SYllabus Approaches Implemented in the Textbooks

M. Ghuma

SADA AL-MARIFA JOURNAL JUNE 2014 1ST

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Syllabus Approaches Implemented in Libyan Secondary School

English Textbooks

ABSTRACT

Textbooks constitute the corner stone of a school curriculum programme. They are selected on basis of certain methods and views about language, learning and teaching. Very few, if any, of these ideas are communicated to teachers. The knowledge and awareness of textbooks bases and imbedded approaches may help teachers not to let down the theoretical foundations.

The present paper is an attempt to analyse secondary school English course textbooks and link them to the views expressed by academics in the field. Qualitative methodology has been used to find about these views. A systematic framework developed by Littlejohn (2011) has been used to analyse the secondary school textbooks of English.

It has been noticed that these textbooks are based on a mixture of structural, functional, topic, situational and skill- oriented approaches. In addition, they employ synthetic and analytic views, which imply that they are following an eclectic approach. Providing some footnotes at the beginning of each lesson can raise teachers’ awareness of the theoretical foundations that imbedded in the textbook.

These findings may help the teachers, inspectors, and academics use the appropriate methodology, emphasise the appropriate issues and locate enough time for language teaching.

Keywords: textbook, syllabus, materials, analysis

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INTRODUCTION

Textbook analysis and evaluation procedures have been used by many researchers to find out about implied issues such as sexes representation (Ansary and Babii 2003, McGrath 2004, Blumberg 2007), cultural bias (Ndur 2004), awareness about the environment (Haig 2006), and stimulating consumption (Sokolik 2007) (See Littlejohn, 2011, p. 182). This research is to describe and analyse the English language textbooks used in Libyan secondary schools to find out the bases and types of syllabuses involved in them. This aim leads to the following research question: what syllabus approaches/ types are employed in the English language textbooks used in Libyan secondary schools?

Because there are no relations between variables presented in this study or numbers, and the main concern is the views and implications introduced in the textbooks, the methodology used will be qualitative. An interpretive approach will be followed. Interpretivism and qualitative methodology are usually criticized of being subjective. To avoid and minimize the effect of subjectivity, the analysis will be controlled by using a clear and systematic framework developed by Littlejohn 2011. The features of the different types of syllabus presented in literature will guide the analysis and results.

The first section of this paper will describe the types, the underlying views, and organization of syllabus. The following section accounts for the context of the study. The penultimate section describes the framework used, the data collected and the results. The final section highlights the conclusions and recommendations.

This paper may be helpful for researchers, teachers, materials designers, educational administrators and may be learners in that to raise their awareness and take the appropriate decisions about textbook materials.

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1. LITERATURE REVIEW

Language teaching programs consist of three parts: an input, a process and an output. These components together are called the curriculum. In language teaching domain the input is the concern of syllabus, the process is about methodology, and the output involves evaluation. When implementing a curriculum some prefer starting with syllabus planning, moving to methodology, and then assessing learning outcomes. Others begin with classroom processes and methodology whereas concerns and details of syllabus and learning outcomes are addressed later. Some designers start with the details of learning outcomes and decisions about the issues of syllabus and methodology that are based on these learning aims (Richards, 2010, p. 5).

Whatever the starting point, syllabus has a role in any language-teaching programme. In some regions, the term “syllabus” means the same as “curriculum”. In the UK for instance, curriculum is something different from syllabus. Nunan (1993, p. 8) assigns “… planning, implementation, evaluation management, and administration of education programs” to curriculum and attributes “the selection and ordering of what is to be taught” to the syllabus.

In addition to the selection and ordering of the material, designing a syllabus involves suggesting some relevant strategies for presenting this content and evaluating it (Brown, 1995, p. 141). Objectives and beliefs about language and learning are the start point of any syllabus. To achieve these aims teaching content and learning experience are employed. Eventually, the success of the ambitions is assessed through some evaluation techniques. Because of the different views and beliefs, many kinds of syllabuses emerged.

1.1. TYPES OF SYLLABUSES

The type of the syllabus employed in a language-learning course is the result of predetermined objectives that reflect views of language and the views

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of learning. Syllabuses can be classified into two major categories: according to learner’s role and according to their core concern.

1.1.1. SYLLABUSES ACCORDING TO LEARNER’S

ROLE

When thinking of how learners process the material provided, syllabuses can be viewed as synthetic or analytic i.e. the learner respectively links the parts provided or analyses the whole presented.

Synthetic syllabuses

Synthetic language teaching means teaching the language gradually and systematically. This gradual language presentation later provides a unified body of language (Nunan, 1993, p. 28). In a synthetic syllabus the “Different parts of language are taught separately and step by step so that acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of parts until the whole structure of language has been built up…” (Wilkins, 1976, p. 2). Under this belief, language learning is viewed as a process of addition of linguistic rules and items to master the target language and learners are assumed to learn language in parts which they will incorporate later to achieve communicative purposes.

In a synthetic syllabus design, the units of organisation usually are structures, vocabulary, notions, functions, and sometimes situations and topics. Though their organisation is clear and manageable, such syllabuses are criticised for their linguistic grading which is not supported by language theory (Long & Robinson, 1998; Long & Crookes, 1992, 1993).

Analytic syllabuses

On the other hand, in an analytic language syllabus the language items are not presented in a separate way but as chunks of language in the context of

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a meaning-oriented lesson. These chunks may present different structures at a time. The aim of such syllabuses is establishing communication (Nunan, 1993, p. 28). Wilkins (1976, p. 13) points out that synthetic syllabuses“… are organised in terms of the purposes for which people are learning language and the kinds of language performance that are necessary to meet those purposes”. Learner’s role is to perceive regularities in the input and induce rules. Such a view of syllabus design can be clearly seen in procedural, process, and task syllabuses.

1.1.2. SYLLABUSES ACCORDING TO POINT OF

DEPARTURE

Some syllabus designers use the type of language content as the starting point to their syllabus. Other designers are preoccupied with the manner in which the content is presented. What the learners will acquire at the end of applying a syllabus is also used as basis to syllabus design (Dubin & Olshtain, 1997).

Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 80) describe syllabus as “a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt.” This view considers syllabus as a product. On the other hand, Yalden (1987, p. 87) defines syllabus as a “summary of the content to which learners will be exposed." This is another interpretation and view of syllabus. Therefore, one can notice that there are different approaches and views toward syllabus, which have led to different classifications of syllabuses. Nunan (1993, p. 27) realizes that syllabuses can be classified either as product-oriented or process-oriented. Jordan (1997, pp. 60-63) classifies syllabuses as product syllabuses, process syllabuses and skill oriented syllabuses. Product-oriented syllabuses are those syllabuses, which are concerned with what the learners will gain at the end of the course i.e. the final product. This product can be realized as knowledge such as learning grammatical rules, using language to achieve certain functions, the ability to talk

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about some notions. The final product can also be realized as skills. On the other hand, the process-oriented syllabuses are concerned with the manner in which the content is presented, which is usually based on language and learning theories.

Product-oriented syllabuses:

These syllabuses are concerned with the result and the outcome of the instruction process. Some of these syllabuses hope that the learners acquire certain skills; others hope that the learners grasp the knowledge provided for them. Product-oriented syllabuses can focus on grammatical issues, notions, or functions. All these issues can act as bases for the final product aimed at. According to the final product, we can find many kinds of product-oriented syllabuses.

Structural syllabus

This syllabus focuses on grammatical features such as nouns, verbs, clauses, and phrases and phonological structures such as sounds and syllables. These features and structures are used as bases for organising and sequencing the material. The selection and grading of the content is based on the complexity and simplicity of the structure, i.e. simple structures are presented first and then the more complex ones. Learners are expected to master them gradually. Each grammatical or phonological item can be mastered on its own and then learners are expected to incorporate and use them for communicative purposes.

These syllabuses are criticized for their misrepresentation of language. Language is something more than components and rules (Nunan, 1993). Syllabuses’ concern should be raising learners’ awareness to the way these rules are used in larger discourse, rather than memorising them.

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Functional and notional syllabuses

Functional syllabuses are concerned with using the language to accomplish some purposes: such as introducing one’s self, seeking and providing information, agreeing, apologizing. On the other hand, language in notional syllabuses is centred about some ideas and concepts such as quantity, duration, location, time, size, age, and colour. Thus, functions and notions act as the units of organizing and sequencing of the material. These functions and notions are presented and organised according to their usefulness. Presenting both the functions and notions together led to the development of what so called functional-notional syllabuses.

Functional-notional syllabuses have appeared as an attempt to provide a valuable alternative to grammatical syllabuses, (Ibid). Functional-notional syllabuses focus on the semantic aspect of language. The content is a collection of functions, which are performed by the language, and/or of the notions that are expressed through language. These syllabuses stress and use processes that are expected to result in communication such as problem-solving activities, obtaining information activities, interacting with people.

Situational syllabuses

The primary concern of situational syllabuses is teaching language, which is needed for certain situations, and the importance of these situations control the sequence of their presentation, which can have different alternatives. A list of various situations forms the core of this syllabus. These situations can be either imaginary or real ones such as opening a bank account, seeking admission at school, placing an order at a restaurant, shopping at the supermarket. The language required for these situations is analysed and presented in the syllabus.

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Topic-based syllabuses

In this type, the material is relevant to a certain topic or theme. Learners practise the language used, the relevant vocabulary, and grammatical structures, which are needed for the topic (Jordan, 1997, pp. 5-7). The target topics or themes are organised according to the likelihood that the students may encounter them later in their daily life.

Content-based syllabuses

Content-based language teaching is mostly concerned with information, which is usually relevant to students’ specialist studies. These syllabuses aim to help the students study their subjects and getting them acquainted with the linguistic conventions and procedures used in their field of specialization (Ibid).

Skill-based syllabuses

Such syllabuses aim at providing the learners with the skills that they need to be competent language users. In a skill-based syllabus, the linguistic elements such as sounds, words, and structures are integrated and presented together under listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. These macro skills can be broken down into micro ones such as summarising. The skills are sequenced chronologically or by their expected usefulness.

1.1.3. Method/Process-oriented syllabuses

These syllabuses are concerned with answering the questions: “who does what, with whom, on what subject matter, with what resources, when, how, and for what learning purpose(s)?” (quoted in Jordan 1997, p.62). The emphasis here is on the specification of learning tasks and activities that the learner will undertake during the course, and how these tasks are presented in the syllabus. Because the material represents real world language, which is not separated

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from the context, the selection, ordering and grading of content is not significant for the syllabus designer.

The most well-known type of these syllabuses is the task-based syllabus. In this type, the content consists of tasks, which the learners need to perform using the language they learn. These tasks can be applying for a job, getting housing information by the telephone, drawing maps, following directions or instructions. Language skills are integrated into these tasks i.e. the learners will need the four language skills to perform these tasks: some of these tasks require listening; others require writing and so on. The tasks aim at developing target language abilities. Language learning is subordinate to task achievement: to complete the tasks, the learners have to draw from resources. Thus, the learners are forced to learn the language to complete the tasks. The tasks and activities aim at encouraging the learners to use the language communicatively. Tasks therefore should serve this aim.

1.2. SYLLABUS SEQUENCE

The material presented in a syllabus needs to be organized and sequenced in an appropriate order. Dubin and Olshtain (1997, p. 51) provide five possible formats used in organizing language syllabuses. These are as follows:

1.2.1. THE LINEAR FORMAT

In this format, the content is arranged according to pedagogical and linguistic criteria such as presenting words, sentences and then paragraphs depending on the view that language is organised into many different levels. The teachers cannot alter this order and format; instead, they should stick to what is provided for them. In other words, this format is not flexible.

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1.2.2. THE MODULAR FORMAT

This format aims at providing flexibility. This flexibility can be achieved when the content is centred on themes and situations. Each module consists of a sequence of skill-building tasks.

1.2.3. THE CYCLICAL FORMAT

In this format, the same topic is passed over repeatedly, and other complicated issues appear each time. English in situations [presented by O’Neill 1970] reintroduces the same grammatical topic in parts A, B and C, but in a different way when it is introduces each time (Dubin & Olshtain, 1997, p. 51).

1.2.4. THE MATRIX FORMAT

It enables the users to select topics from a table of contents. It provides the learners and the teachers with a more flexible format. Situational content is an ideal one to be presented using this format.

1.2.5. THE STORY-LINE FORMAT

Coherence in a syllabus can be performed through using the story-line format. Wilkins suggests that the introduction of a story-line might “have the effect of insuring thematic continuity and of helping to resolve questions of ordering of categories in relation to one another” quoted in (Dubin & Olshtain, 1997, p. 61). For example, an effective English syllabus for Accounting students should corporate features in situations that fulfil communicative functions that may help the learners perform their career-tasks efficiently.

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2. LIBYAN CONTEXT

2.1. TEACHER

Most Libyan teachers have high educational qualification. Teachers are equipped with textbooks which are provided by the educational authorities. Teachers’ work is monitored by educational inspectors who are supposed to visit the teachers at least three times a year. During these visits, various problems are discussed. Teachers are also responsible for evaluating students' progress during the academic year.

2.2. TEXTBOOK

Teachers are required to use the textbooks provided by educational authorities. English textbooks for each year are a set of a course book, a workbook and a set of cassettes or CDs. The course book is the core of the course because the workbook and audio material are used to support and practise what is presented in the course one. Teachers are also provided with a teachers’ guidebook. This book is the reference used by the teacher. It provides the teacher with the necessary steps that he/ she should follow, and with key answers of the exercises. The workbook provides the chance for the students to practise what they have learned in the course book.

3. FIRST AND SECOND ENGLISH COURSE TEXTBOOKS

ANALYSIS IN RELATION TO THE LITERATURE REVIEWED

Textbook analysis is different from textbook evaluation. Whereas textbook evaluation needs to be connected to the context, textbook analysis does not need to.

There are many aspects, which a researcher can examine in a set of the materials presented in textbooks such as religion, culture, beliefs, or politics. All aspects are important to the extent that they serve the purpose of the research; the purpose decides what aspects of the material should be examined. If a

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researcher is looking for culture, gender, beliefs, or society, his/ her target elements of the material will be different. In this research, the concern is on the material as a pedagogic device that is used to teach a foreign language. The secondary school textbooks will be analysed to deduce what kind of syllabuses are imbedded there.

The textbook analysis used in this paper followed a framework suggested by Littlejohn (2011). This framework is based on the works of Breen and Candlin 1987, and Richards and Rodgers 2001 (Littlejohn, 2011, p. 182). Breen and Candlin’s model was developed to describe and investigate the physical presence of the material on the page such as place of publication, sections, and pages. The second model was developed to investigate issues related to the textbook other than the material itself such as the principles of selection and the sequencing of the material, learners and teachers’ roles, and the types of activities. This framework is used to conduct a systematic analysis of what is actually contained in the textbook. Littlejohn’s framework follows three stages/ levels of analysis (Ibid, p. 183).

The first level is concerned with the objective nature of materials presented into the textbook. This kind of information is about the concrete or explicit elements such as the physical aspects: published form, number of pages, use of colour, and the total number of components in a complete set. It is also about how the material is divided and accessed, how its various parts are distributed between the teacher and the learner, and how it is introduced in the classroom. Because it depends on the explicit nature of the materials, it is considered objective and there will be no controversy or disagreement among different researchers when describing the same materials.

The second level is concerned with analysing the tasks which are implemented in the materials for both the learners and the teachers. Through these tasks the researchers need to find out what the learner is expected to do, with whom, what content he/ she will use, and who determines these activities.

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Within these tasks, the analyst needs to find out the processes, classroom participation and the type of input and output. This level is considered more abstract than the previous one, and some subjectivity surfaces here.

Level three builds upon the first two levels. It is the most abstract level, and subjectivity of the researchers can be clearly seen. At this level, the researcher tries to deduce the implications of what found in the material being investigated on basis of the previous levels of analysis. Depending on the aims of the research, these implications can be the aims of the materials, principles of selection and sequencing, the teacher and learner’s roles, the demands on the learners, or the role of material in language learning (Ibid, p. 186-197).

Following the first level procedure, the two books will be described, and a schedule (see the appendix) has been used to describe them. The first year secondary school course book consists of eight units. Each unit has its own title. Six of them deal with certain topics such as Global Village, City Life vs. Country Life, Sports and Culture. The third and seventh units are about situations namely Emergency, and What a mess! The units are divided into sections: reading, vocabulary, grammar, speaking, writing, listening, and pronunciation. On the other hand second year secondary school course book consists of eight units. Each unit has its own title, which is about a certain topic such as Stories, Dilemmas, Changes, and Experiments. These units are divided a little bit differently from the first year textbook; pronunciation is not included and a new section called “Specialisation” is provided.

The second level of analysis is about looking at the tasks presented in these textbooks. A schedule has been used for each of the books (see the appendix).There is a variety of tasks presented in the two textbooks. Some of these tasks require the learner to have a role within the task. Sometimes these roles are based on some kind of information, which is in the form of pictures graphs or texts, presented to help the student. Such tasks can take the form of discussion or negotiation. In these tasks, the concern is usually about meaning

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and form. Discussion and negotiation tasks are done with a partner or in groups, and are achieved through the verbal form. Some tasks require the learner to proceed with some kind of mental processes such as hypothesising, deduction or just repeating what is presented in the tasks. Depending on the kind of the task the form of the input and output can be words, sentences or paragraphs and in the form of spoken, written or both.

The third level of analysis is devoted to the implication of what is presented in the previous levels. The concern of this paper is about the design of the textbooks so the implications of what has been found in the levels I and II form the subject matter to work at this level.

The first year titles reflect the topic oriented syllabus but the content-based syllabus is reflected through the titles of the units of the second year textbook. The content of both textbooks is centred on themes and situations and each of their units contains a sequence of skill-building tasks. It can be noticed that they follow a flexible module; missing a lesson will not interrupt the learning process; this reflects modular format sequencing.

Reading tasks in the first year textbook targets developing some tiny skills in reading such as reading for gist and detail, scanning, comparing and extracting information, and interacting with a text. These concerns imply the skill-based syllabus. In the second year reading section the main concern is exposing the learners to different text types such as narratives, informative articles, philosophical, political and personal dilemmas texts, extracts from encyclopaedia, and texts about scientific experiments. These text types imply a topic oriented syllabus.

Vocabulary sections in the first year textbook tackle words relevant to topics and notions such as Telecommunication, Time, Countries and nationalities; types of ships and boats. Vocabulary in the second year textbook

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is about notions such as dimensions of objects and volumes. Some of the vocabularies presented in both textbooks are grammar oriented such as pronouns, phrasal verbs, collocations, prepositional phrases.

In both textbooks, speaking section deals with functions. These functions are such as telling a story, describing an accident, making arrangements, planning a trip or purpose, apologising, and describing situations. It implies a skill and functional oriented syllabus.

Writing section within first year textbook introduces many functions that are relevant to certain types of writing. These functions are telling a story within an informal letter, describing an accident in a report, explaining causes and effects under an expository text. The second year textbook emphasises some writing skills such as writing paragraphs with topic sentences; supporting opinions; summary writing and writing a report.

Listening section, in first year textbook, accounts for functions, which are geared toward describing events, following stories, understanding outcomes, and listening to take notes. Listening section in the second year textbook is mainly to develop some listening skills such as predicting the topic, highlighting the key events and information, identifying falling intonation. It also target satisfying some functions such as listening to complete notes, and to a conference setting. It reflects a skill and functional syllabus.

Grammar section in both textbooks is self-explanatory. It is structural oriented in that it addresses morphological and syntactic items such as present perfect, will, wont, may, conditionals, clauses with where when and what, and reporting statements.

Pronunciation section, which is only presented in the first year textbook, is concerned with the pronunciation of English consonant and vowel sounds; which implies that it is skill oriented.

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4. CONCLUSION

After applying the mentioned framework to the data collected from the two textbooks, many points have been found. In the first year textbook, the titles of the units are about topics. Reading section and pronunciation section are concerned with developing some perceptive and productive skills. Vocabulary items are geared toward some topics and notions but writing and listening sections are concerned with achieving some functions.

In second year textbook, the units’ titles are relevant to certain fields i.e. content oriented. Reading is similar to first year textbook in that it is topic oriented. Vocabulary section in the second year textbook is concerned with notions. In both textbooks, this section also concerned with highlighting some prominent grammatical items. Though writing section and listening section are meant to develop some relevant skills, the listening section also addresses some functions.

Speaking section and grammar section in both textbook are similar; the speaking one is about achieving some functions, and the grammar part is structure oriented. These two textbooks tackle skills, topics and situations; this organisation reflects the modular format.

The researcher can conclude that the two textbooks follow an eclectic approach i.e. they merge different types of syllabuses and approaches. Their organisation follows the modular-format.

Although the textbooks follow the modular format, which is characterised by flexibility and may not affect skipping some aspects, using an eclectic approach in developing these textbooks requires teachers to emphasise each of the textbook components. Skills, topics, situations, functions and structures are important and should not be ignored. Using the modular format in these books suggest that the teachers can alter the order of presenting the materials in a way that suit their students

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Such hidden implications need to be introduced to the teachers; such a step may raise their awareness and help them understand more what they are presenting for their learners.

Further research can be conducted to find out about teachers’ awareness of these invisible principles. This research can be replicated to other textbooks to fulfil the same aim or to uncover other implications and goals.

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APPENDIX Sample of Level I schedule

Issue described Book 1 Book 2

Publication date

Target learners/ level

Pages

Units

Skills

Sample of Level II schedule for each of the books

Process Classroom participation Form of input and output

Turn take Focus Mental Process Alone Pair Group Form Quantity Source Nature

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5. REFERENCES

Blumberg, R. L. 2007, Gender Bias in Textbooks: A Hidden Obstacle on the Road to Gender Equality in Education. Paris: UNESCO.

Breen, M. (1984), Process Syllabus for the Language Classroom. In C. J. Brumfit (Ed.), General English Syllabus Design Elt Document (pp. 47-60). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Breen, M. P. and C. N. Candlin. 1987, ‘which materials?: a consumer’s and designer’s guide’. In L. E. Sheldon (ed.), ELT textbooks and Materials: Problems in Evaluation and Development. ELT Documents 126. London: Modern English Publications and The British Council.

Brown, J. D. (1995), The Elements of Language Curriculum. New York: Heinle & Heinle.

Curricula and Research Centre, (2013), English for Libya Secondary 1. Libya: Sharikit Altatweer Liltbaa Wa Alnashir Wa Altawzeeia Almahdouda.

Curricula and Research Centre, (2013), English for Libya Secondary 2. Libya: Sharikit Altatweer Liltbaa Wa Alnashir Wa Altawzeeia Almahdouda.

Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1997), Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Haig, E. 2006, ‘How green are your textbooks? Applying an ecological critical language awareness pedagogy in the EFL classroom’. In S. Mayer and G. Wilson (eds.), Ecodidactic Perspectives On English Language, Literature And Cultures, Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlang, pp 23-44.

Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987), English for Specific Purposes: A Learning-Centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jordan, R. R. (1997), English for Academic Purposes: A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Littlejohn, A. (2011), The Analysis of Language Teaching Materials: inside the Trojan Horse. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Materials Development in Language Teaching (2 ed., pp. 179-211). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Long, M., & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on Form: Theory, Research, and Practice. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on Form Instruction in Classroom Second Language Acquisition (pp. 15-63). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Long, M. H., & Crookes, G. (1992). Three Approaches to Task-Based Syllabus Design. TESOL Quarterly, I (26), 28.

Long, M. H., & Crookes, G. (1993). Units of Analysis in Syllabus Design: The Case for the Task. In G. Crookes & S. M. Gass (Eds.), Tasks in a Pedagogical Context. Cleveland, UK: Multilingual Matters.

McGrath, I. 2002. Materials Evaluation and Design for Language Teaching. Edinburgh University Press.

Ndura, E. 2004.’ESL and cultural bias: an analysis of elementry through high school textbooks in the westren United States of America’. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 17(2): 143-53.

Nunan, D. (1993), Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Richards, J. C. (2010), Curriculum Approaches in Language Teaching:

Forward, Central, and Backward Design. RELC Journal, I (44), 28.

Sokolik, M.E. 2007, ‘Grammar Texts and Consumerist Subtexts’TESL-EJ, 11(2). Retrieved 10 November 2009 from http://tesl-ej.org/ej42/a6.html Wilkins, D. A. (1976), Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Yalden, J. (1987), Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

SYllabus Approaches Implemented in the Textbooks

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