1    

Teacher Education Reform in Indonesia

Érica P. Amorim Marzul Hydait

Table of Contents 1. Introduction  ...............................................................................................................................................  2  2. Indonesia Education System  ...............................................................................................................  3  

2.1 Structure of Education System  ....................................................................................................  3  2.2 Basic Numbers on Indonesian Education system  .................................................................  5  2.3 Who are the teachers in Indonesia?  ...........................................................................................  7  2.4 Post-secondary and higher Education institutions frameworks  .......................................  9  

3. Main Ministries of Indonesian Educational system  .................................................................  12  3.1 Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC)  ..........................................................................  12  

3.1.1 MEC role and responsibilities  ..........................................................................................  16  3.2 Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA)  ................................................................................  18  

4. How to become a teacher in Indonesia?  .......................................................................................  19  4.1 Main changes in the Teacher Education Policy  .................................................................  19  4.2 The current Teacher Education Policy  ..................................................................................  22  4.4 Hiring process, professional development and incentives program  ............................  25  

5. Main challenges and next agenda  ...................................................................................................  28  6. References  ..............................................................................................................................................  32  7. Appendix  .................................................................................................................................................  33  

7.1 The structure of education system in Indonesia  .................................................................  33  

2    

Teacher Education Reform in Indonesia

Érica P. Amorim Marzul Hydait

1. Introduction  

Composed of 17,000 islands and 300 different ethnic groups that speak more than

700 different languages, Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world. The

Indonesian education system manages nearly 50 million students in basic and tertiary

education. Indonesia is currently undertaking an ambitious education reform to improve

the overall quality of education.

Improving the quality of education in Indonesia has been a central issue. Through

the enactment of Law No. 20/2003 on the National Education System and Law No.

14/2005, the new Government of Indonesia (GOI) in the reform era has set the legal

foundation system for the management of the national education system. The two laws

underscore the crucial roles of teachers to improve education quality and ensure success

of the reform of the education system. By 2015, all teachers will hold at least a four-year

Bachelor’s degree, which means that approximately 1.7 million teachers will require

additional training in order to be qualified. The Government of Indonesia established an

ambitious target to provide (re)qualification for all its primary and secondary teachers

that do not meet the legislative requirement. In addition, to meet the second requirement

for teachers, the GOI has to certify 2.78 million teachers, a huge number to handle in

order to complete this certification program by 2015. Although the GOI has shown its

3    

commitment to improve teachers’ academic qualification and already started the teacher

certification program since September 2007, the implementation and sustainability of

such a plan brings important challenges.

This report describes the process of becoming an Indonesian teacher under the

2005 Teacher Law and the major challenges faced by the government to upgrade the

qualifications of almost 2 million of teachers. The report is divided into five sections –

including this introduction. The next section provides an overview of the Indonesian

education system. The third section discusses the role, structure and organization of the

two main ministries in charge of Indonesian education system. The fourth section focuses

on the main changes in teacher education policy as well as teachers’ career path. The fifth

section states the main challenges that the government is currently facing and presents

some possible directions.

2. Indonesia Education System

2.1 Structure of Education System

Managed by two ministries, the Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC),

formerly called (the Ministry of National Education), and the Ministry of Religious

Affairs (MORA), the education system is divided into three different levels: basic

education, secondary education, and higher education (Law No.20/2003, Article 14).

Basic education refers to six years study in primary school and three years study in junior

secondary school (the nine-year compulsory education policy targeting children at the

age of 7-15 years). Secondary education refers to three years study in senior secondary

4    

(vocational) school. Tertiary education generally refers to post-secondary study at

academy, college or university-level (Please see Appendix 1).

The curriculum for basic and secondary education include: (1) religious

education; (2) civic education, (3) language (4) mathematics; (5) science, (6) social

sciences (7) arts and culture; (8) physical education and sports; (9) vocational skills; and

(10) local content. (Law No 20/2003, Article 37). There are different types of education

services provided by the GOI: general education, vocational education, academic

education, professional education, vocational and technical education, religious

education, and special education (Law No.20/2003, Article 15)1.

The higher education system in Indonesia is organized across five types of

institutions: academic, polytechnics, advanced schools, institutes and universities.

According to the 2003 Law of National Education System, academies provide only one

particular applied/practical science: engineering or art. Polytechnics are focused on

applied education in a specific area. Advanced schools provide academy or professional

education in one specific knowledge. Institutes focus on one subject and are organized

around many faculties/departments. Finally, universities are broadly organized offering

training and research in various disciplines (DGHE, 2005; Fahmi, 2007).

                                                                                                               1  General education is basic and secondary education programmes that focus on provision of broad based academic skills. Vocational education is secondary education programme for preparing learners for a specific job. Academic education is higher education programme of undergraduate and post-graduate level (sarjana and pasca sarjana), aiming at acquisition of specific science discipline. Professional education is higher education programme after undergraduate (sarjana) programme which prepares learners for jobs by acquiring particular skills and expertise. Vocational and technical education is higher education programme for preparing learners for jobs by acquiring applied knowledge at the maximum, equivalent to undergraduate programme (sarjana). Religious education is basic, secondary, and higher education programmes which prepare learners to perform their role, requiring the acquisition of religious knowledge, and/or to become a religious scholar. Special education is provision of education programme for the disabled and/or the gifted learners, organized inclusively or exclusively at basic and secondary level of schooling (Law 20/2003 Article 15).  

5    

Under the Ministry of Religious Affairs, there is a similar system of education.

The primary Islamic school called Madrasah Ibtidaiyah is equivalent to primary school,

Madrasah Tsanawiyah is equivalent to junior secondary school. Madrasah Aliyah is

equivalent to senior secondary, and Islamic Institute/Islamic Higher Education/ Islamic

university is equivalent to college or university level.

The education services in Indonesia are available in both public and private

options. At the primary, junior and high secondary level, the great majority of education

service is public. While the private schools that exist in almost all levels of education are

normally religion-based, such as Muhammadiyah (private Islamic schools) and Methodist

(Christian schools). However, at the post-secondary level, there are more private

education institutions than public institutions, where there is at least one or more higher

institution under MEC (state university) and one or more higher Islamic institutions under

MORA (UIN/IAIN/STAIN) in every province.

2.2 Basic Numbers on Indonesian Education system

The Government of Indonesia (GoI) manages nearly 46 million students enrolled

in over 40,000 primary and secondary schools with around 2.7 million teachers. Over 4

million students (1.9 million of which are enrolled in private institutions) attending 2,316

higher education institutions (UNESCO, 2006a; World Bank, 2010; Wicaksono and

Friawan 2008).

The two main ministries in charge of managing the education system are the

Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC) and the Ministry of Religious Affairs

(MORA). According to the World Bank (2010), 81 percent of schools, 87 percent of

students, and 81 percent of teachers are under the responsibility of MEC. The majority of

6    

the religious schools managed by MORA are private and less than 10% of MORA

schools are public, which represents less than 20% of all students enrolled in the religious

educational system.

In the last few decades, the GoI has made a great effort to improve access to

basic education,2 so that virtually 100% of school-age children attend schools in the

country. The 2010 Susenas survey showed that 96% of 7 to 12 year old students are

attending schools in Indonesia (87% of 13 to 15 years old).3 The coverage was apparently

solved only in primary education. Inequality in terms of access in higher education and

the quality of basic education are still lagging behind.

Triaswati and Roeslan (2003) showed that only 8% of the students coming from

the 40% lowest income households attend universities, contrasting with more than 30%

of students coming from the 20% wealthiest households. According to UNESCO

(2006b), around 450,000 students take the national public university entrance

examination but there are only 75,000 seats available. This leaves more than 300,00

students graduated from high school but with limited opportunities to continue their

students – most of them cannot afford private institutions – or to get a job – mainly

because of the lack of credentials and limited skills.

In terms of the quality of basic education, results from recent international

standardized tests such the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and

International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) have placed the country among

                                                                                                               2 In Indonesia, Basic Education is composed by the six years of primary education (from 7 to 12 years old) plus three years of junior secondary education (from 13 to 15 years old). 3 But the coverage is not universalized, over one million children at school age are out of school in primary education ( UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2011).

7    

the ten lowest performing countries surveyed4. Even with some learning gains reflected

in the 2007 TIMSS test, 50% of Indonesian students assessed scored below the basic

proficiency level – even after the results were adjusted for family socioeconomic status

(World Bank, 2010).

Teachers play a major role in improving student performance (Hanushek, Kain,

O’Brien and Rivkin, 2005; Hanushek and Rivikin, 2006, 2010; Harris and Sass, 2008).

Hanushek and Rivikin (2006, 2010) showed that students assigned to a great teacher

advance 1.5 grade levels or more while students with a weak teacher master 50% or less

of the school year curriculum.

The next section provides an overview of Indonesian teachers in terms of

educational background, gender, professional affiliation, etc.

2.3 Who are the teachers in Indonesia?

Seven out of ten in-service teachers in kindergartens, primary and secondary

schools are over 40 years old and more than half of these teachers are female (Jalal et. al,

2009; UNESCO, 2006; World Bank, 2010). However, there are a larger proportion of

males as school principals than females.

There are different types of teacher professional categories that can be found in

public or private schools: (1) civil servants (PNS); (2) contract and (3) school hired

teachers. Half of the Indonesian teachers are civil servants, 29% are school hired teachers

in private schools, 10% are school hired teachers in public schools, 2% are hired by the

districts, 5% are civil servants in private schools and 5% are contract teachers centrally

hired. Table 1 shows the main aspects of each type of Indonesian teacher.                                                                                                                4 According to 2006 PISA results, Indonesian students ranked in 52 out of 57 countries assessed in Science, 48 out of 56 countries assessed in Reading and 51 out of 57 countries assessed in Mathematics.  

8    

Figure 1 shows the age distribution of Indonesian teachers. The numbers deserve

attention because in less than two decades 7 out of 10 teachers will be retired (more than

one million teachers). Furthermore, it will be needed for new and qualified teachers to

replace those retiring.

Hired by Paid by Key Characteristics Civil Servant teachers

Public schools District Central (DAU) Hiring quota set centrally, but districts select

Private Schools District Central (DAU) Government assigns a small number of public civilservants to private schools

Contract TeachersCentrally hired District Central (DAU) To be converted to civil servants by year-end 2009District hired District District Salary is generally 50% of that of civil servant teachers

School-hired teachers

Public schools Schools Schools, Central (DAU)

Private schools Schools Schools, Central (DAU)

Source: World Bank 92010).

Teacher Type

Often paid a low honorarium (10–30% of civil servantsalary)School-hired teachers now receive functional andprofessional allowances paid by central governmentBOS grants have increased the number of schoolhiredteachers

Table 1: Teacher Categories in Indonesia, 2006

9    

Data from MEC shows that Indonesian teachers are poorly qualified, especially

when evaluated against the new requirements established by the ongoing teacher reform

process in the country. In order to meet the level of qualification required by the 2005

Teacher Law5, a primary teacher has to hold a four-year bachelor degree (S1/D4). Recent

data from MEC indicates that, currently, more than 60% of the teachers do not meet the

legislation requirements. On average, primary education teachers hold a senior secondary

education or a two-year post-secondary degree (Diploma II). As expected, the

distribution of secondary education teacher in terms of qualification does not follow the

same path. The data indicates that almost 70% of the secondary education teachers hold

a bachelor’s degree. In short, the government is facing an important challenge in terms of

upgrading teacher qualification, mainly primary education teachers. There are more than

1.5 million teachers that do not hold the qualification required under the new legislation

(Please see table 2 below).

2.4 Post-secondary and higher Education institutions frameworks

After graduating from secondary education, students who wish to continue their

education may attend higher education institutions, technical/vocational studies teacher

and/or training institutes (Lembaga Pendidikan Tenaga Kependidikan or LPTK) that are                                                                                                                5 For further explanation about 2005 Teacher Law, please see Section 4.

Primary School 417,389 11,529 589,034 23,841 207,074 1,161 4 1,250,032 Junior Second. 39,133 36,202 37,446 72,822 299,319 3,277 7 488,206 Senior Second. 6,301 1,200 4,082 22,964 189,753 3,106 27 227,433 Vocational School 5,172 1,341 2,842 23,942 120,764 1,691 9 155,761 Primary Islamic School 94,755 23,580 45,933 9,086 31,312 108 - 204,774 Junior Second. Islamic School 37,045 10,722 13,554 22,559 95,326 599 4 179,809 Senior Second. Islamic School 10,090 2,164 3,215 10,290 65,635 1,321 8 92,723 TOTAL 609,885 86,738 696,106 185,504 1,009,183 11,263 59 2,598,738 Source: Jalal et al. (2009).

S2 (Master

S3 (Ph.D)

Total

Table 2: Number of teacher by level of education

School levelAcademic Qualification

Senior Secondary

D1 (one-year post-secondary)

D2 (two-year post-secondary)

D3 (three-year post-secondary)

S1/D4 (Bachelor)

10    

classified as universities and can provide full degree-granting status (Diploma IV-D4).

The paths are not mutually exclusive and can also be seem as a continuum, especially

after the 2005 Teacher and Lecturer Law that established the four-year bachelor’s degree

as a teacher requirement (D4/S1).

Data from Directorate General of Higher Education (DGHE) shows that 96% of

the higher education institutions are privately managed (Please see table 3). There are

over 2,300 higher education institutions, which are mostly classified as advanced schools.

The degrees awarded in the higher education system are Sarjana 1 (S1) to Doktor (S3).

S1 is equivalent to a bachelor’s degree; the student is awarded the degree after four years

of full-time study. Magister (S2) is awarded after a further two years' study plus

research, and it is equivalent to a master’s degree. After S2 graduation plus three to four

years beyond and dissertation and research, the student may be awarded the doctorate

(S3).

LPTKs are the main teacher training agencies in the country. LPTKs have

different organizational forms: Faculty of teacher Education and Educational Sciences

(FKIP) that is located in the universities; School of Higher Learning of Teacher

Education and Educational Sciences (STKIP), and Institutes for Teacher Education and

Type of Institution Public PrivateAcademic - 715Polytechnic 25 89Advance Schools - 1043Institutes 10 43Universities 46 345TOTAL 81 2235Source: DGHE (2004).

Table 3: Number of higher education institution in Indonesia -2004

11    

Educational Science (Institut Kegurun dan llmu Pendidikan or IKIP). ). However, since

1999 state IKIPs have been transformed to universities in order to provide better quality

service for both education and non-education fields.

Figure 2 below shows an overview of the possible paths that can be followed after

high scool completion. Teacher training agencies in their different forms are located in

between post-secondary and higher education institution because they can offer

Bachelor’s degrees (called D4 that is equivalent to a S1 degree in higher ed. Institutions)

as well as three-year post-secondary education.

Figure 2: Possible Paths after high school graduation in Indonesia

Source: Created by CISERD/LSI

However, the 2005 Teacher Law raised minimum educational requirements for all

teachers. It adds additional obligations to LPTKs that, in order meet the requirement

established, must provide four-year courses for pre-service teachers, which is equivalent

High School Graduation

Technical/Vocational Centers

Teacher Training Agencies/ LPTK

IKIP FKIP (universities)

1. Academic – Science, engineering or arts (Vocational: D-1 to D-3 on one specific area such as, AP (Nursing), ABA (language), Akpol (police), Tax, Economics, Teaching, Technology)

2. Polytechnics - applied education on a specific area 3. Higher schools/Advanced Schools – Academy or professional

in one specific knowledge: STKIP (Teaching), STIKOM (computer) STIPOL (politics), STIBA (language), STAIN (Islamic schools)

4. Universities – training and research in several fields 5. Institutes - focus on one subject and are organized around

many faculties/departments

Post-­‐Se

condar

y

 Institu

tions

Higher Ed. Institutions

12    

to an S1 degree awarded by a higher education institution (World Bank, 2010). In short,

LPTKs are the key teacher training institutes and are undertaking an ongoing

reformulation process over the last decade.

Table 4 shows Indonesian degrees and its equivalent in English-speaking

countries as well as the main characteristics of each level of education.

In terms of upgrading teachers’ qualification, the Open University (Universitas

Terbuka – UT) has played an important role, mainly providing teacher requalification in

remote areas in order to meet certification requirements. Data from the World Bank

(2010) shows that, in 2006, UT had 37 regional offices located in 26 provinces (out of 33

provinces in the country) attended by 225,000 students (World Bank, 2010, p. 75).

3. Main Ministries of Indonesian Educational system

3.1 Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC)

The Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC) is an agency under the Presidency

responsible for education and cultural affairs. The institution is led by a minister and

Type of Degree

Indonesian Term Equivalent in English-Speaking Countries

Main Characteristics

Diploma 2 (D2) Ahli Muda -The program study load is from 80 to 90 semester credit

units scheduled over a period of 4 to 6 semesters

Diploma 3 (D3) Ahli Madya Associate's Degree The study program consists of 110 to 120 semester credit units spanning 6 to 10 semesters

Diploma 4 (D4) Sarjana Bachelor's Degree

Sarjana 1 (S1) Sarjana Bachelor's Degree

Sarjana 2 (S2) Magister Master's DegreeThe master's program consists of a class load of 36 to 50

semester credit units and a written thesis to be completed in no less than four semesters and no greater than ten semesters

Sarjana 3 (S3) Doktor Doctoral DegreeRequires 40 semester credit units and a dissertation which is

to be completed in no less than four semesters yet not exceed 14 semesters.

Source: Stateuniversities.com

The study program is 144 to 160 semester credit units scheduled over 8 to 14 semesters

Table 4: Type of Degrees and main Characteristics

13    

assisted by two deputies, one of whom is responsible for education while the other is

responsible for cultural matters (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012, Article 2). The role

and responsibility of the minister are to design, implement, and monitor and evaluate

national educational and culture policies

The structure of MEC consists of one Secretariat-General, five Directorates

Generals (Directorate General of Early Childhood, Non-formal, and Informal Education;

Directorate General of Basic Education; Directorate General of Secondary Education;

Directorate General of Higher Education; and Directorate General of Culture), one

Inspector General, three Agencies (Research and Development Agency; Language

Coaching and Development Agency; and Human Resources Development Agency for

Education and Culture as well as for Education Quality Assurance) and four Centers

(Center for Information and Communication Technology in Education; Center for

Information and Public Relations; Center for Data and Statistics in Education and

Culture; and Center for Research and Development for National Archaeology) (the

Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012, Article 5).

The Directorate General of Early Childhood, Non-formal and Informal Education

is in charge of formulating, implementing, and evaluating policies and technical

standardization as well as providing technical support in the field of early childhood

education, non-formal education, and informal education (the Regulation of MEC No.

1/2012, Article114). This directorate general consists of one Secretariat of the

Directorate-General and four directorates: (i) Directorate of Early Childhood Education

Development; (ii) Directorate of Training Development; (iii) Directorate of Community

Learning Development; (iv) Directorate of Early Childhood, Non-formal, and Informal

14    

Education Teachers and Education Personnel Development (the Regulation of MEC No.

1/2012, Article 116).

The Directorate General of Basic Education has the task to formulate, implement,

and evaluate policies and technical standardization as well as to provide technical support

in the field of basic education (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012, Article 218). This

directorate general consists of one Secretariat of the Directorate-General and four

directorates: (i) Directorate of Elementary School Development; (ii) Directorate of Junior

Secondary School Development; (iii) Directorate of Special Education and Special Basic

Education Services Development; and (iv) Directorate of Basic Education Teachers and

Education Personnel Development (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012, Article 220).

The Directorate General of Secondary Education has the task to formulate,

implement, and evaluate policies and technical standardization as well as to provide

technical support in the field of secondary education (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012,

Article 322). This directorate general consists of one Secretariat of the Directorate-

General and four directorates: (i) Directorate of Senior Secondary School Development;

(ii) Directorate of Vocational School Development; (iii) Directorate of Special Education

and Special Basic Education Services Development; and (iv) Directorate of Secondary

Education Teachers and Education Personnel Development (the Regulation of MEC No.

1/2012, Article 324).

The Directorate General of Tertiary Education has the task to formulate,

implement, and evaluate policies and technical standardization as well as to provide

technical support in the field of tertiary education (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012,

Article 426). This directorate general consists of one Secretariat of the Directorate-

15    

General and four directorates: (a) Directorate of Institution and partnership; (b)

Directorate of Learning and Student Affairs; (c) Directorate of Teachers and Education

Personnel, and (d) Directorate of Research and Community Services (the Regulation of

MEC No. 1/2012, Article 428).

The Directorate General of Culture has the task to formulate, implement, and

evaluate policies and technical standardization as well as to provide technical support in

the field of culture (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012 Article 530). This directorate

general consists of one Secretariat of the Directorate-General and five Directorates: (a)

Directorate of Cultural Heritage Preservation and Museum; (b) Directorate of Arts and

Films; (c) Directorate of Belief in One God and Tradition; (d) Directorate of History and

Culture Values; and (e) Directorate of Cultural Values Internalization and Cultural

Diplomacy (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012 Article 532).

The Ministry of Education and Culture also has three agencies: Research and

Development (R&D) Agency; Language Coaching and Development Agency; and

Human Resources Development Agency for Education and Culture as well as for

Education Quality Assurance.

The Research and Development (R&D) Agency has the task to carry out research

and development in education and culture (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012 Article

707). This agency consists of one Secretariat Agency and four Centers (Center for

Policies Research; Center for Curriculum and Books: Center for Education Assessment;

and Center for R&D on Culture (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012 Article 709).

The Language Coaching and Development Agency has the task to carry out the

development, enhancement, and protection of Indonesian language and literature (the

16    

Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012 Article 770). This agency consists of Secretariat; Centre

for the Language and Literature Development and Protection; and Center for Language

and Literature Development and Socialization (the Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012

Article 772).

The Human Resources Development Agency for Education and Culture as well as

for Education Quality Assurance has the task of implementing human resource

development for education and culture as well as for education quality assurance (the

Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012 Article 826). This Agency consists of Secretariat

Agency (general; finance; planning & budgeting; legal & personnel) and four centers: (1)

Center for Teacher Professional Development (Competence & Certification); (2) Center

for Education Personnel Development ; (3) Center for Human Resource Development for

Education and Culture affairs; and (4) Center for Education Quality Assurance (the

Regulation of MEC No. 1/2012 Article 828).

3.1.1 MEC role and responsibilities

In MONE Regulation No. 63/ 2009 on Education Quality Assurance System

Education, it is stated that national education is a shared responsibility among the central

government, local government, and community and therefore quality education assurance

is the responsibility of these three elements.

At central level, the central government through MEC establishes several

institutions responsible for the implementation of education, among others: (1) National

Education Standards Agency; (2) National Accreditation Board for School/Madrasah; (3)

Directorate General of Early Childhood Education, Non Formal and Informal; (4)

Directorate General of Basic Education (5). Directorate General of Secondary Education;

17    

(6) Directorate General of Higher Education; (7) Directorate for Teachers and Education

Personnel Development ; and (8) Human Resources Development Agency for Education

and Culture as well as for Education Quality Assurance).

At the local level (provincial and districts levels), education is managed by the

following institutions: (1) Provincial Education Office, (2) Provincial Religious Affair

Office, (3) Institute for Educational Quality Assurance (LPMP), (4) District Education

Office.

The Institute for Education Quality Assurance (LPMP) is a Technical

Implementation Unit (UPT) under the provincial government which is linked to the

Directorate of Teachers and Education Personnel Development. LPMP has a task to

guarantee the quality of basic and secondary education including kindergarten (TK),

raudatul RA (RA), or any other equivalent school form in the provincial level based

under the Minister of National Education. The functions of LPMP are as follows: (1) to

map quality of primary and secondary education, including kindergarten, RA, or other

equivalent forms; (2) to develop and manage information systems quality primary and

secondary education, including kindergarten, RA, or other equivalent forms; (3) to

supervise unit of primary and secondary education, including kindergarten, RA, or any

other form of equal quality in the achievement of national education standards; (4) to

facilitate educational resources for elementary and secondary education unit, including

TK, RA, or its equivalent in any other form of quality assurance of education, and (5) to

implement LPMP administration.

18    

3.2 Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA)

More than 85% of the population in Indonesia is Muslim, making it the largest

Muslim country in the world. There is a parallel religious education system in the country

under the responsibility of the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA). MORA manages

the Islamic education system throughout schools from primary school up to university

level.

There are six Directorate Generals under MORA. One of them is the Directorate

General of Islamic Education (Ditjen Pendis) which is responsible for Islamic education.

The Directorate General of Islamic Education consists of four Directorates: (1)

Directorate of Madrasah Education, (2) Directorate Diniyah dan Pontren, (3) Directorate

of state of Islamic Higher Education (PTI), (4) Directorate of Islamic Education (PAIS).

The Directorate of Madrasah Education facilitates and coordinates the Islamic

education from primary and secondary school levels. There are five sub-Directorates: (1)

Sub-Directorate of Curriculum and Evaluation; (2) Sub-Directorate of Teacher and

Education Personnel; (3) Sub-Directorate Facilities and Infrastructure; (4) Sub-

Directorate of Institution; (5) and Sub-Directorate for Student Affairs. The Directorate of

Islamic Higher Education (DIKTIS) is in charge of the Islamic Higher Education

Institutions. There are 627 institutions which consists of 6 State Islamic University

(UIN), 13 State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN), 33 State Higher School for Islamic

Studies (STAIN), and 575 private Islamic universities (PTAIS) (MORA, 2012).

The courses offered in these institutions consist of two major groups, namely

Study Program for Islamic Studies—fundamentals of religion (Ushuluddin), Islamic laws

(Sharia), education (Tarbiyah), religious propagation (Dakwah), and Literature (Adab)—

19    

and Study Program for General Science—Medicine, Psychology, Economics, Science

and Technology, Social Studies, and Natural Sciences. Islamic Education Institutions

have a comparative advantage in the form of a more affordable cost and emphasis on the

nuances of Islamic and humanist Indonesians.

4. How to become a teacher in Indonesia?

4.1 Main changes in the Teacher Education Policy

In the late 50’s, approximately 65 million people were not able to read and/or

write. Education in Indonesia was calling for immediate action. The reduced number of

teachers, continuous population growth and limited capacity of exiting training institutes

(only 4,000 teachers per year) were challenges that needed to be addressed (World Bank,

2009).

Primary education teachers were trained in one of 632 Sekolah Pendidikan Guru

(SPG) centers across the country (Nielsen, 1988). After completing junior high school,

prospective primary teachers attended three-year programs in SPG centers. Junior

secondary teachers were graduated from Teacher Education colleges (PGSMTP) with

qualifications equivalent to D1; senior secondary teachers held D2 degrees provided by

FKIP/IKIP. Before the reform era, teaching used to a be a highly prestigious professions

and only high-perfoming students were selected to attend teacher programs.

In the 70’s, with the explosion of school age population – as a result of the

crescent population growth in the prior decades – it was necessary to have more primary

teachers in Indonesian schools. Teachers were recruited as soon as they completed their

junior secondary school and placed in the new schools in the country. In order to meet the

20    

need for education, the central government under President Suharto sent out a

presidential instruction for building primary schools, which was called Sekolah Dasar

Instruksi Presiden (SD-INPRES). There were more than 61,000 new primary schools

built within a period of six years, and the funding was allocated from oil revenue. This

school construction was the most rapid school construction program to increase education

access and attainment (Duflo, 2001). This resulted in a great demand for teachers. The

recruitment for teacher candidates in the program consequentnly became less selective as

quantity was given the priority at the expense of the quality.

Furthermore, because of the lack of a teacher selection process, the reform in

secondary education – mainly because of the increase in the demand – led to a decrease

in the quality of education provided and led to important changes in the Indonesian

educational system. The main purpose of the 1989 Education Law was to improve overall

quality of Indonesian educational system. As stated by Jalal et al. (2009), the Law

mandated increased qualifications for teachers at all educational levels. The Law

mandated new standards for primary school teachers, with the educational level increased

from secondary education level to higher education level: a two-year diploma course (D2

program) following senior secondary education. Parallel with this policy, the government

launched a national inservice training program for primary school teachers throughout the

country, making use of the Open University system. Its objective was to train existing

teachers to qualify for D2 equivalency. In addition, the 1989 education reforms required

junior secondary school teachers to have at least D3 education and senior secondary

school teachers to have at least D4/S1 education (Jalal et al., 2009, p.19).

21    

However, the enactment of the law was not followed by a restructuring of the

teacher training centers (IKIP) that were used to provide trainining to secondary

education teachers. According to Jalal et al. (2009), the large scale attempt to integrate

these programs did not initially assist the IKIP itself, nor did it reach the most remote

areas of the country, where most teachers were graduates of SPGs. Initially, the

government provided scholarships for the D2 program and these teachers graduates were

appointed directly to schools. However, when the scholarship program was phased out,

many non-scholarship graduates of the IKIP could no longer be guaranteed an

appointment as a teacher. This resulted in thousands of unemployed D2 graduates,

despite a shortage of nearly 600,000 teachers in 1989/90. (Jalal et al., 2009, p.19). With

the changes brought by the 1989 Education Law in terms of teacher qualifications, there

was a transformation of 258 teacher training secondary schools (SPGs) into regular

secondary schools and 123 schools became branches of tertiary –level teachers training

centers.

Indonesia implemented a major reform in teacher education with the passage of

the 2005 Teacher Law. The main purpose is to improve overall quality of teacher

qualification through a teacher certification program (World Bank, 2010). Under the

2005 legistlation, teachers are required to have at least four-years of post-secondary

education (S1 or D4) and in-service teachers – those who have already achieved the

qualification required – have to pass a portfolio test. Besides the miminum educational

requirement, pre-service teachers have to undertake professional training to obtain credits

and also pass a certification exam before they become teachers (Jalal et a., 2009).

22    

Teachers who did not pass the certification exam have to attend a 60 up to 90-hour

remedial training (PLPG).

4.2 The current Teacher Education Policy

As stated in the previous section, the Teacher Law No. 14/2005 raised minimum

educational requirements to become school teachers. In order to meet the regulation

requirements, teachers must hold at least four-years of post-secondary education and in-

service teachers – those that already achieved the qualification required – have to pass a

portfolio exam.

According to 2005 legislation, to become a Basic or Secondary education teacher

in Indonesia, teachers need to meet the following requirements: academic qualifications

and a teacher certificate (Government Regulation No.47/2008, Article 2). Academic

qualification refers to college/ university-level training to be possessed by a teacher in

accordance with type, level, and formal education units where he or she is assigned to

teach (Article 1, Paragraph 2). Teacher competence includes skills such as mastery of

content knowledge; personal characteristics such as honesty, religiousness, oral, written

and communication skills; among others (Article 3, Paragraph 2 to 7).

A Teacher Certificate is obtained by a pre-service teacher through a teacher

professional program run by a state or private university that has an accredited College of

Teacher Education. However, it is the government that does the selection of which

teachers are eligible to join the program (Article 4, paragraph 1). In fact, the number of

participants who join the teacher professional program is annually determined by the

Minister of Education and Culture (Article 9).

23    

To teach one particular subject at primary school level, teachers already holding a

S-1 or D-IV degree are required to take only 18-20 credits per semester (Article 6,

Paragraph 4). The study program for teaching all subjects in the primary schools is 36 -40

credits per semester (Article 6, Paragraph 5). The same program load is required of

prospective secondary schools teachers: 36 – 40 credits semester (Article 6, Paragraph 7).

The study load in the teacher professional program includes the pedagogical

competence, personality competence, social competence, and professional competence.

However, as prospective teachers’ backgrounds are different – some of them coming

from education field but there are trainees coming from schools of engineering,

departments of economics, etc. – the study program is also different. For those with an

education background, the content of the program emphasizes the development of

professional competence. While for those with non-education background, the content of

the program emphasizes the development of pedagogical competence (Article 7).

At the end of the program, the participants’ competence is assessed by written

test and performance test. The written test includes questions about education

foundations, learners’ characteristics, curriculum and syllabus development, instructional

design, and learning assessment. In addition, it will also test the contents of the subject

they teach at schools based on standard contents, as well as some other general concepts

of science, technology, and arts. The performance test is designed to assess the mastery

of the pedagogical competence, personality competence, social competence, and

professional competences (Article 9). Teacher certification must be acquired by the pre-

service teachers prior to their assignment to become a teacher.

24    

For in-service teachers who already held an undergraduate degree (S-1 or D-IV),

they have to pass a portfolio assessment – as a recognition of their experience and

professional qualifications as a teacher. In the portfolio assessment, in-service teachers

provide documents as evidence to describe their academic qualification, education and

training, teaching experience, teaching-learning design and implementation, assessment

from the principal or school superintendent, academic achievement, professional

development work, participation in scientific for a, experience in education and social

organization, and relevant awards in the field of education (Article 12, Paragraph 4).

Furthermore, under the 2005 Teacher Law, the GoI is facing a major challenge:

almost 2 million of teachers are required to upgrade their educational level (2/3 of

Indonesian teachers – see Table 2). Table 5 expresses the magnitude of the challenge that

Indonesia government is undertaking in order to raise the quality of its teachers.

Currently, less than 5% of primary school teachers hold the qualification required (over

one million of teachers); 45% of junior secondary teachers and 29% of senior secondary

education need to upgrade their educational background in order to meet the 2005

Teacher Law requirements .The initial wave of upgraded training is reserved to in-service

teachers that already hold a S1/D4.

Category of teachersOld traininig level

Required (Pre teacher Law)

% of teachers below this level

New training level required with Teacher Law

% of teachers below this level (Teacher Law)

Primary D2 45.0% S1 95.4%Junior Seconday D3 21.5% S1 45.2%Senior Secondary S1 29.2% S1 29.2%Source: Jalal et al. (2009).

Table 5: Level of teacher training needed

25    

All teachers will have to be certified in order to prove their competence to be a

teacher in Indonesia. As described in the last section, even teachers that already hold the

qualification established by the law are required to undertake a portfolio assessment. Pre-

service teachers have to take up to a semester beyond S1 completion.

In-service teachers that do not hold a minimum qualification established by the

law have the following options (Jalal et. al, 2009, p. 96):

i) Traditional pathways such as full university attendance, distance learning

through the Open University or attend courses provided by LPMP.

ii) Newer pathways includes distance learning programs that are now

available in some LPTKs; local in-service activities organized by school

teacher working groups; professional teacher’s organizations activities,

among others.

4.4 Hiring process, professional development and incentives program

The teacher selection process in Indonesia occurs after prospective teachers

graduate from teacher training institutes. As suggested by the World Bank (2010),

compared with most top-performing countries, which select appropriate individuals

before they begin teacher training, Indonesia leaves the selection process to the moment

when prospective teachers have graduated from teacher training. Teachers are then

selected for employment from this larger group (World Bank, 2010, p.10).

There are three main ways to hire a teacher in Indonesia. First, teachers hired as

civil servants, which includes one-year of professional training provided by LPTKs.

Second, teachers could be contracted as part-time employees. However, the government

suspended this kind of process in 2005. Third, teachers can be hired directly by schools.

26    

The central government is in charge of assigning annual quotas to districts for the

number of civil servant teachers (PNS) that they are allowed to hire. According to the

World Bank (2010), there are two main hiring processes – in the case of PNS: (1) the

regular PNS process and (2) school contracted teachers converted into civil servant

teachers. Regarding the contract teachers, the government decided to not follow this

practice anymore and to convert in-service contracted teachers into civil servant teachers.

In 2007, 245,000 out of 300,000 new vacancies were reserved for these teachers (World

Bank, 2010, p.31).

Since the decentralization process took place, there was a great increase in the

number of teachers hired directly by schools. This increase is partially explained by the

additional funding schools are receiving from central government (BOS grant program).

The salaries of these teachers tend to be significantly lower than PNS or contract

teachers. According to the World Bank (2010), there are two issues driving the trend

towards school-hired teachers. First, the motivation of schools is not clear and it is not

always a response to their needs. 2007 data from MEC showed that there is a shortage of

teachers for subjects such as local culture and civics. However, the teachers hired by

schools teach in core subjects (math, English, Indonesian and natural sciences). Secondly,

the educational background of most of the school hired teachers are very low – most of

them hold only secondary education or even lower qualification (World Bank, 2010,

p.34).

Once teachers are hired as civil servants, there is a probation period of one or two

years before their contracts are confirmed. According to the Word Bank (2010), almost

all civil servants received tenure contracts after the probation period. During this period,

27    

civil servants earn 80% of their salaries. At the end of the probation period, civil servants

are tested. In the case of teachers, LPTKs are responsible for the teacher’s assessment. If

the report is satisfactory, the probation period is completed and their contract is

confirmed. On the other hand, if it is not satisfactory, there is a second chance and the

probation period can be extended for one more year.

If a prospective teacher fails after the second year of the probation period, there

are four possible options: (1) redeployment to another area; (2) reallocated to another

occupation; (3) remedial training or (4) a last resort used, discharged from teacher service

(World Bank, 2010, p. 70).

As civil servants, there are four functional levels for teachers (Novice, Junior,

Middle, and Senior) and all four levels are based on educational qualification, years of

experience and performance. Career progression is linked to annual performance and

Continuing Professional Development (CPD). The CPDs are designed according to the

teacher’s functional level – for example, novice’s CPD focuses on improving

professional development and Senior’s CPD emphasizes development of profession.

The government also designed an incentive program to motivate teachers to

comply with the law. Certified teachers receive a professional allowance that doubles

their salary base. Teachers allocated to remote/disadvantaged areas also have additional

benefits that, in some cases, increase their salaries three times the base teacher salary. All

teachers – public and private schools – are receiving, on average, a funcional allowance

of 10% of their salary base (World Bank, 2010).

28    

5. Main challenges and next agenda

The implementation and sustainability of the new teacher education framework

brings important challenges. The first and immediate issue is the “size of the problem.”

To meet the legislation requirements, the Government needs to provide (re)qualification

for over 60% of the teachers (1.7 million teachers). Besides that, the advanced age of

Indonesian teachers also requires special attention. Statistics from the Ministry of

Education (MONE, 2008) shows that in less than 2 decades, more than one million

teachers will be retired.

Second, teaching is a low status profession that does not attract high academic

performers. Results of the national civil service teacher’s examination showed that

teachers are underperforming in the subjects that were going to be required to teach. As

stated by Jalal et al. (2009), “teachers with lower ability often lack either the ability or the

motivation to upgrade their skills and qualifications. As a consequence, such teachers

face difficulty in keeping abreast of the rapid development of knowledge in science and

technology and other subjects. Again, this failure to update skills and qualifications will

have an adverse effect on teaching quality and ultimately on student learning outcomes”

(Jalal et. al, 2009, p.9).

Third, the attraction for low qualified candidate is also in part a result of the lack

of financial incentives. Indonesian teachers are poorly paid not only in comparison to

other countries but also compared to other Indonesian workers with equivalent

qualification (World Bank, 2007, p.45).

Fourth, the low capacity of the teacher training centers to produce qualified

teachers is also a challenge that needs to be addressed. Fifth, teachers are required to seek

29    

training on a continuous basis. It is an important requirement, but at the same time, the

government has limited capacity to provide teacher training programs (World Bank, 2010

p. 77). Not only the low capacity of the government has to be taken into consideration,

but also the average workload for primary school teachers is also significantly high,

especially if compared to junior secondary school teachers (24.7 hours compared to 17.3

hours) (MONE, 2004).

Finally, teacher absenteeism is also an issue. Low salaries and lack of motivation

contribute to high rates of teachers being out of the classroom in Indonesia. On average,

in each 100 school days, Indonesian primary school teachers are absent 19 days. Jalal et

al. (2009) states that “the Indonesian teaching profession is characterized by its low

quality and levels of competence, the low level of prestige attached to it, and a high rate

of absenteeism. Unfortunately, this remains unchanged even after a decade of reform in

the education sector” (p. 12).

The government has introduced a series of educational reforms to improve overall

quality of education. The new policy on teacher education is part of a broad educational

plan that aims to improve students’ learning achievement. Under the new teacher

qualification policy, the government has implemented a set of activities/programs which

includes: (1) the establishment of a quality assurance agency (LPMP) at national and

provincial level to undertake quality assurance reviews and support school plans. LPMP

is also in charge of managing the funds for teaching working groups (KKG and MGMP).

(2) Promotion of teaching working groups at provincial level. The government is

currently stimulating these groups through financial and personal support. However, the

number of groups fully operating is still very small. (3) Provision of scholarships and

30    

grants to enable teachers to upgrade their qualifications. By 2014, the government plans

on providing 796,409 scholarships.

International donors also play an important role in the country’s education sectors.

Table 6 summarizes the main programs of selected international donors in Indonesia:

AusAid programs focus on expanding access to basic education and building local

capacity. The World Bank co-finances the Government’s School Grant program (BOS).

UNICEF’S activities include engaging community and civil society in education

processes. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is involved in spreading

successful school models, and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) supports vocational

education reforms.

31    

International Donors Summary of the Activities/Programs

AusAid

Australia is helping Indonesia ensure more children can access education by creating new school places in the country’s poorest and most remote districts. Just as importantly as building schools, Australia is assisting Indonesia improve its education system by working with school principals to strengthen their management skills and with education officials to better manage their education budgets. Australia is also supporting Indonesia improve the quality of education in moderate Islamic schools, known as madrasah. The Priorites are: •Build or expand junior secondary schools to create 300,000 new school places in disadvantaged districts. •Strengthen the management and leadership skills of all 293,000 school principals, supervisors and district government education officials. •Assist 1,500 Islamic schools to meet national education standards •create networks between Australian and Indonesian teachers and students

The World Bank

The World Bank will co-finance the Government’s School Operational Assistance (BOS) program. This program builds on MoNE’s initiatives to better manage its education funding. Through improved information, better monitoring and evaluation, and more streamlined, standardized practices. The BOS program funds important expenditures in the education sector in ways that empower school managers and enhances ownership through schools-based management. At the central level, the new BOS KITA program will help to build government accountability and capacity in order to better monitor, manage and align basic education funding. At the local level, the program will improve governance and accountability, and support districts and schools in their management, operational and technical functions, in line with Indonesia’s decentralization strategy. The program will contribute to raising the awareness of parents and the local community, introducing measures to improve transparency, information flows and decision making, and also support operational improvements to streamline procedures. The sectoral support will additionally seek to strengthen human resource capabilities via improvements to medical/health education in the country.

Unicef

UNICEF’s work in education includes •Strengthening the collection of data on the situation of children in schools, and out of classes, through community-based information systems • Assessing the reasons why many young children do not participate in early childhood development, which limits their success in entering and completing primary classes, and other barriers to primary school enrolment and completion •Improving the skills of school principals, supervisors, and education officials to manage and deliver quality primary education that reaches all children • Engaging communities and local civil society to deliver better quality services for marginalized children, for example through improved school-based management

UNESCO

Major emphasis of UNESCO’S activities was placed in encouraging and supporting reforms in the development of more qualitative, effective and efficient education systems, by assisting people, particularly marginalized groups, coping with the raised widespread poverty, and dealing with social conflicts while competing more effectively in the global market. They have specifically focused our efforts on improving the quality of primary education by removing barriers to participation and learning, as well as experimenting with innovative solutions for the effective and adequate provision of appropriate out-of school education for disadvantaged women, children in difficult circumstances and in poor and remote areas, children with special needs as well as illiterate and unskilled adults.

USAIDUSAID in Indonesia supports initiatives to expand access to quality basic education and improved quality and relevance of higher education. USAID’s goals for education in Indonesia include supporting a decentralized effort for quality and relevant education; building the capacity of institutions to improve management and delivery of education services; and promoting an educated workforce that will advance international investment and stability.

Asian Development Bank (ADB)

Ongoing ADB programs include a broad, integrated reform program for vocational education targeted at making it more market relevant, diversifying training opportunities through more flexible program offerings, and developing multiple pathways to provide a seamless VET system for high school graduates and workers. Reforms have begun at the vocational school level, with a program aimed at turning around vocational schools’ management and operations, making vocational schools more entrepreneurial institutions aligned with local labor market opportunities. A small, linked grant supplements these efforts by helping vocational schools to expand their services by offering short courses serving local workers’ needs. This builds bridges to local industry while generating much-needed income for the schools, and encouraging them to be more responsive to addressing local economic development needs. ADB’s future support will build on established partnerships to support the Government’s Education Sector Strategic Plans, the Higher Education Long-Term Strategy to strengthen education sector planning and management, and reform the higher education system to support implementation of the master plan. Lending support will contribute to (i) an increased role for higher education in driving innovation, including strengthened polytechnic– industry linkages, development of public–private partnerships and increased private financing, and delivery of higher education; (ii) greater connectivity between Indonesian and foreign HEIs through the ACDP; (iii) stronger local government capacities to oversee and deliver education; and (iv) better integration between labor market requirements and supply from the higher and vocational education systems. Assistance will comprise the Polytechnic Development Project and a significant multi-partner technical assistance (TA) program to enhance knowledge and capacity development to strengthen policy setting, management, and oversight of the education system. The ACDP could also provide a vehicle for undertaking research to harmonize the Indonesian and neighboring education systems within the context of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), particularly in areas such as skills standards and higher education.

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Program for Enhancing Quality of Junior Secondary Education: Since 1998, JICA has assisted in the development of models for participatory-type school administration and class research as well as putting the developed models into action at the regency (sub-provincial) level. The focus of the models is improving the capacity of schools so they can independently address the problems they face. This is done by boosting the capacity of those involved in school and local administration such as parents and guardians, community members, educators and principles, and local education administration officials as well as by training educators in how to improve lessons. This has resulted in higher quality school administration and education in the regencies targeted in this program. The aim of this project is to work within these parameters to spread these models throughout Indonesia while strengthening the capacity of central and local education administrations as well as administrations at the individual school level. To that end, JICA provides support for planning and coordination capacity at the central level and master training capacity at the provincial level. The Ministry of National Education of Indonesia is currently establishing one model school for classroom research in each of the country’s 400 provinces. To replicate the models, relationships need to be strengthened, both top-down to pass information from the central administration to the local education and school level, and bottom-up so that feedback on local and school needs and problems can be communicated back up. Lateral relationships also need to be strengthened because cooperation between organizations in the public and religious school systems is deficient at the central, provincial and regency levels. As the Ministry of Religion is in charge of religious schools just as the Ministry of Education is charge of secular schools, JICA is coordinating also with the Ministry of Religion as its local counterpart in providing cooperation to religious schools in Indonesia.

European Comission

The specific objectivesof the cooperation will be to contribute to the government policy/strategy to improve basic education, in particular with reference to (a) governance and management systems, (b) overall quality, (c) planning and budgeting process for education and to upgrade the efficiency of those resources, and (d) performance of teachers.The indicators of the attainment of the objectives are: •Increased levels of education of Indonesian citizens •Increase in number of Indonesians graduating from Junior and Senior High School •Increase in number of university/college graduates •Improved education quality •Increased relevance of education to sustainable development needs •More efficient and effective management of education service provision

Sources:http://www.ausaid.gov.au/countries/eastasia/indonesia/Pages/education.aspxhttp://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/17/000333038_20080917235938/Rendered/PDF/448450REVISED01and0IFC1R20081028113.pdfhttp://www.unicef.org/indonesia/education.htmlhttp://portal.unesco.org/geography/en/ev.php-URL_ID=8146&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html http://www.usaid.gov/where-we-work/asia/indonesia/education http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/cps-ino-2012-2014-ssa-02.pdf http://www.jica.go.jp/indonesia/english/activities/activity07.html http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/where/asia/documents/indonesia_csp_2007-2013_en.pdf

Table 6: Summary of selected International donor's strategies in Indonesia

32    

6. References Directorate General of Higher Education -DGHE (2004). Strategi Pendidikan Tinggi Jangka Panjang 2003-2010 Mewujudkan Perguruan Tinggi Berkualitas. DGHE, Ministry of National Education (MONE).

Fahmi , M. (2007). Indonesian Higher Education: The Chronicle, Recent Development and The New Legal Entity Universities. Padjadjaran University Working papers in Economics and Development, 200710.

Government of Indonesia (2010). Indonesia Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) - National Socioeconomic Household Survey (SUSENAS).

Hanushek, E. and Rivkin, Steven G. (2010): Generalizations about Using Value-Added Measures of Teacher Quality. American Economic Review 100(2).

Hanushek, E.,J.Kain, D.O’Brien, and S.Rivkin (2005). The market for teacher quality. NBER, WP11154.

Hanushek, E. and Rivkin, Steven G. (2006). Teacher quality. In Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Education. Amsterdam: North Holland.

Harris, D. and Sass, T. (2008). Teacher training, teacher quality and student achievement. Journal of public economics, 95(7-8), 798-812.doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.11.009.

Jalal, F.; Samani, M.; Chang, M.; Stevenson. S.; Ragatz, A. and Negara, S. (2009). Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A strategy for teacher quality improvement. World Bank and Ministry of National Education: Jakarta.

Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC) (2012). Regulations of MEC No.1/2012 on Organization and Administration. Jakarta: Ministry of Education and Culture

Ministry of National Education (MONE) (2011). Revision on MONE’s Regulation No.30/2009 on Teachers and Education Personnel Workload. Jakarta: Ministry of National Education.

Republic of Indonesia (2009). Government Regulation No. 41/2009 on Professional Allowance for Teachers and Lecturers, Special Allowance for Teachers and Lecturers, and Allowance of Honor for Professors. Jakarta.

Republic of Indonesia (2008). Government Regulation No. 74/2008 on Teachers. Jakarta.

33    

Republic of Indonesia (2005). Government Regulation No. 19/2005 on National Standards of Education. Jakarta.

Republic of Indonesia (2005). Law No. 14/2005 on Teachers and Lectures. Jakarta.

Republic of Indonesia (2003). Law No. 20/2003 on National Education System. Jakarta.

Triaswati, N. and Roeslan, F. (2003). Senior Secondary Education and Access to Higher Education. JBIC-DGHE, Higher Education Sector Study.

UNESCO (2006). Teachers and Education quality: Monitoring Global needs for 2015.Montreal, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 217p.

Wicaksono, Teguh Y., and Deni Friawan (2008). Recent Developments of Higher Education in Indonesia: Issues and Challenges. In Conference on financing higher education and economic development in East Asia, Bangkok, Thailand.

World Bank (2010). Transforming Indonesia’s Teaching Force. Jakarta, Report No. 53732-ID.

World Bank (2007). Spending for Development: Making the Most of Indonesia's New Opportunities Indonesia Public Expenditure Review. Washington, DC, The World Bank Publication, 200p.

World Bank. (2007). Investing in indonesia’s education: Allocation, equity, and efficiency of Public Expenditures. World Bank Office, Jakarta: Indonesia.

7. Appendix

7.1 The structure of education system in Indonesia

1. Early Education -­‐ Taman Kanak-Kanak/Kindergarten -­‐ Raudatul Athfal -­‐ Kelompok Bermain/Play Group

2. Basic Education (Year 1-6) -­‐ Sekolah Dasar/Primary Education -­‐ Madrasah Ibtidaiyah -­‐ Kelompok Belajar Paket A/Study Group Package A

3. Basic Education (Year 7-9) -­‐ Sekolah Menengah Pertama/Junior Secondary Education -­‐ Madrasah Ibtidaiyah -­‐ Kelompok Belajar Paket B/Study Group Package B

4. Secondary Education (Year 10-12)

34    

-­‐ Sekolah Menengah Atas atau Vokasi/ General or Vocational Secondary Education

-­‐ Madrasah Aliyah -­‐ Kelompok Belajar Paket C/Study Group Package C

5. Tertiary Education -­‐ Academy (Vocational: D-1 to D-3 on one specific area such as, AP

(Nursing), ABA (language), Akpol (police), Tax, Economics, Teaching, Technology)

-­‐ Institute (S-1 to S-3 degree on several areas of one kind: S-1 IAIN (agama Islam), IIP (politik),

-­‐ Polytechnics (Vocational on D1 to D-3 such Engineering, Economics, -­‐ Higher School (S-1 to S-3 degree on one specific area: STKIP (Teaching),

STIKOM (computer) STIPOL (politics), STIBA (language) -­‐ University (D1-D4 / S-1, S-2, S-3)