Strengthening the Bond:

SCIENCE 6 TEXTILESPREPRINTS

Compiled by Virginia J.Whelan

North American Textile Conservation Confere nce 2002

April 5 and 6,2002

- HELD AT -

Philadelphia Museum of Art rsr- philsflslphia, pennsylvania

Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library cr\, Wintspthur, Delaware

The Preprints of the North American Textile Conservation Conference 2002:

Strengthening the Bond: Science and Textiles

is published by the North American Textile Conservation Conference 2002.

Responsibiliry for the methods and/or materials described herein rests solely

with the conrriburors and should not be considered official statement of the NATCC organizing body.

preprints are distributed ro attendees of the NAICC 2002. Additional copies may be purchased.

Please contact the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Textile conservation,

P.O. Box 7546,Phlladelphia, PA 19101-7646 USA for details'

Volume 3. CoPYright 2002

The North American Textile Conservation Conference.

All rights reserved by individual authors.

Cover art: Detail from bedcover

John Hewson (7744-t821)

Philadelphia, PA, c. 1800

105" x 1.03' (266.7 x261,.6 cm)

Cofton plain weave with block printing

Owned by the Philadelphia Museum of ArtGift of John P. Hodgson, .fr., 1930-100-1

Photo by Joe Mikuliak

John Hewson (1744-1821.) is one of the very few eighteenth-century American

textile printers whose work can be identified. Before emigrating to the colonies, he

is known to have worked at Bromley Hall, near London. Hewson was persuaded

by Benjamin Franklin, sraresman, diplomat, and signer of the Declaration of

Independence, to settle in Philadelphi a in I773 where Hewson established himself

as one of the first textile printers in North America'

The printed bedcover in the Philadelphia Museum of Art was bequeathed to one

of Hewson's daughters and given to the museum by a descendent. Two additional

bedcovers are known to exist; one is in a private collection while the other is owned

by Winterthur Museum, Garden 8c Library.'lTinterthur's bedcover

(1963.0048) is stamped "FM" for Frances lWardale Lieber McAliister' who rnarried

John McAllister in Philadelphia in 1783. \Tinterthur also owns a fragment (below)

donated bv a descendent of .fohn Hewson'

Textile fragment

John Hewson (1,744-182f)

Philadelphia, PA, c. 1800

10.5" x 8" (26.7 cm x 20.3 cm)

Cotton plain weave with block printing

Courtesy'Winterthur Museum, Garden & Library

Gift of Claire Herbert Hogan 1982'01'00

A, BENEATH THE SURFACE:SALT MOVEMENT INARCHAE OLOGICAT TEXTI tE S

Glennda Susan Marsh-Letts and Samuel B. Adelojw

ABSTRACT-An understanding of the physical and chem-

ical nature of ancient Egyptian linen, while interesting for

its own sake, is also important as a prerequisite for the suc-

cessful conservation treatment, display and storage of

archaeological linen. Treatments for archaeological textiles

that contain salts were tested. A combination of optical

microscopy, environmental scanning electron microscopy

(ESEM), ion chromatography (IC) and energy dispersive

X-ray analysis (EDXA) has been successfully used to distin-

guish between the natural fiber of an ancient Egyptian linen

and salts or other foreign matter absorbed into the linen. In

particular, the use of ESEM enabled the observation and

recording of the movement of salts within the fibers, in real

time, during cycles of hydration and dehydration. Results

indicated that a long water washing to remove salts, soils

and organic deposits, followed immediately by carefully

controlled freeze drying, was effective in preserving the

integrity of the linen, but also suggest that some salts

remain within the fibers. This study can be interpreted as

demonstrating the effectiveness of carbonates as buffering

agents for organic materials by showing that these materials

have aided in the preservation of Egyptian linen (a 4,000+

years natural ageing test!). However, this study also raises

questions about the advisabiliry of deliberately introducing

crystalline materials-salts-into fiber structures withinfluctuating environments. This has implications for the care

of archaeological textiles and the care of linen painting sup-

ports that have been sized with carbonate materials.

Daeeyo DE LA SUIERFICIE: MovruIcNto DE sALES

EN TEXTTLES ARQUEOL6GTCOS.

RESUMEN-La comprensi6n de la naturaleza fisica y

quimica del lino del antiguo Egipto, interesante de por si,

es tambi6n importante como prerrequisito para el exitoso

tratamiento de conservaci5n, exhibici6n y dep6sito del lino

arqueol6gico. Se hicieron pruebas de los tratamientos en

textiles arqueol6gicos que conten(an sales. Los resultados

indicaron que un lavado prolongado con agua para

remover sales, suciedades y dep6sitos orgdnicos; seguido en

forma inmediata por un secado por congelaci6n cuidadosa-

mente controlado, puede proporcionar excelentes resulta-

dos; sin embargo algunas sales permanecerin dentro de las

fibras.

Utilizando una combinaci6n de microscopia 6ptica

ESEM (Microscopio de Barrido Electr6nico Ambiental), IC

(Cromatografia Ionica) y XRDA (Andlisis de rayos-X de

Dispersia de Energia) para el an6lisis de muestras de fibras

individuales, de lino del antiguo Egipto, fue posible distin-

guir entre la fibra natural de lino y cualquier sal o materia

extrafla que el lino hubiera absorbido. Un avance exitoso y

productivo es indudablemente el uso de ESEM para la

observaci6n y el registro del movimiento de las sales dentro

de las fibras, en tiempo real, durante los ciclos de

hidrataci6n y deshidrataci6n.

Este estudio puede interpretarse como la demostraci6n

de la efectividad de los carbonatos como una barrera

neutralizadora para materiales org6nicos, demostrando que

estos materiales han ayudado en la preservaci6n de linos

egipcios (prueba de envejecimiento natural de mis de 4,000

aflos). Sin embargo, este estudio tambi6n genera inqui-

etudes acerca de la conveniencia de introducir deliberada-

mente materiales cristalinos-sales- dentro de la estructura de

las fibras en ambientes fluctuantes. Esto tiene implicaciones

para el cuidado de textiles arqueol6gicos y de soportes de

pintura en lino a los cuales se les ha colocado apresto con

materiales carbonatados.

l.INTRODUCTION

In order to understand the chemical and biological rea-

sons behind the survival of archaeological textiles it has

been necessary to look below the surface and to identify

what is present within the archaeological textiles. This

knowledge may help reveal how the fibers have interacted

with the archaeological deposit, and yield clues to the fac-

North American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002 ig\, 69

tors that have aided the preservation of the textiles. The

need for such investigation has been clearly highlighted by

\fild (1990) who stated that, "We talk glibly about tex-

tiles preserved in damp anaerobic peat-bogs or the dry

desert conditions of the Near East; but we still do not

understand fully the reasons why textiles survive in

archaeological contexts and therefore the treatment which

they require for that survival to continue." Once some of

the reasons why textiles survive in certain archaeological

contexts are understood, then it would be possible to

begin to determine the best methods of treatment for

archaeological textiles.

Most of the linen archaeologically recovered in Egypt has

come from burial or tomb environments. In the tombs of

the wealthy the deceased were supplied with all they would

need for their future lives, including the mummy wrap-

pings, clothing, andlor shrouds placed on the bodies as well

as supplies of linen clothing (often in large quantities)

stored in chests, boxes, or woven baskets (Hall 1985).

Another interesting observation here is that ancient

Egyptian tomb linen, both garments and mummy wrap-

pings, was often "used" prior to burial. Evidence for this

comes from laundry marks on the garments and also from

crease marks created by normal wear (Hall 1986). If the

garment or household linen had been used it has also been

probably washed, as Egyptians placed great emphasis on

the cleanliness of a person. This view is further supported

by Herodotus' (trans. '1,972) claim that linen cloth was kept

clean by constant washing.

Ancient Egyptian linens were usually washed in water,

either directly in the Nile or in pots alongside the river, with

natron, potash, or a vegetable derived soap called soapwort

(Saponaria officinalis) or some combination of these sub-

stances (Lutz 1923). However, in the Pharonic period

natron was the washing agent of choice. Soap, as we know

it, was not in common use until the Roman period. A letter

from the reign of Ramses II found at the workman's village

of Deir el-Medina, from a Scribe of the Tomb to the Scribe

Amenemope, succinctly describes the distribution system

for natron at that time:

As for Nakht-Sobki, I found no natron (i.e.,

'soap') in his possession- you (shall) give him

[... some...] ...When you know the [amount] that's

short, they can seek out natron for the cloths, and

you shall not (further) [allow] this failure to sup-

ply natron. For Pharaoh has assigned natron to

you-it just cannot be that he has not allotted it!(Kitchen 1982,197).

0.00 1.80 5.50

FrcunE, 1. AN EDXA spEcrRUM sHorvrNc THE pRocREsstvE

LovERING oF sALT LEVELs IN A sAMpLE oF ANCIENT EcvptlaNLrNEN DURTNG A 16-HouR vASHTNG rEsr. 1e.Tsp coNTRoL,

BEFORE ANY TREATMENT.

Natron is a natural soda, ideally a compound of sodium

carbonate and sodium bicarbonate in the proportion of one

molecule of each, (Na2 CO3- NaHCO3- z}{zo), but gener-

ally found in its natural state with a large proportion of

"impurities," including sodium chloride and sodium sulfate

(Lucas 1932). Also present are magnesium and various

metals and (other) salts. As natron or other materials were

used in the washing and bleaching process in ancient Egypt,

it is possible that residues from these cleaning agents may

have remained in the cloth.

$7hile conducting ageing studies of cellulose on archaeo-

logically recovered Egyptian linen obtained from museum

collections, Stoll and Fengel (1988) found evidence of salts

on the surface of linen fibers, which could have been

residues from natron washing. In that study they used energy

dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA) to identify the compo-

sition of extraneous materials found in the linen fibers, and

were successful in using scanning electron microscopy

(SEM) to photograph salt crystals on the surface of fibers.

However, they were not able to demonstrate the presence

or otherwise of the crystals within the fibers. As the role of

natron in the preservation of linen was not the primary

focus of their work, they did not pursue the subject further.

From a review of the literature (Marsh-Letts 2002), itwas postulated that:

(a) linen textiles from ancient Egypt had often undergone

a form of mineralisation through washing treatments

involving natron and other soluble inorganic salts, as well

as through deposit in environments which contained alka-

line inorganic salts; and (b) this mineralization had con-

tributed to their survival by buffering them against acidiry.

This is consistent with Hardman's (1994) definition of min-

eralization as "the combination andlor replacement of the

7.20

70 .t?^' North American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002

t.2n6.402.101.60 6.'10 7.20 1.50 2.10 3.20

Frcunr, 1s. AN EDXA SPECTRUM oF

wes soexro rN Mrr-lr-Q IvATER FoR

THE SAME SAMPLE AFTER IT

1 Horrn.

organic matrix with an inorganic one." In order to test the

above propositions, samples of ancient Egyptian linen and a

number of control samples were examined before, during,

and after washing and drying trials by optical microscopy,

environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), ion

chromatography (IC) and EDXA. Of main interest here

was the identification of both the presence and movement

of salts within the fibers.

2. EXPERIMENTAL2.1 LINEN AND NATRON SAMPLES

Control samples consisted of (a) new linen, (b) new linen

washed in natural natron, to replicate as closely as possible

the pre-deposit state of ancient Egyptian linen, and (c) sam-

ples of archaeological textiles from different archaeological

environments, for comparative purposes.

Small samples were collected from museum collection ofwell provenanced ancient Egyptian linen, as excavated and

without any treatment. These samples were taken from

linen fragments recovered from a variety of locations in

Egypt, and from as large a range of environments as possi-

ble. Other samples, of unknown provenance, were also

studied for comparative purposes.

Natron was collected from the Wadi Natrun (also called

the Wadi Natron), a depression in the Libyan Desert,

approximately northwest of modern Cairo that was an

ancient source of natron. The samples were collected from

one of the lakes in January 1.999.

2.2 -STASHING TRIALS

Linen samples were soaked ultra pure (Milli-Q) deionized

water. At intervals of 1.,2, 4, and 'J.6 hours the deionized

Frcunt 1c. EDXA SPEcTRUM oF

rNG rN cHANcEs or Mrllr-Q ronTHE SAME SAMPLE AFTER SOAK-

4 Houns.

water was drained off and the pH of the water was tested

with Merck pH test strips. Samples of the water were col-

lected for analysis by IC while small samples of the fabric

were cut from each linen sample; one to be air-dried and

the other freeze dried. These small textile samples were

examined, dr5 using ESEM and EDXA. Therefore at the

end of the trials samples were available which could show

when certain salts had been released into the wash water,

and exactly what salts remained in the fabrics at each stage

of the washing trials.

The pH of solutions was kept in the safe zone for linen

fibers, between 5.0 and 10.0. The presence of chloride

and/or bromide salts in solution may have played a part in

the tendency for some samples to swell and to disintegrate

during washing, however those sulfates present would have

retarded swelling (Florian 1987).

2.3 FP.EEZE DRYING AFTER THE \TASHINGTESTS

The object of freeze-drying samples was to see whether

there was any difference in the physical condition of the

freeze-dried fibers and the air-dried fibers of samples whose

original condition and subsequent treatment were otherwise

the same. The freeze-dried samples were examined using

optical microscopy and the results were recorded photo-

graphically.

2.4 INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS

A Phillips ESEM XL 30 equipped with an EDXA light

element energy dispersive X-ray detector and DX4 X-ray

analyzer was used for the ESEM and EDXA studies. APeltier cold stage was used for the dynamic hydration and

Nortb American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002 rSl- 71

FTGURE 2. ESEM TMAGES FRoM THE 16-soun TflASHING TEsr.

2a. ANcrEur EcvptreN LrNEN SoAKED rN cHANGES Eon MIllr-QDEIoNIZED vATER FoR 1 Houn, sHowtNc A cRUsr oF sALTS oNTHE FIBERS AND DAMAGE TO THE T'ISER.S. MECNIPICETION 8OOX.

Frcunl 2e. ANcrrNr EcvprraN LrNEN SoAKED rN cHANGES oF

Mrrlr-Q DEroNrzED VATER FoR 4 HouRS, sHowrNG suRFAcEs oF

THE FIBERS ro BE RELATIVELy UNDAMAGEI. MecNrptcertoN800x.

dehydration experiments. The computer software used was

eDX-ZAF. A video recorder was also attached to the system.

This integrated system was used at the Microanalysis Unit

of the Department of Science, University of Technology

Sydney (Australia). Analysis was undertaken with the assis-

tance of Miss Katie McBean and under the supervision ofthe head of the Microanalysis Unit, Dr. Matthew Phillips.

A description of the experimental procedure and results has

been previously published in Archaeological Textiles

I,Jetusletter (Marsh-Letts et al. 2001).

Ion chromatography uses ion-exchange resins to separate

atomic or molecular ions and detect these individually at a

detector, usually a conductivity detector. In this study IC

analysis was carried out using a DIONEX DX 120 withDIONEX Automatic Sampler AS40. For anions the eluent

used was 3.5 mM Na2CO3/ 1.0 mM NaHCO3. Flow rate

was 1..2 ml/min. Detection: Suppressed conductivity at 1.0

pL. The storage solution was the eluent. For cations the

eluent used was 20.0 mN methanesulfonic acid. The flowrate was 1.0 mVmin. Auto suppressed conductiviry was

used.

The ion chromatography was used to identify and quan-

tify the levels of salts present in "wash water" from the

ancient textiles. This enabled the determination of exactly

what salts were removed by various textile conservation

treatments. From this it was possible to chart the relative

amounts of salts released from the textile fibers. Any partic-

ulate materials that had not been removed by conservation

treatments from the fibers were subsequently examined by

transmitted light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy

or environmental scanning electron microscopy and also

identified by environmental scanning electron microscopy

coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION3.1 \TASHING TESTS

A wide review of the conservation literature (Marsh-Letts

2002) showed that ancient linens have been washed for

varying times, some as little as t hour and some as long as

16 hours, or even longer. Therefore it was decided to sam-

ple at varying intervals to determine the effects of stopping

the washing process at these times.

The results obtained from the 16-hour washing tests

showed that the washing of the ancient linen textiles

reduced the levels of some of the salts present, and the

reduction of the salt contents followed a paffern similar to

that known for the solubiliry of salts. Hence, the level ofsodium chloride, which was the most soluble salt present in

the samples, was reduced first. In general, the levels of salts

were reduced with the washing, but were not completely

eliminated from any sample.

The experience gained from the washing tests gives a

clear indication that sodium chloride is released very quick-

ly at the beginning of a washing treatment, as can be seen

in Figure 1 (a-c). The results clearly show that the levels ofsalt in the linen decreased progressively with further wash-

ings. While much of the salt content of an archaeologicaily

recovered textile may be washed out in the first one or rwo

hours of soaking, not all of the salts are washed out as

quickly. Hence, caution must be taken not to stop the

72 .t?1 North American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002

washing process early as the residual salt may still result

in considerable damage to the fibers upon drying. ESEM

observations of linen samples, one of which is recorded as

Figure 2 (a-b), indicates that salt laden ancient linen textiles

that were washed longer tended to show less fiber damage

upon drying.

Progressive washing had no visible effect upon new linen,

but was potentially detrimental to ancient fabrics, particu-

larly to those that were previously known to have had a

high salt content. This was because the fibers often became

very soft and fragile, and could not be safely moved or

manipulated while wet. This may be due to the removal of

salts that had entered the fibers, leaving gaps in the physical

structure. This is in contrast to historic fabrics without a

high salt content, which are generally amenable to manipu-

lation while in a damp or wet condition, in order to

reshape the textile and realign the warp and weft threads.

Therefore fabric samples had to be either carefully handled

when wet or not moved at all during the washing and

drying procedures.

3.2 FP*EEZE DRYING AFTER THE \TASHINGTESTS

The results of the freeze-drying of the linen samples showed

that rapid drying of samples appeared to have adverse

effects on the fabrics. At a normal rate of air drying the

textile disintegrated badly during drying and became like

paper pulp, even resembling paper pulp to the extent that

it retained the imprint of the drying screen after it had

hardened into shape.

In contrast the results obtained for slow freeze-drying

and vacuum freeze-drying of the linen samples appeared

to be successful to the naked eye. Freeze-drying (either

vacuum or slow) did not leave left any crust of dirt or debris

or crystals of salts on the surface of the fabric. However,

samples that were vacuum freeze-dried appeared to have a

greater tendency to powdering when moved or flexed.

3.3 ESEM STUDIES

The most exciting and productive advance in the analysis

of the linen samples was undoubtedly the use of ESEM

for the observation and recording of the movement of salts

within the fibers, in real time, during cycles of hydration

and dehydration. Figure 3 (a-c) shows this process using the

usual sample size, which was either 0.5 cm of one single

thread or a small square of representative threads taken

from the fabric. In some cases the dynamic record showed

crystals form and groq breaking through the surface of the

fiber. In other cases crystals formed in fissures in the surface

of the fibers that were already present, expanding the

fissures and causing damage to the fiber surface. This

evidence demonstrates clearly that salts in solution are car-

ried into the core of the linen fiber, through the porous sur-

face and/or breaks in the surface, and do not simply form on

the surface of the fiber. A comparison of the visual record for

the hydration and dehydration of ancient Egyptian fibers and

new fibers that were both treated with natron shows that the

relatively undamaged and flexible surface of new linen fibers

is more resistant to the penetration of salts in solution than is

the surface of ancient linen, where fissures allow an easy

pathway for the salts in solution. The presence of the fissures

in the ancient linen may have resulted from its use in ancient

times or from extreme desiccation.

Evidence from these studies would indicate that the type

and extent of damage is dependent on many factors, such

as: (a) the physical condition of the textile fibers, (b) the

amount and types of salt present in the fibers, (c) the range

and frequency of fluctuations of relative humiditS and (d)

the rate of hydration and dehydration of the fibers.

From a single cycle of hydration and dehydration the

damage for the new linen appears to be less than for the

ancient linen. Damage during cycles of hydration and dehy-

dration for ancient linen with a high salt content appears to

be higher than damage for ancient linen with a lower salt

content. Damage appears to be progressive with multiple

cycles of hydration and dehydration. This is consistent with

the behavior of salts during multiple cycles of hydration

and dehydration as Doehne (1.994), and Stambolov and van

Asperen de Boer (1,975) observed in studies of salt damage

in stone, building materials, and pottery as well as the

damage observed by $Tallert (1,996) in papyrus.

3.4 OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study adds further support to the findings of Barrow

and other paper conservators (Morrison 1979) on the effec-

tiveness of carbonates in buffering organic materials, partic-

ularly cellulose, against acid attacks by showing that these

materials have aided the preservation of Egyptian linen over

thousands of years. It suggests that the preservation of ancient

Egyptian linen has been a 4,000+ years natural ageing test,

as opposed to the artificial heat ageing tests that rwentieth-

century conservators used to prove the effectiveness of

deacidification solutions in the preservation of paper

(Morrison 1979). However, it raises other questions about

the advisability of deliberately introducing crystalline mate-

rials-salts-into fiber structures within fluctuating envi-

ronments. Changes in temperature and humidity may cause

the salts to move within the fibers, causing mechanical

North American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002 .gr, 73

abrasion and damage, or widening fissures within the fiber.

This study also raises questions about the introduction of

materials that will be crystalline in structure and relatively

rigid within what was created as a flexible fabric. This has

implications for care of all textiles treated with deacidifica-

tion solutions and also of linen painting supports which

have been sized with carbonate materials, where fluctua-

tions of humidity will cause movement of fibers through

swelling of the fibers (intake of moisture). This movement

may cause abrasion of the fibers as they move in relation to

hard, crystalline particulate matter. Furthermore, once solu-

ble salts are introduced into linen the evidence cited above

shows that it may be very difficult if not impossible to

remove all salts from the fabric in the future without severe

disruption of the fibers.

Therefore, the following recommendations could be

made:

r It would be advisable to store and display linen from

Ancient Egypt in stable, low humidity environments, in

order to prevent the deliquescence and recrystalization ofany salts within the fibers.

r Before any ancient linen undergoes any vapor or other

aqueous treatment the salt content of the fibers could be

checked using ESEM with EDXA to determine the level of

salts and to assess the physical condition of the linen fiber.

r The deliberate introduction of salts to linen fabrics

through deacidification procedures should receive careful

consideration, and could be the topic of further research.

4. CONCLUSION

It has been demonstrated that the analytical techniques ofIC, ESEM and EDXA can be used together with optical

microscopy for the examination of linen in order to assess

its chemical and physical nature prior to any conservation

treatment, or when considering environmental conditions

for the storage or display of linen textiles. lfhile optical

microscopy and SEM were able to identify fibers, and both

ESEM and IC were able to record the chemistry of each

sample, only ESEM was able to demonstrate the processes

of salt movement (deliquescence and crystallization) withinfibers. These methods can therefore show the level of fiber

damage akeady experienced by the specimen fiber, and so

give an indication of the relative strength of the textile

fibers. The methods can also be used to monitor any con-

servation treatment of textiles for salts, enabling the wash-

ing process to be carefully monitored for effectiveness.

Frcunr, 3e. AN ESEM rMAcE oF A SAMpLE oF ANCTENT

EcvprreN r.rNEN BEFoRF- HvDRATToN. MecNrrrcntloN 400x.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS'We would like to express our thanks to Dr. Eric Doehne

of the Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, USA, forinitially demonstrating the range and possibilities of the

Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope for the

study of salts.

The assistance of Dr. Matthew Phillips of the University

of Technology, SydneS who shared the first experience ofusing ESEM and EDXA to look at mummy cloths, was

essential to this study. We would also like to thank Dr.

Andrew Hadjichari, Mr. Chris Myors, and Mr.MartinCraine of the University of \Testern Sydney, and Miss Katie

McBean of the Universiry of Technology, Sydney who have

provided very welcome, and always able, analytical support

for this project.

Most grateful thanks go to the Museum of Ancient

Cultures, Macquarie University, and the Nicholson

Museum of Antiquities, The University of Sydney,

Australia, for their permission to examine their collections

of Ancient Egyptian linen.

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74 .t?) North American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002

Frcunr 3s. AN ESEM rMAcE sHowrNc rHE SAME FTBERS As

Frcunl 3 a). Tsr IMAGE sHows rHE SvELLING oF A FTBER DUR-

rNG oNF- HvDRATToN cvclr. MecNrrrcerroN 643x.

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Frcunr 3c. AN ESEM rMAGE sHowrNG THE sAME FTBERS As

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rNG FoRMATToN oF cRysrAt-s. MecNrrrcerroN 643x.

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Morrison, R. C. 1979. Aspects of deacidification technology;

a source bibliography. ICCM Bulletin 5 (1)225-40.

Stambolov, T. and J. R. J. van Asperen de Boer.197 5, rev. ed.

The deterioration and conseruation of porous building

materials in monuments; a reuietu of the literatwre.

Rome: International Centre For The Study Of The

Preservation And The Restoration of Cultural Property.

Stoll, M. and D. Fengel. 1988. Chemical and structural

studies on ancient Egyptian linen. Berliner Beitrage zur

Ar ch aometrie, 1.0 :1. 5 1.-'J.72.'Wallert, A. 1996. Deliquescence and recrystallisation of

salts in the Dead Sea Scrolls. In Archaeological

Conseruation and Its Consequences; Preprints of tbe

Contributions to the Copenhagen Congress, 26-30

August 1996. ed. A. Roy and P. Smith. London:

International Institute for Conservation. 19 8-202.

lfild, J. P. 1990. An introduction to archaeological textile

studies. ln Archaeological textiles. occasional papers,

eds. S. A. O'Connor and M. M. Brooks. Paper presented

at conference, Textiles for the Archaeological

Conservator, April 1988, held by the United Kingdom

Institute for Conservation Archaeology Section, York.

London: UKIC. No. 10:3-4.

North American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002 .'$- 75

GLENNDA SUSAN MARSH-LETTS originally trained

as an archaeologist. She holds a M.App. Sc., Materials

Conservation, from the Universiry of Canberra and has

recently completed her Doctoral dissertation, "Ancient

Egyptian linen; the role of natron and other salts in the

preservation and conservation of archaeological textiles"

at the University of .Western

Sydney, Australia. She has

worked as a paper, textile, and archaeological conservator,

and has also lectured in materials conservation at the

University of 'Western Sydney and the University of SydneS

Australia. Address: 1 Silva Road (Corner of George and

Silva), Springwood, New South'Wales, 2777 Australia;

Telephone: +61 2 4751.3013;

email: g_marshletts@hotmail.com

SAMUEL B. ADELOJU is a Professor of Chemistry and

Environmental Science at the University of Western Sydney

(tl\fs). He holds a Ph.D in Electroanalytical Chemistry

from Deakin Universiry Australia and has been the

Director of the Center for Electrochemical and Analytical

Technology at UlfS since 1988. He is also the Program

Leader for the Research Training Concentration in

Environmental and Materials Technology at the universiry.

He was the recipient of the 1.997 Royal Australia Chemical

Institutet Citation for outstanding contributions to the pro-

fession and the institute, and the 2001 Eckart Australia

Visiting Professor at the University of Tasmania. Address:

School of Science, Food & Horticulture, University ofWestern Sydneg Building I Locked Bag 1.797 , Penrith

South DC, NS\f 1797, Australia; Telephone: +61.2 4736

0811; email: s.adeloju@uws.edu.au (7

76 .t?^' Nortb American Textile Conseruation Conference 2002