STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION: ISSUES, PROCESSES AND ENGAGEMENTS

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STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION: ISSUES, PROCESSES

AND ENGAGEMENTS

by

ABDULRAHMAN YUSUF MAIGIDA, Ph.D

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT-NIGERIA.

e-mail: [email protected]

and

PAULLEY FIBAINMINE GODGIFT, Ph.D

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, NIGER DELTA UNIVERSITY, WILBERFORCE ISLAND.

BAYELSA STATE

e-mail: [email protected]/edu.ng

Introduction

Every society of the world is unique in its own way. The uniqueness of worldsocieties can be gleaned from the ways and manners they do their things and thesehave gone a long way to give these different societies some unique characteristicsand features with which they are known, recognised and identified. It can furtherbe said that the known or identified characteristics of different societies of theworld have made them distinct in their survival, progress made and patterns ofsustainability. In short, the progress made and developments attained are differentacross societies, regions, nations or continents.

In view of the above, resources play significant roles in the characteristics ofsocieties and these resources are variedly and unevenly distributed from place toplace, that is, no country or place is given or endowed with everything needed forits progress, development or survival. It is, therefore, required that there should beinteraction, cooperation and interrelationship among places, communities,societies, nations and continents as panaceas to improving the lots of cooperatingnations/societies. Establishing cooperation or maintaining interrelationship amongnations or societies can be political, economic, diplomatic, religious, technologicaltransfer and educational.

Basically, the cooperating societies or nations stand to benefit from oneanother. For the benefits to be explored, the benefitting or potential beneficiarynations/societies must first be aware of the state of things/affairs and appropriate

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aspects of benefit to them before going into cooperation or relationship with theidentified partners. Importantly, educational development of the world is differentand unique from one society to the others. The extent of educational developmentin Britain is different from the USA’s, and the Nigeria’s from that of Ghana etc. Thedifferences in the theories and practices of education systems of countries of theworld have made different countries unique and different in the progress anddevelopment of education.

From the foregoing, no nation or society can wholly or independently surviveor sustain its system of education without the necessary reforms or innovation tomeet the challenges and the dynamism of an ever changing situation in the world ofknowledge. For any nation or society to embark on innovations or reforms for hereducational development, studying the theories and practices of education systemsof other cultures remains a necessity and only a course such as ComparativeEducation is a means to get things done. Studying other cultures or societies’patterns, characteristics and structures (theories and practice) of education in away that the similarities and differences are brought to bear, for juxtaposition areanalysis and expounding the comparative values. This is comparative education,which in other words, means comparing the systems of education of differentcultures, societies or countries in the light of various influencing factors.Ultimately, the best suited choices from among the different manifestations of thesystems in world societies are made from comparison of systems.

In the training of teachers and in the practice of teaching as a profession,having the knowledge, and understanding the similarities and differences that existin the theories and practices of education systems in different cultures, societies,nations or countries are necessary to equip educators with the skills of addressingeducational problems or improving the quality of education of their own location orhome country. It will also help others to solve their educational problems orimprove on the quality, using insights and relying on data obtainable from differentplaces. The solution adopted by one society or a country to solving her problem orimprove her education system may be applied in other places with similar problemsto surmount or improve on their own peculiarities, while undergoingtransformation or reforms.

Issues in Comparative Education

Evolution (Historical Development)

Comparative Education as a field of study or academic discipline for which itis known and called today did not start as such, but more or less a descriptiveendeavours by travellers or visitors to countries/places other than their own. Itwas, therefore, regarded as ‘traveller’s tales’ from the onset. In fact, this field startedjust as personalised efforts of individuals privileged to visit foreign countries and onreturn to give accounts of their physical experiences, describing how things weredone. They reported where things were sited or stationed. Generally at theformative stage, the travellers were only concerned with describing what the

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systems of education of countries visited looked liked without necessarilycomparing them with that of any other country, even their home country, bearingin mind the various influential factors that produced the characteristics witnessed.

What is closer to the contemporary Comparative Education was debuted inthe 19th century, marking the beginning of departure from mere description ortelling the stories of educational systems in countries visited by early travellers.Available works on Comparative Education then, were limited to description andinformation on education in foreign countries. Any conclusions on the comparativevalue of the systems of the described education were not given consideration, butthe reader had to do the analysis and inference from what he/she had read, bycomparing the information about the described education system of a particularsociety or country with that which is his.

In the history and development of Comparative Education, one importantname that must not go unacknowledged is the name of a Frenchman, Marc AtoineJullien de Paris. The contributions of Jullien de Paris were immense and enormous.He provided a unique ground for the study of Comparative Education and was thefirst to devise a comprehensive scheme of comparative study of educational systemsin 1817. Unfortunately, the work of Jullien de Paris on Comparative Education wasnot discovered or known to the public until the early 20th century, through thewritings of Pedro Rosello. In his work, Jullien de Paris had envisaged an ‘analytical’study of education in all countries with a view to perfecting national systems withmodifications and changes which the current circumstances and local conditionswould demand.

As earlier indicated, Comparative Education study began in the 19thcentury; precisely and immediately after the Napoleonic War. After this war, theminds of the Europeans were redirected towards a harmonious relationship,peaceful co-existence and allowance for truce, as well as healthy social-economicand educational interaction which reigned supreme in their societies. At thisperiod, the focus was on the issue of whether to study and compare educationalsystems, in theory and practice of the various European nations or beyond thatcould lead to a better understanding and more united orientation in the educationof youth on one hand and the development of the European societies on the other.

In this regard, several efforts were put up by Americans, French, Britons(English), Germans, Russians among others. Historically, a handful of EducationalComparativists grabbed the opportunity of the prevailing peace, after the war; bytravelling and venturing into educational study of European nations for borrowing,to benefit their respective home countries. Starting these 19th century’sendeavours was an American, John Griscom, who went on a journey to Europe andon his return, Griscom published his educational experiences (discoveries) oneducational institutions of Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy and Hollandbetween 1818 and 1819. These discoveries by Griscom in the visited countries hadfar reaching effects and development on the educational structures and practices ofthe American education.

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A Frenchman, Victor Cousin (a representative of French Minister ofEducation) in 1831 visited Prussia and when Cousin returned to France, he quicklypublished his findings on the institutions and educational practices of Prussiawhich was later translated into English Language for use in the development ofeducation in England and America.

Another American who was the Director of Education at the state ofMassachusetts in the United State of America, Horace Mann travelled and visitedcountries like England, Scotland, Ireland Holland, France and Germany in a spaceof six month and on his return; published in his 7th Annual Report in 1843 histravelling experience. This report contained a documentation of his visit oneducational institutions of countries visited; with attention on the comparison ofschool organisations and methods of instruction. In short, Mann advocated in hisreport of adopting important aspects of the education of those countries visited bythe Government of Massachusetts.

In the list of the 19th century Comparative Education historical figures was aBriton, Matthew Arnold who made a journey to France and Germany in 1859 and1865 respectively; Arnold made critical remarks about the educationalcharacteristics of the two countries he visited and then recommended theintegration of some useful aspects of French and German education to the overalleducational system of England.

As earlier mentioned above, these early educationists of the 19th century didsomething closer to the modern Comparative Education, which in summary weredescriptive and geared towards utilitarian value. However, the real and actual studyof contemporary Comparative Education can be taken to commence in the 20thcentury through the Comparativists of the period, significantly, Sir Michael Sadlerhis book he titled ‘How Far can we Learn Anything of Practical Value from the Studyof Foreign Systems of Education?’ published in 1900 as quoted by Hans (1967:3)asserts that:

In studying foreign systems of education, we should notforget that the things outside the schools matter even morethan the things inside the schools, which govern andinterpret the things inside. We cannot wander at pleasureamong the educational systems of the world, like a childstrolling through the garden, and pick off a flower from onebush and some leaves from another, and then expect thatif we stick what we have gathered into the soil at home,we shall have a living plant. A national system ofeducation is a living thing, the outcome of forgottenstruggles and difficulties and of battles long ago. It has init some of the secret workings of national life. It reflects,while seeking to remedy, the failings of national character.By instinct, it often lays special emphasis on those parts oftraining which the national character particularly needs.But is it not likely that if we have endeavoured, in asympathetic spirit, to understand the real working of a

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foreign system of education, we shall in turn findourselves better able to enter into the spirit and tradition ofour own national education, more sensitive to its unwrittenideals, quicker to catch the signs which mark its growingor fading influence, readier to mark the dangers whichthreaten it and the subtle workings of hurtful change? Thepractical value of studying in a right spirit and withscholarly accuracy the working of foreign systems ofeducation is that it will result in our being better fitted tostudy and understand our own.

With Saddler’s submission, it can be deduced that appraising or evaluatingeducation systems of any place from its physical features may be seen as fallacy,but examining those things, remote and immediate; which may not ordinarily ordirectly manifest in the characteristics of such education systems will add value tothe appraisal and evaluation process of the system. This simply means that thedifferences or similarities produced in the character of education systems of oneplace are not enough to be Comparative Education, unless the various influencingfactors, such as economy, history, politics, environment and so on are analysed anddiscussed on how they have influenced the resultant differences and similarities.For instance, a school where flooding is their devastating experience every yearduring the raining season, is not a factor from within the school, but its proximityto the river which overflows the bank when the rain is heavy. Studying any systemof education, therefore, requires in-depth investigation before we can get the neededresult for the development of education in any other place where the insights areapplied.

Another prominent educational comparativist of the 20th was a Russianphilosopher and educationist, known as Sergius Hessen who became the first toapproach the study of Comparative Education from philosophical point of view. In1928, Hessen selected four (4) main problems of educational policy, namely

i. Compulsory Educationii. The School and the Stateiii. The School and the Churchiv. The School and the Economic Life

To the four perspective of looking at what a Comparative Educationist shouldaddress, Hessen analysed the underlying principles and gave a critique of somecountries’ modern legislations on educational issues, based on the aboveviewpoints.

As earlier highlighted too, Germany was not left out of those nations thatcould be considered contributory to the development of Comparative Education. Forthe 20th century’s endeavours, a German - Friedrich Schneider was the Director ofthe Institute of Comparative Education at Salzburg. Schneider in 1930 began theediting of the International Review of Education in four languages. According toLawal (2004), Schneider had a publication in 1947 which he came up with the

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following as the factors that can influence the educational theory and practice ofany country:

National Character Geographical space Culture Science Philosophy Economic life and politics Religion History Foreign influences and The Development of Pedagogies

The above is not different from the Saddler’s conclusion. Schneider hasequally identified that whatever that is there as the differences or similarities in theeducation systems of different places must be investigated in the light of differentfactors which must have prompted the character observable in the systems.

With the current position of Comparative Education, it has developed fully asa field of study and academic discipline, where the number of experts in the fieldcontinues to increase in the world over. It is a course of study that has come to beinstitutionalised. It is offered at the tertiary level of education – universities, collegesof education and other schools of education where professional teacher preparationprogramme is offered, including, but not limited to the Nigeria’s non-formalprogramme of Distance Learning of the National Teachers’ Institute (NTI) andNational Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). Comparative Education is a coursethat has produced graduates at first degree level and specialists at Masters andPh.D levels. The field of Comparative Education is today having a number ofprofessors internationally. Books have also been written on the course, locally andinternationally. Renowned and world class among these books are the ones writtenby Brian Holmes, Ecstein and Adam, Isaac L. Kandel, Nicholas Hans, VenonMallinson, Robert Cowen, Maria Larsen among others. From the local scenes,Adeyinka, Adejumobi, Osokoya, Kosemani, Iwuama, Aluede, Lawal, Nwagugo,Okrigwe and many others are among the experts in the field.

What Really is Comparative Education in the Contemporary Sense?

On what Comparative Education is or should be, the global trends and thenew understanding across the world require that the focus should now be shifted torecognising this field as a contemporary discipline which our efforts and academicengagements should be redirected; to pursuing it with a fresh and new thinking.The emergence of the discipline began with some challenges which a number ofthem are no longer there because of one thing or the other that have beenovertaken by events. Put together, colonialism and attainment of politicalindependence, wars, crises and peace, globalisation and the invention ofinformation technology, a skyrocketed increase in world population, improvement

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in transfer of technology and knowledge are a few of the identified changes in theold and new considerations for today’s studies in Comparative Education.

First and foremost, the argument to be put forward or the position of thischapter is not to challenge, disprove or invalidate Comparative Education as how ithas always been regarded as the study of national systems of education (in two ormore countries), but to advance some freshly evolved standpoints and conclusionson what Comparative Education is and should be. In other words, it is aimed at i.e.refocusing on the consideration of Comparative Education; not necessarily beinglimited in focus to only nation-state, but as what is applicable to the intra-national,national and regional levels. Generally, education systems and particularly thepolicies and programmes of education can be examined from intercultural and intranational levels. Evidences, including logical assertions are available to justify thisclaim and that the primary goal of any type of study or research today is toascertain the extent of its contributions in meeting the needs or solving the problemof the immediate environment where the research is conducted before examininghow it can further be generalised for broader utility.

Sharing in the views of ‘how’ and ‘what’ Comparative Education should be, isone Robert Cowen, a renowned authority, expert and international scholar in thefield of Comparative Education, now an Emeritus Professor of Education at theInstitute of Education, University of London. He was at the time of writing a servingSenior Visiting Research Fellow of the University of Oxford. Cowen as cited byLarsen (2010) suggests to Comparative Education researchers to engage in newthinking about what we study (as our unit of analysis); interpretive concepts,frameworks and theories that we deploy in our work; the influences and contextsthat shape the work we do as Comparativists, and the epistemic consequences ofthese broader changes for the field of Comparative Education.

In short, the position now is that ‘we need to broaden our conceptions ofspace beyond that of the nation-state, which has traditionally occupied much ofour attention. New spaces as units of analysis could include, according to Cowen –the regional spaces (e.g. comparisons of the urban, suburban and rural) or supra-national regions or rims (e.g. the Mediterranean). Comparative work in this areacould also simultaneously engage in cross, inter and intra-regional studies. Wecould also envision Comparative Educational studies of diasporic spaces (e.g.comparing Kurdish refugee students’ experiences in Denmark and Canada).

Meaning of Comparative Education

With the premise above, Comparative Education that focuses on nationalsystem is not being invalidated by this new thinking, but the need that has beenclearly established, calling for broadening the scope of Comparative Education inour today’s world. Therefore, an examination of the views and submissions ofComparative Education scholars and writers shall be the interest of this chapter,with vivid clarification and interpretation of the concepts, comprehensivediscussion and analysis of the contents – nature, scope and other complexities or

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contradictions that are giving rise to a number of controversies in the field. There isno consensus in the definition of Comparative Education. As a rapidly growing fieldof study in education it is besieged with myriads of definitions.

The first known individual to expound on this concept in modern sense wasMarc Antoine Jullien de Paris who in 1817 suggested the establishment of an officefor the gathering and dissemination of data about education. It was envisionedaccording to (Nwagugo:1999) that this new academic discipline which was then atembryonic stage, would in the future provide a body of principles to guide policymakers in making accurate predictions on the likely consequences of any measuresto be adopted by them. Jullien de Paris in his view on Comparative Education takesit to be an analytical study of education in all countries, with a view to perfectingnational system with modifications and changes which the circumstances and localconditions would dictate. It is no exaggeration to assert or conclude that Jullien deParis had more understanding of taking into consideration some underlyingprinciples and factors which among others include cultural and geographicaldifferences in the comparison of educational systems in terms of borrowing. Heexpected that since the systems of education are different from country to countryand from society to society; educational borrowing must not just be made withoutconsideration of the factors responsible in that country and the implications for theborrowing country or society.

Having established basis for the understanding of what ComparativeEducation is, Encyclopaedia of Educational Research (2000) defined it as ‘thecareful analysis of educational systems, issues and problems in two or morecountries within the context of historical, socio-economic, political, cultural,religious and other influential facts – collection, authentication and interpretationof data in an objective manner’. Kandel (1933), sees Comparative Education as thestudy of current educational theories and practices as influenced by differentbackgrounds. To Lawrence (1959), Comparative Education is the study of thefactors which influence and determine educational policy; it includes a study of thepolitics of education. In his own definition, Kneller (1965) concludes thatComparative Education is an attempt to study education in different countries inthe light of historical development of pertinent educational theories and practices inconsideration of social, cultural and economic growth of such countries anddevelopment of education as may be stimulated everywhere.

The Wikiencyclopedia defines Comparative Education as a fully establishedacademic field of study that examines education in one country (or group ofcountries) by using data and insights drawn from the practices and situation inanother country or countries. Mboz (2011) in a clear cut submission aligns with theWikiencyclopedia’s recognition of Comparative Education as a field of study thatfocuses on the provision of organized learning activities across international andintercultural boundaries that utilizes comparative methods of study.

How does Mallinson (1980) see Comparative Education? He sees the conceptfrom the perspective of cultures when he defines it as

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A systematic examination of other cultures and othersystems of education deriving from those cultures inother to discover resemblances and differences, andwhy variant solutions have been attempted (and withwhat result) to problems that are often common to all.

For Adejumobi (1990) Comparative Education is the identification anddiagnosis of educational problems, determinants, ideals and presuppositions ingiven societies with a view to interpreting them by cross reference to similarelements in other societies. Other writers like Iwuama et al (1992) submit thatComparative Education is a branch of study which aims at discovering underlyingprinciples and factors which govern the development and practice of sucheducational systems.

Generally, Comparative Education is a field of study that has come to stayand which is not limited in scope to national systems. From the foregoing, it is clearthat Comparative Education is not only limited in focus to the national system, butthat which examines the similarity and differences as well as underlying principlesor factors; even within a country (intra national). In supporting this new position,Adeyinka (1994), declares thus:

The idea of comparison is not and should not be confined tonational systems as between one country and the other.Comparison could also and should in fact be made of thevarious systems of education in different parts or states withinthe same country.

In the same vein Osokoya (1992), defines Comparative Education as thecomparison of educational theories and practices within a society, state, region ornation, in addition to a comparative study of educational programmes within thelocal governments of a state, between states of a country and between countries ofa continent.

Joining others in this new perspective about Comparative Education is Alabi(1998) who clearly and summarily defines the field of Comparative Education as away of comparing and contrasting different educational systems at national, intra-national as well as international levels. The positions and opinions of all theaforementioned scholars (Adejumobi, 1990; Iwuama et al, 1992; Osokoya, 1992;Adeyinka (1994) and Alabi, 1998 ) are coming from the new focus that clearlyidentifies what should be the components of the systems of education for which thestudy can be done in Comparative Education.

In this regard, Awolola (1986) uniquely looks at the concept as the study ofaims and objectives of education, the curriculum, the methods of teaching, teacher-student relationships, school calendar, mode of discipline, design of schoolbuildings, and school administration among others which may be at theinternational or national levels. This definition of Comparative Education provides

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the researchers Comparative Education an array of focuses on which their studiescan be directed. This in other words, means that Comparative Education can focuson different aspects of education in any given system at local/ intra-national,national or international levels.

Clarification and Analysis of Definitions

In substance, essence and analysis, there is the need for a clear-cutdissection of the definitions of Comparative Education which can thus be critiqued:

A cursory explanation of the concept as viewed from the onset by theacclaimed fathers of modern Comparative Education show that each countryis required to study their own education first, then checkout for the vacuumto be filled or to charting a new course for improvement, that is, to perfectingwhat will then be considered as their national system. To fill vacuum or charta new course for improvement, there is always the need to source for solutionor template in addressing the situation, which then was usually from anothernational system(s); to modify and effect changes in home system, based ontheir peculiar circumstances and local conditions. These local conditions andcircumstances are not the same even internally, so education from the homefront would be differently influenced with different factors.

Furthermore, ‘studying education in different countries’ or ‘in one or group ofcountries’ as occurring in different definitions of Comparative Education ispointing to the imperativeness of internal examination of various influentialfactors that have produced dissimilar features and characteristics in thenational system of education. Having done this, another countries’ systemcan then be considered in reviewing one’s own system through comparisonand making informed decisions.

Where the definitions are limited to explanation of Comparative Education assystems in two or more countries it still means that educational theories andpractices of two countries must have been considered locally (examiningdifferent influential factors) in each of the two or more countries beforeascertaining the differences and similarities that will now characterise theposition(s) of the Comparative Educationist.

Some scholars see the concepts as aiming at discovering underlyingprinciples and factors which govern the development and practice of sucheducation systems. It therefore means that factors governing the developmentand practice of education cannot be the same across countries, so the needto give attention to the variations in the peculiarities of different countrieswhich is best achieved, first by local assessment of what is missing or neededto be adjusted.

Some also pointed to the fact that local conditions dictated what is nationallytaken to be system of education, therefore, the local features orcharacteristics within can be directly given attention in any comparativestudies.

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In view of the above, the conclusion about Comparative Education as a thingof national system only was valid before now, as the changing world has provedsome of those assertions and submissions archaic. Before now when ComparativeEducation evolved, there was the challenge of inadequate no literature in additionto the absence of the internet made possible through the help of science andtechnology which has facilitated the globalisation process. The earliest travellersembarked on the journey for the absence of these alternatives for their on-the-spotassessment. The early writers also focussed on the prevailing situations of that timewhich have now changed completely with modernity and era overtaken byInformation and Communications Technology. In today’s studies or researches inComparative Education, sourcing data may be by establishing contacts online(Skype, Google talk, yahoo group and several social networks), through telephoning,internet means etc. which were not available then, but fully utilized today forsourcing audio, video and textual information.

Even if the conceptions of all these scholars about Comparative Educationare about national systems, they ought to be acknowledged because their collectivepast initial efforts in the field have enriched the field considerably. Putting this inperspective, Larsen (2010) opined that their works have enabled us to understandbetter the educational systems, both past and now. This is the value of History ofEducation which has a close relationship with Comparative Education. To most ofthese scholars, time was contextualized and was not problematized. Therefore, itremains a challenge for today’s Comparative Education researchers to have a newfocus. As commented by Cowen (2002), ‘it is time then to move beyond thesenarrow conceptions of time in our Comparative research and envision new ways oftheorizing about time past; time present and time future’.

Nature of Comparative Education

There is no doubt that Comparative Education is an offshoot of History ofEducation, considering the manner in which it started, as a ‘traveller’s tales’.Comparative Education started in a descriptive or narrative manner, amounting towhat is known as telling the story about education which, therefore, means Historyof Education. However, History can not entirely lay claims to owning ComparativeEducation in the contemporary examination of its nature.

Today, the fields like Mathematics, Geography, Economics, Religion, SocialStudies, Sociology, Statistics, International Relations, and several other fields ofknowledge (in Arts and Social Sciences) are contributory factors in enriching thenature of Comparative Education in various ways.

Speaking about the nature of Comparative Education, Nwagugo (1999) considersthis field to be facing an unresolved problem of affiliation to one specific discipline.Traditionally, the field of Comparative Education developed as the contemporarypart of History of Education. Hence, it had its root in the discipline of History.

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However, Nwagugo was quick to assert that this is not to claim that History has anexclusive hold upon Comparative Education.

Scope of Comparative Education

The scope of anything simply entails what it covers. As noted by Okrigwe(2010), Comparative Education is a vast field of academic study which is difficult topin down to any strict normative definition. Anderson (1969), on his partsubmitted that Comparative Education is concluded to be an unmanageablecomprehensive field of study. Due to its vast nature, Anderson (1969) and Foster(1960-61) consider the viewpoints of studying Comparative Education from theperspectives of two groups of scholars in the field. For the purpose of clarification,these two groups are:

i. Scholars who lay emphasis on cross-cultural approach and the study ofparticular aspects of educational problems and structures within differentsocieties.

ii. Another group of scholars are those who are interested in the examination ofeducational processes and structures in their relations to other sets of socialinstitutions within a given society of cultural areas.

Based on the foregoing, Anderson (1969), therefore, captures the following as thefocus for which a Comparative Education researcher can base his studies:

School systems of a nation; Problems of educational provision and educational expansion, enrolment,

education and social mobility; Policy formulation and implementation; Colonial and contemporary education; Language, culture, history, religion, race as it affects education; Patterns of selectivity; and National philosophy and its influence on curriculum.

From another perspective, which all the areas highlighted by Anderson caneven be subsumed as a result of the vastness of Comparative Education as adiscipline, it can be inferred that the scope of Comparative Education is all that thediscipline is all about or concerns itself with, that is, having to examine thedifferences and similarities of educational systems across cultures and theappraisal of the purposes for which education is given or pursued in differentplaces which are recognisable from their educational aims and objectives.

In view of the above, identifying the differences and similarities in educationaltheories and practices are not enough or cannot be taken to mean ComparativeEducation until when the influencing factors producing such differences andsimilarities are examined, interpreted, analysed and conclusions drawn. IT is indoing this, that will gives any comparative study in education a value that it is trulycomparative.

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From the foregoing therefore, the scope of Comparative Education can besummarised as:

i. Reviewing the aims and objectives of educational systems in differentcultures

ii. Identifying and examining the differences and similarities in theeducational theories and practices across cultures/systems of differentcountries.

iii. Engaging in the interpretation, analysis and conclusion in the educationalcharacter of different countries.

The Relevance of Comparative Education in Teacher Preparation

Another question that should agitate the mind of any inquisitive person is whyshould a teacher in professional preparation process be subjected to the study ofComparative Education? Answers to the above question will provide ajustification for its place in the professional preparation of the teacher. Injustifying its inclusion in a teacher preparation progamme, Okonkwo (1988), Abe(1987), Adejumobi (1990), Adeyinka (1994), Azikiwe (1990) among others havelisted the following as the relevance

provides the teacher in a comprehensive way, the skill of gatheringeducational information about different countries since students have tocollect information about different national systems of education to bestudied before analysing them. Accordingly, the teacher is better fitted tostudy and understand their own educational system from the knowledgeof what exists in other countries;

helping the teacher to break down pedagogical parochialism orethnocentrism by promoting the development of sympatheticunderstanding of the educational thoughts, achievements and problemsof foreign countries;

helping the teacher to have an objective attitude towards educationalissues as such attitude is usually based on verifiable facts and figures;

providing the needed reliable information to understand the conditionsunder which educational programmes and systems operate and how theyvary and know which one to adapt;

helping the teacher to secure information which will be useful inimproving educational ideas, contents, methods and organization amongthe various educational systems of the world;

providing the teacher with the theoretical and practical frameworktowards understanding one’s own educational system, particularly whatthe educational institutions and processes are and what they are not;

enabling the teachers to identify educational problems, challenges,weaknesses, achievements and strengths in other systems which willhelp them anticipate similar weaknesses while planning theirs;

helping the teacher to develop the talent for constructive leadership fromknowledge of what exist in other countries;

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helping to develop an attitude of not considering any educational systemas unique because its knowledge will provide information that what isavailable to a country is not totally new as such has been in practice inother countries and that other systems have solutions to problems theyhave been unable to discover;

helping the teacher to formulate realistic ideals of education and reducegrowing criticisms about the existing system;

helping the teachers to speculate about the future of education for theircountries and make reasonable recommendations on how to correctpresent errors or improve on the present achievements for the future,thereby moving the world educational system forward.

enabling the teacher to understand the procedure and forces that makefor educational change- economic, social, political, religious, cultural,and so on;

helping to promote better international understanding as studies onmany educational systems will facilitate a better insight and also a betterknowledge of these people. This is of great value now that the world isgetting smaller and closer physically and culturally as a result oftechnological development in mobility and communication. It is for thisreason that Comparative Education is sometimes referred to asInternational Study of Education. According to Abe (1987), a group ofscholars have devoted their careers exclusively to the promotion of thisfield of studies; and above all

it is relevant for intellectual and professional reasons. Any schoolteacher/educator worth his/her salt should be aware of the variousmeans and methods of socializing the child in many societies of the worldin order to appreciate the many varieties in achieving the same objectives

Processes in Comparative Education

National Character of Education Systems

As mentioned earlier on, the character of education in any country is afunction of a number of factors. These factors influencing education in any namedcountry portray such country’s system in a way or manner that makes it verydistinctive to others. This gives such country the character for which her educationcan be recognised.

Kosemani (1995) in the classification of the national character of differentcountries’ education systems in the world identified and presented five (5)important classes bothering on policy, educational administration and control.These are:

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i. Some countries whose educational systems are characterised with stronglocal responsibilities and decentralised control of policies. Canada, Japan,U.S.A. and Switzerland among others belong to this category.

ii. Some are characterised with strong national responsibilities withcentralised control of education policy. Countries like Indonesia, Italy,Spain, Philippines, Irish Republic and many others are examplescountries that belong to this category.

iii. Some countries national systems of education are characterised with thedivision of educational responsibilities between the central (national) andthe subordinate units. Countries in this category are: Sweden, Britain,New Zealand, Demark and India etc

iv. Some countries educational systems are characterised with nationalcontrol of policy, but decentralised administrative details. Here, we havecountries like Argentina, China and Bulgaria.

v. The last but not the least of countries having peculiar character ofeducation, are those countries practising a system characterised bycentralised administrative control in individual states of the republic.Germany and Australia are found to be in this category.

In the recognition of the variations in the systems of education above aspointed out by Kosemani (1995), a number of factors determine the character ofvarious systems of education. This explains why in some countries, acombination of two or more of the above categories may be identifiable.

Factors Influencing or Determining Systems of Education

The system of education operative in any nation/society has a number offactors influencing its character. Some of these factors include:

i. History or Historical factorii. Politics or Political factoriii. Economy or Economic factoriv. Geography or Geographical/Environmental factorv. Social/Sociological factorvi. Religion or Religious factorvii. Ethnicity or Ethnic/Racial factorviii. Language or Linguistics factorix. Trade Union/Professional Association

Historical Factor

History which in simple term is the study of the past for the sakereconstructing the present from experiences of the past for the purpose of creatinga glorious future has so much to do with the education system prevalent in anycountry. History in the words of Cicero, cited by Read (2010:1610) is “the witness of thetime (past, present and the future), the torch of truth (as it is based on verifiable facts inmost cases), the life of memory, the teacher of life, (and) the messenger of antiquity”.

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Onyekwelu (2001:170) quoting Crokall defined history as the “distilled experiencesand wisdom of the past, relived by the historian in his efforts to grapple with the presentand by so doing giving his future a better place”. If the past was a disappointing one,lessons are learnt to avert its reoccurrence; on the other hand, if it was good, lessons areequally drawn to emulate the past for a promising future. Accordingly, history is not justthe study of the past as most uninformed persons would want people to believe. It is rathera continuous and unending process that spans through the past to the present and thenprojects one to the future.

Accordingly, the historical factor is hinged on studying the problems ofeducation by reflecting on and reviewing the past in the appraisal of currentmanifestations, for adjustment and projection for the future. The past they say isexperience and experience is the best teacher. Learning and drawing lessons fromthe events, issues and occurrences of the past provide current practices withdirection and focus, so the future can be prepared for. As noted by Paulley (2013:27),in looking into the past for the sake of reconstructing it in the present for the purpose ofthe glorious future, the historian digs into the very origin, to the earliest period that isrelevant to the issue at stake. This is the utilitarian nature of history as a discipline – avalue must be placed on the issue at stake to justify the historian’s inquiry process – theissue that has value for us here is lessons to learn from the educational systems of variouscountries.

The role of history in the system of education a country adopts cannot beunderestimated, as the nation’s history greatly influences its system of education.For instance, it has been found that American education grew out of its historicaldevelopment. American society is pluralistic and resulting in the conglomeration ofraces and people living therein. This situation informed why education America isnot nationalised. The socialist character of education in the old Russia as well asChina was as a result of their history. This also goes to explain the secularization ofeducation in China and Russia which has their roots in the oppressive feudalregimes (law relating to the systems by which people held land and protection inreturn for giving work or military help). Lawal (2004) reported that after the Persianwars, Athens had to change its system of education in line with its political statusas a cosmopolitan society (consisting of people from many different parts of theworld. The French centralized system of education is equally as a result of theirhistorical background.

Back in Africa, colonialism shaped the history of the system of education inthe continent. For example, the colonial system of the British, French, Portuguese,Belgian, Spaniards and others had their type or system of education directlyinfluencing the type of education found in the continent. For instance in the case ofNigeria, the early introduction of Islamic religion developed with it Islamic educationsystem in the north, while in the south, their historic contact with the Europeans atthe coast through commerce, colonialism and evangelism which later onmetamorphosed into Western system of education which clearly shows anadaptation of the colonial master’s educational system. However, it was the failureof the inherited colonial education system in meeting the needs and aspirations of

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the Nigerian society that informed the introduction of a new system of educationknown as the 6-3-3-4 system in the country which Paulley (2011) quoting Adeyinka(1994) submitted was equally borrowed largely from the USA and Japan educationalsystems.

Political Factor

It has come to stay and as a highly institutionalised practice that successivegovernments gaining control of political power continually structure the system ofeducation of the country or states, possibly to achieve their political goals. Whawo(1990) in supporting the above view, maintains that the ideology (political point ofview) of those in power differs, that is, some may be liberal, democratic, dictatorial,communalistic, capitalistic, humanistic or totalitarian etc. These political ideologiesstrongly reflect the nations’ educational systems. In a similar vein, Michael Manley

even in a multi-party situation, the central truth remainsthat education is a political agent because it must, in itsvery nature, either tend to preserve the status quo orpromote change, depending on how it is organized, whoorganizes it and the purpose for which it is put.

Manley went on to assert that education is an annex of political purpose and that itmust be taken as the primary agent that is available for that purpose. Accordingly,Kosemani (1995) and Lawal (2004) have opined that the type of leadership in acountry, his vision, interest and agenda for his people, the type of administration hewants to run, the programmes of his party through which he becomes the leaderamong other things to a great extent determine the national system of a country’seducation. Buttressing this, Kosemani (1995) submitted that in America during thespace race, the political leadership initiated a revolution in mathematics andscience education especially with the launching of Sputnik by Russia. In less thanten years after the event, the Americans overtook the Russians by landing men onthe moon. The Chinese revolution of 1949 brought in its wake a new system ofeducation that changed the society. In Africa, both Eyadema of Togo through hisNew Deal and Nyerere of Tanzania by his Education For Self-Reliance, providedpolitical leadership for educational development in their respective countries. In thecase of Tanzania, its education system under Nyerere was influenced by thepolitical ideology of African socialism since a greater percentage of the Tanzanianpopulation are farmers and live in the rural areas and for every Tanzanian to beself-reliant in line with the new educational policy, everybody is being exposed notonly to farming but also to the life in the rural areas. This makes the neweducational system in the country to truly represent the social, economic, culturalas well as the political reality of the country. The centralized education system inFrance is a decision of successive French governments. All these point to the factthat the vision, enthusiasm, motivation or lack of these by political leaders willdetermine and influence educational character in any country.

Another reason that may be advanced for the political control/influence ofeducation by the government in power is the fact that demand and provision ofeducation are becoming more complex in terms of enrolment figures, provision offacilities, maintenance of standards and others, therefore, calling for some kind ofcentrally coordinated management and planning.

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In Nigeria, the parties and their manifestoes are different, so the programmeson education are different too. The National Party of Nigeria (NPN’s) nationalgovernment under President Shehu Shagari did not have flare for free educationand as a matter of fact, the NPN’s manifesto did not provide for free education.However, in those states controlled by the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) of LateObafemi Awolowo, that is, Ogun State, Lagos State, Old Oyo (now with Osun State), Ondo (now with Ekiti State) and Bendel State (now with Edo and Delta States) andbriefly the Kwara State were giving ‘free education’ as contained the UPN’smanifesto. The era of Military Government, though, was not characterised withusing manifesto but still structured the country’s education in line with theirpromulgated decrees. The Apartheid policy in Southern Africa is also an area thatcan be considered as political influence on education system in that part of Africa.Others are the socialist systems of China and Tanzania, Canadian multi-racialapproach, as well as Cameroonian dual system, etc.

Economic Factor

Whatever the type or system of education any society or country may adopt, itis capital intensive. The Nigerian government or any other government of the worldrecognises education as a social service that requires money. United NationEducational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) along this line alsoadvocated 26% of a country’s national budget to be allocated to education annually.This is to say that importance in educational development cannot be treated withjust a wave of hand.

Basically, economic situation of any society determines to a large extent, thequality, content and perhaps, the methods of education of such country. The statusof countries’ economy dictates the level of educational development. For example inNigeria during her ‘oil boom’ era of the 70s, education benefitted immensely;resulting in the following:

i. The adoption of 6-3-3-4 systemii. nationalising the Universal Primary Education (UPE)iii. birth of the National Policy on Education for implementation of outcomes of

the National Curriculum Conferenceiv. establishment of more Federal Universitiesv. Establishment of Unity Schools (mixed and girls only)vi. Conversion of Advanced Teachers Colleges to Federal Colleges of Educationvii. Transforming Schools of Basic Studies and Colleges of Technology into

Federal or State Polytechnics and others too numerous to mention.

It is also evident that financial solvency of some countries have clearly giventhem the window of opportunity to make education of their citizens free up to aparticular age or level. In the former socialist Soviet Republic, education of everycitizen was catered for by the government. Libyans under Mohammad Ghadafienjoyed free education to the fullest. Few countries of the world provide freeeducation by bearing the cost at elementary/primary, secondary or tertiary,

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resulting from their financial buoyancy. For some governments that cannot fullyshoulder the responsibilities of education of their citizens, they have resulted todishing out bursary or scholarship awards (federal/national or states). In someNigerian states, students’ examinations fees (WAEC & NECO) are paid bygovernment for secondary school students and this has become the tradition.However in some states, parents are bearing the payment of everything abouteducation. This shows that money in education is an important factor.

From the individual perspective and the policy flexibility, a number of well-to-do citizens have displayed the affluence in the establishment of magnificent schoolsof high taste in the facilities and calibre of personnel; in line with the policy thatallows private participation in the educational provision. In Nigeria, privateestablishment of schools is not limited to primary and secondary schools, alone asthe educational laws of the country allow private investors to establish tertiaryinstitutions such as colleges of education, polytechnics and universities resulting inmany of these schools in the country in recent time. Economy of the country, stateand the individuals is, therefore, a very big influencing factor in the determinationof education character of any society.

Geographical/Environmental Factor

Another determinant of a country’s education system is the geographical orenvironmental factor. This includes the location of the country, the climaticconditions and the physical terrain of the environment. All these in essence dictatehow the school buildings should be structured and located, the means oftransportation determined (based on the terrain), age at which a child will startschool so as to cope with the environment, decision on compulsory nature of schoolattendance is determined by the climate and country’s configuration. A goodexample here is that of Scandinavian countries with their severe winters and snowstorms, making them not to operate an open-air school system, as may be done inthe tropical regions such as the northern Nigeria where teaching and learning couldbe done in the open, even under the tree.

Again, the courses or academic programmes of the educational institutionsoften have a significant relevance or relationship with their environmental andgeographical configurations of a country. This factor is reflected in the type ofengineering, medical, agricultural, geological, architectural and other related issuesbeing offered in the universities and colleges across the globe. In other words,therefore, it is in response to the geographical or environmental requirements of anycountry that educational courses are designed after all education received is toenable its recipient become a functional member of the society by solving itschallenges with the knowledge acquired. Nigeria for example, almost all theeducational institutions in the Niger Delta, more especially at the tertiary level, as aresult of the region’s configuration and its environmental requirement (with largebody of water and oil rich environment) have designed courses/academicprogrammes in Fishery, Snailery, Petroleum and Gas Engineering and so on. Whilein the rocky and mountainous South-Western and North-Eastern Nigeria; Solid

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Mineral Technology, Mining, Metallurgical Engineering, Geology are major featuresof their academic programmes. In those forested parts of South-Western and South-Eastern Nigeria, Forestry, Wild-Life and General Agriculture are the major coursesoffered in their educational institutions at the tertiary level. Clothing and TextileTechnology, Food Science and Technology, Agriculture and like are uniqueacademic programmes found in the institutions all over the North-Western part. Inthe clayey North-Central, Ceramics and Pottery Technology, Arts and Designs,Agriculture are some of the special areas of academic programmes in their collegesand universities.

Language or Linguistic Factor

Language in the countries or societies educational system is an importantfactor that cannot be done away with. Since education involves communication andinteraction, then language will definitely have role to play in the system of country’seducation, particularly where there is diversity of people and language. Canada andCameroon have both French and English speaking group of citizens. In manyoccasions, books are written and produced in so many languages for internationalreaders.

As recognised by the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, threemajor languages of Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba have their influence on the nationaleducation of Nigeria. On the other hand, the regional division of the country issynonymous with these three languages; however, more languages are now beingaccorded importance, particularly those of the minority groups. The influence oflanguage on the Nigerian education system is manifested in the provision of theNational Policy on Education (FRN:2004), which requires one Nigerian languageother than the candidate’s other than his own as a must for the student in theSenior School Certificate Examination (SSCE). At the primary school level, teachersare mandated by the National Policy on Education (FRN:2004) to use the locallanguage of the pupils to teach them. To this extent, universities, colleges inrespective regions now offer their languages to students e.g. in the Northerninstitutions, Hausa language is offered, in the West and East, Yoruba and Igbolanguages respectively form part of their academic programmes. In writing booksand other readable materials, language is now given a very significantconsideration.

Speaking on the importance of language as one of the determinants of thenational character of a country’s education system, Hans (1952) as quoted by Lawal(2004:38 writes as follows:

The fact remains that each tribe or group of tribe or groupof tribes had an original language of its own which suitedits environments and its stage of cultural development.Each succeeding generation grow to adulthood through themedium of that language and with it imbibed the tribalexperience, tribal interpretation of the world and tribalsuperstitions and prejudices. Through the language, they

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became members of their tribe and continued tribaltraditions.

Religious Factor

Evangelism is no longer limited to winning of souls, but spreading as wild firein the aspect of seeking religious recognition and claiming supremacy or superiorityof one religion over the others. This is seen in the establishment of educationalinstitutions. Schools at all levels are now being established by the religious body asprivate proprietors. In Nigeria today, a large percentage of private schools arecoming from the religious bodies. Abdulrahman-Yusuf (2013), reported that thereare a total number of 128 universities, 40 of which are being federally owned, 38state-owned and 50 owned by private individuals and organisations; providinguniversity education to Nigerians. Out of the total private universities, 71% of thenumber is owned by religious based organisations.

From another viewpoint, government recognises religion and issues affectingreligion in its policies and decisions relating to education. This is because publicholidays are observed on by the religious entities which are respected by the schoolcalendar of the country. For instance, on Fridays, official engagements likeexaminations, meetings and other statutory functions are cancelled or put on holdfor the period of Muslims observance of Juma’at (Friday’s afternoon prayers), soalso, is Sunday officially set aside and dedicated for Christian worship and so nostatutory school activities is being carried out on Sundays in Nigeria. The earliestschools in Nigeria were founded, administered and financed by the Christianmissions. Later, Moslems started establishing schools for their children and thechildren of the converts.

On the importance of religion to the development of national educationalpolicies or systems, Lawal (2004:41-42) again quoting Hans (1952) stated that

the spiritual factors are not necessarily opposed to the materialbackground- often they are complementary to it and when bothare working in harmony, they produce a flourishing period ofnational culture. On the other hand, a spiritual ideal conceived inthe remote past and inherited without adaptation by thefollowing generations or transferred from a foreign country with adifferent tradition may become an obstacle to the natural growthof national culture and deter its progress. Among spiritualinfluences, religion is the most powerful, because it appeals tothe whole man and not only to his intellect. Religion penetratesthe emotional depths of human nature, it conditions habitualreactions in daily life and it colours the reasoning ability of acreative mind. Thus, the religious tradition, if it embraces thewhole nation, it becomes one of the characteristic nationalfeatures, which is then perpetuated through education. In anycountry of the world, where there are many religions, thegovernment of such a country is duty bound to take intoconsideration the interest of the various groups while formulatingeducational policies. The importance of religion in the

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development of a country’s educational system or policies cannotbe overemphasized.

Ethnic Factor

Education is not spared of the play of ethnicity. Discrimination andregional/state identification officially exist as part of educational character of theNigerian State. In the payment of tuition/school fees, delineation of indigenousstudents and non-indigenous students has brought about a wide differential in thefees paid by these two categories of students. Indigenes pay less and reduced fees,while the non-indigenes pay more, particularly in the state-owned tertiaryinstitutions.

Methods/Approaches of Comparative Education Studies

Some new methods of studying Comparative Education have evolved in thefield now. This is not limited to the previously known methods of Problem SolvingApproach by Brian Holmes and the Eckstein and Noah’s Scientific Method etc.Methods like Area Study, Field Study, Case Study, Statistical and Gastronomic areamong some of the current methods used in Comparative Education studies. It is,therefore, imperative to note that educational issues can be locally or nationallysubjected to comparative examination or analysis using any of the different evolvingmethods.

Area Study Approach

This method is one of the contemporary methods or approaches used in thecomparative study of education. Area Study method is that in which acomparativist limits or restricts him/herself to a particular location or area bycomplying with the principles of Area Study. These principles are:

i. Learning the language of the environment in which the study is to beundertaken

ii. Travelling and residing in the place of studyiii. Removal of observer’s own cultural and personal biases

From the foregoing, ‘area’ in this context according to Lawal (2004) may be ageographical location designated for a comparative study community such as acommunity, village, a city, town, a local government area, a state or a region,country or even continent, as long as the researcher captures or designates it as anarea for the study.

A very good example of a personality who is qualified to have met andobserved the above three principles was Susane Wenger, a European (Austrian)and a renowned traditionalist and revered priest of the Osun Osogbo (a rivergoddess and one of the Yoruba deities). Wenger, also known as Adunni Olorisatravelled to Oshogbo via Ede in 1950 and met Ajagemo, her mentor- the high priestof Obatala (the creator god) who introduced her to Yoruba religion. Wenger says “Hetook me by the hand and led me into the spirit world”.

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The above summarises the fact that she was a comparative researcher whocame in contact with another culture which she eventually became engrossed.Based on Area Study approach, Wenger ended up learning the language of theYorubas, chanting the panegyrics and incantations, even better than the Yorubas.She lived the rest of her life in the Yoruba ancient town of Oshogbo and never sawthis traditional practice as barbaric or uncivilised. These qualities seen in Wengermade it possible for her to be exposed to the secret and spirit world of the Yorubatraditional belief by Ajagemo, high priest of Obatala as a comparative educationist.

George Bereday is one prominent scholar who did a remarkable study onmethods of comparative study in education. With particular reference to area studyapproach in the study of Comparative Education, Bereday (1964) clearly outlinesfour (4) stages which a comparative educationist can adopt to carry out his/herstudy using this method. These are:

i. Descriptive Stage: This is a stage where the researcher is expected toreview related written materials (literature) by local and foreign authoritieson the system of education of the designated/appointed area to bestudied. In addition to the review of literature by the researcher, Bereday(1964) and Lawal (2004) advocate that a researcher using Area Studymethod is required to visit the area of his/her study, to enable thehim/her have an on-the-spot assessment. This is in compliance to theprinciple of area study method as earlier highlighted.

ii. Interpretative Stage: Here, the researcher collates the facts and figures(data/information) collected from different sources. The researcher thenanalyses the gathered data on the educational theories and practices ofthe studied area, to produce authentic report on the focus of the research.

iii. Juxtapository Stage: This is a follow up of the above stage in which theresults obtained from the interpretative stage will then be put side by sidewith what is obtainable in the researcher’s own environment or location.This is the point where differences and similarities are identified by thecomparative educationist.

iv. Comparative Stage: This is the last stage where a researcher is expected tomake detailed objective comparison, which is, comparing and contrastingthe results from interpretative stage. Comparative stage is where criticaldiscussions are undertaken to show the characteristics of similarities anddifferences produced by education of the studied area with theresearcher’s own location or area, advancing reasons in the forces andfactors that produced the differences and similarities. These forces andfactors are the factors which influence the character of education indifferent places. It is here whatever hypotheses that might have guided the

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comparative educationist will either be accepted or rejected to concludethe process.

Field Study Approach

This is another method of contemporary study in Comparative Education. Itis just an extension of the Area Study method where a Comparative researchercarries out his/her study in two or more locations simultaneously by visitinglocations to location under the investigative searchlight of the comparativeeducationist. The approach is as old as the field of Comparative Education. Writingon this approach, Lawal (2004:30) citing Brickman (1966) said

Visitation of foreign countries whether for the purpose ofcommerce, conversation curiosity or conflict, goes back toancient history, travellers in all historical periods must havebrought back facts and impression concerning the cultures ofthe other countries they had visited. Included in their reportsmust have been comments relating to the young and theirupbringing. They may also have made some remarksregarding the similarities and differences in the ways ofeducating children. Some, indeed, may have arrived atconclusions involving the expression of value judgments.

The use of field study approach in conducting comparative study requires theconsideration of the followings:

i. Preparatory Stage: This is the stage in which the ComparativeEducationist is expected to be fully prepared, as the name of the methodimplies, before embarking on carrying out his study. In using this method,the researcher has to collect certain underlying information about thegeneral ways of life (social, political, cultural, economic status) of places tobe visited, in addition to the priority on their theories and practices ofeducation.

ii. Investigatory and Analytical Stage: Visiting various places to be coveredmeans that the researcher is on the field. He collects data, collates andprocessed them (analysis). This method, therefore, requires the researcherto formulate hypotheses. In testing these hypotheses, it gives theresearcher a focus on what to look out for in the study. This is whyNwagugo (1999) submits that hypotheses are tentative answers to theresearch problems.

iii. Evaluatory and Comparative Stage: This is where the researcher, on returnfrom the various visits to study areas, now focuses on the examinationand establishment of the areas of differences and similarities in theeducational theories and practices of the places visited for the study.

Case Study Approach

This is also one of the commonly used methods in comparative studies today.A Case Study as a method of studying comparative education can simply be

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explained as ‘giving consideration to parts from a whole’. In studying ComparativeEducation, the breaking down of a ‘whole’ into manageable parts or proportion isknown as the case study. For instance, a study of the National Policy on Educationmay be subjected to a case study by picking aspect of the policy as basis ofcomparison in different places of its operation. The 6-3-3-4 system is a whole andstudying primary (the first numeric 6 years of primary schooling) may be a casestudy. Secondary education can also be taken as a whole and a case study of thismay consider junior or senior secondary level for comparison in two or morelocations.

A case study on the other hand at the national level may an examination ofgeneral educational issues, but focussing or directing the study on delimitedarea(s). For instance,

the Role of Tertiary Institutions in Technological Advancement of Nigeria, Acase Study of Universities of Technology and Polytechnics.

an Appraisal of the 6-3-3-4 System of Nigerian Education, A Case Study ofthe UBE segment.

Government’s Intervention in Early Childhood Care Development andEducation, A Case Study of Rivers and Abia States.

states paying WAEC or and NECO fees: A case study of Bayelsa and KwaraStates.

At the international level, a case study research may apply the same way asgiven below as thus:

University Education in National Development, a Case Study of Gambia,Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. This is a comparative study, using casestudy.

An Assessment of Implementation Strategies of the MDGs, A Case Study ofNigeria and Cameroun

Nigerian and Foreign Students Performance in Information andCommunications Technology (ICTs) and

Nigerian Students in University of Manitoba, Canada; A Case Study ofPerformances in Engineering and Medicine.

Historical Approach

One way of comparing national systems of education is by looking forinformation into the evolutionary processes of these systems. It is for reason thatKosemani (1993) conceived Comparative Education as “a study of the history ofeducation into the present”. Hans (1967:10), in support of the use of the historicalapproach in the study of Comparative Education had opined that

the modern national systems of education are projected bothinto the past and into the future. As their national past wereformed by factors often common to many nations and as theirideals at the future are outcome of universal movements, theproblems of education in different countries are similar andthe principles which guide their solutions may be compared

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and even identified. The analytical study of these factors froma historical perspective and the comparison of attemptedsolution of resultant problems are the main purpose ofComparative Education.

The historical approach according to Okorosaye-Orubite (1995) and Lawal(2004) thus enables the Comparative Educationist to identify the factors that areresponsible for the current education system of the country being studied.Kosemani (1993:2) identified three basic elements in the historical approachnamely: repertorial descriptive, historical-functional and melioristic.

In the reportorial element of the historical approach the ComparativeEducationist simply describes and analyses the available historical data,documentary and oral evidence to reconstruct the past. The historical-functionalelement of the historical approach deals with the determinants, causes or reasonsresponsible for the development of the phenomenon being studied becauseeducation is not independent of its environment. Emphasizing this point, Kandel(1933:xix) writes.

In order to understand, appreciate and evaluate the realmeaning of the educational system of a nation, it isessential to know something of its history and traditions,of the forces and attitudes governing its socialorganization, of the political and economic conditions thatdetermine its development.

The third element which is the melioristic element uses historical analysis forthe improvement of education along national boundaries by projecting into thefuture through the prescription of certain measures that are aimed at improvingthe system. In trying to prescribe, Okokrosaye-Orubite (1995) as cited byPaulley (2010) states that, there is the tendency for the historian (ComparativeEducationist) to go for an ‘ideal’ situation, which may be difficult to implement.In spite of this, the knowledge of the ideal system will awaken in the mind ofadministrators and planners of the education system the inadequacies of thesystem and consequently create the consciousness required for change.Whatever the shortcomings of the historical approach, it is of immense value incomparative studies in education.

Statistical Approach

This method of conducting a Comparative Education research is that whichinvolves the collection and presentation of information on the development ofeducation in each of the study locations, focussing on educational administration,admission levels or policies, staff and students’ performances, educationalexpenditures, facilities and equipment, enrolment, retention and dropout figuresetc. All these are stated in a statistical or quantitative pattern for comparison withother places educational development. In his observation, Kandel (1933:29)explains statistical method in Comparative education as that which makescomparison on:

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...the total national expenditures for education, thecost, size and character of school buildings, percapital cost for different items of expenditure ineducational systems, the enrolment, averageattendance and retention of pupils through thedifferent levels of educational ladder

While examining the merit of statistical method in Comparative Education,Nwagugo (1999) remarks that statistical information are easily compared andutilized in Comparative Education because one set of statistical data or graphs caneven contain educational information of one or more countries at the same time.

A study carried out by Abdulrahman-Yusuf in 2010 can be used in thiscontext to explain the use of statistical method for Comparative Education study.

Enrolment of Boys and Girls in School in British West African (1st Half 20thCentury)

Countries StudentsPop.

Boys Girls Difference inFavour of Boys

Total No. No. % No. % No. %

The Gambia 2,179 1,422 65.3 757 34.7 665 30.5

Sierra Leone 21.082 14,570 69.1 6,512 30.9 8,058 38.2

Gold Coast

(Ghana)

63,466 48,285 76.1 15,181 23.9 33,104 52.2

Nigeria 248,606 203,688 81.9 44,918 18.1 158,770 63.9

Source: Abdulrahman-Yusuf (2010) Favoured, but Unintended: A Review of British Cross-

Cultural Impact on Gender Education in Former Colonial West Africa.

Chart Representation

0102030405060708090

Gambia Sierra Leone

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The Gambia 2,179 1,422 65.3 757 34.7 665 30.5

Sierra Leone 21.082 14,570 69.1 6,512 30.9 8,058 38.2

Gold Coast

(Ghana)

63,466 48,285 76.1 15,181 23.9 33,104 52.2

Nigeria 248,606 203,688 81.9 44,918 18.1 158,770 63.9




Sierra Leone Ghana Nigeria

Boys in %

Girls in %

% in favour of Boys

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The Gambia 2,179 1,422 65.3 757 34.7 665 30.5

Sierra Leone 21.082 14,570 69.1 6,512 30.9 8,058 38.2

Gold Coast

(Ghana)

63,466 48,285 76.1 15,181 23.9 33,104 52.2

Nigeria 248,606 203,688 81.9 44,918 18.1 158,770 63.9




% in favour of Boys

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Source: Abdulrahman-Yusuf (2010) Favoured, but Unintended: A Review of British

Cross-Cultural Impact on Gender Education in Former Colonial West Africa.

The above statistical records, shows the percentage of gender disparity ineducational enrolment in the countries selected for the comparative study. Forinstance, in the chart above, it is clearly seen that boys in Gambia have 30.5%,Sierra Leone have 38.2% boys enrolment difference over girls. In Ghana andNigeria, the percentage differences in favour of boys were 52.2% and 63.9%respectively over girls in enrolment in the period covered by the study.

It is important to state that the Comparative Educationist using this methodwill not only to leave the result above in its statistical form, but to be supportedwith explanation of the influential factors that produced such result. Therefore,comparative value of the above can be seen in the explanation given below:

It is important to state that the percentage differences infavour of boys in Ghana and Nigeria are higher because ofthe students’ total population in school at that time. Thistherefore means that the population of students in schooldictates the emerging difference in favour of either theboys or girls in the study (Abdulrahman-Yusuf, 2010).

Similarly, pie chart and graphical illustrations are some other

examples and an assumption that can best explain statistical method

in Comparative Education. These are presented below:

Pie Chart Graphical Illustration

Scientific Approach

Scientific approach as a method of carrying out comparative education study cansimply be summarised as having the following characteristics namely

Egypt34%

SouthAfrica 22%

Nigeria54%

02468

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Series 3

Series 2

Series 1

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i. study is carried out empirically by formulating hypothesis to guide itsstudy;

ii. definition of key concepts;iii. setting out variables aimed at making the study scientific;iv. the instrument meant for the study has to be validated; and thev. using statistics in the analysis of issues under study as another feature of

scientific method.

It is important that scientific method should be encouraged in the study ofcomparative education to make the outcome of such studies to have wideracceptability since anyone in doubt can easily replicate the process by followingthe set procedure to validate result. This remove the problem of what historianscall the historical criticism, which could be either external or internal, as onlytrustworthy usable data known as historical evidence will be used. Externalcriticism in historical research according to Best and Kahn (2007:89) means aprocess whereby the authenticity or genuineness of data collected is tested, herefollowing the laid down procedure. That is, are the facts consistent with knownfacts about the problem under investigation? On the other hand internal criticismhas something to do with the historian (here the comparative educationist)evaluating the accuracy, reliability or worthwhileness of the data so generatedthrough this process. This in sum is to make room for the data to meet theconditions of the evidence generated worthy of serious consideration.

Gastronomic Approach

This is a method in which both the diet as well the eating habit of the peoplein a particular country are related to the practices of their education. Even thoughit is a very popular approach in contemporary comparative education study, itdraws its strength from the nature-nurture discourse as a factor influencing thelearning among learners.

Problem/Thematic Approach

This approach involves the identification and studying of an educationalproblem within the context of its origin, nature, scope and causes in anygeographical location (community, state, region or country) that are common todifferent states/countries. Usually, attempts are made to provide solution toidentified problems, especially as they affect one’s own place or cultures so thatgeneralizations could be made since the issues under investigation are similar.Emphasizing the importance of this method in comparative study, Hans ((952:56-59) wrote that Comparative Education

is not to compare existing systems but to envisage reformbest suited to new social and economic conditions…Comparative Education quite resolutely looks into the futurewith a firm intent to reform… Thus our subject has adynamic character with the utilitarian purpose.

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He goes further to argue that

the problems of education in different countries aresimilar and the principles which guide their solution maybe compared and even identified. The historicalperspective and the comparison of attempted solutions ofresultant problems are the main purpose of ComparativeEducation.

Okorosaye-Orubite (1995:27), thus opined that the problem-solving/thematicapproach provides the selection of themes which are educational problems cuttingacross different countries, the collection of data in historical and presentperspectives, provision of attempted solutions properly examined to determinepotency, compared and contrasted and subsequently recommended for applicationon an across national basis ,however, taking into consideration of local variations.

Engagements in Comparative Education Study

Engaging in Comparative Education studies after identifying the countries orlocations to be studied and methods to adopted in carrying out this, a number ofconsiderations have to be made, focusing on which aspect(s) of education the studywould be directed. In doing this, most Comparative Education texts do not seem togive consideration to the very important information that should precede suchstudy. Here, efforts are made to highlight these because of limited space allotted forthe authors in the book.

Taking Nigeria for example, the study has to be carried out, based on thefollowing headings that will reflect characteristic features of a chosen study area:

a. Background Informationi. Country’s/Study Area’s Nameii. Land and people (tribal/ethnic composition)iii. Geographical Location (latitude & longitude continent, region), population density, ,iv. Political Information (date of independence, president, capital, number of states,)v. Climatic Details (vegetation, seasons, relief & drainages etc.)vi. Brief historical details (languages, traditional occupations, religious practices etc.)

b. Educational Structuresi. Pre-Primary- Early Childhood Education (nursery, kindergarten, crèche,)ii. Primaryiii. Post-Primary (secondary)iv. Post-Secondary – technical and vocational education, Higher School Certificate (HSC)v. Tertiary (colleges of education, mono/polytechnics, universities)

c. Educational Elementsi. Technical and vocational educationii. Teacher educationiii. Special educationiv. Adult Educationv. Curriculumvi. Teaching methodology

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vii. School administration and nomenclaturesviii. Pattern of school buildingix. Forms of discipline

x. School calendard. Control of Education

i. Government-centralised controlii. Government-decentralised controliii. Other forms devolution in controliv. Church/Mission or Religious bodyv. Individuals

e. Educational Financingi. Government (public)ii. Private individualsiii. Corporate organisationsiv. Donor Agencies

f. Contemporary Educational Issuesi. Education for All (EFA)ii. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)iii. Globalisation and educationiv. Inclusive educationv. Homeschooling etc.

g. International Multilateral Organisations’ Interventionsi. UN and other global agencies – UNICEF, UNESCO, UNDP, IBRD, WHOii. Organisations and Foundations of U.S. Origin – USAID, Ford, MacArthur Carnegie &

Rockefelleriii. Organisations and Foundations of British Origin – Commonwealth, British Council, DFID

It has to be clearly stated here that having provided the background information, any item or sub-item as provided above can be comprehensively treated and comparatively examined, the situations in twoor more different places; bringing out the similarities and differences that are characterised with one ormore predisposing factors that will ultimately give the study a comparative value. For instance,comparative study can be carried out, focusing on primary education in Nigeria and Ghana, Gendereducation in Northern and Southern parts of Nigeria. Inclusive education in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa etc may be a focus for Comparative Education studies.

It has to be clearly stated here that having provided the backgroundinformation, any item or sub-item as provided above can be comprehensivelytreated and comparatively examined the situations in two or more different places;bringing out the similarities and differences that are characterised with one ormore predisposing factors that will ultimately give the study a comparative value.For instance, comparative study can be carried out, focusing on primary educationin Nigeria and Ghana, Gender education in Northern and Southern parts of Nigeria.Inclusive education in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa etc may be a focusfor Comparative Education studies.

Qualities of a Good Comparative Educationist

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Education Comparative is to set out provide reliable information abouteducational systems, ideals, challenges and activities aimed at improvingeducational ideas, methods and organizations among the various educationalsystems of the world. This being the case, there is the need for the arrowhead thiswhole process being the Educational Comparativist to possess certain qualities thatwill give credibility to his/her findings and conclusions. These qualities accordingto Lawal (2004) include the following:

Objectivity: A good Comparative Educationist should be objective in his/heranalysis of other people’s educational theories and practices regardless oftheir population, race, size and complexion. In other words, he/she shouldnot be biased against the system he or she is about. The report must bebased on what is found on the ground concerning education.

Readiness to Visit Foreign Places: A good Comparative Educationist shouldnot always stay at home relying on information gathered from books alone.He/she should go beyond this by visiting the places whose educationaltheories and practices he is studying, as this will enhance the objectivity ofthe study. In essence the Comparative Educationist should not be an armedchair researcher but should read to visit other places in his/her search forinformation to enhance his/her work. The presence of the internet to a greatextent has made this a lot more much easier.

Interest to Read Education Books Widely and Vastly: A good EducationalComparativist should have special interest in reading books on foreigneducation systems as he/she ought not to be ignorant of educationaltheories and practices not only in his/her country but also outside his/hercountry. He/she read vast and widely to enable him/her make validcomparison.

He/She must be Honest: This is needed for the Educational Comparativistto arrive at an objective, acceptable, valid and reliable conclusion that canstand the test of time.

Should Be Computer/Internet Friendly: In addition to the above qualitieslisted by Lawal (2004), there the need for an Educational Comparativist hissalt to be a friend of both the computer and the internet as they needed tomake him/her be in tune with current trends in the field. This is to enhancethe gathering up-to-date pieces of information concerning the issues underhis/her consideration. The internet has made the sourcing of authenticinformation a lot more easier as the Educational Comparativist only need tomake online contacts to any of the internet service providers such as Skype,Google talk , g-mail yahoo group and several social networks), throughtelephoning, internet means etc. These were not available in the past, butare in full utilization today for sourcing audio, video and textual informationby the Educational Comparativist.

Common Educational Challenges of Developing Countries

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These are countries that neither have stable political nor economic systems.This state of affairs in these countries is caused majorly by their forceful integrationinto world capitalist system through the colonialism. The effect of this on thesecountries’ state of development is that they are poor, backward in educationalattainments among others things. Our concern here is, however, limited to theeducational challenges of these countries. It is true that no two states or countriesin the world may have same challenges, yet the challenges of these states orcountries in terms educational provisions are similar. Some of these similareducational challenges of these countries as listed by Lawal (2004) are

Underfunding of the educational sector Poor statistical data Ethnicity in the provision of educational facilities Religious challenges Political and governmental instability Cultural differences Poor school attendance among children due to urge to make quick wealth Lack of qualified teachers due to the poor image of the teacher in most of

these countries as well as government inability to employ teachers in theright proportion to execute the educational policy of their respectivecountries.

Inadequate motivation of the teaching personnel Poor economy leading to the financial difficulty to in implementing the policy

of education in most of these countries as provided in the statues books.

Conclusion

This chapter has periscope the major issues in Comparative Education withreference to its meaning, historical evolution, nature, scope, its founding fathers,processes such as factors influencing the national character of education systemsof countries in the world, methods/approaches, its relevance in teacher preparationand engagements in the field. In addition to these, it has equally thrown light onthe qualities required of a good Comparative Educationist as well as some commonchallenges facing developing countries of the world with reference to educationaldevelopment. All these are aimed at equipping the budding ComparativeEducationist in one piece the basic things he/she needs to resolve the challengeshe might be faced with in his/her attempt at studying the educational systems ofvarious countries of the world. It is hoped that, by this way the ComparativeEducationist might be in a better position as he is equipped with tools to rescue theworld from what Okorosaye-Orubite (1995:28) called the ‘global education crises’.

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STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION: ISSUES, PROCESSES AND ENGAGEMENTS

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