to develop SDL. Due to its critical importance, professional development should rightly

come under the direct purview of the school leaders to ensure that it is well-planned and

supported by all teachers.

2.2.4 Technical Infrastructure

Without strong support in the form of easy access to ICT resources and technical

support, teachers may be discouraged to use technology in teaching. Research also affirms

that the lack of access to ICT resources and technical support are two key problems that

must be handled well (Bingimlas, 2008). To lessen the computer anxiety of teachers, it is

important for the school leadership to plan and implement an effective technical

infrastructure system to support the teachers’ teaching duties. This would mean that the

teachers need not worry about technical issues as they are trying out a new pedagogy in

facilitating a TELE in the classrooms. Such support could take the form of employing and

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deploying technical support staff to assist teachers with the technical set-up before and

during the lessons so that the teachers could focus well on their core duties in teaching.

Besides giving infrastructure support, these technical support staff could help teachers to

develop interactive multimedia software and co-write lesson plans with teachers that foster

SDL in TELE (Lee, 2006, p.98). With strong technical infrastructure, teachers would be able

to focus well on creating an effective TELE for SDL.

2.2.5 Culture of Innovation

Without a mindset change, many teachers may resist the school’s direction to use

technology for the development of SDL. Teachers would probably question the need to

change as they may have experienced success in using the current curriculum, pedagogy

and assessment to achieve excellent academic results. It is critical for school leaders to

provide the context for change so that the teachers could understand the importance of

education to prepare their pupils for an uncertain future in the 21st century. This would

mean equipping the students with the necessary skills such as SDL so that they could thrive

in a globalised environment where stiff competition and rapid changes are the norms.

The culture of innovation is not easy to achieve as it takes time to identify, challenge

and change the mindsets of teachers. Hence, it has been observed that even "if schools and

teachers are provided with enough access to appropriate instructional technology, and

teachers receive proper professional development in the use and integration of educational

technology and technology is integrated in curricula, course objectives, and assessment, the

outcomes are fundamentally grounded in self-reflective processes in human adaptation and

change” (Glassett & Schrum, 2009, p.148). This points us to the intricate link between the

school's culture of innovation and the teachers' capacity for self-reflection as practitioners.

It is indeed vital to cultivate the teachers' ability to self-reflect so as to develop the culture

of innovation in the school.

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2.2.6 Home-School Partnership

Passey (2000) points out that technologies and electronic content which are used for

learning between home and school are also inextricably bound up with the school’s

educational vision of what learning is, how pupils can and should learn, and the content and

assessment of that learning. This convergence of the use of technology for learning at home

and school may pose certain challenges for school leaders and teachers. This is because

parents may question the school’s direction of using technology for learning as some of

them may still be digital immigrants and may not fully subscribe to the greater use of

technology in learning. Parents may, in fact, prefer the traditional rote-learning method for

their children, as the parents believe that this is a tried and tested way of learning.

Others may also worry about cyber-wellness issues and doubt the effectiveness of

using technology to develop SDL in their children. School leaders and teachers need to

engage the parents in understanding the challenges brought by globalisation and the

opportunities afforded by technology in helping their children to develop as self-directed

learners. Schools and parents would need to work collaboratively to monitor the learning

process of their charges so as to ensure that technology is used well for SDL both at home

and in school.

2.3 Implications

The study of the impact of TELE on the development of SDL offers many possibilities

to educators as there are evidences that TELE has the potential to support the cultivation of

SDL. This does not mean that schools should immediately plunge into using TELE for SDL as

school leaders need to take stock of their school's capacity in terms of the six critical success

factors highlighted in this paper. This paper argues that no one factor in itself is sufficient for

TELE to work well enough to develop SDL. Instead, the presence of all components increases

the possibility of achieving SDL within the context of a TELE.

As every school is unique in terms of its student profile and staff capacity, school

leaders need to evaluate the readiness of their schools before embarking on TELE for SDL.

After evaluation of the six critical success factors, school leaders would be able to identify

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the gaps and proceed to address the area(s) for improvement. Only when the school leaders

have assessed that the school has achieved the basic standard of the six critical success

factors would it be appropriate for the school to go ahead with using TELE for developing

SDL. Even then, school leaders should always monitor and review the progress of the school

by using the six critical success factors as reference points.

2.4 Limitations of Paper

The scope of this paper is generally limited to factors that facilitate a TELE in schools

in Western countries as this topic has not been examined in depth in Singapore or even Asia.

This study is also largely dependent on the findings from the Europe-based TELEPEERS

project which used student perception to assess the impact of TELE on SDL. Future works

might wish to consider examining the impact of student perception of TELE on their learning

of SDL and how far we need to take these perceptions into account when considering the

instructional design of TELE. In addition, as a follow-through to this paper, it would be

beneficial to conduct a study on teachers' perception of how TELE could affect the learning

of SDL and whether such a perception would influence the learning of SDL in a TELE. Lastly,

it might also be useful for future works to consider developing a conceptual framework for

the implementation of TELE to achieve SDL and this could also include tangible goals and

outcomes.

22

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