The Proceedings of

JIWECC 2010

Japan-Indonesia Workshop on Estuary

and Climate Change

8 - 10 August 2010 Seminar Room, Rectorat Building

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Kampus ITS Sukolilo Surabaya

BMKG

Organized by Tohoku University, Japan

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Surabaya, Indonesia

Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Agency of Indonesia (BMKG)

PROCEEDING OF

JAPAN – INDONESIA WORKSHOP ON ESTUARY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

8 - 10 August 2010

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember

Surabaya, Indonesia

Edited By:

Dr. Suntoyo Ocean Engineering Department

ITS Surabaya

Organized By:

Tohoku University, Japan

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia

Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Agency of Indonesia (BMKG)

Supported By:

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia

Society for the Promotion of Construction Engineering, Japan

Department of Ocean Engineering, Faculty of Marine Technology, ITS

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

[Tohoku University]

Professor Hitoshi Tanaka, Dr. Eng, Tohoku University, Japan (Co-chairman)

Professor Akira Mano, Dr.Eng, Tohoku University, Japan Professor Emeritus Masaki Sawamoto, Dr. Eng, Tohoku University, Japan

Professor So Kazama, Dr. Eng, Tohoku University, Japan

Assoc. Prof. Makoto Umeda, Dr. Eng, Tohoku University, Japan

[Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember]

Professor Priyo Suprobo, PhD

Rector of the Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS) (Honorary Chairman)

Professor Widi Agoes Pratikto, PhD

Department of Ocean Engineering (Chairman)

Professor Paulus Indiyono, PhD, Department of Ocean Engineering

Professor Eko Budi Djatmiko, PhD, Department of Ocean Engineering

Professor Djauhar Manfaat, PhD, Faculty of Marine Engineering

Professor Joni Hermana, PhD, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning

Suntoyo, M.Eng, PhD, Department of Ocean Engineering (Secretary)

Haryo Dwito Armono, M.Eng, PhD, Department of Ocean Engineering

Murdjito, MSc.Eng, Department of Ocean Engineering

Kriyo Sambodho, M.Eng, PhD, Department of Ocean Engineering

[Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Agency of Indonesia (BMKG)]

Dr.Ir. Sri Woro B. Harijono, MSc, Chief of BMKG-Indonesia

Dr. Andi Eka Sakya M.Eng, General Scretary of BMKG-Indonesia

Drs. Soeroso Hadiyanto MSc, Deputy of Climatology Broad of BMKG-

Indonesia

Dr. Edvin Aldrian, MSc, Director of Center for Climate Change and Air Quality

of BMKG-Indonesia

Copyright ©2010 Dept. of Ocean Engineering, Faculty of Marine Technology

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS)

Surabaya, Indonesia

All Right Reserved

Proceeding of Japan – Indonesia Workshop on Estuary and Climate Change 2010

August 8th

-10th

Surabaya, Indonesia

Contents

Preface

Keynote Speaker

Estuarine Hydro-& Morpho-dynamics and Global Climate Change 1

Hitoshi Tanaka (Tohoku University, Japan)

Coastal and Estuary Hydrodynamics

Performance of an Eddy Viscosity Model for Plunging Breakers 7

Sabaruddin Rahman, Akira Mano and Keiko Udo(Tohoku University, Japan)

Assessment of a Hydrodynamic Numerical Model with Wetting-Drying Capability 13

Purwanto Bekti Santoso, Nastain, and Wahyu Widianto (Universitas Jenderal

Soedirman, Indonesia)

Wave Forces On A Crown Wall Of Deep Water Berm Breakwater 21

Nurin Hidayati, Alf Tørum and Øivind A. Arntsen (Norwegian University of Science and

Technology (NTNU) Trondheim, Norway )

Defensive Effects of a Breakwater Combining Submerged Breakwater and Horizontal 31

Plate

Kairi Morizawa and Yoshihiro Tsurumoto (Advanced Course of Kagawa National

College of Technology, Japan)

Vortex Shedding Analysis on Pipeline for Shallow Water 37

Esti Setiawati, Wisnu Wardana, and Suntoyo (Ocean Eng. Dept., ITS, Indonesia)

Nearshore Morphology and Sediment Transport

Identification of River Mouth Influence on Longshore Sediment Transport in the 43

Adjacent Beach

Eko Pradjoko and Hitoshi Tanaka (Tohoku University, Japan)

Practical Formulations Of Bottom Shear Stress And Sediment Transport 49

For Acceleration-Skewed Waves

Suntoyo, Hitoshi Tanaka, Bagus Afrianto and Widi A Pratikto (Ocean Eng. Dept., ITS,

Indonesia)

Proceeding of Japan – Indonesia Workshop on Estuary and Climate Change 2010

August 8th

-10th

Surabaya, Indonesia

Sediment Modeling Level of Pemangkat’s National Fishery Port (Ppn) , West 55

Kalimantan and its Comparison with Various Alternative Conditions

Sadri, Purnamawati and Eko Prasetyo (Politeknik Negeri Pontianak, Kalimantan Timur,

Indonesia)

The Performance of Dredging Vessel Towards Sedimentation Problem and Extreme 61

Rainfall in Main Ship Channel Kapuas River - West Kalimantan

Mochammad Meddy Danial, Akhmadali and Barlian s (Tanjungpura University,

Pontianak, Indonesia)

Coastal Estuarine Management and Disaster Mitigation

Study on River Mouth Clogging and its Excavation Conditions of Small River Mouth 67

Hisao Nagabayashi and Hitoshi Tanaka (Nihon University, Japan)

Theory on Saltwater in Estuary (The Second Report) 73

Mikio Sasaki, Hitoshi Tanaka and Makoto Umeda (Hachinohe Institute of Technology,

Japan)

Spatial and Temporal Variations of Salinity in a Shallow Lagoon 79

Makoto Umeda, Eriko Konish, Hitoshi Tanaka and Mikio Sasaki (Tohoku University,

Japan)

Observations On Beach Deformation Before And After The Indian Ocean Tsunami 85

Around Banda Aceh Using Satellite Images

Syamsidik, Muzailin and Syamsul Bahri (Syah Kuala University, Banda Aceh,

Indonesia)

Estimation of Discharge Through Tidal Inlet of Lake Jusan, Japan 91

Atas Pracoyo, Makoto Umeda, Hitoshi Tanaka and Mikio Sasaki (Tohoku University,

Japan)

A Bacterial community shifting in a U-shape burrow of Arenicola marina 97

Maya Shovitri and Jens Harder (Biology Dept. ITS, Indonesia )

Study on Coral Lifeform and Species that Susceptible of Bleaching in Pltu Paiton Water

Dian Saptarini and Farid Kamal Muzaki (Biology Dept. ITS, Indonesia )

105

The Influence of Configuration of Floating Raft for Sea Weed Cultivation to Wave

Reduction

Ho Putra Setiawan, Jumaedi Slamet (Politeknik Negeri Pontianak, Kalimantan Timur,

Indonesia)

113

Coastal Estuarine Management and Disaster Mitigation

Salinity Intrusion Through Estuary Analysis due to Sea Level Rise using Direct Step

Method (Case Study: River Banyuasin and Telang)

Feril Hariati (University of Ibn Khaldun, Bogor, Indonesia)

119

Proceeding of Japan – Indonesia Workshop on Estuary and Climate Change 2010

August 8th

-10th

Surabaya, Indonesia

Isohyets Mapping of Gerbangkertosusila Based on Noaa-Avhrr Data

Eko Prasetyo, Muhammad Taufik, Noer Rochma Damayanti (Class II Meteorological

Maritime Perak II BMG, Surabaya, Indonesia)

125

Climate Change Accelerate Coastal Erosion and Seawater Intrusion, Estuary Dam as a

Shore Protection Solution, also for Drinking Water and Coastal Barrier

A.A.N. Agung (Bappeda Klunkung, Bali, Indonesia)

131

Supply Chain Risk Management Strategies for Managing Maritime Disruptions due to

the Effects of Climate Change: Evidence from the Australian-Indonesian Wheat Supply

Chain

Saut Gurning, Stephen Cahoon and Kriyo Sambodho. (Australian Maritime College

Newnham Drive, Launceston-Tasmania, Australia)

137

Implementation Of Law 27/2007 About Management Of Coastal And Small Islands

Region In Sidoarjo Regency And Surabaya City

Siti Nurlaela, Widi Agoes Pratikto, Suntoyo, Kriyo Sambodho( ITS, Indonesia )

145

PREFACE

It is my great honor and pleasure to organize “Japan-Indonesia Workshop on Estuary and Climate Change” in the campus of Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS), Surabaya,

Indonesia on the occasion of the memorial 50th

year anniversary of ITS. Since we organized previous “Japan-Indonesia Estuary Workshop” last time in Jakarta with great success in 2005, five years has passed already. After 2005, the estuary workshop has been held in various

countries in Asian regions such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam and Bangkok,

Thailand. Now we come back to Indonesia again to exchange our knowledge and experiences

related to estuary and climate change.

It should be mentioned here that in the year 2006, a Memorandum of Understanding

(MoU) has been signed between Tohoku University and Institut Teknologi Sepuluh

Nopember to promote further collaboration between two institutions. We are highly confident

that this workshop will serve as an important step to accelerate further cooperation between

these two universities in term of collaborative research, faculty and student exchange, joint

educational program etc.

Finaly, on behalf of the organizing committee of the workshop, sincere appreciation is

expressed to all authors contributing to our workshop. Special thanks are also due to all

keynote speakers and chairpersons for the efforts in preparing the manuscripts and managing

the sessions, respectively.

With best wishes,

Prof. Hitoshi TANAKA, PhD

Chairman of the Organizing Committee of the Japan-Indonesia Estuary Workshop

Department of Civil Engineering

Tohoku University

Japan.

Prof. Widi Agoes Pratikto, PhD

Chairman of the Organizing Committee of the Japan-Indonesia Estuary Workshop

Department of Ocean Engineering,

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember

Indonesia.

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Japan - Indonesia Workshop on Estuary and Climate Change 2010

August 8th

-10th

Surabaya, Indonesia

STUDY ON CORAL LIFEFORM AND SPECIES THAT SUSCEPTIBLE OF

BLEACHING IN PLTU PAITON WATER

DIAN SAPTARINI 1)

and FARID KAMAL MUZAKI1)

1)

Laboratory of Ecology, Department of Biology

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS)

Kampus ITS, Keputih-Sukolilo, Surabaya (60111), Indonesia

e-mail: dian@bio.its.ac.id; ecology@bio.its.ac.id

Abstract

Coral reefs are very complex ecosystems with high biodiversity though susceptible to any threats and

disturbances. For the latest two decades, there have been many reports of cases of damaged coral reefs

caused by bleaching. Coral bleaching (loss of Zooxanthellae symbiotic and/or their pigments) is a

stress response which can be caused by several environmental variables, especially by the increase of

sea water temperature, because of anthropogenic factors.

This research aimed to know the lifeform and species of corals that are susceptible to bleaching at

different sea depths. The research was conducted in coral reefs areas around PLTU Paiton,

Probolinggo. The observation was by Line Intercept Transect / LIT method with 100 m length of

transects and laid at 3 and 8 m depths in order to represent shallow and deep waters condition. We observed that at 3 m depth, massive coral and Acropora are more susceptible to bleaching. While in 8 m depth, bleaching is commonly occurred to massive coral, mushroom coral, foliose coral, and

submassive coral. The main finding was that, Porites, Acropora, Fungia, Goniopora, Favites,

Pectinia, and Lobophyllia are the most susceptible genera of coral bleaching.

Keywords: coral bleaching,coral lifeform, coral species.

1. INTRODUCTION

Over one to two last centuries, human population growth and development have greatly altered not

only local environment but also global environment as a whole. These changes include the increase in

greenhouse gasses/GHGs concentration thought to be one major cause of global climate change

(Buddemeier et al., 2004). One og the most prominent effect of global climate change is the increase

of average sea water temperature that can trigger coral bleaching (Buddemeier et al., 2004; Obura

2004; Manzello et al. 2007; Baker et al. 2008). Coral bleaching is defined by the loss of coral color

caused by the degradation of Symbiodinium population (Zooxanthellae symbiotic) and/or their

pigments (Douglas, 2003).

Because coral reefs occur near land junctions of, sea and atmosphere, their natural habitat is more

sensitive to both the marine and terrestrial changes of any climate change and are extremely

vulnerable to both climate change and human activities (Buddemeier et al., 2004). In the north coastal

area of East Java, coral reefs are still commonly found in Paiton, Pasir Putih, and Baluran National

Park (Situbondo).

The presence of coral bleaching cases in those locations has been monitored since 2009, especially

around PLTU Paiton. During 2009-2010, there was a significant increasing of anthropogenic

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activities, such as port establishment for new power plant (PLTU Unit 3, 4, and 9) and increase of sea

transportation.

Based on these new developments, there is a clear need to do some research to know if there are

any changes in the lifeforms and species of corals. The results from this research will form a baseline

data baseline data for future coral reef management and conservation.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1. Study Site

The research was conducted around PLTU Paiton, Probolinggo. The observations were performed in five different stations; Banyuglugur, Bhinor, Water Intake and Water Discharge canal of PLTU U 1

& 2 Paiton, and Mercusuar. The geographic positions of each location were mentioned in the table

below;

Table 1. Geographical Position of Coral Reefs Observation Location in PLTU Paiton

No. Location Position Latitude (LS) Longitude (BT)

1 Bhinor 7042’41.3” 113

033’34.6”

2 Water Intake 7042’42.3” 113

035’15.2”

3 Water Discharge 8 meter 7042’53.96” 113

035’48.86”

4 Water Discharge 3 meter 7042’51.54” 113

035’54.44”

5 Banyuglugur 7043’11.9” 113

036’34.7”

6 Mercusuar 7042’02.5” 113

034’26.1”

Fig 1. Location map of coral monitoring

2.1. Observation Method

The observation of coral species was conducted in two periods; July 2009 and June 2010. The

method used is Line Intercept Transect/LIT with 100 meters line transects for each location that

applied in two different depths; 3 and 8 m. The observed parameters are coral lifeform, coral species,

and percentage of life coral coverage. Category of lifeform refers to AIMS (Australian Institute of

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Marine Science) (English et al., 1994) and Keputusan Kepala Bapedal No.Th. 2001. The identification

of coral species refers to Allen (1994), Carpenter & Niem (1998), Suharsono (1996) and Suharsono

(2004).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Environment variables

The results of environment variables measurement in 2009 and 2010 are showed in the table 2 below;

Table 2. Values of Environmental Variables of PLTU Paiton Surrounding Water

Parameter Unit Year Station

Bi Mr WI WD Bg

Surface Temperature 0C

2009 30 30 30 33 30 2010 32 31 32 35 31

Bottom Temperature 0C

2009 30 29 29 31 30 2010 32 30 31 33 31

Salinity ‰ 2009 29 28 28 30 29

2010 30 29 29 30 30

Visibility m 2009 5 12 10 10 5

2010 5 12 10 10 5

Note:

Bi = Binor,WI = Water Intake, WD = Water Discharge, Bg = Banyuglugur, Mr = Mercusuar

The observation results show that there were no significant differences in physical parameters.

However, salinity and sea water temperature increased for 2010 compared to 2009. The average

increase was 1-20C; in which estimated to influencing the change of coral coverage percentage in

study site.

3.2. Coral Lifeform and Species

In Bhinor and Banyuglugur, coral reefs can be found at 3-5 m depth and in mercusuar, at 8-12 m

depth. While at Water Intake and Water Discharge, corals can be found at 2-10 m depth. Because of

those conditions, we did only one transect in Bhinor, Mercusuar and Banyuglugur . Therefore, total

number of transect in all locations are 7 unit.

The observations for both periods : June 2009 and July 2010 are detailed in Table 3 which shows the

changing of coral reefs condition around of PLTU Paiton, as explained by the changing of percentage

value of coral coverage, including bleached coral.

Table 3. Percentage of Live and Bleached Coral in PLTU Paiton Water

Parameter Year Station

Bi Mr WI.1 WI.2 WD.1 WD.2 Bg

% live coral 2009 38.11 43.96 54.09 19.71 36.95 48.60 11.58

2010 1.04 44.35 33.4 20.48 28.6 40.12 11.91

% dead coral (DC) 2009 4.45 5.15 16.48 0.61 16.4 6.61 10.46

2010 0 5.61 23.78 1.8 20.36 21.78 10.46

Note:

Bi = Binor, WI.1 = Water Intake (3m depth), WI.2 = Water Intake (8m depth), WD.1 = Water Discharge (3m

depth), WD.2 = Water Discharge (8m depth), Bg = Banyuglugur, Mr = Mercusuar

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The bleached coral percentages were increased in almost all of observation stations, except in

Bhinor and Banyuglugur. At Bhinor, the percentage only reached 1.04%. It is estimated that low coral

coverage is mainly caused by dredging activity for the construction of water discharge canal (outlet)

PLTU 2 East Java (PLTU Paiton 9).

Dredging activity influences corals in direct and indirect mechanisms. Directly, by mechanical

damage or crushing the reefs. Indirectly, dredging activity interferes with the seafloor and causes

sediment to be re-suspension, which in turn increase sedimentation rate and water turbidity.

The increased percentage of bleached coral possibly was caused by the increase of average sea

water temperature. In this case, mush as 1-20C and it is known that increases as small as 1

0 – 1.5

0C

above the average will trigger coral bleaching (Baker et al., 2008).

Bleaching can be defined as the loss color of coral, caused by the releasing of Zooxanthellae

inside coral polyp (Douglas, 2003). Zooxanthellae supplied about 95% of its photosynthesis products (amino acid, sugar, carbohydrate, and short peptides) to coral polyp which uses these nutritients for respiration, growing, and pilling up the CaCO3 (Lesser, 2004). So, releasing Zooxanthellae by coral

polyps have an impact on the corals by decreasing its metabolic abilities.

Bleached coral also more susceptible to diseases and be overgrown by algae (Westmacott et al.,

2000) therefore, if this stress continues, corals will dye. But, if the corals can adapt to these conditions,

it can stay alive and get new Zooxanthellae (Obura, 2005). The lifeform and species of bleached coral

in study site are described in Table 4.

Generally, there is a tendency that lifeform and species of bleached coral occurred at different

depth. In 3 m depth, massive coral, Acropora Branching, Acropora Tabulate, and Acropora Digitate

were coral lifeforms which tend to bleached.

Based on species, all Acroporas were susceptible to bleaching in shallow waters. Porites spp,

Favia spp, Goniastrea sp, Goniopora spp, Lobophyllia sp and Platygyra sp were another species

which bleached significantly at 3 m depth. The latest five mentioned including on massive coral.

At 8 m depth, form of massive coral were also susceptible to bleaching, though at a lower

intensity compared to 3 m depth. Besides, coral mushroom, sub massive coral, and foliose coral were

other life forms which bleached at this depth. From those lifeforms, there were some species that

susceptible of coral bleaching; Tubastrea sp, Leptoseris sp, Pectinia lacera, Montipora sp, Fungia

spp, Ctenactis sp dan Herpolitha sp.

In this study we observed that coral bleaching typically occurred at 3 m depth because shallow

waters will have higher temperatures than deep waters. Besides, temperature changes often occurr in

shallow water during day-night change. It can be assumed that temperature increases and fluctuations

triggered coral bleaching and affected coral growth in shallow areas.

In WI.2 station, lots of Acropora spp were being bleached, and it was different with Mercusuar

station that the Acropora didn’t show any indication of bleaching. This differences was possibly

caused by temperature factor as the triggers of bleaching, where WI.2 station were located around

canal PLTU Paiton that produce hot water effluent; it showed by the average value of higher

temperature compared to other observation stations.

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Table 4. Lifeform and Species of Bleached Coral in PLTU Paiton Surrounding Water

Location Depth (m) Lifeform species

Bg 3 Coral Massive (CM) Goniopora sp Porites lutea

Goniastrea spp Favia spp Platygyra sp

Lobophyllia sp

Coral Branching (CB) Porites cylindrica

Pocillopora verrucosa

Coral Encrusting (CE) Porites lichen

WI.1 3 Coral Massive (CM) Porites lutea

Porites rus

Coral Branching (CB) Pocillopora verrucosa

Acropora Branching (ACB) Acropora grandis

Acropora aspera

Acropora Digitate (ACD) Acropora digitata

Acropora humilis

Acropora Tabulate (ACT) Acropora divaricata

WI.2 8 Acropora Branching (ACB) Acropora grandis Acropora Digitate (ACD) Acropora humilis

Acropora Tabulate (ACT) Acropora divaricata Coral Massive (CM) Porites lutea

Coral Foliose (CF) Montipora spp

WD.1 3 Coral Branching (CB) Porites cylindrica

Porites nigrescens

Acropora Branching (ACB) Acropora aspera

Coral Massive (CM) Porites lutea

Goniopora sp

Lobophyllia sp

Porites rus

Galaxea sp

Coral Mushroom (CMR) Fungia spp

WD.2 8 Acropora Branching (ACB) Acropora aspera

Acropora formosa

Acropora florida

Acropora loripes

Acropora Tabulate (ACT) Acropora divaricata

Coral Branching (CB) Porites cylindrica

Coral Encrusting (CE) Porites lichen

Coral Foliose (CF) Leptoseris sp

Montipora sp

Coral Massive (CM) Porites lutea

Lobophyllia sp

Coral Submassive (CS) Pectinia lacera

Mr 8 Coral Mushroom (CMR) Fungia spp

Herpolitha sp

Ctenactis sp

Coral Massive (CM) Porites lutea

Goniopora sp

Coral Submassive (CS) Tubastrea sp

Note:

WI.1 = Water Intake (3m depth), WI.2 = Water Intake (8m depth), WD.1 = Water Discharge (3m depth), WD.2

= Water Discharge (8m depth), Bg = Banyuglugur, Mr = Mercusuar. The photographs of Coral Bleaching

in study sites can be seen in appendix.

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4. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the observation result of coral’s species and life forms in our study site, several

conclusions can be drawn:

Coral bleaching commonly occurred at 3m depth, because shallow waters have higher

temperature rather than deep waters.

At 3m depth, massive coral and Acropora (Acropora Branching, Acropora Table,

Acropora Digitate) were the most susceptible of bleaching

At 8m depth, massive coral, mushroom coral, sub massive coral, and foliose coral were

still susceptible to bleaching

In this study site, coral bleaching commonly occurred in Porites, Acropora, Fungia,

Goniopora, Favites, Platygyra, Pectinia and Lobophyllia.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank PLTU Paiton for providing the sampling area, Maria E. de Bellard for reviewing

the paper and the Ecology laboratory – Biology Department ITS (Institut Teknologi

Sepuluh Nopember) for the facilities.

.

6. REFERENCES

Allen, G.R and R Steene. (1994). Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide. Singapore: Tropical Reef

Research.

Baker, A.C., P.W. Glynn and B. Riegl. (2008). Climate Change and Coral Reef Bleaching: An

Ecological Assessment of Long-term Impact, Recovery Trends and Future Outlook. Estuary,

Coastal and Shelf Sciences 80, pp. 435 – 471.

Buddemeier, R.W., J.A. Kleypas and R.B. Aronson. (2004). Coral Reefs and Global Climate Change:

Potential Contributions of Climate Change to Stresses on Coral Reef Ecosystems. Pew Center

on Global Climate Change.

Carpenter, K.E. and V.H. Niem. (1998). FAO Species Identification Guide for Fishery Purpose. The

Living Marine Resources of The Western Central Pacific. Volume 1: Seaweeds, Corals,

Bivalves, and Gastropods. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations.

Douglas, A.E. (2003). Coral Bleaching – How and Why?, Marine Pollution Bulletin 46, pp. 385 –

392. English, S., C. Wilkinson and V. Baker (ed.). (1994). Survei Manual for Tropical Marine Research.

Townsville: ASEAN-Australia Marine Science Project. Australian Institute of Marine

Science. Lesser, M.P. (2004). Experimental Biology of Coral Reef Ecosystems. Journal of Experimental

Marine Biology and Ecology 300, pp. 217 – 252.

Manzello, D.P., R. Berkelmans and J.C. Hendee. (2007). Coral Bleaching Indices and Thresholds for

the Florida Reef Tract, Bahamas and St. Croix, US Virgin Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54, pp. 1923 – 1931.

Obura, D.O. (2005). Resilience and Climate Changes: Lessons from Coral Reefs and Bleaching in the

Western Indian Ocean. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Sciences 63, pp. 353 – 372.

Suharsono. (1996). Jenis-jenis Karang yang Umum Dijumpai di Perairan Indonesia. Jakarta: Proyek

Pengamatan dan Pengembangan Daerah Pantai, Pusat Pengamatan dan Pengembangan

Oseanologi – LIPI.

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Suharsono. (2004). Jenis-jenis Karang di Indonesia. Jakarta: Pusat Pengamatan Oseanografi – LIPI.

Westmacott, S., K. Teleki, S. Wells dan J. West. (2000). Pengelolaan Terumbu Karang yang Telah Memutih dan Rusak Kritis. Terjemahan oleh J.H Steffen. Cambridge, UK: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).

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Right margin 2.5cm

Bottom margin 2.5cm

Appendix Photographs of Coral Bleaching in Study Sites

Banyuglugur Mercusuar

Water Intake 3 meter Water Intake 8 meter

Water Discharge 3 meter Water Discharge 8 meter

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