Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

November 13, 2014

Chapter 10- Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

November 13, 2014

Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity

• Humans have disturbed ~83% of earth's land surface.> Filling in wetlands> Converting grasslands and forests to crop fields

and urban areas

November 13, 2014

Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity

• United States: 95% of virgin forests (48 lower states) logged for lumber, agriculture, housing, industry.

• 98% tallgrass prairie Midwest and great plains gone• 99% CA grasslands and 85% redwood forest gone

http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/deforest/deforest.html

November 13, 2014

Value of Biodiversity

• Intrinsic value: value because they exist, regardless of use to us (ethical)

• Instrumental value: usefulness to us in form of economic and ecological services (usefulness)

November 13, 2014


• Instrumental value: usefulness to us in form of economic and ecological services (usefulness)> Use value

– economic services and goods« jobs« products« recreation/tourism« food, medicine, drugs« scientific information

– ecological services-function and structure of ecosystems

« pest control« diversity for adaptation

November 13, 2014


• Instrumental value: usefulness to us in form of economic and ecological services (usefulness)> Nonuse value: value people assign to goods even

if they never have and never will use it– existence value: benefit people receive from

knowing something exists.– aesthetic value: appreciation for nature– bequest value: value placed in individuals willing

to pay to preserve or protect forms of natural capital for future use.

November 13, 2014

Outline for Chapter:• Forests• Grasslands• Solutions

> National Parks> Nature Reserves> Ecological Restoration

November 13, 2014

Natural Capital: Forests

• Ecological services> Earth's ecological services: $33.2 trillion> Forest ecological services: $4.7 trillion> Canada's boreal forest eco services: $3.7 trillion

– 2.5 x value of harvesting timber, mining hydroelectric power

• Economic services> Immediate, benefits small group of people who

have motivation and means to develop> Government subsidies + tax incentives support

degradation of ecosystems

November 13, 2014

Types of forests

• Old-growth forest (22%): Uncut or regenerated forest, not seriously disturbed for several hundred years > Lots of biodiversity: many niches

• Second-growth forest (63%): result of secondary ecological succession after removal by human activity or natural disaster

• Tree plantation/tree farm (5%, produce 25% commercial wood): Monoculture> Can meet need for wood, help reduce soil erosion,

slow global warming if established on deforested land. Protect old-growth forests.

November 13, 2014

Deforestation

• Estimated 50% of forest cover reduced by human activities in last 8000 years.

• If current rate continues, 40% of remaining forests will be logged or converted with in 2 decades.

November 13, 2014

Deforestation and Fuelwood Crisis

• ~1/2 of wood (3/4 in developing countries) is used for fuel + charcoal> Unsustainable cutting of trees, expanding rings of

deforested land> Soil erosion, leads to decreased ability to grow

crops> Degrade environment

• Cutting trees 10-20x faster than new trees being planted

Haiti• Poverty• Disease• Social injustice• Crime and

violence

Dominican Republic

November 13, 2014

Deforestation and Fuelwood Crisis: Solutions?

• Plant fast-growing fuelwood trees and shrubs> Community forestry: farmers and villagers plan,

implement and own > Tree plantation can also supply nuts (nutrients)

• Burn wood more efficiently> stoves> solar ovens> electric hotplates (wind-generated electricity)

• Reforestation

November 13, 2014

Harvesting Trees

• First build roads> Erosion/sediment runoff> Habitat fragmentation> Biodiversity loss> Expose to nonnative species> Increase access for degradation

November 13, 2014

Harvesting Trees

• Selective cutting: cut only mature or intermediate-aged trees> reduces crowding> removes diseased trees> encourage growth of younger trees> creaming: removing all of the largest trees

– significantly reduces biodiversity• Clear-cutting: cut all of the trees

> practiced with species that grow best in full or moderate sunlight

• Strip-cutting> Clear-cut a strip of trees, leave a corridor for

natural regeneration

November 13, 2014

• cutting has not exceeded long-term forest regeneration

• roads and harvesting not causing unreasonable ecological damage

• soils not damaged• downed wood (boles) and standing dead tress

(snags) are left to provide habitat• good employer/steward of land and water

Solutions to Deforestation: Managing Forests More Sustainably

• Emphasize economic value of their ecological services• Sustainable harvest• Protect old-growth and vulnerable areas• Sustainably grown timber

> Collins Pine> Selective cutting> Scientific Certification System (Forest Stewardship

Council)

November 13, 2014

Solutions to Deforestation: Managing Forests More Sustainably

• Qualifications for FSC certification> cutting has not exceeded long-term forest

regeneration> roads and harvesting not causing unreasonable

ecological damage> soils not damaged> downed wood (boles) and standing dead tress

(snags) are left to provide habitat> good employer/steward of land and water

November 13, 2014

Forest Resources and Management in the US

• Good News:> Forest covers 30% of US land

– Habitat for 80% wildlife– Provide 2/3 of total surface water

> Forest cover more of US than since 1920– Second-growth forest

> More wood grown than cut– 40% forests protected, mostly by National Forest

System (USFS)

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=76697

Above Ground Woody Biomass

November 13, 2014

Forest Resources and Management in the US

• Bad News:> Since mid-1960s increasing area of old-growth and

second-growth forests cut down– Replaced with tree farms– reduces forest biodiversity– disrupts nutrient cycling and energy flow

November 13, 2014

Forest Fires1. Surface Fires• Burns undergrowth and leaf litter

> Remove flammable ground material, prevent larger fires

> Release mineral nutrients (speed up decomposition)

> Release seeds and stimulate germination> Control pathogens/insects> Maintain habitats (deer, moose, elk, muskrat,

woodcock, quail)• Mature trees survive• Allows wildlife to escape

November 13, 2014

Forest Fires2. Crown Fires• Hot!• Burns whole trees• leaps from treetop to treetop• Lots of flammable material accumulated• Damaging

> destroys a lot of vegetation, including mature trees> kill wildlife> increase soil erosion> damage human structures

Jones, D.. dsc01598.jpg. 10/26/03. Pics4Learning. 23 Nov 2013 <http://pics.tech4learning.com>

November 13, 2014

Forest Fires3. Ground Fires• Surface fire goes underground, burns decayed leaves/

peat• Smolder, difficult to detect and extinguish

November 13, 2014

Controversy of Fire Management

• Not all forest fires are bad• Severe fires can threaten 40% of all federal forest land

> fuel buildup from fire protection programs> slash-debris left behind by logging> public use of federal forest lands

http://www.wvmcconnell.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/logging-slash.jpg

November 13, 2014

Controversy over Fire Management

Solutions?• Prescribed fires: Set small, contained fires• Goats• Allow fires in public lands to burn• Protect houses by clearing out fire-prone areas

In this Wednesday, June 19, 2013,photo, a goat grazes on a patch of San Francisco International Airport land in San Francisco.(Photo: Jeff Chiu, AP)

November 13, 2014

Healthy Forest Restoration Act

• Cut down large-medium size trees in 71% of national forests in return for clearing fire-prone trees and underbrush

• Will it work?> Scientists think it will increase chance of severe

forest fires> Removing most fire-resistant trees> Leave behind slash

Suggestions:• Leave large/medium trees, reduce ground-level fuel• Allow communities that are vulnerable to wildfires create

buffer

November 13, 2014

Logging in the US

• Conflict of interest> Timber companies

– Profit> Environmental scientists

– Biodiversity– Water resources– Ecological services– Recreation

November 13, 2014

Logging in the US

• US Forest Service's timber-cutting program loses money> High cost of road building, sale prep, admin,

overhead cost> Government subsidies keeps it going> Estimated loss of $6.7 billion between 1997-2004

• Estimated that recreation, hunting, fishing add 10 times more $ to economy + jobs than timber

So why does logging exist?

November 13, 2014

Reducing demand for harvested

1. Improve efficiency of wood use> 60% in US wasted> construction, packaging, junk mail, inadequate

recycling, inadequate reuse of wooden shipping containers

2. Make paper by using fiber not from trees> rice straw, agricultural waste, kenaf

November 13, 2014

US Forests in Globalized Economy

• Timber and pulpwood produced rapidly in tree plantations in temperate and tropical regions in S. hemisphere.

• US likely to play decreasing role in global production of wood-based products> Good? Decrease pressure to cut down old-growth

and second-growth forests> Bad? Private owners have no interest in

maintaining forest that doesn't make $$. – Less incentive for government and private

owners to manage and restore forests

November 13, 2014

Tropical Deforestation

• Tropical rainforest covers 6% land area (1/2 of original)• 50% of world's terrestrial species (plants + animals)

live in tropical rain forest> Specialized niche> highly vulnerable to extinction> Deforestation for cattle ranching + crops

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Deforestation/Images/amazon_soil.jpg

Is deforestation for agriculture a smart idea?

Brazil (Amazon Rain Forest) 1975 and 2001

November 13, 2014

Tropical DeforestationBrazil• 40% world's rain forest, 30% terrestrial species• 1970: 1% deforested• 2005: 16% deforested• 2004: Rate of 11 football fields/minute• Burning of Amazon rain forest accounts for 3/4 of

Brazil's greenhouse gas emission

NASA astronaut photograph ISS024-E-11941, courtesy the NASA-JSC Earth Observations Lab.

Causes of deforestation:• highways/roads• urbanization• dams and

reservoirs• Clearing land for

range/crops

November 13, 2014

Tropical Deforestation: What are we losing?

• Biodiversity (450 different tree species in 2 suburban house lots)

• Ecological services• Economic services

> Medicine: 80% of people rely on traditional medicines derived from natural plants, blueprint for drugs

• Difficult to estimate exact loss because of reporting

November 13, 2014

Tropical Deforestation: What are we losing?

• Blueprint for drugsWillow and Aspirin

Pacific Yew and Paclitaxel (chemotherapy)

November 13, 2014

*Destroy land and then move on to destroy more land.

Causes of Tropical Deforestation

• Primary (root cause)> Population growth> Poverty: Subsistence farmers and landless poor use

forest to grow food> Government policies: subsidies reduce cost of timber

harvest and cattle grazing> Not valuing ecological services> Exports: International agencies encourage borrowing

to finance projects• Secondary (actions resulting)

> Roads> Logging --> Cattle ranging --> settlers/Crops> Mining> Oil drilling> Dams (flood areas of forest)> Burning

November 13, 2014

Consequences for Tropical Deforestation

• Savannization: converting deforested areas into tropical grasslands

• Changing weather patterns: raising temperatures, decreased rainfall

November 13, 2014

Solutions to Tropical Degradation

• Small-scale sustainable agriculture and forestry> Green Belt Movement: Pay women to plant trees

• Sustainably harvest renewable resources from forest: nuts, fruits

• Strip-cutting• Debt-for-nature swaps

> Country gets foreign aid or debt relief for protecting forest

• Conservation concession> Agree to protect resources, compensated by

conservationists or other investors• Logging strategies• Reforest and rehabilitate areas• Reduce illegal logging

November 13, 2014

Grasslands

• Ecological services of grasslands:> Soil formation> Erosion control> Nutrient cycling> Atmospheric C sequestration> Gene pool for grain crops> Maintain biodiversity> Habitat

• 2nd most altered/used by human activities• Rangelands: unfenced grasslands for grazing and

browsing• Pastures: managed grasslands or enclosed meadows,

planted with domesticated grasses or other forage

November 13, 2014

Grass biology

• Grasses grow from the base not the tip!• Grass is a renewable resource• Moderate levels of grazing are healthy: grazing

stimulates growth and encourages greater plant diversity

http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/natres/06108.html

November 13, 2014

Overgrazing

• Overgrazing: too many animals graze for too long, exceeds carrying capacity

• Consequence of overgrazing> Reduces grass cover> Increases erosion (wind and water)> Enhances invasion by other grasses (reduced

competition, not eaten by animals)• Reduced US coverage from 50% in SW to 20%• Consequences of Undergrazing

> Reduce NPP

November 13, 2014

Grassland Management

• Control # of grazing animals + duration of grazing• Rotational grazing: use portable fencing to confine

cattle and then move them around> protect riparian zones (lush areas around streams/

rivers)• Creep grazing: Allow calves/lambs access to different

areas using electric fences• Mixed grazing: Different animals eat different

vegetation• Provide supplemental feed + water

November 13, 2014

Grassland Management

• Suppress growth of unwanted invader plants (expensive)> Herbicides> Burning> Mechanical removal> Tramping

• Replant/fertilizer for native grass (expensive)

November 13, 2014

Grazing and Urban Development in the American West

• Since 1980, increasing development in south west (ranch country) for housing developments, condos, and "ranchettes" from former ranch land> Outward sprawl from cities and towns

• Need for controlled urban development to maintain grasslands and habitats

• Identify areas for:> sustainable grazing> sustainable urban development> neither

• *Conservation easement*: Bars future owners from developing the land

November 13, 2014

National Parks-are they the solution?

• Only 1% of national parks in developing countries receive protection: Not enough $ and people

• Parks invaded by local people looking for resources for survival> loggers, miners, poachers, farmers

http://gdb.voanews.com/B6396C6C-B89D-4DE9-9A67-D75DE6C3A1F0_w268.jpg

November 13, 2014

National Parks

• Most national parks are too small to sustain large-animal species> Fragmentation of habitat

• Invasion by nonnative species

http://www.nps.gov/seki/planyourvisit/nearbyattractions.htm

http://www.nps.gov/yose/naturescience/invasive-plants.htm

November 13, 2014

National Parks in the US

• 58 national parks• Popularity is one of the biggest issues

> People expect amenities> Recreational use can be damaging> Destruction of habitat, vegetation, and wildlife> Introduction of nonnative species

• Inholdings: Land in private ownership when park was established. Can develop/use.

• Islands of biodiversity: threatened by development> Edges> pollution drifts into national parks

November 13, 2014

November 13, 2014

Possible solutions to loss of biodiversity

1. Nature reserves> Corridors

2. Ecoregional conservation3. Biodiversity hotspots4. Community-based conservation5. Wilderness6. Rehabilitation and restoration

November 13, 2014

Nature Reserves

• Ecologists and conservation biologists believe best way to preserve biodiversity is to create a worldwide network of protected areas:

• Currently 12% of earth protected in some form of reserve> 5% strictly protected

• Goal: full protection of 20% > $ from national governments and private groups

(Nature Conservancy)> Eco-philanthropists to buy and protect land> Land trust groups: nonprofit groups, pool $ to buy

and protect land.

November 13, 2014

Designing and Connecting Nature Reserves: Best Practices

• Large reserves> sustain more species> greater habitat diversity> minimize edge

• System of medium sized reserves> more diverse habitat

http://daac.ornl.gov/LBA/guides/image001.png

November 13, 2014

Designing and Connecting Nature Reserves: Best Practices

• Habitat corridors> Does not have to be large/extensive> allow migration (seasonal, population growth, and

deterioration of environment)> Pests?

• Buffer zone concept> allow local people to use resources sustainably

while protecting core

http://biodiversity.ca.gov/newsletter/v5n1/wildlife_corridors.html

San Diego County

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023427

November 13, 2014

Example: Costa Rica

• 8 megareserves to sustain 80% of Costa Rica's biodiversity

• Inner core surrounded by 2 buffer zones that local/indigenous people can use for sustainable use

• Most successful conservation strategy• $1 billion/year tourism• Cut government subsidies for turning forests into grazing

land

November 13, 2014

The cost to maintain biosphere reserves is estimated to be about $100 million/year (0.1 billion)

• The world spends $100 million on weapons every 90 minutes.

• Bill Gates' net worth is $72 billion• Apple's quarterly net profit $7.5 billion• The US Population is close to 314 million. If every three

people donated a dollar we could cover the costs.

November 13, 2014

The goal is to make decisions about how to protect and connect areas, while still allowing people access to sustainably use natural rsources.

Ecoregional conservation: Jonathan Adams

• Nature is connected not fragmented1. Identify remaining wild areas in an ecoregion2. Identify what nature tell us about how to protect and

connect these wild areas3. Look at how human development has disrupted key

connections4. Get a team of scientists, land owners,

conservationists, government officials, management agencies to devise a strategy to build corridors

*Use GIS (geographic informational system)

November 13, 2014

Biodiversity Hot Spots

• Conservation International has recognized 17 countries as biodiversity hot spots

• Contain 2/3 of all species

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Megadiverse_Countries.PNG

US

Mexico

*Brazil

Bolivia

*Colombia

Ecuador

Peru

Venezuela

Australia

China

India

DRC

Philippines

*Indonesia

Malaysia

Papua New GuineaMadagascar

South Africa

November 13, 2014

Biodiversity Hot Spots

• Emergency action strategy to protect biodiversity hot spots

• "ecological arks"• cover 2% of earth's land surface• 52% of world's plant species, 36% terrestrial

vertebrates

November 13, 2014

Community-Based Conservation

• Preserve local biodiversity while allowing local people to sustainably use resources.> Educate locals> Ecotourism

– Income from housing and guiding tourists> Protect nature but also improve life for local people

Managing Fisheries Protecting migratory paths for ecotourism

Prevent poaching: trading snares for skills

November 13, 2014

Wilderness

• Wilderness: Legally setting aside undeveloped land> Can visit but can't take/change/stay> Has to be big enough that not affected by nearby

human activities> Aesthetic, an escape from urban life> Preserve biodiversity and protect them as centers

for evolution (eco-insurance)> Rights of organisms to exist

http://www.neh.gov/files/imagecache/neh_large/humanities/articles/muir_pic_muir_ma2011_1000px.jpg

November 13, 2014

Ecological RestorationEcological restoration: process of repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and dynamics of natural ecosystems• As often as possible, mimc nature and allow nature do

to work through ecological succession> replanting forests> restoring grasslands> restoring wetlands> stream banks> reintroducing native species> removing invasive species> removing dams

November 13, 2014

Ways to speed up repair nature

• Restoration: return a degraded ecosystem to condition as similar to natural state as possible

• Rehabilitation: turn degraded ecosystem back to a functional ecosystem without restoring it to original condition

• Replacement: replace degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem

• Artificial Ecosystems

November 13, 2014

Identify what caused degradation

Eliminate/Reduce factors of degradation

Reintroduce native species (pioneer, keystone, foundaton)

Protect from further degradation

Adaptive management-monitor, assess, modify

Steps for restoration

November 13, 2014






US Prairie

• Can restore or transplant native species (grasses grow quickly)

• Technology ~gardening/agriculture• Volunteers

November 13, 2014






Costa Rica

• Guanacaste National Park• biocultural restoration: involve local residents in

restoration efforts through education and economic and environmental benefits

November 13, 2014

Will restoration encourage further destruction?

• Encourage destruction by suggesting that ecological harm can be "undone".

• Preventing damage is cheaper and more effective than restoration

• Restored ecosystems often different from original

November 13, 2014

8 priorities:1. Preserve biological hot spots2. keep intact remaining old-growth forests3. Complete mapping of world's biodiversity for

inventory and decision making4. Determine marine hot spots5. Protect and restore lake and river systems6. Ensure that the full range of earth's ecosystems are

included in global conservation strategy7. make conservation profitable*8. restoration

November 13, 2014

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wfuXVRdbMuc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zCZDDQ5hMBY

http://www.ted.com/talks/greg_asner_ecology_from_the_air.html

November 13, 2014

Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

Documents

Transcript of Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach