STAY SAFE. STAY HEALTHY. STAY HOME. #COVID19...

Issue No. 11 01 April, 2020

9 779727 027003

ISSN 972-7027X

STAY SAFE.STAY HEALTHY.STAY HOME.#COVID19...

AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date || 01 April 2020

VOL. NO. XVIII, ISSUE NO. 11 3

Co

nte

nts

CONTENTSAGRonoMY1. Ways to Improve Fertilizers Use Efficiency

(FUE) in Field Crops 7Dr. P. M. Shanmugam

2. Natural Sources of Potassium for Plant Nutrition 9Arnab Kundu, Biswabara Sahu and Shalini Sharma

3. Vermicompost: Meaning, Procedure and Importance 10Sunil, and Seema dahiya

4. Pulses: A Powerhouse for Nutrition and Agriculture 12Sanjay Kumar, Rakesh Kumar and Reetika

5. Effect of Organic Farming on Soil Health 13Sanjeev Singh and Mohammad Hasanain

6. Leaf Color Chart: Based Nitrogen Management to Improve Productivity in Cereal Crop in India 14Mohammad Hasanain and Sanjeev Singh

7. Zero Budget Natural Farming 16Minu Mohan and Amrita Giri

8. Effect of Salt Stress on Plant Growth 17Devi Lal Dhaker and Gopal Lal Dhaker

9. Water Productivity in Agriculture 19Neetiraj Karotiya

10. Practices for Sustainable Agriculture 20Sunil and Seema Dahiya

11. Organic Growth Promoters: A Way to Sustainable Crop Production 22Aakash D. Lewade and Ajit U. Masurkar

sUstAInABLe AGRICULtURe12. Zero Budget Natural Farming: Need of the

Hour 23Dr. Harpreet B. Sodhi

WAteR MAnAGeMent13. Super Absorbent Polymers:

Their Need and Use in Agriculture 25Rushikesh Pawar and Mahesh Gurav

WeeD sCIenCe14. Impact of Herbicide-Resistant Crops on

Agriculture 26Santosh Korav and Surgyan Rundla

15. Weeds: Sleepers to Invaders 28Dr. Shalini Pillai, P.

16. Glyphosate Prohibition and its Effects on Conservation Agriculture 29Sahely Kanthal, Aniket Baishya and Ananya Ghosh

April, 2020 / VoLUMe XVIII / IssUe no. 11

CHIeF eDItoRDr. S. S. Purohit

AssoCIAte eDItoRDr. P. Balasubramaniyan (Madurai)

Dr. Tanuja Singh (Patna) Dr. Ashok Agrawal (Mathura)

Dr. H. P. Sharma (Ranchi) Dr. N. Kachhawha (Jaipur)Dr. Smita Purohit (Jaipur)

eDItoRIAL oFFICeAgro House, Behind Nasrani CinemaChopasani Road, Jodhpur - 342 003

Phone: +91-291-2643993E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Website: www.agrobiosonline.com

tYPesettInGYashee Computers, Jodhpur

PRInteD BYManish Kumar, Chopra Offset, Jodhpur

PUBLIsHeD BYDr. Updesh Purohit, for Agrobios (India),

Behind Nasrani, Cinema, Chopasani Road, Jodhpur

RnI no.: RAJenG/2002/8649Issn: 0972-7027

Disclaimer: The views expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of editorial board or publishers. Although every care has been taken to avoid errors or omission, this magazine is being published on the condition and undertaking that all the information given in this magazine is merely for reference and must not be taken as having authority of or binding in any way on the authors, editors and publishers who do not owe any responsibility for any damage or loss to any person, for the result of any

action taken on the basis of this work. The Publishers shall be obliged if mistakes brought to their notice.

sUBsCRIPtIon RAtesSINGLE COPY: ` 85.00

ANNUAL INDIVIDUAL: ` 1000.00ANNUAL INSTITUTIONAL: ` 2000.00

© The articles published in Agrobios Newsletter is subject to copy right of the publisher. No material can be reproduced without prior permission of the publisher.Issues of “Agrobios Newsletter” are mailed by ordinary post at Subscriber’s risk and our responsibility ceases once we hand over the magazine to post office.

Note: “Agrobios Newsletter” does not accept unsolicited manuscripts and material and does not assume responsibility for them.

DAte oF PUBLIsHInG: 01 April, 2020DAte oF PostInG

07-08 OF EVERY MONTH AT RMS POST OFFICE

Publishing Date || 01 April 2020 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

4 VOL. NO. XVIII, ISSUE NO. 11

Co

nte

nts

AGRoMeteoRoLoGY, ReMote sensInG & GIs17. Crop Simulation Model 30

Arul Prasad. S, Vengateswari. M and V. A. Vijayashanthi

18. Weather and Crop Production 31Vijay Kumar Didal, Brijbhooshan, Krishna Chaitanya and Rajendragouda Patil

CLIMAte CHAnGe19. Fate of Insecticides Under Future Climate

Change Scenario 32K. Deekshita

20. Minimizing the Impact of Water Logging and High Temperature Stress in Soybean 33Dr Subhash Chandra, Dr Vangala Rajesh, Dr Shivani Nagar, Dr Vennampally Nataraj and Dr Rakesh Kumar Verma

21. Acid Rain 34Vengateswari M and S. Arul Prasad

CRoP eCoLoGY AnD enVIRonMent22. Areas Prone to Nutrient Deficiencies and

Toxicities 35G. Sashikala

23. Plastic Planet 36Ms. Aswathy, J. C., and Dr. Shalini Pillai, P.

CRoP PHYsIoLoGY24. Causes of Nutritional Disorders in Crops 37

G. Sashikala25. Physiological Disorders in Bulb Crops 38

Kakara Jatin and Jagati Yadagiri26. Seed Priming on Elevated Carbon Dioxide

Associated with Seed Germination in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) 41Selukash Parida, Soumya Kumar Sahoo and Akankhya Guru

27. TILLING and EcoTILLING: Reverse Genetics Approaches to Clarify the Function of Genes in Plants 43Akankhya Guru, Soumya Kumar Sahoo, and Selukash Parida

soIL sCIenCe28. Biochar: A Tool to Improve Soil Health 45

R. I. Navsare and M. Sharath Chandra29. Precision Nitrogen (N) Management in Soils

using Leaf Colour Chart (LCC) 47Siddhartha Mukherjee and Puja Singh

30. Soil Carbon Sequestration 48Rakesh Kumar, Sanjay Kumar and Reetika

31. Concept and Strategies to Combat Nutrient Mining for Sustainable Crop Production 49Shalini Sharma and Arnab Kundu

32. Biochar: A Novel Approach Towards Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emission from Soil 51Shwethakumari U and Pallavi T

33. Seaweed Biochar: Production and its Characteristic 52Roohi

34. Crop Rotation and Green Manure: A Way for Soil Health Management in Rice based Cropping System 53Varshini S. V.

35. Water Pollution due to Nutrient and Pesticides from Soil 55Ananta G. Mahale and Ashutosh C. Patil

36. Sulphur Transformation in Submerged Soils 56Harsha B. R., Prashanth D. V. and Poojitha K.

37. Fertility Capability Classification 58Prashanth D. V., Harsha B. R. and Poojitha K.

AGRICULtURAL CHeMIstRY38. Understanding the Role of Paclobutrazol in

Agriculture 59Soumya Kumar Sahoo, Akankhya Guru, and Selukash Parida

39. Pesticide Residue: An Overview 61Saraswati Mahato and Bhabani Mahankuda

AGRoCHeMICALs40. Constraints of Green Pesticides 62

Anirban Sil

HoRtICULtURe41. Propagating Methods of Tamarind 63

Jagati Yadagiri42. Biosensors for Fruit Crop Production 65

Ayush K Sharma and S P S Solanki43. Cucumber: Major Vegetable as Salad in

India 66Meera Choudhary, Lalita Lakhran and Garima Vaishnav

44. Crop Modelling in Horticulture 67Reetika, Rakesh Kumar and Sanjay Kumar

45. Application of Plant Growth Substances for Checking Flower and Fruit Drop and Improving Fruit Set in Cucurbits 68Dr. More S. G., Dr. Sawant G. B. and Dr. Gopal G. R.

46. Biofortification of Fruit Crops through Biotechnological Approach 70Naveen Kumar Maurya, Nidhi Tyagi and Praveen Kumar Maurya

PLAnt BReeDInG AnD GenetICs47. The Understanding of Selection 71

V. Saikiran48. Rice Quality: Characteristics and Standards 74

Suman Devi, Rakesh kumar and Vijay Daneva



Co

nte

nts

49. P-TRAP (Panicle Trait Phenotyping Tool): Software for Precise Phenotyping of Rice Panicle 75Amrutlal R. Khaire, Korada Mounika and Prasantakumar Mazhi

50. Pre-Breeding: A Novel Tool for Development of Climate Smart Chickpea Crop under Resilient Climatic Conditions 76S. K. Jain

51. Chemical Hybridizing Agents: A Tool for Hybrid Seed Production 78Bhavyasree R. K., N. Vinothini, T. Poovarasan and M. Sakila

seeD sCIenCe AnD teCHnoLoGY52. Hydrogel: Applications in Agriculture 80

Islavath Suresh Naik53. Role of Karrikins in Seed germination and

Seedling Development 81Ramappa S

54. Barcoding of Seeds for Transparency 82Sridevi Ramamurthy

55. Photomorphogenesis 83C. Tamilarasan and L. Anilkumar

56. Accelerated Ageing Test: A Tool to Detect the Longevity of Seeds 84Anilkumar. L and C. Tamilarasan

57. Endosperm Weakening in Relation to Seed Germination 86Thota Joseph Raju and Vijayalakshmi N

58. Seed Priming, Methods and its Importance 87Dr. Gopal G. R., Dr. More S. G., Dr. Sawant G. B. and Dr. Narkhede G. W.

PLAnt PAtHoLoGY59. Non-Infectious Diseases of Plants 88

Bimla, Lalita Lakhran, and Meera Choudhary60. Various Detection Methods of Seed

Mycoflora 89Ashutosh C. Patil and Ananta G. Mahale

61. Major Diseases of Sesame: An Overview 91Neelam Geat and Devendra Singh

62. Impact of Environmental Factors on Disease Development 93Priyanka, Anand Kumar Meena and Virendra Kumar

63. Defense Mechanisms in Plants against Plant Pathogens 94Dr. Anand Kumar Meena, Priyanka and Virendra Kumar

64. Perspectives of PGPR / Rhizosphere Microbes in Management of Plant Diseases 96Satyadev Prajapati and Lalita Lakhran

entoMoLoGY65. Bioluminescence in Insects 97

J. Kousika and M. Thiyagarajan66. Productive Pest Silkworm and their Product 98

Tara Yadav and Richa Banshiwal67. Defensive Behavior in Ladybird Beetle

(Coccinellidae) 99Saswati Premkumari, Mahalle Rashmi Manohar and Sabuj Ganguly

68. Values of Insects in Medicinal Science 100Kanchan Bisht

69. Locust Menace 101Monica Jat and Gaurang Chhangani

70. Endosymbionts in Insect Defence 103A. Vasudha and M. Sreedhar

71. Chemical and Molecular Ecology of Herbivore Induced Plant Volatiles (HIPV) 104K. Ashok and M. Muthukumar

72. Utilization of Nanotechnology for Reduction of Insect Pest Risk 106Tara Yadav and Richa Banshiwal

BIoContRoL73. Oryctes virus: A Successful Biological Control

Agent 106J. Chandrakala

eXtensIon eDUCAtIon AnD RURAL DeVeLoPMent74. Current Prospects of Agriculture courses and

Opportunity in India 107Avinash Sharma

75. Customized e-Commerce Application for Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) 109V V Sumanth Kumar, Surya Rathore and Sanjiv Kumar

eConoMICs76. An overview of Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)

scheme in India 111Deepali Chadha and Nikita Inaniya

77. Pulse Production in India 112Shailza

78. Plasticulture 114Dr. V. Keerthana

79. Current Trends in Agri-Food System in India 115Judy Thomas and Athulya R

enGIneeRInG AnD teCHnoLoGY80. Importance of Ozone Technology in Foods 117

Pooja M. R. and Revanth K.

FooDs AnD nUtRItIon81. Jack Fruit: Eat well, Waste Nil 118

Stephy Das, Dr. Manju K. P. and Anu V.



Co

nte

nts

82. Time for Immunity Bell: CVOID-19 119Sunidhi Mishra

83. Nutri-Garden: Low External Input with High Nutritional Output 120Stephy Das, Dr. Manju K. P., and Anu V.

FooD PRoCessInG AnD PReseRVAtIon84. An Overview of Pulsed Electric Field

Technology in Food Processing 121Iftikhar Alam

CoMPUteR ADDeD teCHnoLoGY85. Interventions of Artificial Intelligence for

Profitable Agriculture 122Gottam Kishore and Mathangi Rajasekhar

86. Internet of Things (IoT) for Low Cost Precision Apiculture 124Banka Kanda Kishore Reddy, J. Kousika and R. Tamilselvan

DAIRY sCIenCe87. Feeding Practices for Sustainable Dairying

Farming 125Sanjiv Kumar and VV Sumanth Kumar

FIsH AnD FIsHeRIes88. GIS as a Tool for Next Generation

Aquaculture 127Shivakrishna

CHILD DeVeLoPMent89. Worried about Children???? “Time to

Relax” 128Pooja Patil

BIoteCHnoLoGY90. Protein Mini Factories: Spirulina 130

Shriniketan Puranik, Sruthy, K. S., Barbhai Mrunal, D., Waghmare, V. V. and Vikram, K. V

91. Are GM Foods Safe for Human Consumption? 131Kishor Prabhakar Panzade

92. RNA Activation: RNAa 132Ramachandra Anantapur

BIoCHeMIstRY93. Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation

(BiFC) Analysis: A Method to Study Protein-Protein Interaction 134Arti Kumari

MICRoBIoLoGY94. A Brief Overview of Extremophiles and their

Application 135Jyotsana Tilgam and Mushineni Ashajyothi

enVIRonMentAL sCIenCes95. Biomass Briquettes: An Alternative to

Sustainable Fuel 138Deepika Pandey

stAtIstICs AnD BIoMetRY96. Application of Wilk’s Lambda Criterion in

MANOVA for Compare Treatment Pairs in Presence of Multiple Characters 139Jit Sankar Basak

97. Multi-Observation Data in Strip Plot Design 141Agashe Nehatai Wamanrao



AG

Ro

no

MY

AGRONOMY

17646

1. Ways to Improve Fertilizers Use efficiency (FUe) in Field CropsDR. P. M. SHANMUGAM

Ph.D., Associate Professor (Agronomy), Institute of Agriculture, Kumulur – 621712, Tiruchirappalli District. Tamil Nadu

Crops requires nutrients in correct quantity to ensure efficient crop production. Adding animal and vegetable manure to the soil to restore fertility is the practice from time immemorial. As the use of the chemical fertilizers increased due to their large availability and easy-to-adopt technique, organic manure application slowly declined. Choice of manures and fertilizers and their application at right quantity and time are important to get higher production.

Fertilizer Usage in India

Out of the total nutrients used, nitrogenous fertilizers shared the maximum (71%) followed by phosphatic (21%) and potassic fertilizers (8%). About 40% of the current food grain production can be attributed to fertilizer use. The recovery of applied nutrients by crop is generally poor. It is less than 50% for N, about 15% for P and upto 80% for K depending upon soil characteristics. Hence efficient fertilizer management of for crop production becomes imperative.

Time of Fertilizer Application

Time of fertilizer application depends on the type of crop cultivated, its growth stage, nutrient requirement, soil conditions and nature of fertilizer. Fertilizers are applied (i) before sowing, (ii) at the time of sowing and (iii) after sowing the crop.1. Application before sowing: Fertilizers

should be applied well in advance to sowing. Some of the water insoluble P fertilizers such as rock phosphate and basic slag should be applied about 2-4 weeks before sowing. This enables conversion of water insoluble form of P to soluble form for efficient crop utilization.

2. Application at sowing: Application of fertilizers at the time of sowing or just before sowing is called ‘basal application’. Mostly phosphatic fertilizers are basally applied. A part of recommended N and potash is also applied as basal dose. Micronutrient fertilizers should be applied at the time of sowing on the soil and should not be incorporated into the soil.

3. Application after sowing: Application of fertilizers after the crop establishment is called

top dressing. Usually a portion of N and potash is applied as top dressing depending on the crops. In light textured soils, potash is also recommended for top dressing.

4. Split application of N: Split application increases the nitrogen use efficiency by supplying N at the critical stages when the crop requirement is high. This also avoids large amounts of basally applied N being subjected to various losses.

Method of Fertilizer Application � Broadcasting: Fertilizers are applied on the

open field at the time of sowing or spread in the standing crop. Broadcasted fertilizers should be incorporated into the soil. Fertilizers that are applied in large quantities are normally broadcasted.

� Placement: Whenever a small quantity fertilizer is applied, placement is practiced. This method of fertilization is generally practiced in wide-spaced crops and the soils having low fertility. Placement of fertilizer is done by drilling, band application and spot placement. Drilling is one of the methods of place fertilizers simultaneously at the time of sowing by the use of seed-cum-fertilizer drill. Band application is generally practiced in the standing crops. If the fertilizer is placed into bands to one or either sides of crop rows, it is called “side dressing”. Fertilizer application to fruit trees is adopted by ‘circular band’ (ring placement) away from the base or plants. Application of fertilizer nearer to each plant is called as spot placement. This method of fertilizer application is generally practiced for vegetable crops. Urea super granules (USG) are deep-placed in lowland rice.

� Foliar application: Fertilizer nutrients that are soluble in water are applied on the foliage as a solution or suspension. Low concentration solutions (less than 1 to 2%) are prepared to supply one plant nutrient or combination of nutrients. In general, nitrogen and micro-nutrients are applied as foliar sprays. Among the N fertilizers, urea is quite suitable for foliar application. DAP spraying is recommended for pulses and cotton. Of late, water-soluble special fertilizers have come into the market. These



AG

Ro

no

MY

are highly suitable for foliar application since they do not leave any residues on dissolution. Compatible insecticides can also be mixed with the fertilizers and applied as foliar spray. Micronutrients are applied in small quantities and hence foliar spray is an effective method. Soluble inorganic salts are used for foliar spray. Generally high volume sprayers are used for foliar application.

� Aerial application: Large adjoining areas could be fertilized aerially with solid fertilizers or fertilizer solutions by aircrafts. This method is practiced widely in USA, Australia, New Zealand, Holland and Canada. Aerial fertilization is most practicable in hilly regions and grasslands.

� Application through irrigation systems or fertigation: Fertilizer nutrients are applied through irrigation water in either open or closed systems. Open systems include sprinkler and trickle systems. Principal nutrients that are applied by fertilization are N and K. By adoption of fertigation it is possible to apply nutrients at the time of the crop need. Fertigation may also be adopted to correct mid-season deficiencies. Uniform distribution of fertilizer is important under fertigation and hence different metering devices are employed.

Techniques used to Achieve Higher Fertilizer Use Efficiency (FUE)a) Soil: Soil conditions like tillage, moisture

regime, soil physical and chemical properties have to be considered and improved, to meet the requirements.

b) Crop: Suitable crop varieties with high fertilizer responsiveness have to be selected and cultivated.

c) Water management: The factors like depth of irrigation, frequency of irrigation, height of flood water standing in the field, method of irrigation etc., also governs the use efficiency of the applied fertilizers.

d) Atmospheric conditions: Like temperature, wind velocity, humidity, rainfall etc, have a significant role in the utilization of the applied N by the crop based on which the FUE varies.

- Fertilizers management

1. Selection of right source of fertilizer nutrient

Based on the solubility, mineralization, availability to crop and unit cost of the nutrient element, fertilizer has to be selected including use of slow release fertilizers.

2. Use of right quantity of fertilizer

Quantity of fertilizer based on fertility status of the soil, soil properties like pH, EC, texture, type of clay, crop grown and its nutrient requirements. Higher quantities results in nutrient losses and sub normal doses leads to deficiency. So optimum dose

of fertilizer should be used.

3. Application by Right Method

This includes surface incorporation, plough sole placement, point placement, root zone placement or foliar spray. Methods should be adopted based on soil condition, water management practices, nature of fertilizer used etc.

Example: Sandy soils – more number of splits with small quantity of fertilizer. Alkaline and flooded soil- through incorporation of fertilizer in the reduced zone. Soils with high fixing capacity - localized placement of fertilizers especially for P.

4. Application at Right Time

The suitable time of application of fertilizer based on crop duration, physiological crop grown stages, irrigation schedule, rainfall etc., leads to maximum utilization of applied fertilizer by the crops.

To Increase N Use Efficiency (NUE) in Rice1. Choice of fertilizer: Fertilizers suitable are

Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium chloride, Ammonium sulphate nitrate, Urea, Calcium Ammonium Nitrate. In India, 85% of production is urea and further unit cost is less.

2. Split application of ‘N’ either 3 or 4 splits depending on soil type increase N use efficiency.

3. Slow release fertilizer: Use of chemically manufactured slow release N fertilizers to increase the NUE by slow release of N. Example: IBDU - Isobutylidene di urea and UF-Urea formaldehyde.

4. Coated urea: Slow release by coated urea with physical/mechanical means. Example: a) sulphur coated urea b) neem coated urea c) tar coated urea

5. Placement of urea super granules: Bigger size urea super granules are placed directly into the reduced zone (below 10cm depth).

6. Use of nitrification inhibitors: By inhibiting the activity of nitrosomonas and nitrobacter. nitrification inhibitors control the conversion of NH

4+ to NO

3-. Example: AM,

N-Serve, 2 chloro-6 trichloro methyl pyridine.7. If green manure is applied, skip basal application

of N. Under this situation, ‘N’ can be applied as top dressing in 3 splits at 10 days’ interval between15 and 45 days after transplanting for short and medium duration varieties.



AG

Ro

no

MY

19797

2. natural sources of Potassium for Plant nutritionARNAB KUNDU1*, BISWABARA SAHU1 AND SHALINI SHARMA2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural chemistry and Soil Science, BCKV, Mohanpur, Nadia-7412522M.Sc., Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, BHU, Varanasi-221005*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction: Potassium is considered as ‘Quality element’ as it improves physical & biochemical qualities of agricultural produce. Plants need potassium in greater amount to carry out its all cellular and enzymatic functions. As per as the conventional agriculture is concern, there negative balance of potassium exists in Indian soils, as more potassium is removed in the form of harvested portions than the amount is returned again to soil. India do not have mineral sources of potassium (sylvite, sylvinite, schoenite etc.). All the potassic fertilizers used in India are imported from foreign countries. But, there are variety of naturally occurring sources of potassium, which can be considered important for crop production. Thus, use of theses natural sources of potassium is necessary for future perspective of potassic fertilizer.

Natural K sources: Many of the unorthodox organic and inorganic sources of potassium are:

� Greensand: Greensand is a naturally occurring mineral, mined from oceanic sedimentary deposits (anoxic environment), green in color as glauconite (mica clay) is the principle constituent, having 5-8 % of K. Slow nutrient releasing is the unique feature of it, thus, its use efficiency is very high (Heckman & Tedrow, 2004).

� Rock Dust: Crushed rocks (glacial or volcanic) processed by natural or mechanical means, can be considered multinutrient fertilizers carrying silicate minerals containing other macro and micronutrients in variable concentrations widely used in organic farming practices. Commercially produced rock dusts (e.g. Azomite) are good soil conditioner (Silva et al., 2013) & source of potassium (processed from K-rich minerals like biotite-schists, K-feldspar, mica, granite dust etc.) having 5 % K2O.

� Wood Ash: Wood ash is produced by utilizing the residue in powder form, left after the combustion of wood chips, waste of bark, sawdust etc. Having not more than 10% of K2O as soluble potassium salts along with calcium compounds (alkaline in nature & having acid neutralizing capacity).

� Banana Peel products: Dried peels of banana having 42 % K, thus good source of K and application at lower concentration is also very

effective. Banana peels can be used as dried powder form, compost, peel extract, fermented product, nano-biostimulant fertilizer etc.

� Seaweed Extract: Kelp, temperate seaweed (30-60o of N & S of equator), flourish in nutrient rich marine environment (salts of K), is a good source of potassium (2-4% K). It is also used as biostimulant for plant as it is rich source of vitamins, hormonal principles, anti-fungal activity, stress elevation activity etc.

� Water soluble organic salts of K: Organic molecules like citric acid, gluconic acid etc. are synthesized at various steps of plant metabolism. That’s why, these molecules promote plant growth when applied on it. Humic acid is integral part of soil organic matter & enhances plant growth. These primarily insoluble organic molecules become soluble when applied as salts of potassium– K-Gluconate: Having 20% K

2O content

and gluconate moiety act as efficient chelator.

– K- Humate and K-fulvate: Having ~8% of K

2O content. Soil application (Kumar

et al., 2014) maintain various physical, chemical and biological attributes of soil & foliar and seed/seedling’s root treatment enhances nutrient uptake capacity of plant.

– K-Citrate: Along with 46% K2O content,

being a tri-carboxylic compound it releases K slowly (Taha et al., 2014) than mono/ di –carboxylic salts. Citrate moiety having role in ATP production (TCA cycle), auxin like action, antioxidant properties etc.

Conclusion: Most striking feature of these natural inputs are they increase crop (potato, rice, wheat, corn, vegetables, fruits and flowers) growth, improve root structure, increase resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses and maintain soil health and quality of produce, along with supplement of potash for crop growth. Natural potassium sources are suitable for conventional, integrated nutrient management (INM) and organic farming system of crop production.

References

Heckman, J.R. and Tedrow, J.C.F. (2004): Greensand as a Soil Amendment. Better Crops.



AG

Ro

no

MY

88(2), 16-17.Silva, D. R. G., Spehar, C. R., Marchi, G., Soares, D.

A., Cancellier, E. L., & Martins, E. S. (2014). Yield, nutrient uptake and potassium use efficiency in rice fertilized with crushed rocks. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 9(4), 455-464.

Taha, R. A., Hassan, H. S. A., & Shaaban, E. A. (2014). Effect of different potassium fertilizer forms

on yield, fruit quality and leaf mineral content of Zebda Mango trees. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 21(1), 123-129.

Kumar, D., Singh, A. P., Raha, P., & Singh, C. M. (2014). Effects of potassium humate and chemical fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Bangladesh Journal of Botany, 43(2), 183-189.

Greensand Azomite (rock dust) Harvesting of kelp

Ash of banana peel Banana peel extract Potassium humate

FIG: Natural sources of potassium

19837

3. Vermicompost: Meaning, Procedure and Importance1SUNIL*, AND 2SEEMA DAHIYA

College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar – 125 004, Haryana, (India)*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Vermicompost may be defined as the product obtained from decomposition of various farm or household biodegradable wastes by using several species of worms. Out of these worm species, earthworms are most commonly used. These worms create a mixture of decomposed wastes, bedding material and vermicast. Vermicast (also known as worm castings or worm faeces) is the final product of

organic matter after its breakdown by earthworms. Vermicompost have several nutrients which are water-soluble. It acts as an excellent, organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is mainly used in sustainable or organic farming.

Principle

Vermicomposting is mainly done to enhance the



AG

Ro

no

MY

fertility status of the soil. It works as a natural fertilizer that allows water to flow easily and enhance the growth of plants.

Suitable Worm Species

Red wiggler or tiger worm (Eisenia foetida or Eisenia andrei) and Lumbricus rubellus (red earthworm) are the most commonly used species. European nightcrawlers (Eisenia hortensis) is second most commonly used species. In tropics, mostly blueworms (Perionyx excavatus) is used.

The most of the worm species feed most rapidly at temperatures of 15–25 °C (59-77 °F). They can survive at 10 °C (50 °F). Higher temperatures generally more than 30 °C (86 °F) is harmful. This temperature range indicate that redworms are good for indoor vermicomposting. For warmer climates, worms like Perionyx excavatus are suitable.

Methods of vermicomposting � Bed Method: This is most simple method of

vermicomposting usually done by preparation of beds of organic matter.

� Pit Method: This method includes the collection of organic matter in cemented pits. This method is not good due to the problem of poor aeration and waterlogging.

Materials Required � Water, cow dung, thatch Roof, soil or sand,

gunny bags, earthworms, weed biomass, large bin (plastic or cemented tank), dry straw and leaves collected from paddy fields, and biodegradable wastes collected from fields and kitchen.

Procedure � First of all, the whole biomass is collected and

placed under the sun for about 8-12 days. Now this biomass is chopped to the required size with the help of cutter.

� Now cow dung slurry is prepared and sprinkled on the heap for quick decomposition.

� A soil or sand layer of 2 – 3 inch is also added at the bottom of the tank.

� Now with the help of partially decomposed cow dung, other biodegradable wastes from household and farm, fine beds are prepared. Now both the chopped bio-waste and partially decomposed cow dung are added layer-wise continuously into the tank up to a depth of 0.5-1.0 ft.

� After the addition of whole bio-wastes, earthworms are released over the mixture and the compost mixture was covered with the help of dry straw or gunny bags.

� Water should be sprinkled regularly to maintain the moisture content of the compost.

� The tank is covered by thatch roof to prevent the entry of various organisms like ants, lizards, mouse, snakes, etc.

� Frequent checks should be there to avoid the compost from overheating. There should be proper moisture and temperature.

Harvesting

Vermicompost comes at harvesting stage when it contains very few or negligible scraps of uneaten food or bedding. There are many methods of harvesting which are used in small-scale systems. Out of these methods, pyramid method is most commonly used in small-scale vermiculture, and is considered as the simplest method for single layer bins. This method involves further breakdown of large clumps of compost into smaller ones.

Benefits

Soil benefits � Soil aeration is improved, population of soil

micro-organisms which add enzymes such as phosphatase and cellulose is increased.

� Attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already present in the soil which improve water holding capacity

Plant growth � Enhances germination, plant growth, and

ultimately increases the crop yield. � Improve soil characteristics by increasing the

no. of micro-organisms (adding plant hormones such as auxins and gibberellic acid)

Economic � Biowastes conversion reduces waste flow to

landfills. Elimination of biowastes from the waste stream reduces contamination of other recyclables collected in a single



AG

Ro

no

MY

� Creates employment at local level � Very low capital is required and relatively simple

technologies are involved in vermicomposting which make it more beneficial for less-developed agricultural regions.

Environmental � Closes the “metabolic gap” through recycling

waste on-site � Reduces the greenhouse gas emissions such as

methane and nitric oxide (produced in landfills or incinerators when not composted).

19858

4. Pulses: A Powerhouse for nutrition and AgricultureSANJAY KUMAR1*, RAKESH KUMAR2 AND REETIKA3

1*Senior Technical Assistant (Agronomy); CCS HAU Regional Research Station, Uchani, Karnal2 Senior Technical Assistant (Soil Science), Department of Agronomy; CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar3Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture; CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Pulses are annual leguminous crop harvested exclusively for their seeds. Only legumes harvested for dry grain are classified as pulses. They include chickpeas, cowpeas, dry beans, dry peas, lentils, pigeon peas etc. Soybean and groundnuts are excluded from pulses as they are oil crops.

As per survey of IPSOS, a leading research firm, around 68 % of Indians have protein deficiency in their bodies and 71 % have poor muscles. It was concluded that people are not having adequate protein from their daily diets and to retain good muscle health, the body needs 10 to 14 grams more protein per day. Pulses are excellent source of protein and their sufficient intake may address the problem of protein deficiency.

From an agricultural point of view, multiple cropping systems that include pulses enhance soil fertility, improve yields, and contribute to a more sustainable food system. Pulses fix nitrogen in the soil and reduce the need for industrial nitrogen fertilizers and thus boost soil fertility. Pulses can be grown in very poor soils where other crops cannot be cultivated.

Pulses as a source of nutrition: Pulses are very important and economical source of plant-based proteins, amino acids, vitamins, fibres and minerals for humans throughout the world. They don’t contain any cholesterol; have a low content of fat, and a good source of dietary fibres. Furthermore, they have no gluten and are enriched with minerals and B vitamins which are very important components of human diet. Protein content in pulses ranges from 21 to 26 %, hence pulses are a huge source of protein. Protein is very crucial component for maintenance of lean body mass, and for repairing of tissue damage. In addition to protein, pulses also have some other nutritional value such as fibres which are vital for supporting a healthy gut. One third of daily recommended dose of fibres can be meet out by

consumption of pulses. Most of Indians fails to reach the daily needs of protein as well as fibres, so pulses can act as a boon. Pulses also contain high levels of minerals like iron and zinc. Pulses are a good source for a variety of B vitamins also.

Role of Pulses in agriculture: Despite their significant role in food and nutrition, pulses have equally important role in agriculture also. The sustainability in agricultural cropping systems can be gained by inclusion of pulses in the system. The primary benefit of pulses is nitrogen addition into soil by its fixation.

N fixation: Nitrogen is an essential macro element found in soil for plant growth. It is required for the formation of basic structural blocks (DNA to protein) for all the forms of life. Although, N

2 can’t

be up taken by plants directly. Therefore, fixation of nitrogen (N

2) into ammonia (NH

3) and finally into

ammonium (NH4

+) is important. Pulses are capable to form root nodules and fix nitrogen in symbiosis with compatible rhizobia (bacteria). Either we can say fixation of nitrogen into ammonium takes place with the help of symbiotic bacteria present on the roots of pulses. We call it biological N fixation.

Importance of N fixation: Application of nitrogen fertilizer increased tremendously after green revolution. Hence, there was significant energy consumption in manufacture of N fertilizers. Furthermore, more of N fertilizers will be needed in coming future and these needs will lead to environmental pollution. Adoption of pulses in crop rotation may cope to some extent of N fertilizer needs. Hence, N fixation is economically viable and environmentally favorable process.

The crop yield increases from 20% to 35% when wheat or barley is sown after a pea crop. In our country rice-wheat cropping system is predominant. Here, inclusion of short duration pulses like mung bean, peas, lentil etc. into cropping system may assist



AG

Ro

no

MY

in sustaining yields of wheat and rice along with reduction in N fertilizer application. Additionally, when pulse plant is harvested, nitrogen rich sources stored in its roots are released into soil and further these nitrogen rich sources are converted into nitrate (NO

3–) form that is available form of N for most of

the plants.

Role of Pulses in Ecological and Soil Health � Enhance soil fertility and trim down the

requirement of industrial N fertilizers � Pulses when used as a rotation crop with cereals,

may save up to 120 N Kg/ha � Pulses have tap root system which enables them

to extract water and nutrients from deeper soil layers. Due to this capability they can tolerate water stresses

� Pulse-cereal rotation assists in weed control

and diminishes disease and pest infections. � Many times better water use efficiency as

compare to cereals � Very effective in controlling soil erosion when

they are grown as cover crops � Reduce nitrous oxide emission because of

minimal N inputs through chemical and organic fertilizers and offer organic matter to soils & improved soil structure

� Provide congenial environment for soil microorganisms and encourage soil biodiversityLoaded with fiber, protein, vitamins, and

minerals, pulses provide important nutritional components. Serving as a source of nitrogen for modern agriculture, pulses are a sustainable plant used in many different farming practices. Hence, Pulses are a powerhouse for nutrition and agriculture.

19875

5. effect of organic Farming on soil HealthSANJEEV SINGH1* AND MOHAMMAD HASANAIN2

1*Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, 2501102ICAR–Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi–110012*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Agriculture is the back bone of Indian economy which ensures domestic food security and social and national security. With increasing in global population in the word the need of food security also increases which was the challenge for the researchers throughout the world. To overcome this problem in 1967 Green Revolution came into the existence which results in remarkable increase in the crop yield due to the use of chemical fertilizers, irrigation and intense use of chemical insecticides and pesticides. This cause depletion in soil organic matter, soil microorganisms which resulted in soil sickness and finally the yield of the crop. This contributed to negative environmental problems such as soil degradation, eutrophication of water systems, and global warming. To improve soil health, conserve natural resource, soil fertility and to sustainability of agriculture production organic farming is the key component. Organic farming will help in reducing soil erosion, reducing soil compactness, maintain OM and will sustain the natural microorganisms in the soil.

“Organic agriculture is a universal production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, biological, agronomic, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic

materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system.” (FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1999).

Effect on Soil Health

Increase in soil organic carbon

Soil organic carbon can be increased by adding organic matter such as FYM, Vermi compost, Composts, green manuring and by addition of legume based crop rotation. By addition of these manures, diversified microbial population will increase which will reduce adverse effect of heavy rain storms, very high temperature and will create favorable condition in soil for biological activity and carbon sequestration. (Srinivasara et al. 2019).

Effect on soil biology

The soil’s living organisms is known as the heart of organic farming. Organic farming helps in increasing the soil organisms such as earthworm, protozoa, bacteria, nematode and fungi. These micro and macro organism helps in increasing soil nutrient status and other properties of soil by breaking the complex form of OM into simpler forms by releasing different type of chemicals from them (DEFRA, 2006).

Soil physical properties

With Long term organic farming soil physical properties are improved. There is increase in pore spaces which results in good aeration, water holding



AG

Ro

no

MY

properties and decreases bulk density. It will also provide favorable conditions for microbes and plant roots that live and grow there. Soil compaction

increases as soil porosity is reduced resulting in decrease in soil aeration which have bad effect on root growth and development (Reeve et al. 2016).

FIG. 1. Advantages of organic farming

Soil chemical properties

The organic farming helps in maintain soil chemical properties which has significant effect on plant and soil health. In organic farming, organic matter is used as the nutrient source which acts as the chelating agent which helps buffer soil pH, increases AEC and CEC and improves availability of plant nutrient and decreases leaching potential (Weil and Magdoff, 2004).

References

Anonymous (1999). FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission.

Department for Environment, Food and Rural

Affairs (2006). Soil and nutrient management on organic farms: a booklet.

Reeve, J.R., Hoagland, L., Villaiba, J. and Carr, P.M. (2016). Organic farming, soil health and food quality: Considering possible link. Advan Agron 137: 319-368.

Srinivasarao, C., Kundu, S., Lakshmi, C.S., Rani, Y. S., Nataraj, K.C., Gangaiah, B., Laxmi, M.J., Babu, V.J.S., Rani, U., Nagalakshmi, S. and Manasa, R. (2019). Soil health issues for sustainability of South Asian agriculture. EC Agriculture 5(6): 310-326.

Weil, R.R. and Magdoff, F. (2004). Significance of soil organic matter to soil quality and health. CRC Press pp. 1-58.

19880

6. Leaf Color Chart: Based nitrogen Management to Improve Productivity in Cereal Crop in IndiaMOHAMMAD HASANAIN1* AND SANJEEV SINGH2

Ph.D. Scholar (Agronomy), 1ICAR–Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi–1100122Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, 250110*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

India’s productivity is very low in comparison to other major countries in the world. There are various reasons for low productivity, inefficient utilization

of nitrogen (N) is considered to be the most critical one (Shukla et al., 2004). In the recent world-wide analysis of fertilizer, its recovery efficiency of N is



AG

Ro

no

MY

to be found around 30% in rice crops and 40-50% in other crops (Krupnik et al., 2004). It has been revealed that more than 60% of applied N is lost due to a lack of synchronization between the N demand and N supply (Yadav et al., 2004). Farmers generally applied N fertilizer as blanket recommendation half N, the full dose of P

2O

5 and K

2O as a basal, rest of

the nitrogen application in critical growth stages respectively, without taking into account whether the plant requires N at that time which may lead to loss or may not be found adequate to synchronize nitrogen supply with actual N demand by crop (Ladha et al., 2000).

Leaf Colour Chart

It is a very simple, easy and cost-effective gadget it has been already introduced into South Asian farming and increasing numbers of farmers are finding it helpful in efficiently managing N fertilizer in rice and its need to establish technology for its use in cereal crops. Six-panel leaf colour chart used in this study was manufactured by N Parameters, Chennai, India as per specifications of International Rice Research Institute (IRRI, 1996). It is made with high-quality plastic with strips of green colour shades of increasing green colour intensity from 1 to 6. The LCC was used to assess crop N need at 7–10-day interval starting from V6 to R1 stage. Before the tasseling stage measurements were made from the first leaf with a fully exposed collar from the top. The topmost fully expanded leaf was placed on top of the LCC and colour of the middle part of the leaf was graded according to the corresponding colour strip on the ruler. During measurement, the leaf being measured was kept under the shade of the body to avoid colour variance caused by the sun’s angle and sunlight intensity. It offers substantial opportunities to farmers for the detection of time and amount of N to be applied (on demand) for efficient N use and high rice yield.

Improve Crop Productivity- the critical LCC values vary considerably among different rice varieties having different genetic background, plant type and leaf colour and this critical colour shade on the LCC needs to be determined to guide N application Keeping this in view the following field trial was conducted to determine the critical threshold LCC values for different rice varieties based on growth, yield, agronomic and recovery efficiency of N. Real-time application of 60 kg N/ha in two equal splits at LCC 4 significantly increased grain (4919 kg/ha) and straw yield (7048 kg/ha) of wheat as compared to fixed time application of 60 kg N/ha at 25 DAS. Real-time application of 60 kg N/ha in two equal splits at LCC 4 increased grain and straw yield by 27.40 and 22.61% respectively over fixed time application of 60 kg N/ha at 25DAS. The significant increase in growth and biomass production due to real-time N management get reflected in a significant increase in yield attributes and yield of wheat. Budhar (2005) reported that direct seeded puddle rice recorded no significant increase in effective tillers under different LCC values in the first year, but in the second year

LCC 5 was recorded significantly higher number of effective tillers over LCC 3 only.

Mathukia et al 2014. Reported that Real-time application of 80 kg N/ha in two splits at LCC 4 significantly increased yield attributes viz., cob length, cob girth, number of cobs/plant, number of grains/cob, grain weight/plant and 1000-grain weight and ultimately grain (3149 kg/ha) and stover yield (4869 kg/ha) of maize as compared to fixed time application of 80 kg N/ha.

Thus concluded that LCC is easy, cheap and nondestructive tools for real-time nitrogen management in cereals crop has significantly improved productivity, also reduces N losses through synchronization of N supply with crop demand.

References

Budhar, M. N. 2005. “Leaf Colour Chart with Nitrogen Management in Direct Seeded Puddled Rice (Oryza Sativa L),” Fertilizer News, 50(3):41-44.

Krupnik, T. J., Six, J., Ladha, J. K., Paine, M. J. and van Kessel, C. 2004. “An Assessment of Fertilizer Nitrogen Recovery Efficiency by Grain Crops,” In: A. R. Mosier et al., Eds., Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use on Food Production and the Environment, Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), Paris.

Ladha, J. K., Fischer, K. S., Hossain, M., Hobbs, P. R. and Hardy, B. 2000. “Improving the Productivity and Sustainability of Rice-Wheat Systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains,” A Synthesis of NARS-IRRI Partnership Research Discussion Paper 40, IRRI, Los Banos.

Mathukia R. K, Rathod P, Dadhania N. M. 2014. Climate Change Adaptation: Real-Time Nitrogen Management in Maize (Zea Mays L.) Using Leaf Colour Chart. Current World Environment, International Research Journal of Environmental Science 9(3):204-210.

Shukla, A.K., Ladha, J.K., Singh, V.K., Dwivedi, B.S., Balasubramanian, V., Gupta, R.K., Sharma, S.K., Singh, Y., Pathak, H., Pandey, P.S., Padre, A.T., Yadav, R.L. 2004. Calibrating the Leaf Color Chart for Nitrogen Management in Different Genotypes of Rice and Wheat in a Systems Perspective. Agronomy Journal, 96:1606–1621.

Yadav, R. L., Padre, A. T., Pandey, P. S. and Sharma, S. K. 2004. “Calibrating the Leaf Color Chart for Nitrogen Management in Different Genotypes of Rice and Wheat in a System,” Agronomy Journal, 98:1606-1621.



AG

Ro

no

MY

19894

7. Zero Budget natural FarmingMINU MOHAN AND AMRITA GIRI

Ph.D. Scholar, 1Department OF Agronomy,2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalay, Raipur (CG)

Zero Budget Natural Farming, as the name implies, is a method of farming where the worth of growing and harvesting plants is zero. Zero budget farming is a set of farming practices that involve zero credit for agriculture and no use of chemical fertilisers. This implies that farmers need not to urge fertilizers and pesticides for growing of crops and maintaining crop health. It is, basically, a natural farming technique that uses biological based commodity instead of chemical-based fertilizers. Farmers must prefer to use earthworms, cow dung, urine, plants residues, human excretion and such biological commodity for crop protection. Therefore, it reduces farmer’s investment. It additionally protects the soil from degradation. This evolved as a farming movement in Karnataka state as results of collaboration between farmer Subhash Palekar and state farmer’s association Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha (KRRS). As a result of it earned appreciable success within the state, the model was replicated in many completely different states, considerably in South India. Citing the benefits of ZBNF, Andhra Pradesh unrolled an ambitious idea to become India’s first State to practice 100% natural farming by 2024.

The zero budget farming aims to tug out the farmers out of the debt trap which they found themselves in Indian economy. This is often an attempt to develop small scale farming a viable vocation. In many states, farmers are in huge debt because of rising agriculture cost on the account of privatized seeds, farm inputs and inaccessible markets. The high-interest rates for credit or loans that the farmers take from the easily available lender made farming unviable. Zero budget farming model promises to cut down farming expenditure drastically and ends dependence on loans. It additionally reduces dependence on purchased inputs and as a result it encourages use of own seeds and domestically available natural fertilizers. Farming is completed in synchronization with the nature and therefore not through chemical fertilisers.

ZBNF is Based on 4 Pillars � Jeevamrutha: It is a combination of fresh cow

dung and aged cow urine (both from India’s indigenous cow breed), jaggery, pulse flour, water and soil; to be applied on farmland.

� Bijamrita: It’s a concoction of neem tree leaves & pulp, tobacco and green chilies prepared for insect and pest management, that may be used to treat seeds.

� Acchadana (Mulching): It protects surface

soil throughout cultivation and it does not destroy top soil by tillage.

� Whapasa: It is the condition where there are both air molecules and water molecules present within the soil and thereby helps in reducing irrigation demand.

Benefits of ZBNF � It has been renounced that due to rise of prices

of external inputs farmers need to spend more than they earn and thus due to this debt they often commit suicide attack. But the practicing of this type of farming reduces the external input price therefore there is the no got to pay cash or take loans for external inputs. This would be more facilitating for many small farmers for breaking the debt cycle and help to predict the doubling of farmer’s income by 2022.

� We are well aware of the harmful effects of the chemical fertilizers and chemical – intensive farming which ends in degradation of our soil and environment, therefore a zero-cost environmentally-friendly farming methodology is a lot useful practice to be adopted.

� The ZBNF methodology promotes soil aeration, minimal watering, intercropping, bunds and surface soil mulching and discourages intensive irrigation and deep ploughing.

� It suits all crops in all agro-climatic zones. � As both a social and environmental programme,

it aims to ensure that ZNBF is economically viable by enhancing farm biodiversity and ecosystem services.

� It reduces farmers input price through eliminating external inputs and using in-situ resources to rejuvenate soils, while at the same time simultaneously increasing incomes, and restoring ecosystem health through various multi-layered cropping systems.

� Cow dung from native cows has proven to be a miraculous cure to revive the fertility and nutrient value of soil. One gram of cow dung is believed to have anywhere between 300 to 500 crore beneficial micro-organisms. These micro-organisms decompose the dried biomass on the soil and convert it into ready-to-use nutrients for plants.

� Resilient food systems is the need of the day because due to global warming and declining groundwater in large parts of India and the variability of the monsoons. The drought-prone regions in India is reportedly seeing promising



AG

Ro

no

MY

changes already in farms with the ZBNF. � Zero budget natural farming needs only ten per

cent water and ten per cent electricity beneath what is required under chemical and organic farming. ZBNF could improve the potential of crops to adapt to and to be made for evolving climatic issues associated with ZBNF.

Issues Related to ZBNF � Sikkim (India’s first organic state), has seen

some decline in yields following conversion to organic farming.

� Many farmers have reverted to conventional farming once seeing their ZBNF returns drop after a few years.

� While ZBNF has positively helped preserve soil fertility, its role in boosting productivity and farmers’ financial gain isn’t conclusive however.

� ZBNF advocates the keeping of an Indian breed cow, whose numbers are declining at a quick pace.

What may be Done to Strengthen Zero Budget Natural Farming

There are a number of marketing problems which

has to be self-addressed before planning to achieve the goals of ZBNF just like the following

� Strengthening of agricultural market infrastructure.

� Extending the acquisition mechanism to any or all food grain and non-food grain crops to all the states.

� Implementation of worth deficiency payment system for designated crops.

� Fixing minimum support prices (MSP) in consonance with the price of cultivation.

� Abolishing minimum export worth for agricultural commodities.

� Enacting legislation on ‘right to sell at MSP’ wants immediate attention.

� MGNREGS should even be coupled with farm work in order to cut back the cost of cultivation which has escalated at a quicker pace over the past few years.Unless these issues are resolved, the doubling of

farmers’ income will remain a distant reality. In this context, farmers’ ease of doing business and ease of living should also be taken into consideration.

19909

8. effect of salt stress on Plant GrowthDEVI LAL DHAKER1 AND GOPAL LAL DHAKER2

1Department of Agronomy, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur (Raj.) 3033282Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur (Raj.) 303328*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Salt Stress

Salt stress occurs due to excess salt accumulation in the soil. As a result, the water potential of soil solution decreases, osmotic pressure increase and therefore exo-osmosis occurs. This leads to physiological drought causing wilting of plants.

Sources of Salts in Soil1. Primary minerals2. Semi-arid and arid climatic condition3. Basic fertilizer

4. Sea or ocean water5. Salty Irrigation water6. Secondary salinization by windblown salt

Classification of saline soil: 1. Saline soil 2. Alkaline soil 3. Saline-Alkaline soil

1. Saline soil

In saline soils, the electrical conductivity is more than 4 dSm-1, exchangeable sodium percentage is less than 15% and the pH is less than 8.5. These soils are dominated by Cl-1 and SO

24 ions.

salt-affect soil electrical conductivity (eC) (dsm-1)

exchangeable sodium percentage (esP) soil pH

Saline soil >4 <15 <8.5Alkaline soil <4 >15 >8.5Saline-Alkaline soil >4 >15 >8.5

2. Alkaline soil

Alkaline soils are also named as sodic soils wherein,

the electrical conductivity is below 4 dSm-1, exchangeable sodium percentages are greater than 15% and pH of the soil is greater than 8.5. These soils



AG

Ro

no

MY

are dominated by CO-3 and HCO-3 ions.

3. Saline-alkaline soil

In Saline-Alkaline soil, the electrical conductivity is more than 4 dSm-1, exchangeable sodium percentage is greater than 15% and pH is more than 8.5.

Classification of Plants

Plants are divided into two kinds depending on the resistance to salt pressure. They are halophytes and glycophytes.

1. Halophytes

Halophytes are the plants that develop under high salt content. They are again partitioned into two kinds dependent on extraordinary of resilience.

� Euhalophytes: can tolerate extreme salt stress � Oligohalophytes: can tolerate moderate salt

stress

2. Glycophytes

Glycophytes are the plants that can’t develop under high salt focus.

Effect of Salt Stress on Plant Growth and Yield

1. Seed germination

Salt pressure postpones seed germination because of the decreased movement of the α-amylase compound.

2. Seedling development

The early seedling development is highly affected. There is a huge decrease in root development and root length.

3. Vegetative development

At the point when plants accomplish vegetative stage, salt injury is progressively extreme at high temperature. Since under these conditions, the transpiration rate will be exceptionally high accordingly take-up of salt is also high.

4. Reproductive stage

Saltiness influences panicle initiation on, spikelet arrangement, pollination and seed formation.

5. Photosynthesis

Saltiness decreases photosynthetic process. Thylakoid are harmed by high levels of salt and chlorophyll b content is also decreasing.

Mechanism of Salt Tolerance1. A few plants can keep up high water potential by

decreasing the transpiration rate.2. Salts are concentrating in stem and lower leaves

in which metabolic procedures occur at a slow rate.

3. Na+ (sodium) lethality is maintained or reduce by collecting high level of K+ ion.

4. Collection of harmful particles in the vacuole not in the cytoplasm.

5. Accumulation of proline and ABA, which are related with the resilience of the plants to salt.

6. Ion Homeostasis7. Compatible solute accumulation for osmotic

protection8. Role of polyamine in saltiness resilience9. Role of nitric oxide in saltiness resilience10. Hormone concentration fluctuations in saltiness

resilience

Relative Salt Tolerant Crops � Tolerant yields: Cotton, sugar beet, grain � Semi tolerant yields: Rice, maize, wheat, oats,

sunflower, soybean � Sensitive crops: Cow pea, beans, groundnut and

grams

Mitigation of Salt Stress1. Seed treatment for hardiness with NaCl (10 mM

fixation)2. Gypsum application @ half Gypsum

Requirement (GR)3. Use of daincha (6.25 t ha-1) in soil before

planting4. Foliar application of 0.5 ppm brassinolode for

expanding photosynthetic action5. Foliar application of 2% DAP + 1% KCl (MOP)

during basic stages6. Use of 100 ppm salicylic acid7. Spray of 40 ppm of NAA for capturing pre-full

grown fall of blossoms/buds.8. Addition of extra nitrogen (25%) than

recommended dose.9. Split use of N and K fertilizers10. Seed treatment + soil application + foliar

application of Pink Pigmented Facultative Methnaotrops (PPFM) @ 106 as a source of cytokinins.



AG

Ro

no

MY

19912

9. Water Productivity in AgricultureNEETIRAJ KAROTIYA

Technical Officer, RCIPMC, Nagpur

Introduction: Enhancing water productivity agriculture is an appropriate response to growing water scarcity is challenging to increase the productivity of water for food and livelihood to usher in the era of evergreen/sustainable revolution. Agriculture with improved water use management in agriculture system and/or integrated farming and multiple water use system (using the water source for more than one production system, like; produce more food with less water).

Symptoms of Water Scarcity1. Declining dry season rivers flows in many rivers.2. More ground water depletion.3. Destroy the farm/village ponds.4. Highly industrialization.5. Water pollution due to indiscriminate use of

fertilizers and plant protection chemicals in intensive farming.

6. Inequitable allocation of water resources leading to conflicts among water users.Importance of Water Productivity in

Agriculture: Water productivity reflects the aim of growing …

1. More food with less water.2. More income per unit water cost.3. More improvement in standard of livelihood.4. More secured ecological benefits/balance.5. More integration on farm with different system.

Indicators of Water Productivity: The numerator output derived from water use can be in two ways …

1. Physical output, which can be total biomass or harvestable yield.

2. Economic output, the cash value of output (gross or net benefit).

Key Principles for Improving Water Productivity1. Increased water access for the rural poor and

vulnerable groups.2. Generation of wealthier farming system.3. Freezing water for other uses including

agriculture and environment (Like; making artificial Ice stupa in Leh Ladakh,).

4. Reduce overall water demand and develop additional water resources (like; Dam, groundwater exploitation and other water transfers etc.).

5. Make water available for expansion of the irrigated perimeter.

6. Comply with water permit and pollution

regulations to ensure to adequate provision of safe water for non-agriculture users.

7. Reduce water cost (costs of delivering, pumping or water fees).

8. Reduce loss of land productivity associated with soil erosion, waterlogging and salinisation.

9. Expand irrigated areas with the same amount of available irrigation water.

10. Increase agriculture output, food security and profitability (viz. integrating farming system with the field crop and other available farm enterprises).

11. Method used for runoff collection and storage according to topography, soil characteristics and available space.

12. Improved water used scheduling to account for rainfall variability.

13. Conjunctive management of various sources of water, including water poorer quality where appropriate.Opportunity for Water Productivity

Improvement in Agriculture: There are several opportunities for improving the water productivity both in rainfed and irrigated agriculture areas…

� Rainfed Agriculture: India does not have purely rainfed areas now. Some crops are always irrigated in every region, though some farmers might be growing those crops under rainfed condition by purchase of water to provide critical supplementary irrigation. An example is cotton growing in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, which means water, is applied only to the crop when it is critically required. Most of India’s (drylands) areas are in central India and Peninsular region. So in these areas development of water resources for irrigation is poor and adoption of modern farming practices is extremely low. Studies indicated that supplemental irrigation can boost both yield and productivity significantly. The geohydrological conditions are not ideal for storage of harnessed water underground, in those areas where having hard rock strata; water can be stored in small reservoirs such as anicuts, check dams, ponds and tanks.

� Irrigated Agriculture: Avenues for improving water productivity in irrigation crops.– Water delivery control: Studies show

opportunities for improving water productivity through control over water delivery by allocating less water in many instances with a resultant reduction in yield but rise in water productivity.



AG

Ro

no

MY

– Improving reliability of irrigation water: It is an optimisation strategy in which irrigation is applied during drought sensitive growth stage of a crop. Outside these periods, irrigation is limited or even unnecessary if rainfall provides a minimum supply of water.

– Optimising the agronomic practices.– Use of micro-irrigation system: It can

improve crop water productivity through reducing the non-beneficial evaporation or non-recoverable deep percolation in the field, resulting in total depletion or consumed fraction.

– Growing certain crops in region where they secure high water productivity.

– Crop shifts: Another opportunity for water productivity improvement comes

from crop shift. Several of the cash and vegetable crops are found to have higher water productivity than the cereals, the opportunity available for water productivity improvement through crop shift.

References

Chapagain AK and Hoekstra AY 2004. Water footprints of nations. Value of Water Research Report Series No 16, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, The Netherlands.

Kumar M, Dinesh A, and Jos Van Dam 2008. Enhancing water productivity in developing economies: Identifying areas for research. Proc of the 7th annual partners’ meet of IWMI-TATA water policy research program, ICRISAT Campus, Hyderabad, 2-4 April 2008.

19963

10. Practices for sustainable AgricultureSUNIL* AND SEEMA DAHIYA

College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar – 125 004, Haryana, (India)*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Sustainable agriculture may be defined as a system which is economically viable, environmentally sound and should satisfy the needs of society for healthy and nutritious food while maintaining or enhancing natural resources for future generations. According to TAC (Technical Advisory Committee) on CGIAR an international agricultural research state that sustainable agriculture is an effective or productive management of resources for various agricultural enterprises to satisfy the changing needs of human beings, while improving or maintaining the environment quality, and conserving our natural resources.

Sustainable agriculture mainly depends upon

the quality and availability of natural resources like soil and water. By promoting conservation of these scarce resources and using them in a sustainable manner through appropriate location specific, agricultural growth can be sustained.

Need of sustainable agriculture – Now-a-days the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has increased to a great extent. Due to the indiscriminate use of these chemicals, environment quality has been continuously decreasing and this issue became serious barrier in maintaining long term productivity.

Sustainable agriculture practices - There are many sustainable farming practices, some of the



AG

Ro

no

MY

key practices are following:

1. Crop rotations - Rotating crops year after year have lot of benefit like improving nutrient status of soil and effective control of pests. Crop diversification mainly includes either intercropping (growing a mix of crops in the same area) or a complex long period rotation of crops.

2. Cover crops - Various cover crops such as hairy vitch or clover are grown during off-season times to protect soil from various kind of erosion. These crops also improve soil health by improving nutrient status mainly through biological nitrogen fixation. These crops also check weed growth and reduce the over dependency on herbicides.

3. Reduced tillage - Traditional tillage is helpful in field preparation and weed control, but it is responsible for huge amount of soil loss. This soil loss can be prevented by practicing reduced tillage or zero tillage. In reduced tillage, seeds are directly inserted into undisturbed soil, which help in reducing erosion.

4. Integrated pest management (IPM) - It generally includes various cultural, mechanical and biological methods, which can be applied in a systematic manner so that pest population is controlled by least use of chemical pesticides.

5. Integrated farming system (IFS) - Integrating livestock with cropping system is an important practice of sustainable agriculture. Various crops provide food for livestock and livestock help in preparation of farm yard manure that is very helpful for crop production.

6. Practicing agroforestry - It is done by planting trees or shrubs along with agricultural crops, so that these trees protect various agricultural crops and animals by providing shade and shelter to them. It also helps in generating additional income.

7. Managing whole systems and landscapes - In Sustainable farming, uncultivated or less intensively cultivated areas are efficiently utilized, such as riparian buffers or prairie strips, so that whole farm and landscape is properly managed.

8. Vermicomposting - It is a very simple process in which worms are used for digesting organic matter and converting it into beneficial soil amendment. Vermicompost is mainly defined as decomposed organic material of plant or animal origin, that mainly consist of

castings of earthworms, produced with the help of bio-oxidation and stabilization of various organic material, due to the interactions of aerobic microorganism with earthworms, as the materials passes through the gut of earthworm.

9. Farm Yard Manure (FYM) - It is defined as a type of manure obtained by decomposition of various livestock wastes such as dung and urine of farm animals. Litter and other material that left from roughages are also used in FYM preparation. It is very important for plant growth as it provide all essential macro and micro nutrients to plant.

10. SRI system (System of Rice Intensification) - It is an advanced package practice for rice cultivation that enhances the yield of rice to a great extent and reduces the input requirement such as water. SRI mainly has four components- 1. Single seedling per hill, 2. Transplanting seedling at a younger age (less than 15 days), 3. Square planting (25 *25 cm spacing) and 4. Cano weeding.

11. Bio fertilizers- These are defined as the man made products which are made up of carrier based (solid or liquid) living microorganisms that are very useful in nutrient mobilization or mineralization such as nitrogen fixation, solubilization of phosphorus and ultimately to enhance the productivity of the soil and/or crop.

Environmental Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture

� Reducing runoff intensity and protect soil. � Preventing lakes and rivers pollution. � Water saving in nature. � Naturally maintaining fertility of soil by

nutrients recycling. � Enhancing carbon sequestration by soils and

perennial vegetation. � Promoting energy efficiency of farming

operations. � Decreasing emissions of air pollutants and

greenhouse gases. � Creating habitats for pollinators and beneficial

insects. � Ensuring welfare of farm animals but also

providing space for the respectful coexistence with native wildlife.



AG

Ro

no

MY

19971

11. organic Growth Promoters: A Way to sustainable Crop ProductionAAKASH D. LEWADE AND AJIT U. MASURKAR1Assistant Professor, Section of Agronomy, R.B.C.A. Pipri, Wardha2B.Sc. Agriculture (4th Year) R.B.C.A. Pipri, Wardha

Agriculture comes into existence about 1000 years ago form human civilization around various river basin to meet the increasing food demand with the time. Human civilization camps up with numerous revolutions to uplift the status of humankind. Green revolution in the 1960s was one of the significant milestones in the history of agriculture. The tremendous increase in food grain production was achieved during this. For that, use of a scientific package of practices, high yielding varieties, fertilizers, pesticides were undertaken. Since then, day by day we are aiming new records for crop production. And surely, with indiscriminate use of all these inorganic agrochemicals, we will be able to harvest a targeted quantity of production. But what about the quality of the produce? Dose the harvested produce is completely safe for human and environment? Do anyone is sure about the quality of the produce?

No doubt, no one can neglect the fact that with indiscriminate use of inorganic agrochemicals we have altered and polluted the quality of harvested food and ultimately the sustainability of crops. In the present context, we cannot completely avoid the use of inorganic inputs, but we can combine them with some organic, biodegradable and cheaper products like Jeewamrit, Amritpani, Beejamrit, Pachagavya, Neemark etc. By using these products, we can try to match with the requirements of the crop in terms of nutrients, hormones, protectants etc. and if not satisfied, then we can go for calculated use of inorganic products. And in this way, the overuse of inorganic inputs can be restricted to sustain the crop yields. Some of them are discussed below.

Amritpani

It is a natural microbes enriched produce prepared by incubating cow ghee and honey with cowdung. Seed treatment with Amritpani is an effective tool for enhancing germination and managing soil borne diseases.

Materials: If possible Deshi Cow Products are preferable

� Clean fresh water 10 lit � Cow urine- 01 lit � Fresh cow dung- 01 kg � Honey/Jaggary – 50 gm

Procedure1. Take 10 lit water2. Add 01 lit cow urine in it.3. Mix it thoroughly4. Add 01 kg fresh cow dung to it5. Add 50 gm honey/Jaggery.6. Stir the solution in clockwise direction for 05

minutes in every morning and evening upto 03 days.

7. Amritpani is being ready by 4th day.Use: 20% Amritpani is applied on field before

sowing. Approx. 180-200 lit is sufficient for 1 acre.

Jeewamrita

One of the cheapest organic produce prepared by fermenting cowdung and urine alongwith pulse flour and jaggary that act as a good fungicide which controls many fungal diseases.

Material: (If possible Deshi Cow Products are preferable)

� Cow urine – 10 lit � Fresh cow dung-10 kg � Jaggary- 01 kg � Pulse flour – 01 kg (Mix of gram, tur, cowpea,

etc.) � Honey- 100gm � Inoculant soil (below Neem, Pippal, Banian

tree)

Procedure1. Take 10 lit cow urine in 250 lit capacity drum.2. Next day stir the solution and add 100 gm honey

+ 4-5 handful of soil.3. Keep it covered for fermentation till next

02 days. Stir every morning and evening in clockwise direction.

4. From 4th day onwards add 50 lit of water to solution at an interval of every 02 days.

5. Repeat the addition of water upto 8th or 10thday,

by this drum will be filled completely.6. Add 3-4 handful of inoculant soil.7. Stir the solution every morning & evening in

clockwise direction upto 07 days.8. Jeewamrita is ready, use it within 7 days

Use: 200 lit spray for 1 acre and repeat it after 15 days.



sUst

AIn

AB

Le A

GR

ICU

LtU

Re

Panchagavya

It is an organic product that has potential to play significant role in stimulating crop growth and promoting biotic as well as abiotic stress tolerance. It is the combination of five cow products i.e. fresh cow dung, cow urine, cow milk, cow’s curd, cow’s ghee alongwith Jaggary, ripened banana and tender coconut water.

Material � Fresh cowdung – 07 kg � Cow urine - 10 lit � Cow’s ghee – 01 kg � Cow milk – 01 lit � Cow’s curd – 01 lit � Jaggary – 500 gm � Coconut water – 03 lit

Procedure1. Take fresh cowdung and cow’s ghee mix it

thoroughly.2. Keep it for 03 days.3. Add cow urine and fresh water in it.4. Keep it for 15 days.5. Mix it thoroughly and add cow’s milk, 500 gm

Jaggary and mix the solution well.6. Add tender coconut water & ripened banana.7. Mix all ingredients thoroughly.8. Keep it covered for 30 days.9. After 30 days Panchagavya is ready.

Use – It can be used @ 6-10% with water.

References

Ram R. A. and Pathak R. K. (2016) Organic approaches for sustainable production of horticulture crops; A review. Progressive Horticulture, 48 (1)

Mehere S. S. (2017) Evaluation of different organic growth promoters on growth and yield of Onion (Allium cepa L.) Thesis submitted to department of Horticulture, VNMKV Parbhani.

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

19850

12. Zero Budget natural Farming: need of the HourDR. HARPREET B. SODHI

Assistant Professor, College of Agri-Business Management, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University385506 (Gujarat), India*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Most of the farmers use chemical fertilizers and pesticides to enhance the crop growth and liquidate more revenue but eventually at the end of the day the farmer trap himself into the debt cycle. After witnessing the harmful effect of conventional techniques of farming and dealing with this ever rising problems, newly introduced agricultural technique among farmer is, Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), also known as Zero Budget Spiritual Farming (ZBSF). Zero Budget Natural Farming, as name implies, is a method of farming where the cost of growing and harvesting plants is zero. The word ‘budget’ refers to credit and expenses, thus the phrase ‘Zero Budget’ implies without using any credit, and without spending any money on purchased inputs. ‘Natural farming’ implies farming naturally without application of any synthetic chemicals. This means that the farmers need not purchase fertilizers and pesticides in order to ensure the healthy growth of crops. ZBNF is a set of farming methods and also grassroots peasant movement.

It was first proposed by an agriculturalist Subash Palekar of Vidarbha, Maharashtra.

Aims of ZBNF1. Zero Budget Natural Farming emphasizes on

farming naturally without application of any synthetic chemicals. Hence it aims to eliminate the use of chemical sources like fertilizers, pesticides and seed treatment activities.

2. It emphasizes on promoting the use of only organic sources of nutrients viz., plant residues, farm wastes, domestic waste etc., for crop growth and crop protection.

3. By using only sources of nutrient and eliminate the use of chemical sources for farming it aims to enhance and sustain the soil fertility

4. By adopting Zero Budget Natural Farming farmers need not to purchase farm inputs from outside hence it helps in decreasing cost of cultivation which ultimately leads to increase farmer income.



sUst

AIn

AB

Le A

GR

ICU

LtU

Re

Pillars of ZNBF1. Ensure soil fertility through cow dung and cow

urine based concoction (Ex. Jeevamrutham)2. Seed treatment with cow dung and urine based

formulations3. Mulching and soil aeration for favorable soil

conditions.4. Water vapour condensation for better soil

moisture.

Principles of ZBNF1. Intercropping: Any cost incurred during

ZBNF will be compensated for farmers by income from intercrops. It leads making a farmer close to zero budget activity. Intercropping gives more yield as well as it enhances the soil health.

2. Contours and bunds: To preserve the rain water in situ and ex situ, contours and bunds are made in such way which promote maximum efficacy for different crops.

3. Local Species of earthworms: Palekar oppose the use of vermicompost. He claims that revival of local and deep soil earthworms through organic matter is most recommended.

4. Cow dung: The entire ZBNF method is centered on the Indian cow. According to Palekar, dung from the humped cow is most beneficial as it has highest concentration of micro-organisms as compared to European cow breeds.These pillars are the base for ZBNF which

ensure the crop growth in sustainable and successful manner.

Benefits of ZBNF

As in Zero Budget Natural Farming technique farmer need not to purchase the inputs from outside it reduces farmers’ costs through eliminating external inputs and using in-situ resources to rejuvenate soils. This technique also helps in eliminating chemical pesticides and promoting of good agronomic practices. By ZBNF technique, even infertile barren lands can also be converted to fertile cultivable lands for cultivating the crops. Hence it helps in restoring the soil fertility. Unlike, chemical fertilizers, it does not cause soil and water pollution and their erosion. This technique uses biological pesticides instead of chemical based fertilizers. Farmers use earthworms, cow dung, urine, plants and such biological

fertilizers for crop protection. It protects the soil from degradation. Zero Budget Natural Farming improves the soil aeration and water holding capacity by making micro and macro pores in the soil. At a time when chemical-intensive farming is resulting in soil and environmental degradation, a zero-cost environmentally-friendly farming method is definitely a timely initiative as suits all crops in all agro-climatic zones as it restoring ecosystem health through diverse, multi-layered cropping systems.

High cost agricultural input and higher credit need for the input purpose are one of the major problems plaguing the Indian farmers. By practicing this method, input cost and need of credit can be reduced and hence promises to end a reliance on loans and drastically cuts production costs. Hence it helps in ending the vicious cycle of debt for farmers Farmer’s practicing ZBNF noticed improvements in yield, quality of produce and health. ZBNF helps in cost reduction towards input hence it generate better capacity to increase the incomes of the farmer, it also ensures decent livelihood to small and marginal farmers.

Conclusion

ZBNF is the only technique that counters the commercial expenditures, all things required for the growth of the plant are available around the root zone of the plant and nothing has to be purchased from outside. Palekar’s ZBNF has undeniably made an unforgettable mark on farming in India. This new system of farming helps the farmers to come out of their debt trap and boost the confidence of farmers to make farming an economically viable venture. Many farmers across the country have benefitted greatly from this technique and surely this number will increase tremendously in coming years and also helps in enhances the ecosystem in a natural way.

References

Bishnoi, R and Bhati A (2019). Zero Budget Natural Farming. Trends in Biosciences, 10 (46): 9314-9316

Prasad, S (2016) “Campaign to reduce use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. The Hindu

Mural, S (2016) “Natural Farming can rescue farmers”. The Hindu



WA

teR

MA

nA

Ge

Me

nt

WATER MANAGEMENT

19965

13. super Absorbent Polymers: their need and Use in AgricultureRUSHIKESH PAWAR AND MAHESH GURAV

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Dhule (Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri 413722)*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

A global increase in the population and enhanced economical activities has led to a decline in the irrigation water potential and resources all over the globe. A majority of arid and semi-arid zones are facing water crisis. Predictions are being made that by 2025 India will face a major issue of water scarcity, as the demand is increasing steadily and resources are being depleted. Agricultural irrigation practices in India are responsible for consumption of 80% of potable water sources. Due to the large geographical area and variety in farming systems along with development of agriculture based industries the trend for water consumption is seen increasing. Improper practices of irrigation lower the judicious use of the available water for agriculture.

Shortcomings with Irrigation Practices

Surface draining is the major irrigation method followed under Indian conditions. The major demerit of the method is that it allows only 50% utilization of the water and remaining water is lost by evaporation or as surface runoff. Micro irrigation like drip and sprinkler irrigation systems can reduce the water loss. High initial setup cost, improper government assistance, lack of technical knowledge is the factors that prohibit adaption of these water saving irrigation methods. Small land holdings diversified ecological conditions and varied cropping patterns discourage the farmer to adopt the water conserving irrigation techniques.

Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs)

Super Absorbent Polymers are the polymers belonging to a specific class that can improve the water use efficiency and increase the crop yield. SAPs are small hygroscopic crystals sugar like in appearance that can be directly added to soil. SAPs are hydrophilic in nature and can absorb large amount of water. Their uptake can be up to 10000% to 100000% or even more than that. They are known for improving the water use efficiency can be used as smart delivery carriers for application of pesticide and soluble fertilizer even at lower doses or quantities. SAPs are being used as artificial soil

conditioners and have acquired a special importance in rainfed farming.

Hydrogels

Hydrogels are hydrophilic cross-linked polymers that form three-dimensional molecular networks that absorb and hold large amount of water. The main types of Hydrogels suitable for agriculture use are:1. Starch-based (grafing) Hydrogel2. Mineral-grafing type Potassium Polyacrylate3. Mineral-grafing type Sodium Polyacrylate4. None grafing type Potassium Polyacrylate

SAPs are insoluble gel forming polymers to improve the physical properties of soil as:

1. Influence soil permeability2. Enhance water use efficiency3. Influence soil infiltration rate of water4. Reduce Frequency of irrigation5. Reduce surface evaporation6. Control soil erosion, run-off & surface leaching

Agricultural use of Hydrogel

The use of hydrogel in terms of practices employed can be briefed as follows

1. Physical improvement of lands

Hydrogel polymer can improve the water retention capacity of soil by 50-70% as when used as per recommendations. Bulk density of soil can be reduced by 8 to 10%. Volumetric content of saturated and available water in soil shows upward rise depicting improved water use efficiency. It influences soil permeability, structure, texture. Water losses caused due to evaporation, run-offs are reduced. Problems due to moisture deficit like reduced yields or physiological disorders can be corrected due to use of hydrogels. Frequency of irrigation and compaction tendency of soil is reduced. Along with physical improvements hydrogel also enhance microbial and aeration activities

2. Overcome drought stress

Stress due to drought conditions can cause



We

eD

sC

Ien

Ce

perioxidation of lipids and oxidative stress in plants. It causes symptoms such as stunted height, decrease leaf area and damage to foliar matrix. Hydrogel can reduce the impact of drought stress on plants and can provide better growing conditions to the crops.

3. Improved Fertilizer Efficiency

To overcome the constraints caused to irrigation technologies in aspects such as fertigation can be overcome by using hydrogels. The use of chemical fertilizers can be reduced with introduction of hydrogels, as they improve the efficiency of the fertilizers applied.

4. Biodegradable nature of Hydrogel Polymer

Due to the action of UV ray’s hydrogel polymer degrades into oligomers. It degrades at rate of 15-20% per year by microbial actions and is degraded in carbon dioxide, nitrogen compounds and water.

Application Rates

Dosage of hydrogel varies on the basis of type of

soil, its physical characters and also depends on the environmental conditions. To obtain maximum efficiency hydrogel should be applied at following rates

type of soil Rate of Hydrogel application

For Arid & Semi-arid Regions

4-6 g/kg soil

For all level of water stress treatment

2.25-3 g/kg soil

For improving relative water content and leaf water use efficiency

0.5-2.0 g/pot

For reducing drought stress 0.2-0.4% of soilFor prohibiting drought stress totally

225-300 kg/ha of cultivated area

For reducing water stress 3% by weight

WEED SCIENCE

19818

14. Impact of Herbicide-Resistant Crops on AgricultureSANTOSH KORAV* AND SURGYAN RUNDLA

PhD Scholar (Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana-125004*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Herbicide resistance is the inherited ability of a biotype to survive and reproduce with exposure to a dose of herbicide, normally that dose lethal to the wild type of contact spp. Herbicide resistance was first reported in 1970 in USA. Since that time, 61 plant spp. (42 dicots and 19 monocots) are evolved resistance to the triazine group of herbicides. Herbicide resistance is the most important genetic modification in crop plants. Its normally two types of resistance occur in wild type. They are-1. Cross resistance2. Multiple resistance

The ability of biotype to survive and completer their life cycle without much damage to their life cycle from one group of applied herbicides with same mode of action are said to be cross resistance. Similarly, biotypes resistance to more herbicides and different mode of action of herbicides are said to be multiple resistance.

The effect of herbicides resistance can be calculated by using the following formula,

Resistance index= GR50 of Tolerated Population

GR50 of Susceptible PopulationHistory of Herbicide Resistance

� 1st insects among crop pest developed resistant to insecticide.

� Sanjos scale-lime sulphur (1908). � In 1940, pathogen resistant to fungicide. � Among weeds 1st in world Senecio vulgaris

(groundsel) resistant to triazines in USA (1968), (Ryan, 1970)

� Highest herbicide resistant countries in the world is USA, Australia, Canada.

� 319 weed biotype resistant to one or more herbicides from 19 family of herbicides in 60 countries.

� 184 in dicots and 74 in monocots. � In India, phylaris minor resistant to isoproturon

from 1990-1993) (Malik and singh, 1993). � It reduces the control efficiency from 78 to 27%

and yield losses up to 40 -60%.



We

eD

sC

Ien

Ce

FIG.1 Current status of resistance

Environmental Problems Related to GM Plants

It has classified to three categories1. The GM plant in itself can be harmful to

environment or agriculture.2. Cultivation of the GM plant can lead to

environmentally unacceptable agricultural practices.

3. The spread of the genetic material of the GM plant to other organisms can be harmful.

Agricultural impacts from HRCs � Nutrient cycles � Effects on cellulose decomposition � Effects on plant diseases � Cross-pollination with related weeds � Weed resistance � Loss of biodiversity � Impact on farmers and beekeepers

HRCs Impact on Health � Glufosinate ammonium structurally correlates

with glutamate and typical excitatory amino acid present in the central nervous system. It is identified as excess release of glutamate results in the death of nerve cells in the brain.

� Residues in drinking water � Glufosinate is highly soluble in water and is

also classified as persistent and mobile in water body.

Herbicide Resistant Crop Species itself can be Agronomically Harmful

� Effects on natural enemies: Adult ground beetles consumed less of their caterpillar prey when this prey was raised on proteinase inhibitor-containing diet vs normal diet.

� Effect on Soil organisms: changes in soil microbial activity due to direct effects of the herbicides used with the HRC, differences in the amount and composition of root exudates, changes in microbial functions

� Effect on Plant pathogens: The incidence of rhizoctonia root rot was more severe and yields lower– Arthropods: Bromoxynil and glyphosate

have not been reported to have insecticidal or other activities against arthropods. However, any herbicide can indirectly affect arthropod populations.

Due to the Transgenes, Changes in Feed and Food Safety and Quality

Basic reasons for transgenes pose a food safety risk.1. By self trancegenes are toxic, due to direct

toxicity, anti-nutritive effects, or allergenic effects are happening.

2. The altered gene can change the metabolic pathways of the crop or already changing the existing metabolites and introducing a new metabolite.The most widely used herbicide resistance genes

of GM plants are those conferring resistance against glyphosate and phosphinothricin (gluphosinate ammonium).

Plants resistant to different herbicides1. Bromoxynil2. imidazolinone3. Chlorimuron4. Atrazin

Conclusion

This study reported that HRCs can cause serious damage to animals, and may leach in drinking water, also increases nitrate leaching, and is toxic to beneficial soil micro-organisms, finally helps to production of super weeds. The introduction of HRCs crops can increases the likelihood of these harmful effects in humans, animal and the environment.



We

eD

sC

Ien

Ce

19907

15. Weeds: sleepers to InvadersDR. SHALINI PILLAI, P.

Professor, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani

Sleeper weeds are those invasive plants that have naturalized in a region but not yet increased their population size exponentially. Many of these are ecologically silent and are called sleeper weeds. One possible effect of climate change is the awakening of these sleeper weeds into problematic plants. Sleeper weeds have been defined as a sub-group of invasive plants that arrive at a region, naturalize (i.e. establish and self-reproduce), and remain localized for some period of time before their population(s) suddenly increase and they commence to spread and become seriously invasive (Groves, 1999). Interactions between climate change and other processes may cause sleeper weeds to become invasive. Carbon dioxide concentration, temperature and precipitation are the major factors that can impact the behaviour of the sleeper weeds.

Effect of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide provides the raw material needed for plants to grow and as it increases, plant growth will be stimulated. Changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide has significant direct (CO

2 stimulation of weed

growth) and indirect effects (climatic variability) on weed biology. Increased CO

2 concentration leads

to partial closure of stomata and lowers the water requirements of plants by reducing transpiration, while promoting photosynthesis.

Purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) is a perennial weed in the sedge family. Purple nutsedge had greater leaf area, root length, and number of tubers and tended to have greater numbers of tillers when grown under high CO

2. Weedy rice responds

more strongly than cultivated rice to rising CO2 level

with greater competitive ability. Creeper and vines respond strongly to elevated CO

2 in both glasshouse

and field experiments. KFRI (2010) reported that cover crops introduced on rubber plantations Pueraria phaseoloides and Mucuna bracteata are wiping out the natural vegetation. In carrot grass (Parthenium hysterophorus) elevated CO

2 (550

ppm) was observed to enhance the plant growth, shoot and root biomass. The mortality of weeds due to herbicide application was delayed under elevated CO

2. In the case of common ragweed (Ambrosia

artemiisifolia), whose pollen is notorious for causing allergic reactions in humans, pollen production increases with CO

2 concentration. Canada thistle

(Cirsium arvense) and quack grass (Agropyron repens) become more resistant to herbicides when grown in higher concentrations of CO

2 making them

harder to control. This may be a result of faster growth as the weeds mature more rapidly, leaving

behind more quickly the seedling stage during which they are most vulnerable and also additional CO

2

will result in higher root, rhizome or tuber growth.

Effect of Temperature

Warmer temperatures will alter the competitive balance between crops and some weed species, intensifying weed pressures. Temperature changes result in an expansion of weed range. Tropical weeds are pre-adapted to tolerate warmer conditions. Temperature changes will result in an expansion of weeds, with some species moving/shifting to higher latitude and altitude.

Seeds of desert horsepurslane (Trianthema portulacastrum) undergo dormancy during winter and thermo-induction to break the dormancy require soil temperatures above 35°C. Increasing soil temperature triggered the mass germination of seeds of the weed suppressing the native species. The most potential invasive feature of mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) is greater assimilate partitioning towards root, helping rapid and robust regeneration after mechanical lopping, drought or inundation. The rate of increase in root bio-mass of mesquite under increasing temperatures is observed to be higher, increasing its persistence potential and invasive behaviour. Kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata) also called Japanese arrowroot climbs over trees or shrubs, and grows so rapidly that it kills them by heavy shading. Increasing minimum winter temperatures is the main factor in the spread of kudzu. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a floating neo-tropical species which has become invasive both in the tropics and temperate areas. As temperature rises with climate change, it will lead to faster spread within a habitat and opportunities to invade habitats that were too cool for the weed survival before. Seed production of Parthenium hysterophorus is highest during the summer season. Increased temperature will result in increased number of seeds further facilitating spread of Parthenium to new areas.

Effect of Precipitation Pattern

Changes in precipitation patterns disturb ecosystems and the dynamics of species, which may not be able to adapt quickly. Changes in run-off alter wetland water regimes and the floristic composition will be prone to invasion by species such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) under inundation and water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) under semi-dry situations. Climate mediated changes in the precipitation patterns have



We

eD

sC

Ien

Ce

favoured the establishment of the species water shamrock (Marsilea quadrifoliata) in paddy fields. Water shamrock is prevalent as it can tolerate the herbicides used to control/eradicate grasses.

Effect of Climate Change on Weed Management

Climate change can also impact the effectiveness of herbicides. Pre-emergence herbicides are highly dependent on available water for movement into the zone of weed seed germination. Sunlight degrades some pre- emergence herbicides on the soil surface, and if optimum moisture does not become available within a week after application, poor weed control often results. Drought can result in thicker cuticle development or increased leaf pubescence, with subsequent reductions in herbicide entry into the leaf. High concentrations of starch in leaves which commonly occur in C

3 plants grown under

CO2 enrichment interfere with herbicide activity.

Mechanical tillage may lead to additional plant propagation in a higher CO

2 with increased asexual

reproduction from below ground structures and negative effects on weed control. For the management of sleeper weeds we have to address three things - what is it, where is it, how much is there. Monitoring assumes paramount importance in the management of sleeper weeds. It includes early detection of problematic species, whether a species is likely to become a problem in an area.

Conclusion

Climate change is unequivocal. The changes in climatic parameters will increase the colonizing capacity of weeds in the disturbed environments, vigorous growth, seed production and seed longevity. Due to climate change the sleepers may wake up and pose problems. Thus integrated novel weed management approaches need to be developed to assist farmers in coping with the challenges of weeds in future.

19927

16. Glyphosate Prohibition and its effects on Conservation AgricultureSAHELY KANTHAL1, ANIKET BAISHYA2 AND ANANYA GHOSH1

1PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur2PhD Research Scholar, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur

Weed control is the crucial aspect in adaption of conservation agriculture. Avoiding tillage is closely linked with the use of broad spectrum, eco-friendly, low-cost herbicides. Weed management could be difficult in the initial year of CA practice. This led to the use of non-selective, systemic glyphosate herbicide. The current debate of glyphosate use has concern on farmers’ adaption of CA.

Debates on Glyphosate Ban

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in March 2015 classified glyphosate as “probably carcinogenic to humans” (International Agency for Research on Cancer-IARC, 2015). Again, Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR, 2016 contradicted the first statement in a report in May 2016. In response, use of glyphosate has become a global debate. Some local administrations in Spain (Madrid, Barcelona, Sevilla and Zaragoza among others) have decided to ban the use of glyphosate for weed control in public parks. In last year, it has been totally banned by the Austria’s parliament. Although EU renewed the license for glyphosate for another five years in 2017, after two years of fierce debate. The American group also said that glyphosate-based products can be used safely and that it “is not carcinogenic”. In January 2019

French authorities banned the sale of Roundup Pro 360. Restrictions on its use are also in force in the Czech Republic, Italy and the Netherlands. The Sri Lankan government banned glyphosate imports in October 2015 following a campaign over fears that the chemical causes chronic kidney disease. In April 2019 Vietnam also banned products containing glyphosate. But the nation’s health agency of Brazil, the agriculture powerhouse, concluded in February 2019 that glyphosate presented no risk for human health, after carrying out a toxicological re-evaluation.

However, glyphosate may effect on animal health because of having it is made to inhibit a key enzymatic pathway that is needed for the synthesis of protein, and thus, growth, that is unique to plants. Before banning of this herbicide, we must focus on natural and ecological weed killing alternatives. But there is no other herbicide is present to replace the glyphosate. Pardo and Martinez estimated the costs associated with prohibition of glyphosate in Spanish conservation agriculture areas and shows that conservation agriculture systems in cereal crops can be seriously threatened with a prohibition on the use of glyphosate, as alternative active ingredients are more expensive and/or less effective. Replacing glyphosate with glufosinate or diquat increases costs



AG

Ro

Me

teo

Ro

LoG

Y, R

eM

ote

se

nsI

nG

& G

Is

by at least 54% and 41% respectively. (Pardo and Martinez). In addition, glufosinate is considered to have a low environmental impact, while diquat is a high-impact herbicide, so its use implies a higher environmental risk. Use of paraquat is also not very cost-effective as its effect is for very short time and weeds germinate again with a flush of irrigation.

As an alternative of glyphosate manual weed management may be needed. But it is very time and labour consuming. Moreover, with the increasing of labour wages, this alternative will be very costly. As a result, farmers may lose the interest of adapting CA practices.

Conclusion

From this article it can be concluded that there is lack of researches on the effect of glyphosate on human health. It is also necessary to find out the

right alternative of glyphosate which should be cost-effective and eco-friendly. As conservation agriculture is mostly glyphosate dependent, it may not be adapted by the farmers without any appropriate alternatives.

References

International Agency for Research on Cancer-IARC. Evaluation of five organophosphate insecticides and herbicides. IARC Monographs, 2015. Volume 112 http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol112/.

JMPR. Joint FAO/WHO meeting on pesticide residues, Summary report. May 2016.

Pardo, G. and Martinez, Y., 2019. Conservation Agriculture in Trouble? Estimating the Economic Impact of an Eventual Glyphosate Prohibition in Spain. Planta Daninha, 37.

AGROMETEOROLOGY, REMOTE SENSING & GIS

19892

17. Crop simulation ModelARUL PRASAD. S1, VENGATESWARI. M2 AND V. A. VIJAYASHANTHI3

1SMS (Agricultural Meteorology) Krishi Vigyan Kendra – Tiruvallur district, TNAU, TN2SMS (Agricultural Meteorology) Krishi Vigyan Kendra – Ramanathapuram District, TNAU, TN3Assistant Professor (Agricultural Entomology) Krishi Vigyan Kendra – Tiruvallur district, TNAU, TN*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Crop Simulation Model (CSM)

It consists of a complex relationship between the soil, the plants and the atmosphere in it. Change in one element can produce both a desirable and an unwanted consequence. Crop models and decision support systems can be really useful tools to help extension educators, planners, teachers, policy makers and scientists to assess alternative management practices. Most of the current crop models respond to soil characteristics, local weather, crop management practices and genetic difference.

In 1970s the utilization of crop simulation models and their application were started. They are computerized representation of crop development, improvement and yield, simulated through mathematical conditions as elements of soil conditions, management practices and weather. The quality of the CSM is their capacity to extrapolate the temporal pattern of crop yield and growth beyond single experimental plot. It assesses the effect of agronomic practices on farmers’ incomes and environmental. They are just an estimation of present reality and don’t represent significant factors, for example, weeds, insects, phosphorus and tillage.

Now Crop Simulation Models are available

for all the major crops such as rice, wheat, millet, maize, sorghum, groundnut, chickpea, sugarcane, sunflower, Oat, Barley, soybean, pea, sugar beet, sesame, pepper, cabbage, tomato, sweetcorn, green bean and cotton as well as some plantation crops

Efficiency prediction of any yield in a season has a significant economic importance for a country. Crop yield prediction by model and their sensitivity help in midcourse modification, so farmers can adopt strategic measures to maintain potential production of crops. The fundamental objective of a crop model is to assess environmental use, crop production and to study environmental effect of soil, weather and management. They are utilized to assess the effects of climate variability and climate change on crop production. Mostly models are utilized to study the response of crops on atmosphere carbon dioxide and temperature. It limits the long-term experimentation and cultivation cost.



AG

Ro

Me

teo

Ro

LoG

Y, R

eM

ote

se

nsI

nG

& G

Is

19924

18. Weather and Crop ProductionVIJAY KUMAR DIDAL1*, BRIJBHOOSHAN2, KRISHNA CHAITANYA1 AND RAJENDRAGOUDA PATIL1

1Assistant Professor, School of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SAST), SVKM’S, NMIMS, Shirpur, Maharashtra-4254052Auction superintendent, Tobacco board, APF No.5, Periyapatna, Mysore, Karnataka-571107*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Weather is the day to day state or condition of the atmosphere for very short period of time covering a smaller area. Weather conditions have both positive and negative effects on crop production and behave as friend or foe of farmers. Crop production is decided by the particular weather conditions of the area. There are so many weather elements which are interdependent and interrelated that affect each other and exhibit a particular type of weather. All agricultural activities (from sowing to harvesting) and management practices are affected by weather.

Weather Elements1. Temperature2. Humidity3. Wind4. Atmospheric pressure5. Precipitation6. Solar radiation7. Clouds1. Temperature: The growth and development

of crop plants are mainly influenced by air temperature. It also affects germination, leaf production, leaf expansion, blooming, physiological and chemical processes occurred within the plants. The diffusion rate of atmospheric gases and liquids changes with temperature. Prevalent air temperature on earth surface also influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation. Both minimum and maximum temperature cause harmful effects on crops. At optimum temperature plant grows at faster rate. Higher temperature at a particular place cause low atmospheric pressure and vice versa. Temperature is the main cause of wind.

2. Humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in atmosphere. Main source of atmospheric humidity is evaporation loss of water from water bodies and soil surface and transpiration loss of water from vegetative parts of crop plants. Humidity is the invisible vapor content of the air that affects the internal water potential of plants and determines the water requirement of crops. It influences certain physiological phenomena including transpiration. High relative humidity can prolong the survival of crops under moisture stress. Relative humidity plays a significant role in the outbreak of disease and pest epidemics.

High humidity promotes the growth of some saprophytic and parasitic fungi and bacteria that cause various plant diseases. Very high or very low relative humidity is not conducive for higher yields. High humidity increases the growth of shoots and leaves at the expense of economic yield.

3. Wind: Wind is an air in horizontal motion due to variation in atmospheric pressure. Higher temperature at a particular place cause low atmospheric pressure and vice versa. Wind move from higher pressure area to low pressure area. Wind also helps in transfer of heat and moisture from one place to other place. The direction and speed of wind significantly affect crop plants in various ways. It influences transpiration, intake of carbon dioxide and affects photosynthesis. It helps in the formation of cold and heat waves. Wind with higher velocity causes crop lodging and mechanical breakage of crop plants. Wind determines the movement of clouds and fogs. It also acts as a carrier of many plant diseases and insect pests.

4. Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by atmospheric air column on earth surface is known as atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure not only affected by atmospheric temperature but also affected by rotation of earth, water vapor content of air and altitude. Low atmospheric pressure cause bad weather (storm). Higher barometer reading indicates fair weather (clear and stable). Very high pressure cause dry conditions. A continually rising pressure indicates fine and settled weather and a steadily falling pressure indicates occurrence of unsettled and cloudy weather.

5. Precipitation: Any form of water which fall on earth surface from atmosphere (clouds) is known as precipitation. Rainfall is a type of precipitation with water droplets having size of 0.5 to 4.0 mm. Rainfall and its characteristics (distribution, duration, intensity and number of rainy days) have significant influence on crop production mainly in drylands. The length of growing season, selection of crops and cropping systems are decided based on rainfall characteristics. Crop water requirements and efficiency of inputs is influenced by rainfall. Influence of rainfall on incidence of pests and



CLI

MA

te C

HA

nG

e

diseases is largely dependent on the variation in relative humidity and in turn dependent on rainfall. Harvested and stored rainwater can also be used for giving lifesaving irrigation at critical growth stages of crops.

6. Solar radiation: Solar radiation in terms of quantity and quality is an important weather element for crop production. Solar radiation is very important for plants as it is indispensable to photosynthesis. There are two essential functions of solar energy. It provides light to various growth and development functions of plants and for photosynthesis. It also provides

thermal energy for various physiological actions. It affects microclimate as well as loss of water through evapotranspiration. The arrangement of leaves and canopy of the plant influence the transmissivity of solar radiation within the crop canopy.

7. Clouds: Clouds are responsible for precipitation. It means that there is no precipitation without clouds. Cloudy weather for longer period cause attack of insect-pest and diseases by providing congenial weather conditions for their outbreak.

CLIMATE CHANGE

19775

19. Fate of Insecticides Under Future Climate Change scenarioK. DEEKSHITA

Department of Entomology, Agricultural College, Bapatla 522101

Climate change is defined as change in statistical properties of the climate system, when considered over longer periods of time, regardless of cause (IPCC, 2011). It is the most important, complex environmental issue to date. Global Mean Surface Temperature (GMST) and atmospheric CO

2 concentrations have been increasing at an alarming rate since 19thcentury. The projected increase in temperature by 2100 was set by 1.4 –5.8°C with the increase in the amount of CO

2 in the atmosphere by

about 40 per cent. The increase in the amount of CO2

in the atmosphere would reach to 500 to 1000 ppm by the end of 21st century (IPCC, 2014). The prime drivers of climate change viz., elevated temperature (eTemp) and carbon dioxide (eCO

2) have lot of

implications in agricultural sector, influencing crops and herbivore insect pests. Agriculture in future will inevitably face challenges in terms of production, productivity, herbivore damage and alteration in higher trophic levels.

Growth and development of insect pests of lepidoptera were directly and indirectly affected by the eCO

2 and eTemp and in turn effect the population

dynamics and their status. It is well known that higher temperature and eCO

2 conditions influences

the nutritional composition of leaves i.e., reduction in the nitrogen content and protein content and increased carbon based secondary metabolites like phenols, tannins and terpenoids. The change in nutritional quality of foliage especially reduction in per cent nitrogen have potential effects on the insect performance and exhibits compensatory increase in food consumption. The combined effects

of temperature and CO2 dilutes the biochemical

constituents of the foliage and inturn effects the growth parameters of the insect pests interms of lower growth rate, slow larval development and increased feeding (Fajer et al., 1989).

Higher crop yields depend on adoption of effective plant protection measures. The efficacy of insecticides is influenced by variety of factors viz., type of insect pests, metabolic activities of insects, detoxification enzymes and environmental conditions etc., Temperature has a prominent effect on insecticide effectiveness. Elevated temperature results in breakdown of particular insecticide into either more or less toxic metabolites and may vary with type of insecticides.

The effectiveness of insecticides influenced by the temperature when applied in the field conditions and may be varied due to differences in volatility, stability of insecticide and insect metabolism which are temperature dependent. The temperature coefficient is used to indicate the relationship between temperature and toxicity of insecticide. Insecticides with positive temperature coefficients show more toxicity when temperature increases, whereas, insecticides with a negative temperature coefficient show toxicity at lower temperatures. The insecticides from the class organo-phosphorous, carbamates, Avermectins and neonicotinoids exhibited positive temperature coefficients, whereas synthetic pyrethroids and spinosad exhibited negative temperature coefficient.

The increased efficacy at higher temperature might be due to reduced biotransformation at



CLI

MA

te C

HA

nG

e

lower temperatures which resulted in elevated level of parent compound which was less toxic. Further, the increased mortality of avermectins might be due to increase in physical activity of insects at higher temperature, enhancing the toxicity of avermectins (emamectin benzoate and abamectin). At higher temperatures the insects treated with avermectins were more mobile on the treated surface and thus picking up more poisons, which led to higher mortalities. The increased toxicity of organophosphorous compounds at higher temperatures might be due to increased penetration of toxicant into insect body at higher temperatures and reduced biotransformation at lower temperatures. At higher temperatures organophosphorous compounds formed more toxic oxo-analogs by oxidative desulfuration which resulted in higher efficacy. The increase in toxicity of OP compounds and carbamates at higher temperature might be due to higher enzyme activity of AChE, resulted in higher phosphorylation and carbamylation activity of the target species.

Pyrethroids are the axonic poisons, control the movement of sodium ions during nerve impulse.

The sensitivity of neurons increases between 15 to 20°C, which causes repetitive nerve firing resulting higher mortality of insects whereas at temperatures 30 - 35 ° C, reverse was reported. At elevated temperatures, reduced nerve firing leads to lower mortality of insects. At low temperatures, pyrethroid exposed neurons receive a high concentration of the toxicant due to reduced biotransformation. Biotransfromation of pyrethroids by means of ester hydrolysis leads to formation of less toxic metabolites at higher temperatures (Harwood et al., 2009).

Increased CO2 effects the photosynthetic

activity, promotes plant growth and expansion which causes dilution of absorbed pesticide concentrations in plants and decreases the insecticide residues. Reduced efficacy of insecticides under eCO

2 and

eTemp conditions was reported due to altered metabolism or increasing insecticide detoxification. Lower persistence of insecticides under eCO

2 and

eTemp conditions results in frequent application of insecticides. Therefore, warmer climate necessitates an increased insecticide usage which is expected in the form of higher amounts or dosages.

19830

20. Minimizing the Impact of Water Logging and High temperature stress in soybeanDR SUBHASH CHANDRA*1, DR VANGALA RAJESH1, DR SHIVANI NAGAR2, DR VENNAMPALLY NATARAJ1 AND DR RAKESH KUMAR VERMA1

1ICAR-Indian Institute of Soybean Research, Indore (MP) 452001; 2ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012 *Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Soybean has established itself as numero uno oil seed crop in India. At present it covers around 10 million hectares’ area. Majority of soybean area in India is in Madhya Pradesh. However, the area under soybean has also been increasing rapidly in other states like Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Telangana in recent years. Largely, this crop is grown on Vertisols and associated soils under rain fed situations. These soils have good production potential provided constraints related to soil and water management are taken care of. Currently, these soils have low and skewed crop productivity, due to inappropriate soil, water and crop management practices (Bhatia V.S., 2017).

Water logging stress: Occurrence of water logging conditions for varying period depending up on the intensity and duration of rainfall is also a general feature in many Kharif crops in India. Prolonged water logging in the field results in anaerobic conditions in the roots. These anaerobic conditions lead to physiological stress and reduced growth and development of the plant. Damages of

soybean because of water logging are chlorosis, necrosis, stunting, defoliation, reduced nitrogen fixation and plant death which cause yield loss (Ahmed et al., 2012). Water logging conditions at seedling stage could lead to seedling mortality and reduced plant stand. In case of legumes, water logging at vegetative stages can result in failure of nodule formation and nitrogen deficiency in the plants. Similarly, water logging occurring at seed fill duration can result in the reduction in grain weight (Bhatia V.S., 2017). The following measures/methods can be used to reduce the impact of water logging.

1. Preparation of land: While preparing the field in water logging prone areas, care must be taken to provide a slight slope so that water does not stagnate in the fields. There should be good drainage system so that the runoff water is drained out of the fields and collected in water harvesting ponds.

2. Improved water conservation practices



CLI

MA

te C

HA

nG

e

with different land configuration systems: Planting of crops on various land configurations such as BBF, ridges, and ridges and furrows etc. have also been found to be very useful in reducing the chances of water logging conditions in the field. Minimum tillage and use of mulch can also help in minimizing the losses due to excess moisture conditions.

3. Selection of water logging tolerant varieties: There is a large genotypic variability in response to water logging conditions in all the crops. Therefore, use of such varieties under excessive moisture prone areas can help in improving the productivity of the crop. JS 9752 and JS 71-05 are soybean varieties which show enough tolerance for water logging tolerance, can be used in water logging prone area.High temperature stress: Crop growth and

development is highly influenced by the ambient temperature. The optimum temperatures for maximum growth vary from crop to crop and variety to variety. Occurrence of high temperatures during one or the other crop growth stages is also a common phenomenon under tropical environments. The high temperature stress usually accompanies with drought conditions and significantly reduces crop growth and yield. As the total duration, as well onset of various growth stages is governed by temperature, high temperature conditions may lead early flowering and maturity. High temperatures at reproductive stages may result in flower abortion, reduced grain filling and ultimately reduced yield (Bhatia V.S., 2017). The following measures/methods can be used

to reduce the impact of water logging.

1. Sowing time: The planting time of soybean should be such that its growth and development gets the required optimum temperatures.

2. Selection of tolerant varieties and multi-variety culture: Use of tolerant varieties viz., JS 97-52, NRC 7 and JS 20-98 can help in improving the productivity of the crop under high temperature areas. Planting of more than one variety of a crop with different maturity can help in reducing the risk of uncertainty of occurrence of high temperature stress and yield losses.

3. Irrigation: In case high temperature conditions prevail along with severe soil moisture conditions, the impact will more pronounced. Therefore, under such circumstances providing irrigation could help in lowering the high temperature effects on the crops.

References

Ahmed, F., Rafii, M. Y., Ismail, M. R., Juraimi, A. S., Rahim, H. A., Asfaliza, R., & Latif, M. A. (2012). Water logging tolerance of crops: breeding, mechanism of tolerance, molecular approaches, and future prospects. Bio Med Research International, 2013.

Bhatia, V. S. (2017). Management of abiotic stress in soybean. In: Training Manual of Model Training Course on ‘Technologies and Approaches for Management of Biotic & Abiotic Stresses in Soybean’ organized during 05-12 September, 2017at ICAR-IISR, Indore. pp 25-31.

19918

21. Acid RainVENGATESWARI M1 AND S. ARUL PRASAD2

1Subject Matter Specialist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.2Subject Matter Specialist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tirur, Tiruvallur, Tamil Nadu, India.

Introduction

Robert Angus Smith coined the term acid rain in 1872, it is an example of secondary pollution. The pH of rain water is typically acidic (pH 5.6) due to the presence of a weak acid known as carbonic acid that is produced by the reaction of atmospheric carbon dioxide with water. The precipitation in which pH below 5.6 constitutes acid rain or rainwater pollution with strong acids (sulphuric acid and nitric acid) is also known as acid rain. The corrosive aspect of acid rain does many kinds of damage to the environment.

Causes of Acid Rain

The primary source of the acid rain is air pollution. Gaseous pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO

2s)

and nitrogen oxides (NO & NO2) emitted by

combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) from smelters, exhausts from vehicles, power plants, domestic fires, forest fires, etc. are the causative agents of acid rain. Sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is oxidized to sulfuric acid (H

2SO

4) and

nitrogen oxides are oxidized to nitric acid (HNO3)

in atmosphere. The sulfur dioxide in air is oxidized by the oxygen in air to sulfur trioxide. The sulphur trioxide combines with the water vapours present in air to form sulphuric acid. Nitrogen oxides present in the air combines with oxygen and water vapours to form nitric acid. Acid rain is thus a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitric acid, and the ratio of the two will differ depending on the relative sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released in the atmosphere. On an average of 60-70 percent of acidity is due to sulphuric acid while nitric acid accounts for 30-



CR

oP

eC

oLo

GY

An

D e

nV

IRo

nM

en

t

40 percent. As rainfall occurs such acids fall on the ground in the form of rain, snow, or fog as secondary

pollutants.

CROP ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

19749

22. Areas Prone to nutrient Deficiencies and toxicitiesG. SASHIKALA

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati-517502, AP

India is endowed with a wide range of environmental factors that exert influence on the nature and properties of soils. Since the deficiency of a nutrient depends upon its supply from the soil, the occurrence of nutrient deficiencies can be broadly associated with particular areas possessing specific soil properties.

Nitrogen: The major source of soil nitrogen is soil organic matter whose content depends upon the climate and the amount as well as the frequency of adding organic materials including crop residues. It is severe in soils with coarse texture and low organic matter content.

Phosphorus: P deficiency in crops is a consequence of not only its low content in soils but also its less availability both in acidic and alkaline conditions. Soluble phosphate ions are rapidly converted into insoluble ones by soluble iron and aluminium ions as well as insoluble Fe, Al and manganese hydrous oxides in acid soils and by calcium in alkaline soils. The availability of P in mineral soils is optimum at pH 6.5. sandy soils low in organic matter as well as soils high in sesquioxides having short supply of available P.

Potassium: K deficiency is more common in red and lateritic soils. Illite dominant alluvial soils have high reserves of K and release sufficient k during crop growth. Continuous cropping on such soils without replenishment also results in the appearance of K deficiency. Eg: Potato and Clover crops.

Sulphur: S deficiency is often met in soils with coarse texture and low organic matter content. Soils irrigated with canal water are also prone to the deficiency of this nutrient. S deficiency can also be encountered in areas where S containing fertilizers have been rarely used. In areas near towns and industrial centres as well as those where underground waters containing considerably high sulphate sulphur are used for irrigation. Acid soils are more prone to S deficiency than alkaline soils due to stronger adsorption of sulphate ions in the former.

Zinc: Zn deficiency occurs commonly in soils with coarse texture, high pH, high calcium carbonate content and low organic matter content. Acid, leached sand and sandy loam soils with a low Zn content are also prone to Zn deficiency. Submerged soils as well as soils regularly irrigated with sodic waters also have deficient supply of Zinc.

Iron: Crops suffer from iron deficiency when grown in soils having coarse texture, high pH as well as calcium carbonate and low organic matter content. High bicarbonate content in soils and addition of readily decomposable organic matter content causing high carbon dioxide concentration in soils also results in iron chlorosis in crops growing growing there.

Manganese: Mn deficiency is generally confined to coarse textured soils and where rice-wheat cropping sequence for 5-6 years. Alkaline soils having low content of reducible Mn also have supply of this nutrient.

Boron: In coarse textured soils with low boron content and acid soils as well as in soils containing very high amount of free calcium carbonate content.

Toxicities

Sodium: Soils containing high ESP and high pH, crops suffer from sodium toxicity owing to high concentration of sodium in soil solution. Use of underground water containing high residual sodium carbonate.

Boron: B toxicity is generally encountered in areas where soils are highly alkaline. This problem is also associated with indiscriminate and regular application of B fertilisers in B deficient soils.

Heavy metals

In areas irrigated with untreated city waste water, industrial effluents large accumulation of heavy metals like Cu, Pb, Cd and Ni occurs.

Selenium: It occurs in areas where underground water containing high amount of Se that is used for irrigation.



CR

oP

eC

oLo

GY

An

D e

nV

IRo

nM

en

t

19967

23. Plastic PlanetMS. ASWATHY, J. C.1, AND DR. SHALINI PILLAI, P.2

1PG scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani2Professor, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani

Plastic could be considered as one of the miracle inventions man has ever made. Plastic was derived from the Greek word ‘Plastikos’ which means capable of being shaped or moulded. It could be defined as generic term used in the case of polymeric material that may contain other substances to improve performance or reduce the cost (IUPAC, 2012). Plastics are broadly classified into two: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics (Pavani and Rajeswari, 2014). Examples for thermoplastic are cellulose derivatives, polyamides, polystyrene, polyvinyls, polyethylenes, etc. Examples for thermosetting plastic are phenolic resins (bakelite), polyesters (terylene), etc. Though we speak about the pollution caused by plastic, plastic itself is a boon. It improves our lives in a numerous number of ways. Plastic’s light weight, strength, and ability to be moulded into any form makes it an ideal packaging material and hence for transportation purposes. They are extensively used in the medical field for the manufacture of syringes, blood bags, contact lenses, hearing aids, prosthetics etc. Plastics can make your home more energy-efficient. Plastic sealants and caulks can seal up window leaks and plastic foam weather stripping can make doors and windows draft-free. Clear plastic sheeting for windows improves insulation and decreases drafts in the winter.

The amount of plastic waste generated in the world in 2014 was about 311 million tonnes and at this rate it is estimated to reach 1,244 million tonnes in 2050 (WPCB, 2017). China ranks first among all the countries in plastic waste production (Jambeck et al., 2013). In India about 25,944 tonnes of plastic waste is produced per year. The major share is contributed by five major cities viz., Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai and Kolkata. Kerala produces about 480 tonnes of plastic wastes per day. On an average a family produces about 60 g of plastic waste per day. The maximum quantity of plastic is generated from the Trivandrum municipal corporation followed by Kochi and Kozhikode (CPCB, 2017). The major share of the plastic waste generated is contributed by the single-use plastics.

Single–Use Plastics

It is defined as plastic items intended to be used only once before they are thrown away or recycled (UNEP, 2018). Most of the plastic waste generated in the world belongs to the single use plastics, and these plastic materials break down into smaller units called as the microplastics which in

turn contaminates our soil and water. The toxic chemicals used to manufacture plastic leach into the environment and gets transferred to animal tissue, eventually entering the human food chain. Styrofoam products like cups, plates etc. are toxic if ingested and can damage nervous systems, lungs and reproductive organs. Only about nine per cent of the total waste generated is being recycled while the rest remains in the environment. All these has led to the banning of six major single use plastic items in India with effect from 02 October, 2019. This includes carry bags, straws, sachets, plastic cups, styrofoam plates and use and throw bottles.

Plasticulture

The practise of using plastic materials in agriculture is commonly known as plasticulture. The plastic materials used for agricultural purposes are collectively known as ‘ag plastics’. The use of plastic films in agriculture dates back to 1948 when Prof. E. M. Emmert used plastic sheets for the construction of green house (Garnaud, 2000). Since then, the growing use of plastics in agriculture has helped farmers increase crop production, improve food quality and reduce the ecological footprint of their activity.

Plastic Pollution

Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles (eg. plastic bottles and much more) in the earth’s environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat and humans (Parker, 2018). The indiscriminate use of plastic has turned it into a bane resulting in numerous impacts on the environment, climate, land, ocean and animals.

� Effect on environment and contributes to climate change: Plastic pollution is found to alter the ecosystem and cause invasion of alien species. It is also found to show an alteration in the food chain. By the end of 2019, plastic is estimated to contribute greenhouse gases equivalent to 850 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere. It is projected that the annual emissions will grow to 1.34 billion tonnes by 2030 (CIEL, 2019). The carbon footprint of plastic is about 6 kg of CO2 (Dormer et al., 2013). It is estimated that plastic accounts for about 3.8 per cent of global greenhouse gas emission (Wright, 2019).

� Effect on land and ocean: Plastic pollution is harmful to both plants and animals including humans. Plastic concentration on land are



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

between four and twenty-three times that of the ocean. Chlorinated plastic like polyvinyl chloride can release harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil. In the oceans more than 5 trillion plastic pieces floating in sea where discarded fishing traps and nets forms the largest source (Hammer et al., 2012). The toxins di ethylhexyl phthalate (a carcinogen), lead, cadmium, and mercury. All these toxic materials enter the food chain ultimately causing harm to the organisms.

� Effect on animals: Entanglement and ingestion are the major impact on the animals. Usually turtles and whales are the most affected ones. These animals misunderstand plastic debris for their natural prey and start to feed on thus. This would lead to the suffocation, starvation and finally the death of the organism (Pavani and Rajeswari, 2014).

Strategies to Overcome Plastic Pollution � Biodegradable plastics are those that can be

decomposed by the action of living organisms, usually microbes, into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. It is mainly divided into two: bio based biodegradable plastic and biodegradable polymer blends (Kale et al., 2007). The process of biodegradation occurs when the microorganism excretes extracellular enzymes which would get attached to the polymer surface which would result in the breakdown of these materials into oligomer, dimer, monomer and these would be in turn taken up by the microorganism for its growth.

� Green technology from cassava is an innovative idea had been proposed by CTCRI, to blend cassava starch (25-40%) with polyolefin. The finished products had adequate durability and strength and could be stored in similar way as synthetic plastic. The products are biodegradable under soil condition (ICAR, 2015). Apart from this, cassava based moulded articles can be used as an effective alternative to

the disposable plastic articles. A semisynthetic cassava based superabsorbent polymer was also developed by CTCRI which is effective in soil moisture retention and also improves other soil properties like soil porosity, water retention and nutrient status.

� Edible cutleries and solubags: For reducing the use of plastic cups, spoons and other products, an innovative idea of edible cutlery was proposed by Dr. Narayana Peesapathy, scientist ICRISAT, Hyderabad. The major component in it is millet blended with cereals. It is edible and highly nutritious and decomposes within two to three day if disposed in soil. This formula can be applied to all kinds of plastic objects, such as cutlery or food packaging. In Chile, the scientists Roberto Astete and Cristian Olivares have discovered a plastic bag which is completely soluble in water within a period of 5 minutes. It is an oil-free bag with limestone acting as an oil substitute. The presence of limestones provides its solubility in water.

� Plastic Lovers: Many organisms capable of disintegrating plastic have been identified across the world. These include bacteria (Ideonella sakiensis), waxworm (Galleria mellonella) and fungi (Pestalotiopsis microspore. Though these organisms have been identified their ability for the degradation of plastic and its further impact is still under study.

Conclusion

Plastics need not be completely demonised as environment scourges. Affordable, durable, and versatile- they bring a raft of societal benefits and will undoubtedly serve an important role where replacements are unable to be found. The easiest way to reduce the use of plastic is by resorting from carry bag to carry-a-bag. Always remember, plastic itself is a boon the way we use it makes it a bane. Our relationship with plastic may be toxic, but it doesn’t need to be forever.

CROP PHYSIOLOGY

19843

24. Causes of nutritional Disorders in CropsG. SASHIKALA

S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati-517502, AP

As per criteria of essentiality 16 of them have been established to be essential for successful growth and development of crops. These elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, manganese,

copper boron, molybdenum and chlorine. A constant balanced supply of these nutrient elements is essential for normal plant growth. Imbalance among these leads to the emergence of nutritional disorders ie., either deficiencies or toxicities.



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

Causes of Nutritional Disorders in Plants

Nutrient stress in plants results from nutrient imbalances in the soil. A nutrient imbalance can emanate from inadequacy of one or more nutrients. It may also arise from the presence of an excessive amount of a nutrient element that hinders another nutrient in performing its normal metabolic functions. Therefore, a balanced supply of each nutrient in relation to plant growth is essential for obtaining normal yield and quality of crop. Numerous factors are responsible for the nutrient deficiency or excess and significant ones are discussed below.

� The soil varies greatly in the total contents of nutrients because of the wide variations in the nature of the parent material and the influence of soil forming processes under climatic conditions.

� Lack of knowledge about the required amount and kind of fertilizer to be applied to a field for a particular crop also results in inadequate or excessive fertilizer application causing imbalance among nutrients in the soil.

� Farmer’s practice of leveling new fields removes the nutrient rich top soil layer and the crops grown in exposed sub-surface less fertile layer become victim of nutrient deficiency.

� The practice of disposal of urban and industrial wastes on the agricultural land has significantly contributed towards the accumulation of large amounts of pollutant metals especially in the surface soils leading to their toxicity in crops grown therein owing to their absorption in high amounts.

� Nutrients are present in soils in different forms which are not equally available to crops. Some nutrient pools, which may not be a part of soil tests, may also supply considerable amounts of the nutrients during crop growth period. For instance, sandy soils high in mica may supply sufficient K even when soil test indicates low available K content in it.

� Several other soil factors affecting nutrient availability may cause deficiency or toxicity of one or the other nutrients in plants. Soil texture, pH, organic matter content, calcium carbonate content and type of clay minerals markedly regulate the availability of nutrients in soil.

� Nutrient deficiencies often appear in crops grown on sandy soils with low organic matter content.

� The master variable that determines the amount of nutrient present in the available form is soil pH. The decrease or increase in nutrient availability results from the variation in pH under acidic or alkaline condition. Eg: acid soils are deficient in P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B and Mo. The availability of micronutrient cations Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn is generally low in alkaline soils and crops grown on these soils suffer from their hunger. B deficiency has also been observed in soils having very high content of free Calcium carbonate.

� The availability of nutrients to plants is also greatly influenced by soil moisture, temperature and climatic conditions.

� Soil moisture plays a dominant role in the transport of nutrients from soil to root surface and there exists a significant interaction between the two.

� Submerged soil conditions are conducive for decrease in the availability of Zn and that of Fe and Mn increases. Nutrient deficiencies are more in cold weather compared to warm weather.

� Plants with deep root system mine larger volume of soil for nutrients than shallow rooted plants and consequently the deficiency symptoms of the limiting nutrient appear early in the latter than the former group of crops.

� Indiscriminate use of micronutrient fertilizers as well as urban wastes and industrial effluents result in excessive loading of soil with heavy metals.

19930

25. Physiological Disorders in Bulb CropsKAKARA JATIN1 AND JAGATI YADAGIRI2

1PhD Scholar, ICRISAT, Hyderabad. 2SRF, ICAR-CRIDA, Hyderabad

Introduction

After harvest, the vegetables are still alive, and begin their physiological activity. Physiological problems arise as a result of mineral deficiency, low or high temperature damage or adverse environmental factors, such as high moisture. Physiological degradation may also occur naturally due to enzymatic activity, a simple aging occurring mainly due to over maturity and senescence. Any deviation

from the plant’s usual behavior is recognized as a condition induced either by the lack or excess of some of the nutrients that the plant basically needs for its usual growth and development, or by the plant’s exposure to any of the factors, i.e. nutritional, environmental and cultural, in a suboptimal or supra-optimal range. There are a number of non-living factors, separated from living organisms, that contribute vegetable crop disorders. Non-pathological disorders such as poor light, weather



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

disruption, water-logging, lack of nutrients and affect the output of the plant system are causing crop disorders. However, if a plant shows nutrient deficiency symptoms it is likely that the yields of that season will be low. Several very limited research work has been done on abiotic disorders, and the causes remain poorly understood in terms of both susceptibility and why those environmental factors influence the parts of the plant. The farmers of vegetables suffer from the occurrence of abiotic disorders because these cause significant economic losses.

Bulb crops

Garlic

Sprouting

Clove sprouting occurs mostly towards ripening, particularly when rain or excessive soil moisture and nitrogen supply follows a dry spell. The failure in the field due to this condition is rarely more than 0.5 percent observed. The potential reasons for sprouting may be varietal variation, spacing, and early planting. White cultivars are more susceptible to germination than pink / violet varieties.

Bolting

In garlic, bolting induction does not occur in storage but differentiation is induced by relatively low temperature and short photoperiod after planting. In some cultivars, bolting can be initiated at low soil temperature during development. Collection of cloves below 2°C temperature triggers flowering induction after field planting. Poor growth of seeds, low supply of moisture and nutritional stress restrict induction of seed stalks. But bulbing also helps to inhibit the elongation of the stalk.

Onion

Tip Burning

Tip burning is a kind of necrosis on the edges of young leaves that grow. The susceptibility to tip burn is regulated genetically, but affected by components of the environment. Tip burning can be facilitated by luxuriant vegetative growth inducing factors both. Potassium deficiency in the tips of onion leaves is the main cause of tip burns in the onion. The other responsible factors are increased light intensity coupled with high temperature, high pH in the soil and repeated use of brackish water

Blast

In the presence of high temperature and low atmospheric humidity, when tender and succulent onion foliage is exposed to scorching heat, the foliage tips are burned and later, this time, if followed by heavy rains and cloudy weather, favors the production and spread of this blast disease. At first that the older leaves are affected than the younger ones. The leave turns brown in color due to the attack of this disease, and they are dried afterwards. Onion tip drying can also occur when the

crop is raised to the higher side in soils with salts, or brackish water is used for crop irrigation. Due to the pull of transpiration the salts enter the rising tip and cause the rising tips to fire.

Thick Neck

Any factor that keeps the plants in a vegetative phase without the formation of bulbs or delays the bulbing causes the neck to thicken. The onion plants often fail to start bulbing and keep on growing under some conditions. Excessive development without the formation of bulbs results in thick-necked bulbs. At higher temperatures, onion develops bulb more rapidly. The plants can be kept in a vegetative process without developing bulbs in conjunction with short days at low temperature. Plants require long days and high-temperature for bulbing. At bulbing stage the prolonged low temperature increases neck thickening. Excessive use of nitrogen fertiliser can produce thick-necked bulbs. Owing to the cool season, late maturity results in bulbs with a thick neck. This problem is often found to be associated with high yielding varieties to produce enough leaf area for higher yield. Those varieties therefore need to keep their growth going.

Premature Bulbing

Premature bulbing is the very rapid start of bulb initiation, soon after seedlings have been transplanted in the field. This happens when the seedlings are transplanted too late in the season; photoperiod and temperature at this point are both suitable for bulbing but not for vegetative growth. For bulbing, but not for vegetative growth, high temperature and long day conditions are favorable. When transplanted under these conditions, seedlings will start bulbing without achieving enough growth. Late sowing of more than wintered seedlings results in premature bulbing. Dense planting or too large a population of plants per unit area often results in premature bulbing in onion.

Splitting

Bulb splitting happens because of the presence of several growing points in a single bulb, and is often said to be correlated with a cultivar’s genetic makeup. Splitting or doubling of bulbs often occurs in some unfavorable circumstances and nutritional imbalances. High temperature and short day conditions are encouraging lateral shoots to grow. Any kind of injury to the plants during cultural operations will result in bulb splitting. Doubling of the bulb is responsible for a long water stress cycle at initial growth stage or a long drought spell followed by irrigation or rain. In the region, the use of unrotted animal dung and urine often contributes to the splitting of onion bulbs. Deep seeding of onion seedlings decreases splitting of bulbs.

Sun scald

Generally, sunscald happens when the onion bulbs are left in the field to heal after harvest. Sometimes, however, it can occur in the standing crop even



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

before harvest, when onion bulbs are either out of the ground due to their large size or due to shallow seedling planting. This condition typically occurs when the temperature is very high, and very low humidity or soil moisture. Under these conditions, tissues that are exposed directly to sunlight are soft and slippery. The sun-exposed bulbs can be covered with soil by earthing up operation in standing crop to prevent this injury. To keep the soil and bulb temperature stable, irrigation should be given to the field at short intervals, and seedlings should be planted slightly deeper into the soil to prevent exposure to direct sun during development process. The bulb should never be left behind in the field after harvest.

Bolting

It is the most severe of onion crop disorders. It refers to the appearance of seedstalk prior to their formation and has an adverse effect on bulb formation and growth. The bolting is an undesirable character which may be directly related to the onion’s bulb yield. This cycle is controlled by genetic factors, poor seed quality, photoperiod, temperature changes, and cultural practices affecting production. As the bulb’s bolting weight is reduced, the woody stalk of the inflorescence stays at the center of the bulb, decreasing the consistency of the bulb and dehydrated goods. Onion seeds if sown too early in the season and seedlings complete their basic vegetative phase before temperature drop will obtain sufficiently cold stimulus from the atmosphere to synthesize flowering hormones and encourage bolting. A week of exposure to the optimum chilling temperature for flowering, followed by a long photoperiod, will promote seed stalk growth rather than rapid bulbing. Quite high doses of nitrogen prevent bolting in the cultivated onion bulb. Bolting increases as the sets used as planting material increase in size. Sow the seeds always at the appropriate time. Prevent the use of excess fertilizer. Transplantation time modification so that the crop can be exposed to moderate bulbing temperature. The rabi crop is mature compared with the kharif crop for coinciding with high temperature. Cultivating non-bolting varieties such as Early Grano, Texas Early Grano, etc. Healthy seedling is transplanted for 6 to 7 weeks. Supply the required nitrogen dosage, and early cuts the seed stalk.

Watery Scales

The signs are most skin growing thick and leathery outer. These scales may be infected by fungi or bacteria however, attacks by these bacteria and fungi are not the sole cause of this disease. Onion is prone to high carbon dioxide levels, either in internal quantities or in the outer atmosphere when the onions are placed in controlled atmospheric storage. If the concentration of carbon dioxide reaches 13 per cent, watery scales grow. Carbon dioxide around 10 per cent induces an internal breakdown in managed atmosphere storage. The higher carbon dioxide concentration in the storage is more harmful to onions than low atmospheric oxygen. Proper storage facilities for storing the onions should be maintained.

Chemical Injury

Chemical damage, widely known as alkali scorch, occurs when the onions are placed in storage. It occurs because of the impregnated / printed alkaline jute bags used to store the onion bulbs. Higher ammonia gas concentrations in storage can often cause serious damage to the onion bulbs. Injury to ammonia is almost the same as injury from alkali material. Ammonia infection signs include the appearance of dark brown or black spots.

Freezing Injury

The susceptibility of onion bulbs to freezing lesion depends on a cultivar’s genetic makeup. Since the bulbs of these cultivars have a very low freezing point, cultivars with very high total soluble solids are not found susceptible to freezing wound. The susceptibility of onion bulbs to frost injury also depends on the water quality. More water-intensive bulbs have greater resistance to freezing injury. Several varieties may be successfully stored without any freezing injury, even at temperatures of -2 ° C, although the freezing injury occurs below this temperature. Freeze and frost damage prevention is typically achieved by planting the fields, if such an opportunity is expected. Cultivating fields results from the surface layer of moist soil which acts as insulation. This makes the soil around the bulb and root crop warm by the day. The downside by throwing infected soil on tender onion tissue to refining the potential increase of the disease.



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

19936

26. seed Priming on elevated Carbon Dioxide Associated with seed Germination in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)SELUKASH PARIDA1*, SOUMYA KUMAR SAHOO2 AND AKANKHYA GURU3

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Physiology, COA, OUAT, Bhubaneswar,2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Physiology, COA, IGKV, Raipur3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Physiology, IAS, BHU, Varanasi*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

The worldwide climate change due to the raise in greenhouse gases, mainly the carbon dioxide (CO

2),

has a direct or indirect effect on sustainable agriculture and food production. The intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) suggests that there will be a rise of atmospheric CO

2 to a concentration of

550 µmol mol−1 by 2050 due to the anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases (IPCC 2014). Rice is a staple food which feeds more than half of the population at a global level. Being a C3 crop, rice has the potential to increase the photosynthesis rate in elevated CO

2 eventually leading to better yield.

The augmented temperature under elevated carbon dioxide (eCO

2) also establishes to have effects on

the seed quality parameters, seedling growth and development in rice. So if there is a possibility to alleviate the effect of rising in temperature, it may help in maintaining the seed quality parameters and thereby the yield. Seed priming, a process that initiates the pre-germinative metabolic activity before the actual radical emergence through controlled hydration. Priming is an approach which can modulate the effects of several stresses mainly by maintaining the oxidative defence mechanisms, increase the early vigour which directly affects the nutrition acquisition rate at different stresses. The activity of antioxidant enzymes is found to be up-regulated by the priming with water (hydropriming), ascorbic acid (AsA), citric acid (CA) and salicylic acid (SA).

Importance of Seed Priming

The seed quality is a crucial factor that settles the success of crop production. The quality of the seed is affected by several biotic and abiotic factors. The seed quality parameters including germination and vigour are highly inclined by the external environment. In this study also the maximum germination is observed in the greenhouse where the minimum variations in the environmental conditions. The minimum seed germination was observed in the elevated CO2 conditions. Seed vigour loss and physiological deterioration in rice seeds in eCO2 conditions

were already reported (Lamichaney et al. 2019). So there is the need for seed quality enhancement techniques for maintaining the seed vigour under eCO2 conditions. Priming is such a technique which can enhance the seed quality thereby leading to high yields in spite of abiotic and biotic stresses. This is due to the enhanced growth reponses, early seedling vigour and seedling estasblishment during priming. The rise in the eCO2 concentration causes an increase in temperature. A reduction in germination percentage and seedling (fresh and dry) weight was reported in eCO2 and temperature stress. The seed protein is a sensitive component to eCO2. There was also a reduction in the chlorophyll content (chlorophyll a, b and total) leading to chlorophyll degradation. The photoreduction due to heat stress may also be a reason for the decrease in the level of chlorophyll and thereby the photosynthesis rate. So the seed priming can be a successful way to defeat these crises during the stresses.

� Priming can raise the enzyme activities and thus grow faster and vigourous than the unprimed seeds.

� The priming is also found to have positive effects on the nutrient acquisition and total protein in stress conditions

� Significant increase in the seed quality parameters, dry matter, α-amylase, total protein, chlorophyll and antioxidant enzymes.

� The α-amylase increase during the priming will increase the imbibition rate and also the free sugars which can contribute to increases germination

� SA acts as defence metabolite and stimulates the biosynthesis of GA which can excite seed germination

� SA reduces chlorophyll degradation through regulating ascorbate and glutathione pool. The protein content in stress is also higher in SA treated seeds.

� Priming treatments with SA, AsA and CA which helped to increase the enzymes like α-amylase and antioxidant enzymes. These enzymes help in maintaining growth, development and photosynthesis by reducing the impact of stress.



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

Seed hydration curves and germination phases in unprimed and primed seeds (Source: Lutts S et al., 2016)

Types of Seed Priming � Hydro priming (use of water)

� Halo priming (use of salt solution) � Osmo priming (use of osmotic solution) � Sand matric priming (use of moist sand)

Impact of seed priming treatment (Source: Lutts S et al., 2016)



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

Conclusion

The elevated carbon dioxide has a negative impact on germination and other seed quality parameters mainly due to the rise of temperature. The seed priming technique with suitable agents like SA, AsA

and citric acid will decrease stress by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes. These agents have enhancement as well as the protective role. So these can be effectively utilized to mitigate the stress and maintain seed quality, plant growth and development.

19969

27. tILLInG and ecotILLInG: Reverse Genetics Approaches to Clarify the Function of Genes in PlantsAKANKHYA GURU1*, SOUMYA KUMAR SAHOO2, AND SELUKASH PARIDA3

1Department of Plant Physiology, IAS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi2Department of Plant Physiology, COA, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur3Department of Plant Physiology, COA, Odisha University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

� TILLING: It is a reverse genetics, high throughput technique that allows identification of single base alterations in a specific gene in a mutagenized population.

� EcoTILLING: It is an expansion of the TILLING technique which can be used to identify point mutations or polymorphisms in natural populations.

TILLING and EcoTILLING Procedures

The basic TILLING and ECOTILLING techniques involve the following sequential steps:

DNA extraction and quantification↓

DNA normalization & pooling↓

PCR amplification of the pooled DNA for target region with gene specific primers

↓Heteroduplex formation by denaturation & renaturation

↓Cleavage of the PCR products

using Cel I endonuclease↓

Identification of the cleaved products on denaturing polyacrylamide gel

� The seeds produced by the plants are treated with mutagens and raised to harvest M1 plants, which are consequently, self-fertilized to raise the M2 population. DNA extracted from M2 plants is used in mutational screening.

� Ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) has been extensively used as a chemical mutagen in TILLING studies in plants to generate mutant

populations. � Genomic DNA isolated from mutagenized

populations can be pooled with up to eight individuals followed by arraying in 96 well microtiter plates.

� The pooled DNA samples are then PCR amplified using gene specific primers which are designed to amplify fragments of size 1-1.5 kb.

� The targeting forward and reverse primers ends are labelled with two different fluorescent dyes; IRD700 and IRD800 respectively that allows detection at ~700 nm and ~800 nm.

� The amplified PCR products are then denatured and re-natured by heating and cooling to form a heteroduplex.

� DNA is cleaved on 3’ side of the mismatch using the S1 family single strand specific endonuclease enzyme CEL I (extracted from celery). This enzyme recognizes gaps in the heteroduplex.

� The cleaved products can be separated easily by denaturing polyacrylamide gel attached to a LI-COR 4300 DNA analysis system.

� Pools holding an induced mutation contain a mixture of homo and heteroduplexes. Therefore, a full length product (detected in both 700 and 800 channels) and two measureable cleaved fragments (one IRD700 labeled, one IRD800 labeled) are produced.

� The amount of the cleaved fragments should be equal the full length PCR product. The size of the cleaved fragments can be evaluated by comparison to a size standard, and the estimated position of the mutation will be recognized and further confirmed by sequencing.



CR

oP

PH

YsI

oLo

GY

TABLE 1. TILLING approach in different crops

Crop Mutagen applied Mutagen dose estimated

genome Ploidy Mutation rate

Arabidopsis EMS 20mM to 40 mM 125 Mbp 2X 1/300 kbRice EMS 1.5% 430 Mbp 2X 1/294 kbWheat EMS 0.7% to-1% 12000 Mbp 4X 1/40 kbMaize EMS 0.0625% 2500 Mbp 2X 0.93/kbBarley EMS 20mM to 30 mM 5300 Mbp 2X 1/MbSoybean EMS 50 mM 1115 Mbp 2X 1/250 kbCommon Bean EMS 20mM to 60 mM 625 Mbp 2X 2 to 3/MbPotato γ radiation 0.5% to 2.0% 850Mbp 4X <1/1810 bpTomato EMS 0.7% to 1.0% 950Mbp 2X 1/322 kb

Advantages of TILLING1. It provides the imprecise position within a few

base pairs of the induced mutation.2. It can be used for effective mutation detection

due to its high throughput screening capacity.3. The densities of traditional chemical

mutagenesis can be estimated.4. Genome wide saturated mutagenesis can

be achieved using a relatively small mutant population.

5. It saves time and money as it does not demand resequencing of all the individuals in a population to comb frequent or rare SNPs.

6. This technique requires no complicated manipulations and expensive apparatus.

7. It is a permutation of the traditional chemical mutagenesis, and the double dye far-red fluorescent detecting technique.

Specific Challenges in the Application of TILLING and EcoTILLING

� Creation of a mutant population requires more time investment.

� Creating mutant populations for plants that propagate vegetatively could slow down progress of generating a mutant population.

� Selection of target genes that only exist as a single copy within the genome especially in polyploidy plants which have complex genomes such as wheat or peanut.

� Assigning a particular phenotype to a genotype and inferring the putative function of a gene.

� The production and maintenance of clones of

vegetative propagated plants for future analysis are somewhat problematic.

� The identification, scoring and tracking of cleaved fragments becomes more challenging due to the increased number of SNPs per fragment.

Future Perspectives � TILLING and EcoTILLING techniques have

been proven as powerful tools for carrying out reverse genetics research in any plant.

� TILLING can be applied even if genome sequencing is limited to selected target genes.

� EcoTILLING is broadly applicable to any plant including ornamentals that would help researchers to understand ornamental crops at the molecular level for genetic manipulation and enhancement.

� SNPs in related genetic materials can be detected easily by TILLING and EcoTILLING approaches which implies that many more candidate genes can now be used for mapping, marker-assisted breeding and pedigree analyses.

References

Banik, M., Liu, S., Yu, K., Poysa, V., & Park, S. J. (2007). Molecular TILLING and EcoTILLING: effective tools for mutant gene detection in plants. Genes Genomes Genomics, 1(2), 123-132.

Rashid, M., He, G., Guanxiao, Y., & Khurram, Z. (2011). Relevance of tilling in plant genomics. Australian Journal of Crop Science, 5(4), 411.



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

SOIL SCIENCE

19801

28. Biochar: A tool to Improve soil HealthR. I. NAVSARE1* AND M. SHARATH CHANDRA2

1PhD Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut- 250110 (UP), India2PhD Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut- 250110 (UP), India*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Efficient use of crop residue-based amendment in soil is an important strategy to improve the soil fertility and productivity. Annually 500 Mt crop residues are generated in India, out of which 141 Mt is surplus. These residues are either partially utilized or un-utilized due to various constraints. Surplus and unused crop residues when left unattended, often disrupt land preparation, crop establishment and early crop growth, and therefore are typically burnt on farm which causes environmental problems and substantial nutrient losses. For more effective management and disposal of the crop residues, their conversion into biochar through thermo-chemical process (slow pyrolysis) is gaining importance as a novel and economically alternative way of managing unusable and excess crop residues. Much of the stimulus for this interest has come from research on the soils of the Amazon basin, known as Terra Preta de Indio, that contain variable quantities of organic

black carbon considered to be of anthropogenic origin. Conversion of crop and on-site agroforestry residues to biochar and its soil application as an amendment can turn the excess residues into a useful materiel for enhancing soil health and crop productivity.

One of the major consequences of agricultural intensification are a transfer of carbon (C) to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide (CO

2),

thereby reducing ecosystem C pools. Agriculture contributes 10–12% of the total global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. To meet the challenges of global climate change, greenhouse-gas emissions must be reduced. Diminishing increased levels of CO

2 in the atmosphere is the use of pyrolysis

to convert biomass into biochar, which stabilizes the carbon (C) that is then applied to soil. Biochar contains high concentrations of carbon that can be rather recalcitrant to decomposition, so it may stably sequester carbon. It can increase soil aeration and reduce soil emissions of N

2O, a greenhouse gas.

Summary of pyrolysis processes in relation to their common feed stocks, typical products, and the applications and uses of these products (Sohi et al., 2009)



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

In addition biochar can improve agricultural productivity, particularly in low-fertility and degraded soils where it can be especially useful to the world’s poorest farmers; it reduces the losses of nutrients and agricultural chemicals in run-off. It has increased crop yield through various mechanisms including stimulation of beneficial soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi.

What is biochar?

Biochar is a fine-grained, carbon-rich, porous product remaining after plant biomass has been subjected to thermo-chemical conversion process (pyrolysis) at low temperatures (~350–600°C) in an environment with little or no oxygen. Biochar is not a pure carbon, but rather mix of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulphur (S) and ash in different proportions. The central quality of biochar and char that makes it attractive as a soil amendment is its highly porous structure, potentially responsible for improved water retention and increased soil surface area.

Characteristics of Biochar

Physical characterization

Pyrolysis temperature is the main regulating factor which governs surface area of biochar. It was reported that increase in temperature from 400 to 900°C increased surface area of biochar from 120 to 460 m2/g. The importance of temperature leads to the suggestion that biochar created at low temperature may be suitable for controlling release of nutrients. Increase in pyrolysis temperature from 400°C to 600°C decreased the volatile and N component of biochar, while it increased ash and fixed carbon content. Thus biochar prepared at 60°C had wider C:N ratio making it more stable in soil.

Chemical Characterization

Biochar produced from different feed stock had pH ranged from 8.2-13.0. Invariably, total carbon content of biochar increased with the increase in pyrolysis temperature. Total carbon content in biochar materials produced from different feedstock varied from 33.0 to 82.4%. N and S compound tends to volatize at a temperature above 200 and 375°C, respectively. So, biochar produced at higher temperature shows depletion of N and S. High-temperature biochars (800°C) tend to have a higher pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and extractable NO3-, while low-temperature biochars (350°C) have greater amounts of extractable P, NH4 +, and phenol.

Methods of Biochar Preparation1. Heap Method2. Drum Method3. Stove Method

Method of Application of Biochar1. By hand2. Using a tractor propelled lime spreader

3. Deep banding of biochar in rhizosphere4. Mixing of biochar with composts & manures5. Line trenching and backfilling

Effect of biochar on different soil properties

Factor Impact SourceCation exchange capacity

50% increase (Glaser et al. 2002)

Fertilizer use efficiency

10-30 % increase

(Gaunt and Cowie, 2009)

Liming agent 1 point pH increase

(Lehman and Rondon, 2006)

Soil moisture retention

Up to 18 % increase

(Tryon, 1948)

Crop productivity 20-120% increase


Methane emission 100% decrease

(Rondon et al, 2005)

Nitrous oxide emissions

50 % decrease

(Yanai et al. 2007)

Bulk density Soil dependent

(Laird, 2008)

Mycorrhizal fungi 40 % increase (Warnock et al. 2007)

Biological nitrogen fixation

50-72% increase


References

1. Gaunt, J. and Cowie, A. (2009). Biochar greenhouse gas accounting and emission trading. In: Biochar for environmental management (J. Lehmann and S. Joseph eds.), Science and Technology, Earthscan, London. pp 317-340.

2. Lehmann, J. and Rondon, M. (2006). Biochar soil management on highly weathered soils in the humid tropics. In: Biological Approaches to Sustainable Soil Systems (N. Uphoff et al. eds), Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp 517-530.

3. Rondon, M., Ramirez, J.A. and Lehmann, J. (2005). Charcoal additions reduce net emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. In: Proceedings of the 3rd USDA. Symposium on Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Sequestration, Baltimore, USA, March 21-24.

4. Tryon, E.H. (1948) Effect of charcoal on certain physical, chemical, and biological properties of forest soils. Ecological Monographs, 18: 81-115.

5. Yanai, Y., Toyota, K. and Okazani, M. (2007). Effects of charcoal addition on N2O emissions from soil resulting from rewetting air-dried soil in short-term laboratory experiments. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 53: 181-188.

6. Glaser, B., Lehmann, J., Zech, W. (2002): Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal -a review. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 35(4): 219-230.

7. Laird, D.A. and Koskinen, W.C. (2008): Triazine



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

soil interactions. In: The Triazine Herbicides. 50years revolutionizing agriculture, LeBaron, H.M., McFarland, J.E., & Burnside, O.C.(Eds.), pp. 275-299. Elsevier, Oxford, UK

8. Warnock, D.D., Lehmann, J., Kuyper, T.W., Rillig, M.C.(2007): Mycorrhizal responses to biochar in soil - Concepts and mechanisms. Plant and Soil. 300: 9-20.

19820

29. Precision nitrogen (n) Management in soils using Leaf Colour Chart (LCC)SIDDHARTHA MUKHERJEE AND PUJA SINGH1PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV), Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Essentiality of Precision N Management

“Feeding to crops with nutrients as and when needed’

As nutrients, water and other natural resources are the limiting factors in agricultural production system, effective use of each molecule of them for producing maximum yield are very much needed. Being an important essential nutrient for plant growth and development, proper management of N in soils is really needed to improve its efficiency. But, the current fertilizer practice results in high loss of applied fertilizers. Recently, scientists have developed a new technique of nutrient management known as site-specific nutrient management, based on site, climate and actual plant needs which allow farm managers to tailor their nutrient management according to nutrient requirements. In essence, it is the ‘art’ of tailoring soil and crop management applications to fit varying conditions in the field.

LCC: May be a Good Option for Precision N Management

Different modern techniques/technologies (sensor-based N management, leaf colour chart, remote sensing, online computation and recommendation of fertilizers through SMS) are available in this regard in different countries including India. Among all these techniques, LCC may be a good option as it is the cheapest technique, easy to use and can give real-time nutrient need of crops. Moreover, LCC helps farmer to restrict themselves from excessive nitrogenous fertilizers use as well as to minimize their fertilizer costs.

What is LCC?

LCC measures green colour intensity of leaf, which is related to the plant’s nitrogen content. It is having 6 no. of colour shades, yellowish-green to dark green. Yellowish green (No. 1) and dark green (No. 6) indicates lowest N content and highest N content respectively. It helps farmers to detect right-time and right-dose of N application with low cost.

Steps to Use1. Randomly select 10 healthy plants in field 14

days after transplanting;2. Select topmost, fully expanded and healthy leaf;3. Reading should be taken in between 8 a.m. to 10

a.m.;4. Compare middle part of leaf with LCC;5. If 5 leaves out of 10 having reading below 4, go

for N application @30 kg/ha during dry season;6. Take reading 7-10 days’ interval.

Case study: LCC can save 20 % of N fertilizer rate without yield reduction (Singh et al., 2014)

The results suggested that LCC based N management can reduce nitrogenous fertilizers applications in soils by detecting right time and right dose of nutrient need as compared to farmers’ practice without compromising grain yield. Data recorded in rice, maize and wheat experiments conducted emphatically reveals that farmers generally apply nitrogen fertilizers in excess of crop requirement, to avoid fertilizer N deficiency risk due to field to field and year to year variation in plant N demand and N-supplying capacity of soils.



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

Avg. N fertilizers applied and grain yield of rice in 350 on-farm trials comparing LCC with farmers’ practice (FP)

Constrains in Field Application � LCC can’t differentiate among varieties of same

species; � LCC data depends upon solar radiation and

visibility may vary from person to person at the time of reading;

� Lack of awareness about the beneficial effect of applying modern tools as well as about depleting natural resources;

� Most of the farmers are not skillful enough to operate these technologies.

Conclusion

Estimating nutrients by soil testing in conventional process is acutely time consuming and also not able to provide real time results. But, LCC is capable of computing nutrients in real-time basis according to crop needs and helps farmer to improve N –use efficiency in a cost-effective way. Moreover, LCC based N management can also provide a profitable yield, maintaining a sustainable environment by reducing the cascading effect of excess N use.

References

Singh V., Singh B., Thind H. S., Singh Y., Gupta R. K., Singh S. and Balasubramanian V. (2014). Evaluation of leaf colour chart for need-based nitrogen management in rice, maize and wheat in north-western India. Indian Journal of Research, 51(3):245-267.

Anonymous. (2020). International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines <http://www.k n o w l e d g e b a n k . i r r i . o r g / s t e p - b y - s t e p -production/growth/soil-fertility/leaf-color-chart> (retrieved on: 31/02/20, 9:12 p.m.)

19870

30. soil Carbon sequestrationRAKESH KUMAR1*, SANJAY KUMAR2 AND REETIKA3

1*Senior Technical Assistant (Soil Science), Department of Agronomy; CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar2Senior Technical Assistant (Agronomy); CCS HAU Regional Research Station, Uchani, Karnal3Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture; CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction: An increase in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO

2) and other

greenhouse gases (GHGs) was noticed in last few decades mainly due to industrial revolution and land use changes. Due to these changes in atmosphere, global warming and climate alteration occurred. Mean sea level is increasing year by year due to temperature increase. Many living species became extinct due to heating of earth and other climatic variations. If we want to save life on our planet, we will have to stop these adverse changes in climate and environment by the adoption of some strategies for reducing atmospheric CO

2 and other harmful

gases emission. Atmosphere acts as a potential source of carbon because it has high levels of carbon in atmosphere, mainly in the form of CO

2 gas. Soil

carbon sequestration seems to be a feasible strategy for reduction in the concentration of atmospheric CO

2.Soil Carbon Sequestration (SCS): It is the

process of removal of carbon from the atmosphere and storage of it in soil for a long turnover time, so

that in near future it will not re-emit.If carbon is stored into stabilized aggregates, it

will have long turnover time. Micro-aggregates are more protected as compared to macro-aggregates. Soil organic carbon (SOC) levels in soils describe the long-term balance between inputs and losses of organic carbon. Due to intensive soil cultivation, this long-term balance was disrupted and more and more of the C in the soil’s organic matter was exposed to oxidative processes. Soil organic matter is the predominant form in which carbon is stored in the soil. The most significant factors affecting SOC and soil carbon pools include type of land use, land use change and management practices. Land use systems and vegetation cover exert a profound influence on SOC. SOC affects the chemical, physical and biological properties of soils and is most commonly reported as an indicator of soil quality and environmental sustainability.



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

Type of CO2 Fixation1. Direct fixation: Conversion of CO

2 into

inorganic compounds like carbonates of calcium and magnesium in a natural way is known as direct fixation. The carbon sequestered from direct fixation is also called as soil inorganic carbon (SIC).

2. Indirect fixation: Plants produce their biomass through the process of photosynthesis. This is indirect fixation. This biomass produced by plants is finally transferred into the soil and indirectly sequestered as soil organic carbon after decomposition. C fixed indirectly is referred as soil organic carbon (SOC).Soil Organic Carbon in different land

uses: SOC storage potential of agro forestry is equivalent to the natural forest, thus, suggesting the importance of strengthening agro forestry as a main agricultural strategy in order to sustain agriculture production and ecosystem services. Many researchers studied carbon sequestration and revealed that it was significantly greater for forest followed by grass and cultivated land use system. This is because forest and grass land system relatively promoted maintenance of litter fall and root residues in the soil. Singh et al. (2016) compared SOC in disturbed as well as undisturbed soil and reported that SOC was significantly higher in undisturbed soils as compared to disturbed soils. Cultivation resulted in a decline in SOC Therefore, land disturbances leads to SOC declines.

In a global meta-analysis, 385 studies on land-use change in the tropics were explored to estimate the SOC stock changes for all major land-use change types and it was reported that the highest SOC losses were caused by conversion of forest into cropland by 28 % while forest conversion into grassland had a loss of 12 %. (Don et al 2011). Nath and Lal (2017)

reported that no-tillage cultivation had 35–46 % more SOC stocks than conventional tillage cultivation suggesting the adverse effects of tillage i.e. causing soil disturbance and subsequent losses of SOC from agricultural fields. The SOC content is a consequence of the balance between C inputs and losses. Labile fractions of SOC can respond very quickly to change in land use and farm practices; hence these fractions are considered as key indicators of soil quality.

Followings approaches may be used for increasing carbon stock in soils

� Agro forestry adoption and Pasture management � Cover crops and more of crop rotation � Restoration of degraded soils � Conservation tillage and stubble retention

Changes of land use and management practices influence the amount and rate of soil organic carbon changes. Thus, proper land uses policy and sustainable soil management as well as cropping practices are required to combat the ongoing soil degradation, climate change and for enhancing soil fertility through carbon sequestration.

References

Singh, A.K., Rai, A and Singh, N. (2016). Effect of long term land use systems on fractions of glomalin and soil organic carbon in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Geoderma. 277: 41-50.

Don, A., Schumacher, J. and Freibauer, A. (2011). Impact of tropical land use change on soil organic

carbon stocks – a meta-analysis. Global Change Biology. 17: 1658–1670.

Nath, A.J. and Lal, R. (2017). Effects of tillage practices and land use management on soil aggregates

and soil organic carbon in the North Appalachian region, USA. Pedosphere. 27(1): 172-176.

19872

31. Concept and strategies to Combat nutrient Mining for sustainable Crop ProductionSHALINI SHARMA1* AND ARNAB KUNDU2

1M.Sc., Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, BHU, Varanasi-2210052Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural chemistry and Soil Science, BCKV, Mohanpur, Nadia-741252*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction: Agriculture in post green revolution period is characterized by intensive crop production which leads to excessive exhaustion of nutrients present in soil, resulting in nutrient mining. Nutrient mining is the negative balance of nutrients in which elevated loss of nutrients from soil occur over its addition into it. Rather say, the removal of nutrients

by crop far exceeds its replenishment back or its return into soil. So, sustainability is the overarching desire for intensive crop production. It not only helps us in efficient use of our primary resources such as land and water for bumper crop production but also improves the fertility of soil.

Concept: Central concept of nutrient balance



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

in soil depends upon input - output relationship as shown in figure 1.

FIGURE 1: Input- output relationship of nutrient balance in soil

If input = output: System is sustainable.Input > output: Increase in soil fertility

and buildup of soil plant available nutrient but in extreme cases results into soil and water pollution.

Input < output: “Nutrient mining” or “nutrient depletion’’ results into excessive soil degradation.

Strategies to Overcome Nutrient Mining1. Soil testing: Application of fertilizers without

soil testing is just like taking a medicine without proper consultation with physician. So, soil testing is the first and foremost requirement for scheduling of fertilizers for getting not only optimum yield but also for maintain soil fertility.

2. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM): INM refers to optimization of all possible sources of nutrient supply through organic manures, inorganic fertilizers and biological means in an integrated manner in order to maintain soil fertility and sustain optimum yield production.

3. Crop residue management: Use of insitu and exsitu green leaf manuring, composting enhance not only nutrient status of soil but also improves soil fertility. In insitu green manuring, crops are grown as sole or in intercrop with main crop and are buried in the same field. Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea), dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), clusterbean (Cymopsis tetragonoloba) etc. are most commonly used. In green leaf manuring plants are grown elsewhere and are brought for incorporation into soil as green leaves or tender green twigs of subabul (Leucaena leucocephala), karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Glyricidia maculata etc are commonly used.

4. Management of problem soil: Well

managed soil produce the good yield. As we all know that the availability of nutrients increases towards neutral pH of soil. So, use of lime for acid soil and gypsum for salt affected saline and alkali soils brings the soil pH towards neutral and improves not only the availability of nutrients but also condition of soil.

5. 4R nutrient stewardship approach: Use of Right source, Right time, Right amount and Right methodology of fertilizer application is essential tool for sustainable agriculture and for achieving social, economic and environmental goals.

6. Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM): SSNM assures that all the required nutrients are supplied in proper ratio and in proper rates equivalent to the crop nutrient demand. In-build algorithm of this approach knocks down under and overuse of fertilizers and significantly contract the chances of nutrient mining.

7. Soil Test and Crop Response (STCR): In this approach fertilizers recommendations are done based on soil test valves and demand of nutrient by particular crop which is specific for particular agroclimatic region. Contribution of nutrients from fertilizers, organic manures and soil and nutrient requirement for production of 1q of grain yield are taken into consideration for achieving desired targeted yield with enhance soil fertility.

8. Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS): In this approach nutrient concentration ratios rather than individual element concentration are interpreted through leaf and plant analysis and it not only provides the most limiting nutrient but also the sequence in which other nutrients are possible to become limiting.

9. Leaf Colour Chart (LCC): LCC is applicable for determining nitrogen content in rice crop and fertilizer application is done based on colour chart. It is advantageous for top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizer at 20 to 40 days after transplanting of rice.

10. Critical limits: It is the level of nutrient in soil below which economic response for particular nutrient would be expected only by application of fertilizer and above which probability of such response is low.

Conclusion

Rise in multi-nutrient deficiencies in soil across the world results into nutrient mining. Among various factors of nutrient mining such as leaching, volatilization, erosion, etc, contribution of crop in nutrient withdrawal is largest through which native soil nutrient are lost. So, recharge of soil pool with adequate nutrient through nutrient stewardship approach, SSNM, INM, STCR, crop residue management, etc is essential to maintain optimum nutrient status with enhanced soil fertility in intensive cropping system.



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

19877

32. Biochar: A novel Approach towards Reduction of Greenhouse Gas emission from soilSHWETHAKUMARI U1* AND PALLAVI T2

1Ph.D. Scholar Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, COA, UAS, Raichur2Ph.D. Scholar Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Climate change has an adverse impact on agricultural production, human health and environmental quality. Rising emission of GHGs (Greenhouse gases) from agricultural lands, due to anthropogenic activities like burning fossil fuels and crop residues, change in land-use (deforestation), intensive agriculture are major contributors to global warming. Agricultural activities collectively contribute approximately about 10%–12% of the total global GHG emissions and it contributes a significantly large share among all the sectors that are responsible for GHG production. This is primarily due to nitrous oxide (N

2O) emissions

from mineral and organic fertilizers applied in soils. An increase of global surface temperature up to 0.8°C during the 20th century, which likely will increase to 1.4°C–5.8°C in the 21st century due to different on-farm as well as off-farm activities. This increase in global temperature is attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by CO

2 as the major

source of GHG. Although the amount of N2O in the

atmosphere is much less than CO2, it has a global

warming potential which is 298 times greater than that of CO

2, so the former can trap more heat in

the atmosphere compared to the latter. Hence, it is important to develop management strategies and devise technologies to mitigate, soil N

2O emissions.

TABLE 1: Concentration of different greenhouse gases in atmosphere

Compound Formula Concentration in atmosphere

Water vapour and clouds

H2O 10–50,000 (ppm)

Carbon dioxide CO2 ~400 (ppm)Methane CH4 ~1.8 (ppm)Ozone O3 2–8 (ppm)Nitrous oxide N20 (ppb)

Global Emissions by Economic Sector1. Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land

Use: Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector comes mostly from agriculture (cultivation of crops and livestock) and deforestation.

2. Electricity and Heat Production: The

burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions.

3. Industry: Mainly involve fossil fuels burning on site for energy.

4. Buildings: Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector arise from burning fuels for heat in buildings or cooking in homes.

5. Transportation: Mainly involve fossil fuels burned for road, rail, air, and marine transportation.Burning is a major issue of concern in recent

years. Huge quantities of unused and excess agroforestry and crop residues in India are becoming an issue of concern due to inefficient crop residue management practices. Studies sponsored by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Govt. of India have estimated surplus biomass availability at about 120–150 million tons/ annum out of 500 million tons/year of residue generated. Out of this, about 93 million tons of crop residues are burned in each year. Instead of going for burning of these surplus residues, one can efficiently use this for better enrichment of the soil. Application of organic amendments in agricultural soils can alter GHG emissions while improving soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. To mitigate GHG emission, carbonized biomass such as graphite, charcoal, biochar and activated carbon can be used.

Biochar

Biochar is a fine-grained, carbon-rich, porous product remaining after plant biomass has been subjected to thermo-chemical conversion process (pyrolysis) at low temperatures (~350–600°C) in an environment with little or no oxygen.

Difference between Carbon and Biochar Cycles

� Carbon cycle: Green plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere via photosynthesis and converts it into biomass. Almost all of that carbon is returned into the atmosphere when the plant die and decay, or immediately if the biomass is burned.

� Biochar cycles: Green plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere via photosynthesis and



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

converts it into biomass. Up to half of that carbon is removed and sequestered as biochar, while the other half is converted to renewable energy co-products before being returned to atmosphere (Fig. 1).

FIG. 1 Characteristics of biochar

GHG emission mitigation � Reduces NH3 volatilization through sorption at

surface functional groups of biochar � Reduce N2O emission by adsorption and

complete denitrification to N2O � Reduce CO2 emission by physical adsorption

Improved physical properties � Higher surface area � Higher pore volume � Higher surface charge � Higher water filled pore space

Improved Chemical Properties � Act as liming agent � Higher nutrient exchange site � Increased functional groups

Heavy metal remediation � Adsorption of methylene blue � Sorption of Pb, Cd and As from solution

Climate Smart Benefits of Biochar � Soil Fertility: It can improve soil fertility and

stimulates plant growth. � Reduced fertilizer inputs: It can reduce the need

for chemical fertilizers, resulting in reduced emissions of greenhouse gases from soil.

� Enhanced soil microbial life: It can increase soil microbial life, resulting in more carbon storage in soil.

� Reduced N2O and CH4 emissions: It has the capacity reduce emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) two potent greenhouse gases from agricultural soils.

� Reduced emissions from feedstock’s: Avoids CO2 and CH4 emissions otherwise generated by the natural decomposition or burning of the waste.

� Energy generation: The heat energy and also the bio-oils.

19891

33. seaweed Biochar: Production and its CharacteristicROOHI

Department of Soil science, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana

Seaweed is normally referred as “Multicellular Marine Macroalgae”, Photosynthetic organisms that are found deep in the ocean up to 180m depth as well as in rivers, lakes, and other water bodies on the solid substrates such as rocks, dead corals and pebbles. The cultivation of seaweed has been expanded rapidly because of its tremendous applications. The total seaweed production of the world has been increased from 9.7 to 30.4 million tonnes from last 2001 to 2015 (FAO, 2018) and the seaweed industry provides various variety of seaweed products in the market.

Based on the pigmentation, seaweed has been classified into 3 groups: Brown algae (Phaeophyceae), Red algae (Rhodophyceae) and

Green algae (Chlorophyceae). Naturally growing seaweeds are called as wild seaweeds while seaweeds that are farmed are called cultivated seaweeds. It is being used for human and animal consumption, medicines, cosmetics, fuel, waste water treatment process, manures, Seaweed Biochar and so on.

Seaweed Biochar is produced mainly through thermochemical conversion i.e., Pyrolysis, Hydrothermal conversion and torrefaction process.

1. Pyrolysis: It is the heating of biomass at temperature range of 300-700℃ in the absence of oxygen or air. It is the most promising technology of converting biomass into Biochar and biofuel by Based on operating conditions, there are several types of pyrolysis: Slow



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

pyrolysis, Fast pyrolysis and latest microwave assisted pyrolysis. All will produce different composition of solid, liquid and gaseous product based on different products such as temperature, heating rate and residence time. Slow pyrolysis provides the highest yield of biochar while fast pyrolysis provides the highest yield of bio-oil with biochar (as by-product).

2. Hydrothermal conversion: It is a new approach and gained more attention due to its environment friendly and cost effectiveness. It involves the conversion of carbohydrates component of biomass into carbon rich solids in water and Biochar is produced at lower temperature (180-260℃) and elevated steam pressure.Torrefaction process: It is thermochemical

conversion process performed under atmospheric pressure at the temperature ranges from 200-300℃ under an inert condition without oxygen. This will partly decompose biomass and produces terrified biomass or char with high carbon content. It could produce Biochar with high calorific value so it can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels for energy production.

Biochar has a recalcitrant carbon and can be used a source of soil carbon. It will improve the soil fertility by increasing the nutrition retention capacity and reduces the emissions of N

2O from

agricultural field.When Biochar was prepared using pyrolysis

method (at 450ºC temperature for 60 min) from 6 different species: three species of red seaweeds (Gracilaria, Eucheuma and Kappaphycus) and three from brown seaweeds (Saccharina, Undaria and Sargassum), Robert et al., 2015 reported Biochar yield was between 45-62%. The Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen contents in all Biochar prepared from different species ranging from 22–35%, 1.1–2.8% and 14–25%, respectively and the

organic Carbon content was more than 85% of the total Carbon content. The nutritive content in all seaweed biochar was higher in concentrations i.e. ranging Nitrogen from 0.3-2.8%, Phosphorus from 0.5-6.6 g kg-1, and potassium from 5.1-119 g kg-1. While Biochar which was prepared from green tide algae (Seaweed) sourced from fresh, brackish and marine environment were found lower in carbon content, surface area and cation exchange capacity than lignocelluloses based biochar but rich in inorganic nutrients such as Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium with higher pH and Ash content (Bird et al., 2011). Similarly, De Bhowmick et al., 2018 found the macroalgal based Biochar was highly alkaline (pH was 10.36) in nature with significant higher ash content (46.57%) and Biochar yield (31% by weight) than rice husk based Biochar. So, the seaweed Biochar provides significant direct nutrient benefits to soil and crop productivity, and particularly useful for application on acidic soil.

Reference

BIRD, M. I., WURSTER, C. M., DE PAULA SILVA, P. H., BASS, A. M., AND DE NYS, R. (2011). Algal Biochar- production and properties. Bioresource Technology, 102(2): 1886-1891.

ROBERTS, D. A., PAUL, N. A., DWORJANYN, S. A., BIRD, M. I. AND DE NYS, R. (2015). Biochar from commercially cultivated seaweed for soil amelioration. Scientific Reports, 5(1).

YU, K. L., LAU, B. F., SHOW, P. L., ONG, H. C., LING, T. C., CHEN, W.H., NQ, E.P. AND CHANG, J.S. (2017). Recent developments on algal biochar production and characterization. Bioresource Technology, 246:2-11.

DE BHOWMICK, G., SARMAH, A. K. AND SEN, R. (2018). Production and characterization of a value added biochar mix using seaweed, rice husk and pine sawdust: A parametric study. Journal of Cleaner Production, 200, 641-656.

19929

34. Crop Rotation and Green Manure: A Way for soil Health Management in Rice based Cropping systemVARSHINI S. V.

PhD Scholar, Department of Agronomy, TNAU Coimbatore.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

The RICE-based cropping system comprises of a farming system that utilize rice along with other major crops. This practice is widely popular among various regions of the country and also considered to be the major cropping practice in India. With such a widespread cultivation and popularity, it is inevitable

that they cause harm to soil heath and quality. In this view this article talks about the importance of soil health, soil quality and simple yet effective ways to manage soil health in rice based cropping system.



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

Soil Health

Soil health and soil quality are the two most important terms that are being widely recognized these days. These terms mean “continued capacity of the soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals and humans” as referred by USDA-NRCS, 2012. The soil quality includes both inherent and dynamic quality.

Characteristics of a Healthy Soil

A healthy soil must possess the following characteristics a good soil tilth, Sufficient depth, Good water storage, good drainage, Sufficient supply, but not excess of nutrients, Small population of pathogens and pests, Large population of beneficial organisms, Low weed pressure, Free of potentially harmful chemicals and toxins, Resistance and resilience to degradation.

Major reasons for Soil Health Decline

Some of the major reasons for soil health decline are, Intensive farming / Nutrient mining, Deforestation, Contaminated surface water, Imbalanced fertilizer use, Herbicide and Pesticide.

Methods to Overcome Soil Health Decline

Crop rotation

Crop rotation is the concept of growing crops in a

sequential manner by growing different crops in a rotation in the same specific field. The crops used for rotation includes cash crops, cover crops and green manures. A crops rotation can be extremely beneficial in maintaining the soil health, soil fertility, aid in pest management, spread labor needs over time and reduce risks associated with market conditions. Green manure and legume crops residues are considered to be the source of N, when they decomposes their organic N is transformed into available N. Due to these factors they are an excellent source of N for the initial and following crops in rotation.

Advantages of crop rotation

The major advantage of crop rotation includes, enhances soil quality, Increases soil fertility, Aids in pest management, Improves the soil structure, Reduces soil erosion, Increases crop yield.

Green and green leaf manure

Green manure are the crops which are grown with a specific meaning of utilizing them for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic matter content in the soil. Whereas, the green leaf manure comprises of gathering green biomass from the nearby locations and adding them to the soil.

Green maure Green leaf manureSunnhemp Crotolaria juncea Gliricidia Gliricidia sepiumDhaincha Sesbania aculata Pongamia Pongamia pinnataSesbania Sesbania speciosa Neem Azadiracta indicaCowpea Vigna sinensis Gulmohar Delonix regia

Dubey et al 2015.

Advantages

They help in nutrients to be observed from the deeper soil layers and place them in the surface soil. They also help in stimulating the activity of the micro-organisms inhabitant to the soil. They also help to respire and decompose the organic matter CO

2, which in turn will be producing carbonic acid.

The carbonic acid is vital in the decomposition of the soil minerals to release plant nutrients bind in them.

Conclusion

Soil health and soil quality are the two of the most important factors that needs to be considered in

agriculture. As the amount of cultivation grows larger and larger it is important for us to conserve the soil for the future. Rice based cropping system being one of the most valued and widely adapted system of agriculture in India, this holds further importance in conserving the soil. Adapting crop rotation and green and green leaf manuring are some of effective and less complicated practice in maintaining soil health and soil quality.

Reference

Dubey, Lokesh, Megha Dubey, and Princy Jain. “Role of green manuring in organic farming.” Plant archives 15, no. 1 (2015): 23-26.



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

19933

35. Water Pollution due to nutrient and Pesticides from soilANANTA G. MAHALE1 AND ASHUTOSH C. PATIL2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Soil Science & Agriculture Chemistry, SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar (J&K) Faculty of Agriculture, Wadura (Sopore)-1932012Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, VNMKV, Parbhani.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Water is essential and valuable resources of the nature. It is prime national assets vital for domestic, industrial and agriculture usage, later being intricately linked to food nutrition and environmental security of the nation. Most human activities whether domestic, agriculture or industrial have an impact on water making more and more of it unusable or polluted. Water pollution is contamination of natural bodes like rivers, lakes, oceans and ground water due to deposition and inflow of pollutants by natural and anthropogenic processes. This contamination occurs by direct and indirect discharge of waste water into water bodies from industrial or agricultural sectors without adequate treatment. Water contaminates may be organic (Detergent, food processing waste, petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, etc.) and inorganic (Acidic and chemical industrial discharge, lead, mercury, nitrate and phosphate fertilizers, ammonia in food waste, etc.) in nature. In general, water pollution is the buildup of one or more substance in water to such an extent that they cause problems for animals or humans. Water pollution could be either surface water pollution or ground water pollution. The major causes of water pollution are increased use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture.

Source of Water Pollution from Agricultural Soil

1. Nutrients:-Nutrients are chemicals, such

as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, sulfur, calcium, potassium, iron, manganese, boron, and cobalt etc. that are essential to the growth of living things. In terms of water quality, nutrients can be considered as pollutant when their concentrations are sufficient to allow excessive growth of aquatic plants, particularly algae. When nutrients stimulate the growth of algae, the attractiveness of the body of water for recreational uses, as a drinking water supply, and as a viable habitat for other living things can be adversely affected. Nutrient enrichment can lead to blooms of algae which eventually die and decompose. Their decomposition removes oxygen from the water, potentially leading to levels of DO that are insufficient to sustain normal life forms.

Major sources of both nitrogen and phosphorus include municipal wastewater discharges, runoff from animal feedlots, and chemical fertilizers. In addition, certain bacteria and blue-green algae can obtain nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. These life forms are usually abundant in lakes that have high rates of biological productivity, making the control of nitrogen in such lakes extremely difficult. Certain forms of acid rain can also contribute nitrogen to lakes. While there are several special sources of nitrogen, the only unusual source of phosphorus is from detergents. When phosphorus is the limiting nutrient in a lake that is experiencing an algal problem, it is especially important to limit the nearby use of phosphate in detergents. Not only is nitrogen capable of contributing to eutrophication problems, but when found in drinking water a particular form of it can pose a serious public health threat. Nitrogen in water is commonly found in the form of nitrate (NO

3), which is itself not

particularly dangerous. However, certain bacteria commonly found in the intestinal tract of infants can convert nitrates to highly toxic nitrites (NO

2).

Nitrites have a greater affinity for hemoglobin in the bloodstream than doe’s oxygen, and when they replace that needed oxygen a condition known as methemoglobinemia results. The resulting oxygen starvation causes a bluish discoloration of the infant; hence, it is commonly referred to as the -blue baby syndrome. In extreme cases the victim may die from suffocation.

2. Salts: - Water naturally accumulates a variety of dissolved solids, or salts, as it passes through soils



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

and rocks on its way to the sea. These salts typically include such cations as sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium, and anions such as chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate. Commonly used measure of salinity is the concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS). As a rough approximation, fresh water can be considered to be water with less than 1500 mg/L TDS; brackish waters may have TDS values up to 5000 mg/L; and, saline waters are those with concentrations above 5000 mg/L. Seawater contains 30000 – 34000 mg/L TDS. The concentration of dissolved solids is an important indicator of the usefulness of water for various applications. Drinking water, for example, has a recommended maximum contaminant level for TDS of 500 mg/L. Livestock can tolerate higher concentrations. Of greater importance, however, is the salt tolerance of crops. As the concentration of salts in irrigation water increases above 500mg/L, the need for careful water management to maintain crop yields becomes increasingly important. With sufficient drainage to keep salts from accumulating in the soil, up to 1500 mg/L TDS can be tolerated by most crops with little loss of yield but at concentrations above 2100 mg/L, water is generally unsuitable for irrigation except for the most salt tolerant of crops.

3. Pesticides: - The term pesticide is used to cover a range of chemicals that kill organisms that humans consider undesirable and includes the more specific categories of insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, and fungicides. There are three main groups of synthetic organic insecticides: organochlorines (also known as chlorinated hydrocarbons), organophosphates, and carbamates. In addition, a number of herbicides, including the chlorophenoxy compounds 2,4,5-T (which contains the impurity dioxin, which is one of the most potent toxins known) and 2,4-D are common water pollutants. The most well-known organ chlorine pesticide is DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) which has been widely used to control insects that carry diseases such as malaria, typhus, and plague. By contributing to the control of these diseases,

DDT is credited with saving literally millions of lives worldwide. In spite of its more recent reputation as a dangerous pesticide, in terms of human toxicity DDT is considered to be relatively safe. It was its impact on food chains, rather than human toxicity that led to its ban. Organochlorine pesticides, such as DDT, have two properties that cause them to be particularly disruptive to food chains. They are very persistent, which means they last a long time in the environment before being broken down into other substances, and they are quite soluble in lipids, which means they easily accumulate in fatty tissue. This phenomenon in which the concentration of a chemical increases at higher levels in the food chain is known as biomagnification orbioconcentration. Other widely used organochlorines included methoxychlor, chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfan, and kepone. Animal studies have shown dieldrin, heptachlor, and chlordane produce liver cancers, and aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin have been shown to cause birth defects in mice and hamsters. Given the ecosystem disruption, the toxicity, and the biological resistance to these pesticides that many insect species have developed, organochlorines have largely been replaced with organophosphates and carbamates. The organophosphates, such as parathion, malathion, diazinon, TEPP (tetraethyl pyrophosphate), and dimethoate, are effective against a wide range of insects and they are not persistent. However, they are much more toxic than the organochlorines that they have replaced. They are rapidly absorbed through the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract and hence, unless proper precautions are taken, they are very hazardous to those who use them. Humans exposed to excessive amounts have shown a range of symptoms including tremor, confusion, slurred speech, muscle twitching, and convulsions. Popular carbamate pesticides include propoxur, carbaryl, and aldicarb. Acute human exposure to carbamates has led to a range of symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, and in extreme cases, convulsions.

19946

36. sulphur transformation in submerged soilsHARSHA B. R.1, PRASHANTH D. V.2 AND POOJITHA K.3

1Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India2Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga, Karnataka, India3Department of Soil Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Sulphur/Sulfur � Sulfur (S) is an essential element for both plants

and animals.

� It is a constituent of proteins and other biological compounds which are involved in many metabolic processes.

� Plants require S for the synthesis of essential



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

amino acids and proteins, certain vitamins and co-enzymes, glucocide oils, structurally and physiologically important disulfide linkages and sulfhydryl groups, and activation of certain enzymes.

Sulfur in Agricultural Soils � Sulfur occurs as organic and inorganic forms,

with organic S accounting for more than 95% of the total S.

Forms of Organic S in Soils are:1. Hydriodic (HI) acid reducible S (Primarily ester

sulfates) (Major form in soil).2. C-bonded S (Mainly amino acids).3. Unidentified S (Res4. idual or inert).

Sulfur in Submerged Soils � Submergence of a soil creates unique chemical

and biological conditions which markedly affect S transformations.

Transformation Process is mainly by biological means which includes,3. Mineralization4. Immobilization5. Reduction of SO

46. Production of volatile S compounds7. Oxidation of elemental S and inorganic S

compounds.

Difference between aerated and submerged soil S transformation:

AeRAteD soILs sUBMeRGeD soILs 1. Oxidation of elemental sulfur, sulfides, and organic sulfur compounds to sulfate.

1. Reduction of SO42- to

sulfide

2. Reduction of SO42-

and incorporation of sulfur into plant and microbial tissues

2. Dissimilation of the amino acids, cysteine, cystine, and methionine to H2S, thiols, ammonia and fatty acids.

Sulphur Transformation � Methyl thiol has been found in submerged soils � Bad odour of putrefying blue-green algae

in reservoir has been attributed to dimethyl sulphide and methyl, butyl and isobutyl thiols.

� The main product of the anaerobic transformations of Sulfur is H2S and it derived largely by SO4-2 reduction.

� The H2S formed may react with Heavy metals to give insoluble sulfides

� H2S ACTS AS hydrogen donar to Purple and green S bacteria.

� H2S may be chemically or biologically oxidised at ANAEROBIC-AEROBIC boundary.

� The reduction of sulfate is brought by Desulfovibrio (Obligatory anaerobic bacteria)

which uses sulfate as their terminal electron acceptor

� pH should be 5.5 to 9.0 for more pronounced effect of bacteria.

Kinetics of Water Soluble S

Neutral and Alkaline soils

Initially high (upto 1500 ppm) later decreases (upto zero within 6 weeks) on submergence.

Acid soils � S Increases initially but slowly decreases. � The higher concentration observed in both the

soils is due to release of sorbed SO4-2 on clay and sesqui-oxides at lower pH.

� Sulfate reduction proceeds slowly in submerged acid sulfate soils, despite their strong acidity; lime accelerates reduction considerably.

� In submereged soils, sometimes H2S may be small in concentration and it is chemically undetectable due to its removal as insoluble sulfides, chiefly FeS.

� FeS may also be formed by the action of H2S on FePO4 (Sperber, 1958) and on crystalline Fe(III) oxides

� Finely precipitated iron sulfide is probably black hydrotroilite (FeS-nH2O)

� Hydrotroilite gradually changes to mackinawite and later to pyrites (FeS2).

Requirements for Pyrite Accumulation in Sediment are:1. Absence of oxygen2. Presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria3. Supply of SO

42-

4. Fresh organic matter and5. Sufficient iron to immobilize the H

2S produced.

These conditions are found in ideal combination in deltas and estuaries in the tropics. When these sediments or “mud clays” (which are neutral to alkaline in reaction) are drained and exposed to air, the pyrites are oxidized to basic ferric sulfate and H

2SO

4, giving acid sulfate soils or “catclays” with pH

values as low as 2.

Sulfate Reduction in Salt Affected Soils (On Submergence)

� Sulfate reduction can lead to the formation of a diametrically opposite type of soil-an alkali soil.

� Sodium sulfate present in arid soils may be converted to H2S and sodium bicarbonate during periods of waterlogging.

� This reaction decreases salinity (Ogata and Bower, 1965) and increases alkalinity.

Effects of Submergence on Sulfur Availability � Sulfur supply may become insufficient � Zinc and copper may be immobilized � H2S toxicity may arise in soils low in iron.



soIL

sC

Ien

Ce

Management

Atmost care has to be taken to reduce the formation

of H2S. No sulphur fertilizers has to be applied as soil

is rich with sulphur.

19961

37. Fertility Capability ClassificationPRASHANTH D. V.1*, HARSHA B. R.2 AND POOJITHA K.3

1*Ph.D. Scholar; Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAHS, Shivmogga,2Ph.D. Scholar; Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAS, Bengaluru,3 Ph.D. Scholar; Department of Agronomy, GKVK, UAS, Bengaluru*Corresponding Author email: [email protected].

Introduction

Technical system of grouping soils according to the kind of problems they present for agronomic management of their chemical and physical properties.

OR

Process of grouping land areas according to constraints to agricultural production

FCC includes both top soil and subsoil parameters which influences the plant growth

By Buol, Sanchez and co-workers (Buol, 1972; Buol et al., 1975, Sanchez et al., 1982) as a technical system for grouping soils according to the kind of problems they present for agronomic management of their chemical and physical properties.

What is need of FCC?

Problem soils have been defined as soils with inherent physical or chemical constraints to agricultural production.

In these soils degradation hazards are more severe and adequate soil management measures are more difficult or costly to apply.

Such soils, if improperly used or inadequately managed will degrade rapidly, sometimes irreversibly. As a result, the land itself might go out of production (Dent, 1990).

Categories of FCC

It consists of three categorical levels

Type1. Substrata type and2. 15 modifiers

Class designations from the three categorical levels are combined to form an FCC-unit.

1. Type (Topsoil texture)

The type refers to the texture of the top 20 cm or plough layer, whichever is shallower, and can take the values as sandy, loamy, clayey or organic.

Texture of plough-layer or surface 20 cm, whichever is shallower

1. S = sandy topsoils, loamy sands and sands (by

USDA definition)2. L = loamy topsoils (< 35% clay but not loamy

sand or sand)3. C = clayed topsoils (> 35% Clay)4. O= organic soils (> 30% O.M.)

2. Substrata type (Subsoil texture)

Used in a hard root restricting layer is encountered within 20-50 cm1. S =sandy subsoil2. L = loamy subsoil3. C = clayey subsoil4. R = rock or other hard root-restricting layer.

3. 15 Modifiers

Where more than one criterion is listed for each modifier, only one needs to be met. The criterion listed first is the most desirable one and should be used.

Gley: Soil saturated with water for >60 days in most years

Dry: Subsoil dry for >90 cumulative days per year within 20-60 cm depth

Low cation exchange capacity: CEC <7 meq/100 g soil by at pH 7, or CEC <10 meq/100 g at pH 8.2

Aluminium toxicity: >60% within 50 cm of the soil surface

Acid: 10-60% Al-saturation within 50 cm of soil surface

High P-fixation by ironX-ray amorphous: Indirect evidences of

allophone dominance soil in the clay fractionVertisol: Severe topsoil shrinking and swellingLow K reserves: <10% weatherable minerals

in silt and sand fraction within 50 cm of the soil.Basic reaction: Free CaC0

3 within 50 cm of

the soil surface (effervescence with HCl), or pH> 7.5Salinity: > 4 ds/m of electrical conductivity

of saturated extract at 25°C within 1 m of the soil surface

Natric: >15% Na-saturation of CEC within 50 cm of the soil surface

Cat clay: pH in 1:1 H20 is < 3.5 after drying

(Acid sulphate soils)



AG

RIC

ULt

UR

AL

CH

eM

IstR

Y

Gravelly soil: denotes 15-35% gravel or coarser (> 2 mm) particles by volume

Slope: where desirable place range in % slope (i.e., 0 – 15%, 15 – 30%, >30%).

How to write the FCC unit? � First letter: Type (Top soil texture) � Second letter: Substrata type (Sub soil texture) � Third and subsequent letters: Modifiers

Ex: C d v b (i-e., clayey, dry season, vertic, calcareous)

Conclusion

With the increasing population and decreasing availability of land for the practice of agriculture, the survival of the earth has become critical, the countries which are more likely to be affected, are the developing countries and by implication the local populace. Critical issues require radical steps. One of which, in this case, is the applicability of the Fertility

Capability Classification. Several classifications have been carried out in the past, however not many have been able to effectively connect with the indigenous smallholder farmer. This classification demonstrates the possibility of the FCC of being carried out in a localized small area as against larger areas such as whole countries and continents. It has also demonstrated the ability of determining the specifics as it pertains to the nutrient deficiencies of the soils in question. The results arrived at, is expected to pave a way forward in the formulation of fertilizers containing the deficient nutrients in the right proportions. The GIS served as a veritable tool in effectively carrying out this classification with the major advantage of being able to visualize the nutrient deficiencies of the soil in a spatial dimension. This study is of great importance and necessity, to focus on the land use in agriculture for the purpose of maintaining and sustainability and fertility of land. Plays the major role in overall soil health management.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY

19822

38. Understanding the Role of Paclobutrazol in AgricultureSOUMYA KUMAR SAHOO1*, AKANKHYA GURU2, AND SELUKASH PARIDA3

1Department of Plant Physiology, COA, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur2Department of Plant Physiology, IAS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi3Department of Plant Physiology, COA, OUATechnology, Bhubaneswar*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Plant growth regulators have a very significant role in growth, metabolism and development, which ultimately influence the productivity of plants. Any alternation in the plant’s hormonal level alters its yield; either increase or decrease in yield. In this context, plant growth retardant ‘paclobutrazol’ is possibly used to improve the yield and productivity of crops. Paclobutrazol (PBZ) is a synthetic chemical, which is a derivative of triazole that inhibits sterol and gibberellin biosynthesis. This versatile chemical substance restricts vegetative growth and induces flowering in many crops, increases drought tolerance ability of plants, increases root activity, cytokinin activity, and C: N ratio. Besides these, PBZ affects microbial population and dehydrogenase activity in soil. It is an environmentally stable compound in soil and water environments with a half-life of more than a year under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Chemical Structure and Physical Properties of Paclobutrazol

It consists of a trizole ring and benzene ring-chloro linked to a carbon chain open. IUPAC name of paclobutrazol is [2RS,3RS]-1-[4-chlorophenyl]-4,4-dimethyl-2-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl) pentan-3-ol.

TABLE 1: Physical properties of Paclobutrazol

Molecular weight 293 g.mol-1

Melting point 165-1660 CSolubility WaterPhysical state White crystalStability Stable under normal

conditionsSolubility in water 26 mg/L (200C)Density 1.19 g/cm3



AG

RIC

ULt

UR

AL

CH

eM

IstR

Y

Fig. 1: Chemical structure of Paclobutrazol

Mode of Action

Paclobutrazol inhibits gibberellin biosynthesis by inhibiting ent-kaurene oxidase, which is responsible for the conversion of ent-kaurene to ent-kaurenoic acid. As a result of this, cell elongation and internode extension is inhibited but cell division continues. Application of PBZ produces cells without elongation, as a result of which shoots with the same numbers of leaves and internodes are compressed into a shorter length.

Application Methods

Paclobutrazol (PBZ) can be absorbed by roots, stems and to a lesser extent by leaves. Therefore, it can be applied by (i) Foliar spray (ii) Soil drenching (iii) Bulb or Young plant dip.

Important Role of Paclobutrazol

Role in morphological changes � PBZ application significantly decreased plant

height as compared to control. Application of higher concentration of paclobutrazol causes severe dwarfism.

� Applications of PBZ in fruit crops reduce vegetative growth and promote flowering in apple, mango, grape etc.

� Soil application of paclobutrazol recorded a significant reduction in canopy volume of fruit crops.

Role in Physiological changes � The application of PBZ increases cytokinin

biosynthesis, chlorophyll content of leaves, photosynthesis.

� Black rice plants treated with either 25 or 50 ppm paclobutrazol have greener leaves compared to control and the leaves show late senescence.

� Paclobutrazol application induces increase in Ψw, due to enhanced root growth.

� PBZ treated mango trees increases N, Ca, Mn, Zn and B contents and decreases contents of P, K and Cu.

Role in Yield alternation � In cereals, increase in fertile tillers, spike, fertile

panicle or spikelet and in some cases mean grain weight has been noticed by the application of PBZ.

� Application of PBZ increases grain yield by alternating canopy coverage, slow senescence

of leaves and high dry matter accumulation in roots.

� The fruit set in delicious apple increases by the application of PBZ@ 1500 and 3000 ppm.

� Paclobutrazol application increases flowering in sweet cherry, plum, citrus and apple.

� It enhances dry matter production in avocado. � Alternate bearing in many fruit crops can be

overcome by the use of paclobutrazol.

Role in stress tolerance � It was found that root activity and root-

bleeding sap flow were significantly higher in paclobutrazol treated plants than control. The rate of root bleeding sap is correlated to active water absorption of the root system and reflects the physiological activity of root.

� It was reported that the use of paclobutrazol reduced the adverse effects of water-deficit stress by increasing antioxidative enzymes activities in many plants such as groundnut, sesame seeds, mangos and tomatoes.

� It was noticed that the application of PBZ@200 ppm paclobutrazol spray to submerged rice seedlings resulted in a 50% increased survival in over control.

� The report revealed that application PBZ under water stress conditions increases proline content by many folds in many field and vegetable crops.

Disadvantages � It reduces the thickness of the xylem of plants. � It inhibits water and nutrient uptake.

Future Prospects

It is found that paclobutrazol has greater importance in field crops, fruits and vegetable production. Many studies have only focussed on the physiological, morphological and biochemical response of crops to paclobutrazol application whereas there is limited study on the soil residual impact for the next crops. As paclobutrazol is relatively immobile in soil and bound mainly by organic matter, thus needs further investigations. Although several studies revealed that chlorophyll content of plants increased due to paclobutrazol application but still the mechanism of paclobutrazol effect on chlorophyll content is unclear. A number of studies showed that paclobutrazol application increases free proline content but still a clarification is required. Therefore, further study is needed to increase our understanding of the effects of paclobutrazol.

Bibliography

Tesfahun, W. (2018). A review on: Response of crops to paclobutrazol application. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4(1).



AG

RIC

ULt

UR

AL

CH

eM

IstR

Y

19825

39. Pesticide Residue: An overviewSARASWATI MAHATO1* AND BHABANI MAHANKUDA2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur-584104, Karnataka2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar-263145, Uttarakhand*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Definition of Pesticide Residue (FAO)

Substance(s) which remains in or on a feed or food commodity, soil, air or water following use of a pesticide.

For regulatory purposes, it includes the parent compound and any specified derivatives, such as degradation and conversion products, metabolites and impurities considered to be of toxicological significance.

Types of Pesticide Residue � Surface or Effective Residues: The portion of

the pesticides left from the initial deposit. � Dislodgeable Residues: Readily removable, and

may be used as an index for risk to farm workers � Penetrated Residue: The surface residue

becomes penetrated residue by migrating into the sub-strata.

� Terminal Residue: Breakdown products which are stable and create as many problems as the original compound.

� Conjugated Residue: The products of secondary metabolism due to the reaction of pesticides or its metabolites with endogenous substrates.

� Bound Residue: Chemical species in soil, plant or animal tissues originating from pesticide usage that cannot be extracted by the methods commonly used in the analysis.

Reason/Cause of Presence � Extensive use pesticides in agriculture � More than 1000 different active substances are

used � Most of them are persistent in nature � Sometimes not applied in accordance with

intended purpose � Not observing Good Agricultural Practices

(GAP) � Lack of trained manpower in residue monitoring

/analysis across the country.

Cause of Concern

Pesticides are inherently toxic molecules

Significance � The nature and level of residues present � Their toxicology

Pesticide Residue Analysis

Pesticide residue analysis may be defined as qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples drawn from agricultural fields, market and environment for pesticides and their toxic metabolites.

Scope of Pesticide Residue Analysis1. To study the Persistence of pesticide in biotic

and abiotic components of the environment.2. To establish maximum residue limits (MRLs)

of pesticides by conducting field trails, adopting good agricultural practices (GAP) in conjunction with the data obtained from toxicological studies.

3. To study the frequency and magnitude of pesticide residue in biotic and abiotic components of the environment.

4. To establish safe waiting periods or pre-harvest interval (PHIs) on the basis of multilocation trails.

5. To monitor environmental samples for pesticide residue.

6. To conduct survey of food and feed commodities on the basis of which dietary intake of pesticides can be predicted.

7. To screen agricultural produce drawn from farmers’ fields to judge the pesticide usage pattern, safe and judicious use of pesticides.

8. To screen various methods for effective decontamination of pesticide residues.

Different management practices to reduce the problem of pesticide residue1. Use of pesticides at recommended dose and

time.2. Use of pesticides only when necessary.3. Use of less persistent pesticides.4. Use of biopesticides to be encouraged.5. Follow the recommended waiting period while

harvesting the crop.6. Harvest the ripe fruits and vegetables before

pesticide application.7. Thorough washing with tap water helps in

reducing pesticide residues on produce.8. Prefer non chemical methods of pest control.9. Educate and train the farmers and extension

workers in proper handling and safe use of



AG

Ro

CH

eM

ICA

Ls

pesticides.10. Educate the farmers to adopt Good Agricultural

Practices (GAP).

11. The dumping of industrial effluents in river and canals should be avoided

12. The regulatory Procedures be strictly enforced.

AGROCHEMICALS

19861

40. Constraints of Green PesticidesANIRBAN SIL

Division of Agricultural Chemicals, ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute

Pesticides are the chemicals that are used to control or prevent the pests like insects, weeds, fungus, pathogens, vectors etc. that may cause serious injury to our utmost livelihood material, crops. Pesticides were synthetically start producing since the era of green revolution to enhance the productivity of crops by effectively controlling the major pests. But the farmers became so attached to the use of this fast, effective pest killers that excessive use generated huge environmental and ecological risk. Therefore, people started believing in ecological revitalization and started using naturally originated pesticides called green pesticides.

What Actually Green Pesticide is?

Green pesticides, also called ecological pesticides are referred as nature-oriented and beneficial pest control matters that can significantly reduce the pest population below threshold level and also besides being safe and eco-friendly, they can also enhance the food production. (Isman and Machial. 2006). Plants may contain several secondary metabolites like flavonoids. alkaloids, saponins, sterols, quinones, tannins, essential oils etc. Such products which are plant derived have been endowed with different biological properties and those properties can direct this product for effective control of pests.

Why Green Pesticides?

Green concept on pesticides came due to ever increasing ecological and environmental pollution, runoff, acid rain depositions, high mammalian toxicity, neurotoxicity and genotoxicity, high level of persistence of synthetic pesticides, pest resistance and resurgence due to overuse of synthetic pesticides. Plant products are not only safe to non-target organisms and environment but also they can possess very less amount residue due to their volatile nature.

Some Green Pesticides

Essential oils are the majorly used as insecticides like oils of canola, eucalyptus, anise, cedarwood, citronella (domestic insect), menthol, camphor, neem oil etc. Neem has excellent antifeedant,

repellent, oviposition inhibition effect. Tobacco is also a sole source of antiviral, insecticidal effect. Rotenone from Deris sp., mineral oils having ovicidal effects. Some of the biopesticide formulations like Neem Aura, Skinsations (DEET, Spectrum Crop.,), Natrapel (citronella 10%, Tender Crop., Repels (Lemon eucalyptus insect repellent lotion)., Mosquito safe (Geraniol 25%, aloe vera 1%, mineral oil 74%), Neem based like Nimbicidines etc. Apart from this different plants are tested and their plant parts being extracted at par for formulating different green pesticides.

Constraints of Green Pesticides

Now the question is that, can the green pesticides replace the entire spectrum of synthetic and conventional pesticides? The answer lies in considering the cons of green pesticides usage in field level as well as in storage levels.

� Synthesis and Identification: Most natural products are complex mixtures of different structures. Firstly, separation of the complex mixtures using normal chromatographic techniques and identifying using spectroscopic techniques are too much tedious work. These are very difficult to synthesize and also formulating the active ingredient and maintaining the proper particle size with optimum thermodynamic stability is a major concern.

� Cost: The cost involved in the manufacturing of these intricate substances are too much higher than a mere chemical reaction involved in the synthesis of conventional pesticides.

� Plant factors: Again plants may be of different origins and their chemical profiling is entirely dependent on the geographical, seasonal, genetic, climate annual factors. So to get consistent performance, the pesticide manufacturers have to take additional steps and many of the industries are not willing to produce such high cost product without any market potential.

� Instability of a.i.: The active ingredients of botanical origin are generally aqueous solutions and therefore liable to be decomposed under



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

sunlight and also microbes. Sufficient quantity of plant materials is difficult to obtain and standardization of these complex compositions are also much difficult to handle.

� Slow and Steady: The slow acting nature and comparatively less efficacy of most of the botanical pesticides are one of the major problems, since the farmers think that the pesticides applied are not working. Farmers are more interested in knockdown effect rather than the slow actions.

� Farmers aspect: Moreover, farmers cannot handle such large number of spraying schedules and their short residual period of action added an extra disadvantage to be accepted by farmers. The amount needed for control is also very high.

� Regulatory issues: If all the issues regarding the product formulation and all have met, then comes the regulatory approval by the governing body. This regulatory approval works as a major commercialization barrier and plant based products continues to suffer until this system are adjusted to accommodate for the betterment of the products.

� Toxic effects: Again some natural pesticides are considered to have more toxicity than the synthetic agrochemicals like arsenic, nicotine (the major alkaloid of tobacco) have high mammalian toxicity. Pyrethrin obtained from chrysanthemum can cause neurotoxicity and certain hepatotoxicity. Neem derived azadirachtin can cause some renal dysfunctioning. Neem extract was evaluated

for cytogenetic in murine germ cells thereby inducing genotoxic effects.

� Some of the essential oils like eugenol, menthol, carvacrol, linalool (Moderately hazardous to slightly hazardous) have also considered to cause oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, genotoxic damage to rats.

Conclusion

In spite of all these constraints, there does not exist any such alternative to reduce the high levels of environmental pollution as can be done using green pesticides. But Green or Natural does not merely mean that the compounds are safe. So, to replace the conventional pesticide completely, efficacy should be enhanced, cost reduction with proper standardization of product spectrum and efficient regulatory approval of natural or green pesticides should be implemented.

References

Isman MB, Machial CM. Pesticides based on plant essential oils: from traditional practice to commercialization. Advances in phytomedicine. 2006 Jan 1;3:29-44.

Koul O, Walia S, Dhaliwal GS. Essential oils as green pesticides: potential and constraints. Biopesticides International. 2008 Jan 1;4(1):63-84.

Parkash, A., Rao, J., Nandagopal, V. (2008). Future of botanical pesticides in rice, wheat, pulses and vegetable pest manasgement. Journal of Biopesticides. 1: 154-169

HORTICULTURE

19823

41. Propagating Methods of tamarindJAGATI YADAGIRI

SRF, ICAR-CRIDA, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad

Tamarind is a hardy tree, distributed throughout the plains and sub Himalayan tracts of India and is valued for its edible fruits and wood. The fruit pulp is the main commercial product, and is used as a spice in India for culinary purposes.

Tamarind is an easy to grow tree and requires minimal care. Tamarind can be grown on homes, plantations and wastelands, or as a tree in the forest. Plant suitable for marginal lands, where other crop production may be limited by rainfall and poor soil. It is a hardy crop that prefers warm weather. The trees are immune to drought but vulnerable to frost. It is grown in India primarily in Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. India is the world’s largest tamarind

producer and the only commercial tamarind grower in the world.

Propagation Methods

There are two types of tamarind propagation: seed propagation and vegetative propagation.1. Seed Propagation: This includes seed

selection, planning and subsequent planting. The method is very straightforward, however, it is not possible to guarantee the consistency of the new offspring (not true-to-type) and the time taken for the tree to reach bearing age is usually longer than for trees propagated by vegetative means.



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

2. Vegetative propagation: It may be performed using various methods such as cutting, budding, grafting, and layering. Vegetative propagation involves the growth of the new tree from a shooting, buding or cutting of a mature, high-quality tree with the desirable properties. This ensures the new tree, i.e., offspring is true-to-type.

Seed Propagation

Seed extraction from the pulp

Fully formed ripened pods should be picked, showing no damage or disease. The mature pods are dried 5-7 days in sun, turning periodically. The pods should be split when the fruit is dry to remove the pulp from the pod shell and the seed removed by land kneading and or washing it in water. To remove any pulp, the seeds should be washed, and dried in the shade for two days. The seeds can then be stored in a cool shady place away from rats, mice and insects in sealed jars, storage time depends on the seed condition and how well it was cleaned and dried.

Seed pre-treatments

The percentage of seed germination can be increased by treating the seed before planting, which also reduces the germination time. Tamarind seeds can be treated as follows:1. Soaking in clean water for 24 hours (germination

is 80%)2. Cutting/ scarification (germination 85%)3. Both scarification and soaking in water for 24

hours (germination 92%)For raising seeding 2-2.5 kg/ha seed is required

while for direct sowing 20 kg/ha seed is sufficient.

Planting and Germination

Tamarind seeds are to be sown in well prepared rows, boxes or pots at distances of 2-3 cm apart. One seed should be placed in a 1-2 cm hole, covered with compost and watered. Seed germinates in 5-10 days but may take up to one month to see the shoots above the ground. When the seedling has reached 30-40 cm height it can be transplanted to the main field.

Vegetative Propagation

1. Stem cutting

It’s the easiest and cheapest way. Stem cuttings have three types:1. Softwood cuttings: New shoots roughly 15

cm tall, flexible and green.2. Semi hardwood cuttings: Young shoots

about 18-20 cm tall under a year old with wood evident.

3. Hardwood cuttings: Older shoots all wood, and usually not tried because of poor rooting.They must collect all cuttings in the morning.

Leaves in all cuttings are removed from the bottom

nodes, and a clean cut is given at a 45-degree angle at the base. Softwood cuttings are more effective in rooting than semi hardwood cuttings especially when they come from terminal shoots with new leaf flushes. Terminal cuttings have an advantage over mid stem cuttings because when the risk of infection is that, there is only one cut end. The cutting should be dipped into a rooting hormone to maximize rooting

2. Bud Grafting

A patch of a budded bark from a good quality tree is taken from it. A similar size bark patch is removed from a 6-9-month old superior tree. The bud is then placed into the rootstock and tightly secured to hold it in place with a polyethylene or specially prepared budding tape. In tamarind bud grafting, Pathak et al (1992) reported more than 90 per cent success.

3. Cleft Grafting

Cleft grafting may also be used in tamarind. The method requires two plants which are self-sustaining, the rootstock and the superior plant. The rootstock plant’s vegetative portion should be removed with the budding knife, using a 20-30 cm horizontal cut above ground level. Therefore, a vertical cut of 4-5 cm should be made into the stem cross section. A Scion should be selected with a similar diameter (approx.1-2 cm), and the wedge-shaped cut at the base of the scion should be given at an angle of 45 degrees. The wedge-shaped cut shall then be inserted into the rootstock’s vertical cut. The goal is to provide a good point of contact to enable grafting for the rootstock and the scion.

4. Approach Grafting

It is a successful propagation tool with performance of 52-88 per cent. This method also includes two self-sustaining plants, one being rootstock, which must be vigorous and robust to provide the new plant with excellent anchorage and the other being the superior plant with the desirable characteristics needed by the grower.

A small section of the bark (approx. 5-6 cm in length and 1-2 cm in width depending on the stem size) should be removed from both the rootstock and the upper tree, using a budding knife at the same level. The bark area should be deep just to expose the stem’s inner tissue and allow close tissue contact between the plants. Afterwards, the union between the two is tightly connected and waxed using a grafting tape. The wax prevents water from entering the wound which could lead to rooting. The wax will also increase the temperature and humidity around the union which will aid in the healing process of the graft. In shoot grafting, the healing process is usually longer than bud grafting, and may take more than a month. Once the union is complete, the rootstock plant should be served above the union of the graft, and the base of the above plant behind the graft is severed. The grafted tree is now receiving nutrients from the soil using the rootstock plant’s root systems.



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

5. Air Layering

A young branch should be selected and can be given the bark removed from an area of about 2-3 cm or a small cut, which reduces the circulation of the sap and encourages rooting. The region should be covered with soil mixture or root material such as coir fiber dust, watered and kept in place by wrapping with clear polythene film. The plastic at both ends should be tightly tight to retain moisture and to facilitate rooting. To hold the rooting area moist. The growing roots are observed through the polythene film after approximately 2-3 months. Branch can be removed about 5 cm below the rooting area at this point and potted for later field establishment. Leaving the new plant in a pot for 6-12 months is best to allow the

roots to develop themselves well before replanting in the field. To promote shoot rooting, IBA rooting hormone @ 1000ppm can be added to the initial cut; this can reduce the rooting time from 12 to 6-8 weeks. June-July is the ideal season for performing the process.

Micro Propagation

Micro-propagation in a short time tends to be a promising solution to large-scale multiplication of elite types Shoot tips excised from regenerated seedlings grown in vitro into plantlets. The shoot tips formed roots on MS + IAA around the cut ends, and increased their number at higher concentrations (2 and 5 mg / lit). The successful transfer of regenerated plantlets can be achieved in vitro.

19864

42. Biosensors for Fruit Crop ProductionAYUSH K SHARMA AND S P S SOLANKI

Department of Fruit Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Biosensors are analytical devices that convert a biological response into an electrical signal (Mehrotra 2016). It is cheaper as compare to present detection technologies; also these sensors are more specific and have broad range of linear responses. Biosensors are also more useful due to their small sizes which make it more portable and efficient at field condition. Biosensors have high selectivity towards targeted molecules, and provide fast response on the digital screen. But due to more complexity of cell organelle content and enzyme present in cell the selectivity of receptor may get affected so regular check and standardisation become more essential. The synthesized biosensor should not be affected with varied pH and temperature, which can affect the selectivity of receptors. Biosensors are used because they provide rapid, real time, accurate and reliable data about analytes.

Working of Biosensors

It is made up of components like bio receptors, transducer and signal processing systems; bio-receptors are specific for analyte which we have to programme. In which bioreceptor accept the signal from the analyte and it is transfer in to electrical information through transducer and which is further processed by signalling system.

Types of Biosensors

Biosensors are classified on the basis of component like bioreceptor which are of different types viz. Enzyme base, immune based (antigen and antibody), nucleic acid based (DNAs and RNAs), cell organelle, biomimetic based etc. and transducer which is of

electo-chemical, pierzo electric, calori metric and optical type.

Application of Biosensors in Fruit Crop

In fruit crop components like antioxidents, phenolic compounds (PCs), vitamin, enzymes like carotene, anthocyanin, PGRs like ethylene, GA

3, and TSS

changes as it progresses towards ripening. In recent study it is found that phenolic compounds had the antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic activity, so it is essential to study the chemical behaviour of phenolic compounds present in the fruit plants. Ozcan and Sagiroglu (2010) demonstrated the use of novel amperometric biosensors based on banana peel tissue homogenate for determination of phenolic compounds, in this study it has shown that this biosensoris able to detect the 13 PCs viz. caffeic acid, pyrogallol, cinnamic acid, hydroquinone, catechol, p-cresol, ascorbic acid, gallic acid, resorcin, phenol, rutin, quercetin and L-dopa. It is also demonstrated that it is more reliable and rapid than the conventional methods like it takes only 10-12 min to detect the all PCs present in tissue homogenate.

As the fruit crops are perishable and having low post harvest life, fruit crops like citrus has been attacked by fungus and bacteria and deteriorates the fruit quality. The fungus like green mould (Penicillium digitatum) cause major post-harvest losses in fruit storage. Chalupowicz et al (2020) developed whole cell based biosensor based on bacteria’s luminescent responses to changes in volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and in this study the differences of VOCs in infected and non-infected fruit were monitored by GC-MS were



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

studied on oranges. It is found that this biosensor shows the signal in very early step of infection. It shows bioreceptor strain where it allows detecting the after three day’s infection only, prior the visible symptoms. This significant study can reduce the post-harvest losses in the oranges by using of such biosensors which can signal the probable infection in very early stage, where it is manageable and can be stop from infection.

Such type of bioreceptor can change the current situation of fruit production and post-harvest loss management, by applying biosensors for detection of plant health, biotic and abiotic stress, disease attack and post-harvest deterioration of fruit crops can be checked. As this method are significant than previous methods used for detection of different analytes, it has wider scope for application.

References

Chaumpluk P and Chaiprasart P (2010) Fluorescence

biosensor based on N-(2-Aminoethyl) glycine peptide nucleic acid for a simple and rapid detection of Escherichia coli in fresh-cut mango. In IX International Mango Symposium 992 (pp. 551-560).

Chalupowicz D, Veltman B, Droby S, and Eltzov E (2020) Evaluating the use of biosensors for monitoring of Penicillium digitatum infection in citrus fruit. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 127896.

Mehrotra P (2016) Biosensors and their applications–A review. Journal of oral biology and craniofacial research, 6(2), 153-159.

Ozcan H M and Sagiroglu A (2010) A novel amperometric biosensor based on banana peel (Musa cavendish) tissue homogenate for determination of phenolic compounds. Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes, and Biotechnology, 38(4), 208-214.

19868

43. Cucumber: Major Vegetable as salad in IndiaMEERA CHOUDHARY, LALITA LAKHRAN AND GARIMA VAISHNAV

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, SKN College of Agriculture (SKNAU), Jobner-303-329, Jaipur, India*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Cucumber: Major Vegetable as Salad in India

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) also known as “Kheera” in Hindi. It is a popular and widely cultivated summer vegetable in India. It belongs to family Cucurbitaceae. It is one of the important vegetable crops which supply edible product and fiber. Cucumber is used as salad or as vegetable and as desert fruit specially in Rajasthan. In India cucumber is widely grown in Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra commonly towards the riversides. The state of Rajasthan provides the maximum potential for the production of cucumber because of its agro-climatic conditions are best suited for their growth and yield. According to De Candole (1967) cucumber is an indigenous vegetable of India. Pursglove (1967) has suggested that all cultigens (Cucumis sativus) originated from northern India where the related Cucumis hardwicki Royle occurs as wild, although this might be a “weedy” form of Cucumis sativus, which has escaped cultivation. Cucumber has been cultivated in India for at least three thousand years (Rai and Yadav,2005).

Besides the cucumber other important cucurbitaceous crops are Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris Schard), muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.), pumpkin (Cucurbita maschata Duch), summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L.), ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula L.), sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrical

Roem), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria (Mol) Standl) and bittergourd (Momordica charantia L.) etc.

“Kheera” is eaten raw with salt and pepper or as salad with onion and tomato. The pulp of the fruit is used in making mask cakes. The fruit is said to have cooling effect and prevent constipation and is useful in checking jaundice. Cucumber is rich in vitamin B and C as well as in minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron and potassium.

The nutritive value of cucumber per 100 gm of edible portion is given below.

TABLE: 1

Moisture 96.3gmProtein 0.4gmFat 0.1gmMinerals 0.3gmFiber 0.4gmCarbohydrate 2.5gmCalcium 10mgPhosphorus 25mgIron 1.5mgThiamine 0.03mgNiacin 0.2mgVitamin-c 7mgEnergy 13 K Cal



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

It is a warm season crop but it is also grown in summer and rainy season. It requires 18 c minimum temperature for seed germination and 20-30 c for growth and development of plant. It requires sandy to loam soil for early and good crop. Cucumber becomes ready for harvesting in about 60-70 days after sowing. However, a number of fungal diseases which have been reported to cause heavy losses to the crop are given in table 2.

TABLE: 2

s.no. Disease Causal organism1 Anthracnose Colletotrichum

lagenarium

s.no. Disease Causal organism2 Powdery

mildewErysiphe cichoracearum DcSpaerotheca fuligenea (Schl.) Poll.

3 Downy mildew

Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. and Curt.) Rost.

4 Wilt Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum (Owen)Synder and Hansen

5 Leaf blight Alternaria cucumerina (Ellis and Everhart) Elliott

6 Leaf spot Alternaria alternate7 Damping off Pythium aphanidermatum

(Edson) Fits

19887

44. Crop Modelling in HorticultureREETIKA1*, RAKESH KUMAR2 AND SANJAY KUMAR3

Research Scholar, 1*Department of Horticulture; 2Department of Soil Science; 3Department of Agronomy; CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

A model is defined as a ‘schematic representation of the system’ by De Wit (1970). A comprehensive approach to modelling crop growth and development includes interaction with soils, climate, pests, diseases and weeds and overall agricultural production systems. Models provide quantitative information from which decisions, such as crop timing, irrigation, fertilization, crop protection and climate control can be taken at the field scale. Crop modelling has both scientific and operational value. Progress in crop modelling may be different in horticulture than any other production systems. A rich source of information has been the activity of three working groups of International Society for Horticulture Science namely, the ‘PC modelling in fruit research and orchard management’ group, the ‘Modelling plant growth, ecological control and green-house condition’ gathering, and the ‘Timing field creation of vegetables’ assembly.

Planners, economists and researchers have always been interested in finding out ways and means to estimate crop yields in advance to the extent possible. With this goal a few regression models have been created by numerous specialists to anticipate the relationship with agricultural productivity and its segments. An all-around tried model can be viable logical instrument for customized presentation of new innovations, working out alternative crop production methodologies, give answers to the ‘Imagine a scenario in which’ questions raised by innovation adopters, to identify problems and prioritize research, to optimize precise resources by reducing the number of field experiments, to assist in policy and strategy applications, for environmental characterization and agro-ecological zoning, for

looking for new spaces and as an exceptionally successful educating help.

The PEACH model utilized by the degree-day (DD) accumulation to predict the harvest date. The amended model uses the everyday least and most extreme temperatures to compute the GDH accumulation during the first month of fruit growth and evaluations the quantity of growing days for the particular year and cultivar. The GDH connection improves the model expectation of the collect date and at the same time improves the capacity of the PEACH model to anticipate the yield (Mimoun and De Jong, 2006).

The warmth prerequisites for blossoming extended somewhere in the range of 4078 and 5879 developing degree hours (GDH). The apricot cultivars demonstrated significant contrasts concerning flowering date and the outcomes show a high positive connection between chilling requirements and flowering date and as well as negative correlation between chilling requirement for breaking of dormancy and heat requirements for flowering. The results obtained in different years by the Utah and dynamic models are more homogenous with respect to the hours below 7C model (Ruiz et al., 2007).

Info Crop-coconut model satisfactorily stimulates coconut DM production, partitioning and nut yield. It is also useful for assessing potential yields of coconut in different agro-climatic zones. The model can stimulate multi-location trials providing an alternative to genetic and agronomic experiments and thereby reducing the need for long-term studies. Model simulations can be employed as a tool for management, agro-ecological zoning and



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

coconut yield forecasting. The model will be made available to interested research and management groups (Kumar et al., 2008).

Accurate non-destructive leaf area estimation is a helpful subject of study for the field of applied plant science, physiology and plant genetic engineering. The connection between leaf area and fruit is very significant in fruit crops. It decides the nut size and nut filling potential. The linear model with the LW as an independent variable (LA= 1.11 + 0.69LW) with precise estimation (maximum R2= 0.99 and lowest MSE= 10.09) was the best model created dependent on linear measurements for example, leaflet length and width in mix with other basic parameters (Keramatloua et al., 2015).

References

De Wit, C.T., 1970. Dynamic concepts in biology. In: Setlik, I. (Ed.), Prediction and Measurement of Photosynthetic Activity. Pudoc, Wageningen, pp.

17-23.Keramatloua, I., Sharifanib, M., Sabouric, H.,

Alizadeha, M. and Kamkard, B., 2015. A simple linear model for leaf area estimation in Persian wallet (Juglans regia L.). Scientia Horticulturae, 184:36-39.

Kumar, N.S., Kasthuribai, K.V., Rajagopal, V. and Aggarwal, P.K., 2008. Simulating coconut growth, development and yield with the InfoCrop-coconut model. Tree physiology, 28:1049-1058. Herone Publishing- Victoria, Canada.

Mimoun, M.B. and Dejong, T.M., 2006. Using the relation between growing degree hours and harvest date to estimate run-times for PEACH: a tree growth and yield simulation model. Department of Pomology, University of California, USA.

Ruiz, D., Campoy, J.S. and Egea, J., 2007. Chilling and heat requirement of apricot cultivars for flowering. Scientia Horticulturae, 61: 254-263.

19917

45. Application of Plant Growth substances for Checking Flower and Fruit Drop and Improving Fruit set in CucurbitsDR. MORE S. G.1, DR. SAWANT G. B.2AND DR. GOPAL G. R.3

1Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, 2&3Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Botany, Aditya Agriculture College, Beed (MH)

What is Plant Growth regulator?

A growth regulator is a organic compound occurring naturally in plant as well as synthesize other than

nutrient which in small amount promote & inhibit or modify one physiological process in the plant is known as plant growth regulators.

Classification of Plant growth regulator

Auxin - NAA, IAA, IBA Abscisic Acid - ABA, Phaseic acid,Gibberellins - GA3 Flowering Harmone - Florigene, Anthesin, Vernalin. Cytokines - Kinetin, Zeatin Oligosaccharides - Complex PolysaccharidesEthylene - Ethylene, Ethrel Growth Inhibitors - MH, APO, CIPC, Phenolic - Cumarin Growth Retardant - 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, CCC,

Cucurbitaceae is an enormous family, which excludes numerous cost-effective species such as melon, watermelons, various gourds and pumpkins that are of individual importance for the inhabitants of India. Many cucurbitaceous species are consumed in several different forms, as seeds, leaves, fruits and sometimes flowers, by villagers throughout India.

Checking Flower and Fruit Drop and Improving Fruit Set.1. Causes of flower and fruit Drop2. Blossom drop can be attributed to numerous

causes3. Most often associated to either temperature or

stress.4. Temperature Too High or Too Low5. Lack of Pollination6. Humidity Too High or Low Humidity.7. Lack of water8. Stress from insect damage or disease9. Too Heavy Fruit Set

Controlling Flower and Fruit Drop

For controlling flower and fruit drop by growing of varieties which one suited in climate. The most frequent cause of blossom drop is due to the temperature (High temperatures above 30°c and Low temperatures below 10°c). Grow best if daytime



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

temperatures range between 21°c and 29°c. While plants can tolerate more extreme temperatures for short periods, several days or nights with temps outside the ideal temperature range will cause the plant to abort fruit set and focus on survival. Temperatures over 40°C for only four hours can cause the flowers to abort. In cooler climates should not rush to get their cucurbits planted in the spring. Wait until night time temperatures are reliably above 13°C or protect them with a cover at night. It gains any advantage by setting them out too early. Choose early maturing varieties for spring growing in cooler climates. Select heat a heat-tolerant variety for areas with long periods of hot or humid weather. High night time temps are even inferior to high daytime temperatures because plant never gets to rest.

Ensure Pollination � Cucurbits need some help to pollinate. � Insects, wind or hand shaking of the flowers is

required to transfer the pollen from the anthers to the stigma.

� During extreme climate, there are often no insect pollinators. In green houses vibrate are used for pollination.

Humidity

The best humidity range is between 40 - 70%. If humidity is either too high or too low, it interferes with the release of pollen and with pollen competency to stick the stigma. As a result, pollination will not occur. If humidity is too low, hose the foliage for the period of the day. This will both cool the plant and increase the humidity. It is not recommended in areas with high humidity or when fungus diseases are present. Growers in high humidity areas should look for varieties that are bothered by humidity.

Fruit-Set

Poor fruit set is a main problem in cucurbits which is commonly caused by adverse environments during flowering. Plant growth regulators reported to increase fruit set under both normal and adverse environments. In fruit set can be induced by treatment with growth regulators to improve the yield substantially exogenous application of 2, 4-d to plants can substantially influence the changes

in de-carboxylase during parthenocarpic fruit growth resulting in increased fruit set and yield. The application of 2, 4- D also decreased low temperature induced malformation thus improved quality and yield.

Cucumbers, Melon, Pumpkins and Squash

These are all vine crops and they usually have both male and female blossoms on the same plant. Exemptions are all-female blossom of cucumber hybrid cultivars. First blossoms that open on the plant are usually male. The Female blossoms appear later and further out on the vine and male blossoms have a thin straight stem. Female blossoms are larger have a small, undeveloped fruit at their base. The female blossoms pollinated by male blossoms. If you have plenty of blossoms, but little or no fruit is developing, you probably have poor pollination. Then pollinate through hand pollination in vine crops. Fruit set to occurs when pollen transfer from male flower to the female flower. Wind-blown pollination does not occur when pollen is sticky. When bees are unapproachable, fruit set on plants in the pollination resulting in misshapen fruit and low yield. The substitute for bee pollination is hand pollination it done by when bee population is too low for good fruit set it is a tedious chore, it means fruit set obtaining in the absence of bees. The pollen is yellow in color and produced on the structure in the center from either of the parents of the male flower. Use a small paintbrush to transfer pollen, or break off a male flower and remove its petals to expose the pollen-bearing structure and roll pollen on stigma in the center of the female flower. When pollination done by hand it is important to use only freshly opened flowers. Flowers are open early morning and are receptive for only one day. The female flower in cucurbits vegetables recognized definitely by the presence of a miniature fruit (ovary) at base of flower. Female squash flowers are much larger than female flowers on melon and cucumber plants. The male squash flower is identified by its long, slender stem. Female flower of squash is borne on a very short stem. In melons and cucumbers, the male flowers are short stems and borne in clusters of three to five, while the females are borne singly on longer stems.



Ho

RtI

CU

LtU

Re

19932

46. Biofortification of Fruit Crops through Biotechnological ApproachNAVEEN KUMAR MAURYA1*, NIDHI TYAGI2 AND PRAVEEN KUMAR MAURYA3

1*Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa- 110012, New Delhi2Department of Vegetable Science, Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan-173230, Himachal Pradesh, India3Department of Vegetable Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur-741252, West Bengal, India*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

About 800 million people suffer from hunger, but even more suffer from micronutrient malnutrition, also called “hidden hunger”, particularly in the developing countries. Iodine, vitamin A, iron, and zinc malnutrition are major concerns. The malnutrition of minerals (Fe, Zn) and vitamin A are major food-related primary health problem among populations of the developing world including India, where there is a heavy dependence on cereal-based diets and limited access to fruits. One such approach to combat the issue of micronutrient malnutrition is through biofortification, a process of breeding nutrients into food crops which provides a comparatively cost-effective, sustainable, and long-term means of delivering more micronutrients to rural populations in developing countries. Currently, agronomic, conventional, and transgenic biofortification are three common approaches. Agronomic biofortification can endow with temporary micronutrient increases through fertilizers. Parent lines with high vitamin or mineral levels can be crossed over several generations to produce plants that have the desired nutrients in conventional plant breeding. Fruits not only retain aesthetic, medicinal and commercial values but also are rich source of nutrients (Karanjalker and Begane, 2016). In recent years, breeding objectives in fruit crops has shifted to increase quality standards, in particular nutritional and nutraceutical value. Therefore, there is need to pay on fruit quality improvement and increasing the content of various nutrients (vitamins, essential amino acids, flavonoids, lycopene, etc.) through deployment of biotechnology and by genetic manipulation for satisfaction of consumer (Lim, 2008). Molecular and biotechnological approaches are attractive alternative to conventional genetic improvement. Though, the molecular approaches have proved to overcome some of the breeding problems in fruit trees. The survey of the germplasm pools is required to quantify the exploitable genetic variation that exists in the crop gene pool (Bohra et al., 2016). The biotechnology related work in case of fruit crops is very limited as compared to annuals (Pena and Seguin, 2001). Work related to elucidate

the genetic architecture of nutrient accumulation via QTL mapping to initiate biofortification in fruit crops are discussed hereunder:

Banana- a success story: Bananas are the world’s most important fruit crop. Fe’I type banana of Micronesia and Papua New Guinea have orange colored flesh indicated that this cultivar is rich source of provitamin A (>1500 ug b-carotene). Unfortunately, low male and female fertility between Fe’I (Musa troglodytarum L.) and other bananas conventional breeding is not amenable and practically impossible. Genetic engineering can address this problem. Using genetic engineering, Paul et al. (2017) generated PVA-biofortified transgenic Cavendish bananas to increase β-carotene equivalent (b-CE) in the fruit. Expression of a Fe’I banana-derived phytoene synthase 2a (MtPsy2a) gene led to an increase up to 55 ug/g dry weight basis b-CE. This work was carried out under Banana 21 project funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to combat micronutrient deficiency in Uganda.

Bananas fruits have only 0.44 mg of iron per 100 g of edible portion. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is developing iron biofortified banana for nutritional quality improvement. Incorporation of Vitamin A, fungal and viral disease resistance and other parameters of this genetically engineered banana plant have included.

Dissection of genome to identify genes associated with quality traits and can be exploited for biofortification in some major fruit crops

Citrus: To obtain genetic information on carotenoid content in Citrus fruit Sugiyama et al. (2011) performed quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis in a mapping (Okitsu-46 X Nou-5). Interval mapping demonstrated that QTLs for each carotenoid component were scattered to different locations on the linkage map. In β-cryptoxanthin, the strongest QTL (LOD 3.4) was detected on linkage group (LG) 6 of ‘Nou-5’, with 26.9% of phenotypic variance.

Apple: Khan et al. (2012) reported the cross of ‘Prima’×‘Fiesta’, mQTL hotspot for phenolic



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

compounds on linkage group 16 in apple. Linkage groups (LGs), LG1, LG8, LG13, and LG16, were found to contain mQTL hotspots, mainly regulating metabolites that belong to the phenylpropanoid pathway. Mellidou et al. (2014) reported markers for molecular breeding for fruit vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid, AsA) in apple. With SNP markers, four, stable QTL clusters, collectively explaining up to 60% of the total population variability in fruit AsA were identified on bottom of LG 11.

Peach: Phenolic compounds serve as a major source of potential antioxidants which are known to play a significant role in fruit quality and in human wellbeing. With F

1 population derived from the cross

‘Venus’ × ‘Big Top, Zeballos et al. (2016) identified QTLs for phenolic compounds, flavonoids and anthocyanins on LGs B2, V2_2, V4, and B5.

Almond: To establish the association between trait and marker (40 SSR) for kernel phytosterol content in almond, Forcada et al. (2015) applied linkage disequilibrium (LD) mapping to an almond germplasm (71 accessions). The mixed linear model (MLM) approach using co-ancestry values from population structure and kinship estimates (K model) as covariates identified a maximum of 13 significant associations. The BPPCT011 locus was associated with total phytosterol, stigmasterol and 7-stigmastenol contents.

References

Lim MAG (2008) Biotechnological Approaches to Enhancing Tropical Fruit Quality In: Postharvest biology and technology of fruits, vegetables, and flowers (Eds.) Paliyath G, Murr DP, Handa AK, Lurie S. page 373, Blackwell Publisher.

Mellidou I, Keulemans J, Davey MW, Chagné D, Gardiner SE and Laing W (2014) Nutritionally- enhanced apples: markers for molecular breeding

for fruit vitamin C concentrations in apple. Acta Hortic. 1048: 163-170.

Forcada Fonti C, Velasco L, Sociasi Company R and Fernándezi Martí Á (2015) Association mapping for kernel phytosterol content in almond. Front. Plant Sci. 6:530.

Sugiyama A, Omura M, Matsumoto H, Shimada T, Fujii H, Endo T, Shimizu T, Nesumi H and Ikoma Y (2011) Quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis of carotenoid content in Citrus fruit. J Japan Soc. Hort. Sci. 80:136-144.

Zeballos JL, Abidi W, Giménez S, Monforte AJ, Moreno MA and Gogorcena Y (2016) Mapping QTLs associated with fruit quality traits in peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] using SNP maps. Tree Genet. Gen. 12:3.

Grusak M, and Cakmak I (2004) Methods to improve the crop-delivery of minerals to humans and livestock. International Workshop on Modelling Quality Traits and Their Genetic Variability for Wheat; Jul 18-21; Clermont-Ferrand, France.

Khan SA, Chibon PY, de Vos RC, Schipper BA, Walraven E, Beekwilder J, van Dijk T, Finkers R, Visser RG, van de Weg EW, Bovy A, Cestaro A, Velasco R, Jacobsen E and Schouten HJ (2012) Genetic analysis of metabolites in apple fruits indicates an mQTL hotspot for phenolic compounds on linkage group 16. J. Exp. Botany 63: 2895-2908.

Paul JY, Khanna H, Kleidon J, Hoang P, Geijskes J, Daniells J, Zaplin E, Rosenberg Y, James A, Mlalazi B and Deo P (2016) Golden bananas in the field: elevated fruit pro-vitamin A from the expression of a single banana transgene. Plant Biotechnol J. 15(4):520.

Karanjalker G and Begane N (2016) Breeding perennial fruit crops for quality improvement. Erwerbs-Obstbau 58:119-126.

PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS

19782

47. the Understanding of selectionV. SAIKIRAN

Ph.D. Scholar, Genetics and Plant Breeding, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University

Abstract

At first sight selection is a simple notion, and some consider it the most important evolutionary force. But how important is selection, is it really so trivial to understand and what are the alternatives? Here I discuss how genetics is crucial for addressing all of these questions: genetics allowed the concept of natural selection to become viable, it contributed to

our understanding of the complexities of selection and it spurred the development of competing models of evolution. Understanding how and why selection acts has important potential applications, from understanding the mechanisms of disease and microbial resistance, to improving the design of transgenes and drugs.

Key words: Selection, genetics, transgenes.



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

The discussion in understanding of selection is based on three important contributions that genetics has made to the understanding of selection. First, Mendelian genetics enabled Darwin’s idea of natural selection to be accepted and developed by providing a mode of inheritance in which selection can operate. Second, a fuller appreciation of the complexities of genetics allowed a more nuanced understanding of selection. For example, it was initially thought that the fate of an allele was determined solely by the fitness advantage it conferred on an individual, but more developed models of selection that consider genetics can explain why even deleterious alleles can spread. Third, genetic observations, such as the unexpectedly high rates of evolution and the common occurrence of polymorphisms, suggested that selectionist models had limitations, and so spurred the development of competing explanations of evolution — the neutral and nearly neutral theories.

Mendelian Genetics and the Viability of Selection

Although natural selection that favours the survival of individuals with a fitness advantage might seem an obvious concept, this was not the case when it was originally proposed by Darwin. Natural selection was initially not widely accepted owing largely to confusion over how inheritance worked. It was commonly thought that inheritance blended the traits of two individuals — for example, that the offspring that result from a cross between a red flower and a white flower should be pink. As blending inheritance removes variation from a population, it is incompatible with selection because no individual will have an advantage over another. The discovery and development of Mendelian genetics resolved the uncertainty over Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Under Mendelian inheritance and with random mating, genotype frequencies after one generation do not change. Therefore, unlike blending inheritance, Mendelian inheritance retains variation and therefore the possibility of selection. This retention of variation applies to both discrete alleles (regardless of ploidy) and continuously varying traits (such as height). Importantly, under Mendelian inheritance, the sole determinant of whether the allele will spread when it enters a population is whether the fitness of heterozygotes is greater than that of wild-type homozygotes (Case 1). Basic Mendelian genetics therefore showed that Darwin’s concept of natural selection is viable and also suggested that only fitness, not the mode of inheritance, needs to be considered when assessing the action of selection on an allele. Given that under Mendelian inheritance the likely outcome of selection can be unaffected by the mode of inheritance, many researchers (especially those working on animal behaviour) use mathematical models of selection that ignore the underlying genetics and concentrate only on the effects of individual fitness. Such models (for example, the evolutionary stable strategy theory and the

optimality theory) have the advantage of simplifying the mathematical analysis of complicated problems. However, although population genetics provides a defence for such an approach, it also suggests there are limits to the assumption that genetics does not matter. In many circumstances there is evidence that genetics does matter. For example, when the heterozygote is the most fit genotype (a phenomenon known as overdominance; Case 2), models that ignore genetics cannot explain why homozygotes are stably maintained in the population because this is a consequence of Mendelian segregation.

Case1. Invasion of an Allele under Mendelian and Non-Mendelian Inheritance

Under Mendelian inheritance, the fate of an allele that provides a fitness advantage can be understood by the formula set out here: Suppose that the genotype AA has a small fitness bonus (s) compared with the genotype aa. The genotype Aa has a fitness bonus hs, in which h is a term that captures the effects of the dominance of A over a with regard to fitness. Assuming Hardy–Weinberg ratios, the frequency of A in the next generation (p′) is given by the equation p′ = [p2 (1 + s) + pq (1 + hs)]/ω in which ω= p2 (1 + s) + 2 pq (1 + hs) + q2, and is the weighted mean fitness in the population; p is the frequency of A; q = 1 – p and is the frequency of a. Let us now suppose that all the population is type aa and a new A allele enters. The likely fate of this allele is determined by the slope of the line describing p′ as a function of p when p ≈ 0. If the slope is >1, the allele invades the population. The condition for this to occur is hs >0 — that is, the heterozygote (Aa) must have higher fitness than the aa homozygote. However, the striking thing about this solution is what is missing. There is nothing in the solution concerning the mode of inheritance: individual fitness is the sole determinant of the fate of the allele. The contrast with what is observed under non-Mendelian inheritance is striking, as can be demonstrated by considering the invasion of a deleterious allele. Suppose that heterozygotes transmit the A allele at a rate k and the a allele at a rate 1 – k. For Mendelian inheritance, these rates would be equal: the unique point k = 1 – k = 0.5. Suppose that AA has fitness 1 – t, Aa has fitness 1 – s and aa has fitness 1. For the deleterious allele, A, to invade, the inequality 2k (1 – s)>1 must hold. If k is replaced with 0.5, under Mendelian inheritance, s<0 must hold, and thus, as above, the allele is beneficial in heterozygotes. What if k = 1 — that is, Aa × aa gives only Aa offspring? For invasion, s<0.5 must still hold. The allele can reduce the fitness of the organism by up to 50% and still spread. Any allele for which k>0.5, for which invasion is possible despite s<0, is one class of selfish gene or selfish genetic element (not to be confused with the concept of a selfish gene that was defined by R. Dawkins, which describes any allele that can deterministically invade, regardless of the underlying logic). Under Mendelian conditions, only the fitness of the individual is important, whereas under non-Mendelian inheritance, both the rate



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

of transmission and the fitness of the organism determine the fate of the allele.

Case 2. Modes of selection

Selection can be subdivided into different types, depending on the evolutionary outcome. The main concepts of the different modes of selection are described below.

Positive Selection

Positive selection (also known as Darwinian selection or directional selection if it occurs on a quantitative trait) is the spread to fixation of an allele that increases the fitness of individuals. Numerous examples of positive selection have been observed-for example, antibiotic resistance or the increase and decrease in the prevalence of the melanic form of the peppered moth. More recently, the impact of humans on positive selection has been shown by the preference of hunters of bighorn sheep for prey with large horns, which led to a shift in horn size and body weight, and by the high capture rates of cod, which led to selection for smaller fish that develop faster. In addition to these examples at a population level, there are also examples at a molecular level. Although Darwin initially suggested that sexual selection and natural selection are different, sexual selection is now commonly considered a subclass of positive selection. Sexual selection is the spread of traits that cause an individual to be more attractive to mates and therefore have more reproductive success. However, why females chose males and whether they gain anything more than attractive sons remains a matter of debate. In some cases, female choice leads to traits that are deleterious to viability (such as large tails) but that enhance fertility by increasing attractiveness to females.

Purifying Selection

Purifying selection (also known as negative or stabilizing selection) eliminates deleterious mutations. Assuming that the outcome of evolution by natural selection should be the production of well-adapted organisms, we expect this to be the most common mode of selection; random tinkering with a machine that functions well is likely to cause damage. The assumption that purifying selection is common underpins many attempts to find conserved functional motifs in genomic sequences (known as phylogenetic footprinting). However, distinguishing purifying selection and low mutation rates can be difficult as both processes result in little sequence change.

Balancing Selection

Balancing selection (also known as disruptive selection) is selection that favours diversity. Under balancing selection, the spread of an allele never reaches fixation, and therefore it can initially seem to be undergoing positive selection, but it then undergoes negative selection when its frequency is too high. Thus alleles cannot be classified as advantageous or deleterious. This type

of selection can have different forms, including frequency-dependent selection, which is central to the evolution of mimicry, and overdominance. Although overdominance is rare, it can occur when heterozygotes are resistant to a parasite for example, in sickle-cell anaemia and Tay–Sachs disease. Diversity might also be selected for in cyclical host–parasite co-evolution (‘Red Queen), in which there is constant change, with hosts under selection for resistance and parasites under selection to counteradapt. However, the relevance of Red Queen cyclical dynamics is debatable: because there is little evidence to support cyclicity and co-evolution, it has been suggested that it may be only a theoretical nicety. It has conversely been argued that Red Queen selection is hard to prove and that there is some evidence that supports the theory; for example, from archives of past gene pools in lake sediments. By contrast, in vitro studies have reported the presence of stable polymorphisms rather than cyclicity in host–parasite systems. Balancing selection is often suggested to be unusual, a theory that is partly supported by the failure of genome scans to detect balancing selection. However, this failure might reflect a statistical weakness of such scans. With the recent increase in SNP data, locus-specific analyses are producing more examples than might have been expected. However, current examples are largely associated with immune functions (as expected from the Red Queen model) and might therefore be unrepresentative of the genome as a whole.

References

Fisher, R. A. The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 52, 399–433 (1918).

Hammerstein, P. Darwinian adaptation, population-genetics and the streetcar theory of evolution. J. Math. Biol. 34, 511–532 (1996). An important paper that provides a population- genetics defence for the application of non-genetics models, such as evolutionary stable strategy theory.

Hadfield, J. D., Nutall, A., Osorio, D. & Owens, I. P. Testing the phenotypic gambit: phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations of colour. J. Evol. Biol. 20, 549–557 (2007).

Hurst, L. D., Atlan, A. & Bengtsson, B. O. Genetic conflicts. Q. Rev. Biol. 71, 317–364 (1996).

Wright, S. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations: The Theory of Gene Frequencies (Chicago Univ. Press, Chicago, 1969).

Majerus, M. E. & Mundy, N. I. Mammalian melanism: natural selection in black and white. Trends Genet. 19, 585–588 (2003).

Coltman, D. W. et al. Undesirable evolutionary consequences of trophy hunting. Nature 426, 655–658 (2003).

Barot, S., Heino, M., O’Brien, L. & Dieckmann, U. Long-term trend in the maturation reaction norm of two cod stocks. Ecol. Appl. 14, 1257–1271 (2004).

Yang, Z. H. & Bielawski, J. P. Statistical methods for detecting molecular adaptation. Trends Ecol.



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

Evol. 15, 496–503 (2000).Zhang, J., Zhang, Y. P. & Rosenberg, H. F. Adaptive

evolution of a duplicated pancreatic ribonuclease gene in a leaf-eating monkey. Nature Genet. 30, 411–415 (2002). An example of positive selection

that uses both statistical and experimental approaches, and shows how RNASE1B has evolved rapidly under positive selection for enhanced ribonucleolytic activity in an altered microenvironment.

19839

48. Rice Quality: Characteristics and standards*SUMAN DEVI, RAKESH KUMAR AND VIJAY DANEVA

Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, CCS HAU, Hisar*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Traditional rice Varieties � Long duration � Tall � Photoperiod sensitive � Quality very good � Yield low � Breakage problem less

– E.g. Taraori basmati, basmati 217, basmati 370, type 3 etc

Non- Traditional Varieties � Short duration � Semi dwarf � Photoperiod insensitive � Quality less than traditional � Yield high � Breakage problem more

– E.g. pusa basmati 1, punjab basmati 1, haryana basmati 1, kasturi etc

A rice grain consists of: � Starch (~94%) � Protein (~5%) � Lipids (~1%)

Quality traits � Marketing quality: It includes grain shining,

length, breadth, colour and recovery of rice. � Milling quality: � Uniform harvesting � HRR � Moisture content (14-15%) � Interlocking of lemma and palea � Grain – medium hard � Ridge and groves- shallow � Small and slender grains

Cooking quality � Flakiness � No bursting � Nutritional quality: � Fe : >16%, Zn: >24% � High amino acid content � Glycemic index: 50-55%

Latest Criteria for Basmati Rice

Tested in AICRP basmati trial

Meet minimum characters � Minimum kernel length= 6.0 mm, sometimes

6.6mm � Breadth < or = 2 mm � L/B= 3.5 � Kernel length after cooking= 12.0 mm � Elongation rate= 1.70 � Average volume expansion= 3.5 � Aroma � Water uptake= 205ml/100 g � Alkali spreading value= 4.5 � Texture of kernel after cooking- no bursting,

flakiness, tenderness, sweet taste, good mouth feel

� All test should be done after ageing of 3 months: � Amylose – 20-25% � Amylopectin – 75-80%

Ancillary characters � Amylose = 20-25%(intermediate), <20 =

stickiness, >25 = stiff rice (affect the flakiness) � Minimum brown rice = 76% � Milled rice = 65% � Head rice recovery (HRR)= 45%

Penal Tests1. Appearance: Red streak= 3.0-3.9, Creamish=

4.0-4.92. Cohesiveness: Partially separated= 4.0-4.9,

Slightly sticky= 3.0-3.93. Tenderness: Moderately soft = 4.0-4.9,

Moderately hard = 3.0-3.94. Chewing: Moderately soft = 4.0-4.9,

Moderately hard = 3.0-3.95. Taste: Desriable = 4.0-4.9, Tasteless= 2.0-2.96. Aroma: Strong scented= 4, Optimum scented=

3-3.9, Mild scented= 2.0-2.9, No scented= 1.0-1.9

7. Elongation: Good = 4.0-4.9, Moderate = 2.0-2.9

8. Overall acceptability: Excellent= 4.0-4.9, Good= 3.0-3.9, Acceptable= 2.0-2.9



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

9. Gel consistancy: Soft > 80 mm, Medium soft= 61-80, Medium= 41-60, Medium hard= 36-40, Hard < 35 mm

10. Gel temperature: 64-69 °C is preferable

References

Juliano, B.O. and Duff, B., 1(991). Rice grain quality as an emerging priority in National rice breeding programmes. rice grain marketing and quality issues. Los Banos, Laguna, IRRI, 55-64.

Salvatore, M.R. and Iside, M.S., (1999). Performance of rice cultivars. Cahiers Options Méditerranéennes, 40: 47-60.

Singh, D., Mayank Chaudhary, Mukesh Kumar, Abhishek Yadav, Jitendra Bhadana, Akash Pandey, and R. K. Naresh. (2019), “Expression of quality of basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.) within and beyond geographical indication:‘Penal test’the traditional method for quality determination has an edge over molecular tools.” Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 8, 3: 50-56.

Tandon, J.P., Sharma, S.P., Sandhu, J.S., Yadava, D.K., Prabhu, K.V. and Yadav, O.P., (2015). Guidelines for Testing Crop Varieties under the All-India Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects.

19860

49. P-tRAP (Panicle trait Phenotyping tool): software for Precise Phenotyping of Rice PanicleAMRUTLAL R. KHAIRE1, KORADA MOUNIKA1 AND PRASANTAKUMAR MAZHI1

Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Rice is one of the most important crops, and marks its presence in the daily diet. Because of its high demand, it is in keen interest for the researchers in their respective fields and its genetic variation creates interest to study for different traits where yield is the main concern. These can be studied by precise phenotyping which involves screening of large collections of accessions to facilitate the rediscovery of new interesting traits and analyzing known phenotypic data to identify the genes involved in their diversity and to be able to use these genes in plant breeding.

Amongst all plant parts, panicle is one of the important plant parts which bears seeds and ultimately leads to Yield. There is large variation found in rice panicle and its architecture in accordance with the variety, species, genera etc. To exploit this variation in panicle morphological traits, it is needed to be identified and quantified. Panicle based traits include panicle length, number of branches, order of branches, the number of fertile spikelets, number of sterile spikelet, spikelet position, spikelet shape, spikelet length, spikelet breadth etc. Generally, Manual phenotyping is an option for panicle architecture analysis but it is time consuming and hard to phenotype for most of the traits. This method also varies with person to person and their predetermined experience. Moreover, manual phenotyping is destructive method, so we can’t use same panicle for further analysis.

By considering the complicated analysis of panicle, there is an urgent need to automate such complex and time- taking tasks. There should be

need to develop an easy, high-throughput panicle phenotyping method which aims to standardize the measurement and extraction of panicle traits.

Faroq AL-Tam et al. proposed Java based software that can be used with different platforms and a stand-alone application called P-TRAP (for Panicle TRAit Phenotyping) for easy phenotyping of rice panicle. It is a free and open source software. This application comes with 3 different tools:

1. Tool for the analysis of panicle structure,2. Spikelet/grain counting tool and3. Tool for the analysis of seed shape.

P-TRAP works with automatically recognized structure of a panicle which is mount on different platform and the seeds on the panicle in numeric images. It works with image processing and will convert the image of spread panicle to grayscale image and graph and quantify it. It will go with another challenging step, i.e. Thinning which is very important to obtain the structure of objects in binary image. For further analysis, the panicle skeleton is converted to mathematical graph which is flexible. Skeleton processing, graph processing, and the quantification methods are implemented in independent modules so any improvement or extension to any of these processes can be made very easily. The ability of P-TRAP offers both efficient results and a user-friendly environment for experiments. The experimental results obtained using P-TRAP are more accurate compared to results obtained from field operator, expert verification and other well-known academic methods.



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

Hence P-TRAP is useful for exploiting the rice diversity resources and for categorizing rice in different groups, based on different spikelet phenotypes. The tool will give an analysis of architecture (relationship between different morphological traits), analysis of genetics (both forward and reverse approaches) and for other breeding programs. P-TRAP helps in detection and quantification of seeds directly to spread out panicles which possibly analyze the seed shape traits in relation to their position on the panicle. The development of software able to automatically extract quantitative values of panicle structure and seed traits will facilitate the phenotyping of these morphological traits. The provides several editors for the input image, the focus structure, and the seeds. The results with P-TRAP showed an accuracy of about 90%.

Summarised advantages of P-TRAP are free open source application, platform-independent, written on top of a well-known modular platform, user-friendly interface, allows the users to save the processed image. The application comes with different installers that are available at the

application’s web site.However, this software sometimes unable

to detect overlapped primary and secondary branches of the panicle. However, this can be minimized by carefully spreading out the panicle on the background. On the other hand, P-TRAP can efficiently work with variety of rice panicles regardless of their complexity or size. Finally, the P-TRAP processing pipeline is implemented in a highly modular environment and developers can work for improvement of the application.

Reference

Erstelle Pasion, Roinand Aguila, Nese Sreenivasulu, and Roslen (2019), Novel Imaging Techniques to Analyze Panicle Architecture Rice Grain Quality: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, 1892:75-88

Faroq AL-Tam, Helene Adam, António dos Anjos, Mathias Lorieux, Pierre Larmande, Alain Ghesquière, Stefan Jouannic and Hamid Reza Shahbazkia (2013), P-TRAP: a Panicle Trait Phenotyping tool, BMC Plant Biology, 13:122-136

19866

50. Pre-Breeding: A novel tool for Development of Climate smart Chickpea Crop under Resilient Climatic ConditionsS. K. JAIN

Associate Professor, Plant Breeding and Genetics, Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute, Durgapura, Jaipur (Rajasthan) 302018

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the third largest produced food legume globally, after common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and field pea (Pisum sativum L.). It grows in more than 50 countries (89.7% area in Asia, 4.2% in Africa, 2.6% in Oceania, 3.8% in Americas and 1.7% in Europe). India is the largest chickpea producing country (72.0 %) followed by Australia (6%), Turkey and USA (4 %). The global chickpea area is about 17.8 m ha with a production of 17.2 m tons and average yield of 964 kg ha-1 during year 2018 whereas in India, during year 2018 it covers about 11.8 m ha area with a production of 11.3 m tons and average yield of 956 kg ha-1 (FAO STAT, 2020). Chickpea is considered as one of the most nutritious food grain legumes for human consumption with potential health benefits. It is a very rich source of carbohydrates (60.9g), proteins (17.1 g), fats (5.3 g), crude fiber (3.9 g), calcium (202 mg), phosphorus (312 mg) and many other essential nutritive components. It belongs to family Leguminoseae sub family Papilionaceae and tribe Cicereae. It includes 9 annual and 34 perennial wild species. Out of these species chickpea (C. arietinum)

is the only cultivated species and its narrow genetic bases coupled with low utilization of genetic resources are the major limiting factor in production and productivity at global level in chickpea. Several biotic (diseases, insect pests, nematodes and seasonal weeds) and abiotic (Salt, drought, heat and temperature) factors affects chickpea crop at different growth stages and restricting realization of its potential yields at farmers’ fields. By the uses of strong crop improvement strategy, we can develop high yielding varieties with resistant to biotic and abiotic for increase the productivity of chickpea. The success of crop improvement program depends on the availability of sufficient genetic variability, but this variability must be in conventionally usable form. Wild relatives with enhanced levels of resistance/tolerance to multiple stresses provide important sources of genetic variability for crop improvement in chickpea. The variability available in chickpea germplasm conserved in genebanks for present and future studies in the form of gene pools. The gene pool of a crop is made up of botanical varieties, landraces, inbred lines, ancient landraces,



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

obsolete and modern cultivars, related wild species, and subspecies. On the basis their crossability the genetic variability of chickpea can be dividing in major four groups. Group I a known as primary gene pool includes annual Ciceer species viz., C. arietinum and its closely related wild species like C. reticulatum. Group Ib includes C. echinospermum. The secondary gene pool (GP 2) includes the different species than the cultivated; it includes three closely related species like C. bijugum, C. judaicum and C. pinnatiifidum. Tertiary gene pool (GP 3) includes more distantly related species like C auneatum and other species. All the annual species have same chromosome number 2n =16 where as other wild species has chromosome number 2n=14. The exploitation of genetic variability in wild species for cultivar improvement is hindered mainly by linkage drag and different incompatibility barriers between cultivated and wild species. Under such situations, pre-breeding offers a unique tool to enhance the use of genetic variability present both in cultivated and wild type germplasm. The word pre-breeding was first termed by Rick (1984), it is defined as transferring of useful genes from exotics or wild (unadapted sources) types into agronomical acceptable background / breeding material. In simple way all activities designed to identify desirable characteristics and genes from un-adapted materials that cannot be used directly in breeding populations, and to transfer these traits to an intermediate set of materials that breeders can use further in producing new varieties for farmers is known as pre-breeding. It involves all the activities associated with identification of desirable traits and/or genes from unadapted germplasm (donor) that cannot be used directly in breeding populations

(exotic/wild species), and to transfer these traits into well-adapted genetic backgrounds (recipients) resulting in the development of an intermediate set of material which can be used readily by the plant breeders in specific breeding programmes to develop new varieties with a broad genetic base. Through pre breeding we can broadening the genetic base and reduce vulnerability of crop, we can identifying traits in exotic materials and moving those genes into material more readily accessed by breeders, identified genes from wild species moved into breeding populations when this appears to be the most effective strategy and novel genes from unrelated species can be identify and transfer in to cultivated species using genetic transformation techniques. The wild species of chickpea are the potential source for resistance to biotic and abiotic factors. Among wild Cicer species, C. bijugum, C. judaicum, and C. pinnatifidum are the most important sources having the highest levels of resistance/tolerance to multiple stresses. Of the eight annual wild Cicer species, only C. reticulatum is readily crossable with cultivated chickpea resulting in fertile hybrid. The exploitation of the remaining seven annual wild Cicer species requires specialized techniques and introgression and incorporation, synthesis of new base populations by the wide crosses such as the application of following technique; 1). Use growth hormones 2). Embryo rescue 3). Ovule culture 4). Tissue culture techniques 5). Somatic hybridization 6). Anther culture 7). Marker assisted breeding 8). Use introgression libraries 9). Association studies 10). Genetic transformation. Following wild Cicer species were identified for different biotic and abiotic stresses by the different scientists.

TABLE 1. different source for biotic and abiotic stresses in wild Cicer species

s. no. traits source of resistance1 Ascochyta blight C. echinospermum, C. pinnatifidum, C. bijugum, C. judaicum2 Fusarium wilt C. bijugum, C. judaicum, C. reticulatum, C. pinnatifidum,3 Leaf minor C. judaicum4 Bruchids C. bijugum, C. judaicum, C. echinospermum5 Dry root rot C. bijugum, C. reticulatum, C. echinospermum7 Gray mold C. pinnatifidum, C. judaicum8 Cyst nematode C. bijugum, C. reticulatum, C. pinnatifidum9 Cold C. echinospermum, C. bijugum, C. reticulatum, C. pinnatifidum10 Drought C. reticulatum, C. pinnatifidum

Brief Achievements: Wild species chickpea are maintained by ICARDA, ICRISAT, NBPGR New Delhi, IIPR Kanpur and some advance AICRP centers. These centers working on pre- breeding aspect for widening the genetic base of chickpea for most biotic and abiotic factors. During 2002 Malhotra and his coworkers used C. reticulatum for development of cyst nematode resistant chickpea germplasm lines ILC 10765 and ILC 10766. Some ICARDA scientist used C. reticulatum and C. echinospermum for interrogations of some beneficial traits like cold tolerance, resistance to wilt, foot rot, root rot, and

Botrytis gray mold into cultivated chickpea. For transfer of desirable alien genes from wild species to cultivated chickpea many inter-specific hybrids were made between C. arietinum × C. judaicum, C. arietinum × C. pinnatifidum, C. arietinum × C. cuneatum, C. arietinum × C. bijugum by different scientists at different chickpea research centers. These inter-specific hybrids have contributed significantly toward the development of genomic resources for chickpea improvement. The PAU scientist also used wild relatives for transfer of BGM resistance in cultivated chickpea genotypes.



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

Through pre breeding we developed biotic and abiotic resistant genotypes and simultaneously we can also improve the agronomic traits, including yield and yield parameters. Singh and Ocampo during 1997 hybridized C. reticulatum and C. echinospermum with cultivated chickpea lines and generated high-yielding recombinant lines without any known undesirable traits from the wild species. During 2004 Yadav and his team developed wilt resistant lines with good yield potential viz., BG 1100, BG 1101, and BG 1103. Some Interspecific derivatives between C. arietinum × C. reticulatum possessed has resistance to wilt, root rot and foot rot as well as high yield potential (Singh et al., 2005). From C. arietinum × C. judaicum cross, a pre-breeding line IPC 71 having high number of primary branches, more pods per plant and green seeds has been developed for use in chickpea improvement programs. Thus, the wide genetic variability available in the germplasm, particularly in wild species, should be exploited for broadening the genetic base of varieties and introgressions useful traits. The barriers to interspecific hybridization have restricted utilization of several wild species. It is a time-consuming and difficult affair as well. Further, linkage drag associated with utilizing wild relatives makes the pre-breeding activities much more

cumbersome. By using the above said technique and through dedicated efforts we can access genes from these species and overcome the linkage drag and easily transfer of useful genes/segments from wild relatives for widening the genetic base and enhance the yield potential as well as biotic and abiotic resistance in chickpea.

References

FAO (2020): FAOSTAT data 2020.www.fao.org.Malhotra, R.S., Singh, K.B., Vito, M., Greco, N., and

Saxena, M.C. (2002). Registration of ILC10765 and ILC 10766 chickpea germplasm lines resistant to cyst nematode. Crop Sci. 42, 1756

Rick, C.W. 1984. Plant germplasm resources. In: D.A. Evans, W.R. Sharp, P.V. Ammirato and Y. Yamada (eds). Hand book of cell culture. Mac Milan. New York p. 9-37.

Singh, K.B., and Ocampo, B. (1997). Exploitation of wild Cicer species for yield improvement in chickpea. Theor. Appl. Genet. 95, 418–423.

Yadav, S.S., Kumar, J., Turner, N.C., Berger, J., Redden, R., Mc Neil, D., et al. (2004). Breading for improved productivity, multiple resistance and wide adaptation in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Plant Genet. Resour. Charact. Util. 2, 181–187.

19937

51. Chemical Hybridizing Agents: A tool for Hybrid seed ProductionBHAVYASREE R. K.1, N. VINOTHINI2, T. POOVARASAN3 AND M. SAKILA4

Assistant Professor1, Agricultural Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University Mannuthy, Kerala – 680 651Teaching Assistant2, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Eachangkottoi, Tamil Nadu – 614 902Ph.D. Research Scholar3, Dept. of Seed Sci. Tech, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu – 641 003Assistant Professor4, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Eachangkottoi, Tamil Nadu – 614 902

Hybrids varieties of the crops are essential for food security in the present world scenario. Emasculation is a difficult task during the process of hybridization. So to induce male sterility is one of the way to reduce cost of the hybrid seeds. The chemicals that can induce sterility can be used for this purpose. The compounds thus hindering the function of male reproductive organs or the male gametogenesis can be called as male gametocide, male sterilants, selective male sterilants, pollen suppressants, pollenocide and androcide. Due to the multiplicity of these terms, in 1985, Mc Rae suggested the use of a single term chemical hybridizing agents (CHAs) which can artificially induce non genetic

male sterility in plants and can be utilized for hybridization programs.

History of Chemical Hybridizing Agents

Moore and Naylor (1950) used maleic hydrazide as the first chemical for inducing male sterilityin maize. Later in 1951, Laibach and Kribban used α –NAA and β –IAA in cucumber to produce higher proportion of staminate flowers. Some reported FW 450, Ethrel, RH531, DPX3778, arsenicals- monosodium methane aresenate (MSMA) and zinc methyl arsenate to be gametocidal. Also some herbicides and fungicides like arsenical found to have the capacity to induce sterility.



PLA

nt

BR

ee

DIn

G A

nD

Ge

ne

tIC

s

Properties of a Chemical to be used as Chemical Hybridizing Agent

The chemical that is used as a CHA should be highly male or female selective and should not cause damages to other plant parts. Also the chemical should be cost effective and economical, so that the cost of hybrid seed production can be reduced. The chemical used should be non-phytotoxic and environment friendly. But there should not be carry over effects or residue in the F

1 seeds. To ensure

pure hybrid, the chemical should induce complete or more than 95 per cent sterility. The flower opening to ensure the out crossing is favored. Also it should not affect the seed set percentage. It can be used in the large-scale commercial production of hybrid seed.

Types of Chemical Hydridising Agents (CHA) � Plant-growth regulators and substances that

disrupt floral development -Ethrel, gibberellins, and abscisic acid

� Metabolic inhibitors -Halogenated aliphatic acids (alpha, beta-dichloroisobutyrate and 2,2-dichloropropionate salts) - Arsenicals (methanearsonate salts)

� Inhibitors of microspore development - Copper chelators, Ethylene, Fenridazon, Phenylcinnoline carboxylates

� Inhibitors of pollen fertility - Azetidine-3-carboxylate,

Mode of Action

The mode of action of different CHAs varies. The arsenates inhibits the respiration in anther by via certain enzymes like dehydrogenases and oxidases. These also lead to abnormal meiosis. The ethylene affects the pollen mitosis by influencing different signaling molecules and plant hormone systems. Some of the other CHAs like hybrex will affect

microsporogenesis as well as pollen development and thus leading to pollen abortion. Generally, most of the chemicals will disrupt the meiosis leading to the arrest the anther development and the pollen mother cell (PMC) degeneration. The non-viable microspores with thin walls will be produced due to the disruption of exine formation. Decrease of starch deposition and appearance of abnormal vacuoles in the microspores making them non-viable. The tapetal layer is one of the important part which affect pollen viability. Some of the chemicals which produce abnormal tapetal layer formation can also be used as CHA. Non-germination of pollen on stigma or cessation of elongation of pollen tube also will results in failure of fertilization.

Advantages of Gametocides

Any line can be used as the female parent. These chemicals can eliminate the lengthy and cumbersome production of CMS or GMS lines in hybrid seed production. Any line can be used as the male parent of hybrid and restores are not required. The choice of parents for the production of hybrid is entirely flexible and the breeder can order any outstanding cross combination into hybrid production programme and base on two lines. Maintaince of parental lines of hybrid is achieved by self-pollination

Limitations of Gametocide

The expression and duration of male gametocide is very stage –specific and vulnerable to prevailing environmental conditions. Incomplete male sterility. Toxic to plants and animals. Carryover residue of chemicals in F1 seeds. Interferes with cell division. Male gametocides are generally genotype, dose and application stage specific.

Summary of features of important gametocides (Singh, B.D., 2010)

Male gametocides Critical stage for application

effective in crop species Remarks

ArsenicalsZinc methyl arsenateSodium methyl arsenate

5 days before heading Rice MG 2 is extensively used in rice hybrid seed production

DPX 3778 Late tillering/early boot, Late boot stages

Wheat and triticale Very high application rate needed

Ethephon or Ethrel Depend on crops Barley, Oats, Bajra, Rice etc

Variable male sterility in different tillers

Mendok (FW450) In cotton, complete sterility for 35 days, application every 35 days in sugarbeet

Cotton, Bajra, Chilli, Sesamum

Female fertility affected; phytotoxic effects

Gibberellic acid 1-3 days prior to onset of meiosis

Maize, Bajra, Wheat, Rice, Sunflower

Excessive internode elongation; in sunflower, reduce male fertility



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

19824

52. Hydrogel: Applications in AgricultureISLAVATH SURESH NAIK

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru

Introduction

Water scarcity is a global concern in context of increasing population and competitive and demands from agriculture, industry and urban inhabitants. The problem is further aggravated by fast changing climate. India has already entered the shadow of the zone of physical and economic water scarcity. Indian agriculture suffers from low productivity, poor use efficiency of water, nutrients and other agro-inputs and has become a serious bottleneck in realizing sustainable agricultural growth and food security for the future. Several technologies and agronomic practices have been developed and recommended for use in this regard. However, in this scenario “Hydrogel” a novel semi-synthetic super absorbent polymer had shown the potential to realise more yield per unit of input. It is a water-swollen, and cross-linked polymeric network produced by the simple reaction of one or more monomers.

Hydrogels available depend on Source

Naturally like alginate, collagen, Matrigel, fibrin, hyaluronic acid, gelatin, plantraisin herbal gum and xanthn gum etc. Synthetically like Poly Hydroxy ethyl methacrylate, Polyethylene glycol, Polyamides, Poly N-isopropylacrylamide, Poly acrylic acid, Poly methacrylamide.

Functional Characteristics of Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) to use in Agriculture

� High absorption capacity (maximum equilibrium swelling).

� Optimized absorption release ratio under load. � Low soluble content and residual monomer. � Low price/benefit ratio. � High durability and stability on the shelf and in

the swelling environment. � Gradual biodegradability without formation of

toxic products. � pH-neutrality after swelling in water. � Reasonable thermal and photo-stability.

Importance of Hydrogel � Helps in better germination about 20%

increased performance. � Increase water-holding capacity of the soil. � The use of hydrogels leads to increased water use

efficiency since water that would have otherwise leached beyond the root zone is captured.

� Enhance soil permeability and infiltration rates. � Reduce irrigation water up to 40 to 60%. � Reduce fertilizer leaching and usage by 15 -

30%. � Protects the environment against drought and

groundwater contamination. � It improves the physical properties of the soil by

enhancing aeration. � Reduce soil erosion and water run-off. � Hydrogels help to reduce water stress of

plants resulting in increased growth and plant performance.

� Crossed-linked polyacrylamide hydrogels are also being considered as potential carrier for insecticides, fungicides and herbicides.

Some of Applications in Agriculture

Open Field & Protective Cultivation

Hydrogel is mixed with soil around the root zones of common trees and plants, providing water and nutrients stably over a period of time. For common plants and trees, 1.5 - 3 kg per acre practice improves and promotes seedling growth. While depending on young to fully grown trees, hydrogel amount differs from 20 – 100 g mixed with the soil matrix per tree.

Terrace Farming, Home grown Gardens, Vertical Farming

Super Absorbent Polymer can be mixed with soil matrix, for indoor and open air pots, growers, window boxes, verandah, porches, terraces, hanging, greenhouses and city scene. Using SAP, proves beneficial to water usage, time, labour lessening, drought and wilting risks which come into light if the plant is not watered for long, enabling a greener and bloomer period.

Arboriculture � HYDROGEL reduces mortality rate due to

transplantation shocks and enhances root development. A hole is dug about three times the volume of the root, at the plantation site, and 1 - 2 kg of this product per m3 of soil is mixed. The plant is placed at the bottom of the hole and is evenly filled with the treated soil. The top surface is covered with 5 cm of untreated soil so as to prevent UV degradation of the product.



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

Bare Root Dipping

To prevent desiccation of the roots of seedlings during transplanting or transportation, 1 kg of potassium polyacrylate is mixed in 150 - 200 litres of water with/ without an additional fungicide/ bactericide, and allowing it to stand for 15 min. It finds a great use in flower preservation during transportation; fresher flowers which in turn increase their market value.

Hydro Seeding

Hydro seeding is a planting procedure that uses a mixture of seed and mulch, used as an erosion control system on construction destinations, and as another option to the conventional procedure of sowing dry seeds. Hydrogel mixed with cellulose mulch is used to stabilize newly graded soils, maintaining a minimum surface area, helping in sprouting of seedlings even in dry areas.

Fertilizers

Hydrogel polymers can be dry mixed into fertilizer preparations. It is able to absorb large volumes of liquids that can be released over a long time reducing leaching of essential soil nutrients. Therefore, this substrate was used for the slow release of fertilizers alone or in combination with a water-holding gel, dosed at 1 to 5kg by weight.

Hydroponics/ Soil less Media � Plants might be grown with their roots in the

mineral solution only, or in a dormant/ inert medium. Hydrogel mixed with hydroponics media reduces the water stress.

� For fully permeable mixes like barks, wood fiber, etc., 2 - 3 kg of hydrogel per m3 of the substrate is mixed. For less permeable ones like peat or composts, 1 - 2 kg of hydrogel per m3 of the substrate is mixed.

Agricultural Hydrogel Products Available in India by Trade Names

Pusa hydrogel, waterlock 93 N, Agro-forestry water,

absorbent polymer, Super absorbent polymer, Hydrogel, Rain drops

Conclusion

Hydrogel application increases productivity in almost all the test crops (cereals, vegetables, oilseeds, flowers, spices, etc.) in terms of crop yield. It also helps to improve the quality of agricultural produce in terms of plant biomass, fruit and flower size and colour with improvement in hydro-physical and biological environment of the soil. Hydrogels may become a practically convenient and economically feasible option in water-stressed areas for increasing agricultural productivity with environmental sustainability. Hydrogel significantly affected the plant height of maize with increasing gel dose up to 150% recommended dose. Application of hydrogel @ 2.5 kg ha-1 along with Vermicompost @ 1 t ha-1 in sunflower resulted in higher seed yield and gross returns.

References

HARPHOOL SINGH, 2012, Effect of hydrogel on growth, yield and water use efficiency in pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum) production. Forage Res., 38 (1): 27-28.

PATIL, M.D., DHINDWAL, A.S., AND RAJANNA, G. A., 2014, Effect of moisture regimes and moisture-stress-management practices on economics of wheat crop. Ind J. agron 59(4):629:633.

ROHIT KUMAR, 2015, Evaluation of hydrogel on the performance of rabi maize (Zea mays L.), M.Sc. Thesis submitted to BAU, Bhagalpur, Bihar.

SHANWAD, U.K., SHANKERGOUD, I., VIKAS, K., GOVINDAPPA, M. R. AND GHANTE, V. N., 2015, Adaptations to climate change: use of polymer hydrogel to mitigate biotic stress in sunflower. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., Spl. Issue., 28(5):833-836.

SAHANA, C.S.,2016, Influence of mulching, hydrogel and nutrient management on growth, seed yield and quality of summer groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), M.Sc. Thesis submitted to UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru.

19836

53. Role of Karrikins in seed germination and seedling DevelopmentRAMAPPA S

Division of Seed Science and Technology, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Abstract: Karrikins are a group of plant growth promoters/regulators present in the smoke of burning plant residues, known to accelerate and stimulate the germination of seeds. In 2004, butenolide was shown to be responsible for this

effect (Flematti et al., 2015). Later, several closely related compounds were discovered in smoke, and are collectively referred as karrikins (Chiwocha et al., 2009). Six karrikins have been discovered in smoke and are designated KAR

1, KAR

2, KAR

3, KAR

4,



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

KAR5 and KAR

6, but KAR

1 to KAR

4 are the most

active. The butenolide moiety of the compound is a 5-membered lactone ring while the other moiety of the karrikin compound is a 6-membered pyran ring. Bioassay-guided fractionation of smoke water resulted in the detection and production of the primary germination stimulant 3-methyl-2H-furo[2,3-c]pyran-2-one (KAR

1; Flematti et al.,

2004). With the recent identification of three related active compounds in smoke water fractions (Flematti et al, unpublished data), this family of butenolide molecules have been designated karrikins, after “karrik,” the first recorded Aboriginal Nyungar word for smoke (Dixon et al., 2009).

KAR1 acts as a key germination elicit for seeds of many species in fire-prone area. Karrikins can promote germination of primary dormant Arabidopsis seeds and seedling development far more effectively than known phytohormones or the structurally related strigolactone GR-24. Natural variation and depth of seed dormancy affect the degree of KAR1 stimulation. Investigation of phytohormone mutant germination discloses

suppression of KAR1 responses by abscisic acid and a requirement for gibberellin (GA) synthesis. The reduced germination of sleepy1 mutants is to some extent recovered by KAR1. While KAR1 has little effect on sensitivity to exogenous GA, it enhances expression of the GA biosynthetic genes GA3ox1 and GA3ox2 during seed imbibition. KAR1 stimulation of Arabidopsis germination is light-dependent and reversible by far-red exposure, even if limited induction of GA3ox1 still occurs in the dark. The observed requirements for light and GA biosynthesis provide the first insights into the karrikins mode of action. Seven of the eight Brassicaceae species examined were stimulated to germinate with KAR1 when the seeds were fresh, and the remaining species became responsive to KAR1 following wet–dry cycling and dry after-ripening. Light influenced the germination response of seeds to KAR1, with the majority of species germinating better in darkness. Molecular response to karrikins remains unknown.

Key words: Karrikins; germination; phytohormone; seed; smoke

19846

54. Barcoding of seeds for transparencySRIDEVI RAMAMURTHY

Department of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biosciences, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Karunya nagar, Coimbatore 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of our nation which comprises of different inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc. Among this seed is the foremost and important input in agriculture. Production and distribution of quality seeds emphasizes the need of the day. Most of the seeds sold in India were not certified or properly tested and of poor quality. Lack of awareness lead to the use of certified seeds by the farmers. Selling of misbranded seeds affects the genetic purity and seed supply systems. This led to evolution of barcoding of seeds to ensure its tracing of origin. There is a need to replace the existing seed act and ensure barcoding of seeds to be compulsory to regulate the seed quality.

Barcoding

Currently barcoding occupies broad range of fields regarding goods, records, etc. Barcodes are widely used in automation of data identification technologies. Barcodes are used to track thousands to millions of information and makes the transaction and business simpler. It is advantageous over maintenance and entering of manual information.

DNA barcoding technology was first evolved in 2003 after the research work carried out by Paul

Hebert at the University of Guelph. He identified a new species with the help of short sequence of DNA of particular genome. DNA barcode is nothing but the image of nucleotide sequence of particular loci consists of differing regions which can be able to differentiate the varieties of crops or species. DNA barcoding technology uses a short sequence of DNA from particular part of genome that forms a barcode for identifying the species.

DNA Barcoding for Varietal Purity

Standardization of required locus is needed for barcoding of DNA for different crop varieties. Large database of sequences should be developed for the desired locus. With the present techniques available, 400 to 800 base pairs can be sequenced without the help of specific PCR primers. The databases developed and barcodes can be employed in concerned varieties of crops which will be of much importance in testing of varietal purity. Thus, barcoding technology is very much useful in production, monitoring and maintaining the quality of certified seeds. Also helpful in regulatory framework of seed law enforcement concerned with the Seed Act, 1966.



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

DNA Barcoding Technology

DNA barcoding technique is gaining importance nowadays and is suitable for many crops. Barcoding technology involves the following steps,

� Collecting tissue/sample � Isolating DNA � Amplifying DNA � Analyzing PCR products � Analyzing the result

Barcoding Technology for Transparency � There is a need to amend the Seeds Act, 1966

to make seed certification mandatory by the government.

� Most of the seeds sold in the country was not fulfilling the minimum standards of testing and there arises the need of this technology.

� The government also plans to develop software for barcoding seeds for its quick tracking and transparency. Along with seeds, vegetative propagated materials like grafts, cuttings can also be bought under this law.

� The replacement of existing act will ensure in regulating the sales, export and import of seeds in the country and also in need to increase penalties for the misrepresentation against the law.

� The only solution to regulate quality of seeds is barcoding technology to eliminate the substandard seeds.

� The companies are accountable for the seeds they sell, as the production, testing and certification can be traced with the help of barcodes.

� The distribution channel can also be tracked by connecting with dealer licensing system.

� A project has been planned by ministry of agriculture in collaboration with National Informatics Centre to bring this technology into effect.

Conclusion

Barcoding of seeds is one of the emerging technologies in seed industry which is the instant identification method to collect the information accurately. It further reduces the work load of data entry and monitoring. Recently, more cost-effective technologies were developed for sequencing of barcodes which can be implemented for legislative measures of seed certification. The consumers can able to obtain reliable information regarding its origin, distribution in terms of seed quality.

References

http://ibol.org/about-us/what-is-dna-barcoding/http://www.dnabarcoding101.org/introduction.

htmlhttps://www.thehindu.com/business/

agri-business/certification-of-seeds-to-be-made-mandatory-to-step-up-farm-output/article28979417.ece

19847

55. PhotomorphogenesisC. TAMILARASAN* AND L. ANILKUMAR

Department of Seed Science and Technology, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu - 641003.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Every organism found in the environment have their own way of adaptability to sustain in their living habitat. Many organisms found their survival due to their motility but some organism like plants, fungi and other smaller organism do not have this ability to find their survival. In photosynthetic organisms, they develop their own mechanism to sense light in the environment, adjust their forms and metabolism to perform better in their local conditions. Since the light environment is a changing factor these organisms should develop their ability to survive under any kind of situation through their modifications. These response of the organism towards the light constituted the phenomenon termed as photomorphogenesis.

Photomorphogenesis

Photomorphogenesis have been defined as in any

organism, if there is any change in their morphology, cell structure and functions in response to the changes in light signals of their environment. It is also termed as light regulated plant development. Photomorphogenesis is a common process in plant kingdom as well as in fungi and bacteria in animal kingdom.

Photomorphogenesis in Autotrophs

As the plants are sessile they use this light perception system for regulation of their metabolism. Plants use photoreceptors to detect the environmental light signals. They act as the signal transaction cascades which direct the response of the plant towards light signals. These responses to light were controlled by chromoprotein which contain chromophore to absorb light. As these proteins are apoprotein which creates signal transaction cascades in plants.



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

Phytochrome – A Major Chromoprotein

Phytochrome is the important chromoprotein which is necessary for plant responses towards the light environment. It plays an important role in perceiving and translating the light signals into the plants through changes in shape and functions of the plant. The quality, time and amount of light decides the plant metabolism. These phytochromes were exist in the two stable states with the ability to absorb light at different wavelength which was explained as follows.

Among these two forms Pr is the physiologically inactive form, whereas Pfr is the physiologically active form which involved in signal transduction. A multiple chromophore were produced in plants at different stages of their development which is collectively termed as photochromic receptor system. There are five types of phytochrome PHYA, PHYB, PHYC, PHYD and PHYE. Among these PHYA is the major phytochrome protein which is found in germinated seedlings.

Categories of Plant Response to Phytochrome � VLFR - Very Low Fluence Response � HIR - High Irradiance Response � LFR - Low Fluence Response

Among these, Low fluence response is most important for regulating the plant growth according to the signals of light. In seed germination, low fluence response is necessary for breakdown of seed coat and to initiate the metabolic activity in new plant.

Heterotrophic to Autotrophic

The seedlings which develop under the dark condition consist of long hypocotyl, little leaf development but without well-developed chlorophyll and chloroplast. These types of seedlings were referred as etiolated seedlings which is heterotrophic in nature. When the seedlings are exposed to light, the hypocotyl growth was suppressed whereas chlorophyll and chloroplast development takes place. This is termed as de-etiolated seedlings which is autotrophic. Therefore, light is the major requirement in converting the plants from heterotrophic to autotrophic stage during their development.

Cryptochrome - Blue Light Receptors

Some other photosensors other than phytochrome was present in the plants. Plant contain multiple blue light receptors which vary in their functions. Cryptochromes were the first blue light receptors isolated from plants which uses flavin as their chromophore. It controls stem elongation, leaf expansion, circadian rhythms and flowering time. In addition to the blue light, it also perceives long wavelength UV irradiation. They act as sensors of both light quality and light intensity.

Phototropin - Blue Light Receptors

Phototropin is another blue light receptor which is responsible for control of photoperiodism. It also perceives long wavelength UV irradiation. It was found in actively growing regions of etiolated seedlings.

Green Light

In past decades, green light was found to be one of the photoreceptor which is responsible for early hypocotyl elongation. It also induced changes in m RNA in developing plastids and regulates the stomatal closure.

19871

56. Accelerated Ageing test: A tool to Detect the Longevity of seedsANILKUMAR. L* AND C. TAMILARASAN

Department of Seed Science and Technology, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu – 641003.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Seed deterioration is a natural phenomenon and the seeds tend to lose their viability under normal storage conditions. The rate of seed deterioration varies from one species to another. In gene banks seeds are stored under optimal storage conditions (low temperature and low seed moisture/relative humidity). There are number of factors that affect seed longevity. Hence in order to assess the longevity

of seeds accelerated ageing test might be utilized

Accelerated Ageing Test (AA Test)

The seeds were surface sterilized before seed treatments by treating with 5% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite solution for 3 minutes to avoid fungal invasion followed by thorough washing with deionised water and dried using tissue paper. A plant growth chamber was used as an automatic



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

temperature and humidity controlling chamber. The seeds were spread in a single layer on plastic trays and subjected to temperature of 40-44°C and relative humidity of 90-95%. The accelerated ageing period had to be extended up to 20 days for achieving complete loss in germination capacity for cotton (Basra et al., 2003). The germination capacity was tested by standard germination test (AOSA 1991).

Post Accelerated Ageing Operations

Moisture content of 10% or below is essential for safe cottonseed storage, even for a short time period (Banks et al., 1998). So, the aged seeds had to be dried immediately after each treatment. For this purpose, following each ageing treatment, the seeds were allowed to air dry at room temperature (approximately 30-35°C) until their original weight was restored. All the treated and untreated seeds were placed in a sealed drying cabinet at 25°C for 3 days. The seeds of all the treatments attained moisture of 8% (wet weight basis). The seeds were sealed in polythene bags and placed in refrigerator at 8±2°C for later studies.

In order to evaluate the ageing process, the seeds were subjected to the following tests,

Standard Germination Test

The standard germination test was performed in a germinator. The standard germination test for cotton according to AOSA (1991) was adopted with minor modifications. The experiment was conducted with alternating temperatures of 20°C for 16 hours and 30°C for 8 hours. To record data regarding germination and seedling vigour, the filter paper sheets were unrolled 4, 8 and 12 days after planting, and the seeds that had produced normal seedlings were counted and recorded. At this time, one count of normal seedlings that had a combined hypocotyl and root length of 1.5 in or longer was made (AOSA 1991).

Seedling Vigour Evaluation

Seeds of both treated and untreated seeds were planted in plastic pots (8 cm diameter and 13 cm deep) in a plant growth cabinet. The pots were filled with sand. Seeds were planted on a uniform layer of moist sand and then covered to a depth of 2-3 cm with the sand which was left loose (ISTA 1985). Before experiment, the sand was washed and autoclaved for 4 h. The plant growth cabinet

was set at 30°C day/25°C night (16h/8h). Pots were watered whenever required. Daily emergence was recorded. A seed was considered emerged when both the cotyledons were visible. The seedlings were harvested from sand after 25 days of planting. The roots and shoots were separated and their lengths were measured.

EC of Solute Leakage

Solute leakage of the seeds was estimated by soaking three replicates each of 1 g seeds in 50 mL of deionised water at 25°C in an incubator. Before soaking, the seeds were rinsed in deionised water to remove any salt or dust deposition and then dried by filter paper. The electrical conductivity of seed leachates was measured by conductivity meter after 15, 30 and 60 min and then after 2, 4, 6 and 24 hours of soaking. The conductivity of the soaking solution was expressed per gram of seeds (mS/cm/g).

Symptoms in Seedlings due to AA Test1. Development of tender seedling’s due to loss

in assimilatory materials for leaf initiation and seedling establishment.

2. Increase in the peroxide value due to the disruption of cell membranes composed of unsaturated fatty acids.

3. Increase in seed leachate because of lipid peroxidation which was associated with the free radical damage and also mitochondrial swell and lysis in several cases.

References

A.O.S.A. (1991). Rules for Testing Seed. Journal of Seed Technology, 12, 18–19.

Banks, J.C., Williams, O.H. and Thomas, N.B. (1998). Cotton, The Crop and Plant. Web site, http:// clay.agr.okstate.edu/plantsoilsci/faculty/jcb/extension.html.

I.S.T.A. (1985). International Rules for Seed Testing. Rules, 1985. Seed Science and Technology, 13, 299–355.

Basra, S. M. A., Ahmad, N., Khan, M. M., Iqbal, N., & Cheema, M. A. (2003). Assessment of cottonseed deterioration during accelerated ageing. Seed Science and Technology, 31(3), 531–540. doi:10.15258/sst.2003.31.3.02



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

19904

57. endosperm Weakening in Relation to seed GerminationTHOTA JOSEPH RAJU1 AND VIJAYALAKSHMI N2

1Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, Raichur2Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru

Seed germination is physiological process which starts from intake of water by imbibitions (dry seed), followed by embryo expansion and swelling of seed. The water uptake is triphasic seed and sigmoid, with a rapid initial uptake (phase I) followed by a plateau phase (II) and termination is by emergence of radical (phase III), from the seed which enables us to recognize when the germination has gone to completion. At majorly during phase II, generally near the endosperm region the breakdown of endosperm reserves (Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and Phosphorous-containing compounds) are activated by enzymes (α and β amylase). During radical protrusion from embryo, it should pass through a dead testa and a single layer of endosperm cells (aleurone layer).

In seeds, during radical protrusion the endosperm act as a mechanical barrier, due to the endosperm layer covers the radicle tip and its cap offers resistance near micropylar region. The growth potential of the embryo is improved by endosperm weakening. The major seed traits like germination and dormancy is regulated by gibberellic acid (GA) and absissic acid (ABA). The involvement of GA and ABA signals is embryo and endosperm region will lead to weakening in endosperm cells (Aleurone layer). Gibberellins can replace this embryo signal, de novo gibberellin biosynthesis occurs in the endosperm and weakening is regulated by the GA/ABA ratio.

The mechanism for endosperm weakening is regulated and operated through following ways during seed germination.

1. Hormonal regulation: Ethylene promotes endosperm cap weakening and its rupture also counter sects with seed ABA levels. Gibberellins (GA) promotes endosperm weakening and its rupture through induction of cell wall hydrolysis (mannase, β-1-3-glucanase) which cause hydrolytic digestion of cellwall polymers (Muller et al., 2006). Steven P.C. Groot and C.M. Karssen (1987) concluded that the main action of GAs during germination of tomato seed is directed to the weakening of the endosperm cells surrounding the radicle tip. Endosperm weakening never occurred in the ga-1 mutant, either in intact or in de-embryonated seed-halves, without addition of GA.

2. ROS controlled endosperm weakening: ROS are reactive molecules and free radical

derived from molecular oxygen which is chemically reactive molecules contain oxygen (H

2O

2, O

2-, OH) radicals. These ROS were

initially recognized as a toxic byproducts of aerobic metabolism but it also involves in positive development role and novel direct action during seed endosperm, weakening and germination The second possible mechanism for hydroxyl (radical generation in the apoplast is by ascorbate to form copper ions and hydrogen peroxide through non enzymatic reaction (Kokila et al., 2014).

3. Hatching enzymes: The production of hatching enzymes like endo β mannase and endo β-1-3-glucanase during the final step of germination enables the radicle tip to penetrate through the seed coat. These enzymes will also help as receptors in cell adhesion, cell separation and differentiation process.

4. Expansins: Also known as cucumber hypocotyls (Extracellular proteins) which disrupts hydrogen bonds between cell wall components and cellulose microfibrils facilitates cellwall extension by loosening cell walls and tissue softening. Feng Chen and Kent J. Bradford (2000) reported that some expansins are expressed in non-growing tissues such as ripening fruits. LeEXP

4 mRNA induced

proteins might contribute to tissue weakening of endosperm which is specifically localized at micropylar endosperm cap region is required for radicle emergence.In Lepidium sativum the seed germination

under continuous light and optimal conditions, the endosperm cap weakening occurs in late phase (radicle emergence stage, due to Myrigalone A (MyA) flavanoid interferes with GA biosynthesis and apoplastic ROS production.

Conclusion: The two sequential events during the germination, rupture of testa (seed coat) and endosperm is required and it’s enough for seedling development (radicle protrusion). In angiosperm seeds the endosperm acts as a barrier during radicle protrusion. Hence to overcome this problem there are several mechanisms like role of extracellular proteins (expansions), involvement of Reactive oxygen species (ROS), hormonal interactions and some hydrolytic enzymatic activities which plays a vital role in endosperm weakening which promotes germination in seeds.



see

D s

CIe

nC

e A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

References

MICHAEL J. HOLDSWORTH., LEONIE BENTSINK AND WIM J. J. SOPPE., 2008. Molecular networks regulating Arabidopsis seed maturation, after ripening, dormancy and germination. New phytologist.,179: 33–54.

FENG CHEN AND KENT J. BRADFORD., 2000. Expression of an expansin is associated with endosperm weakening during tomato seed germination. Plant Physiol., 124: 1265-1274.

ORACZ K., BAILLY C., GNIAZDOWSKA A., COME D., CORBINEAU F AND BOGATEK R. 2007. Induction of oxidative stress by sunflower phytotoxins in germinating mustard seeds. J. Chemical Ecol., 33:251–264.

KERSTIN MULLER., STEFANIE TINTELNOT

AND GERHARD LEUBNER-METZGER., 2006. Endosperm-limited brassicaceae seed germination: abscisic acid inhibits embryo-induced endosperm weakening of Lepidium sativum (cress) and endosperm rupture of cress and Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Cell Physiol. 47(7): 864–877.

KOKILA, M., BHASKARAN, M., SATHISH, S. AND LAKSHMI PRASANNA, K., 2014. Review on positive role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in seed germination Intl., J. of Development Res., 4(1): 105-109.

S. P. C. GROOT AND C. M. KARSSEN., 1987. Gibberellins regulate seed germination in tomato by endosperm weakening: a study with gibberellin-deficient mutants. Planta.171: 525 531.

19970

58. seed Priming, Methods and its ImportanceDR. GOPAL G. R.1, DR. MORE S. G.2, DR. SAWANT G. B.3 AND DR. NARKHEDE G. W.4

1&3Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Botany, 2Assistant Professor Department of Horticulture, Aditya Agriculture College, Beed. (MH) and 4Research Scholar, ICRISAT, Hyderabad. (AP)

Definition

Seed priming can be defined as the process of controlled hydration of seeds to a level that permits pre-germinative metabolic activity to proceed, but prevents actual emergence of the radicle.

Seed Priming Methods

A. Conventional

1) Hydropriming

Hydro-priming is a simple and cheap technique in which seeds are soaked in water for a specific period and dried to a certain moisture level before sowing. This technology is applicable in areas with adverse environmental conditions including high heat and drought stress. Hydro-priming increases the water uptake efficiency and seed hydration under such conditions.

2) Osmopriming

It is a widely used commercial technique in which seeds are hydrated to a controlled level to allow pregermination metabolic activities. During the process, seeds are exposed to a controlled level of imbibition because of excess water entry to seed resulting in reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation as well as oxidative damage of cellular components such as proteins, lipid membranes, and nucleic acids. Osmo-priming through a delayed water entry to seed reduces the ROS accumulation and thus protects the cell from oxidative injury.

3) Chemical Priming

Numbers of chemicals are in use to soak a variety of crops seeds before germination. Natural and synthetic chemicals like paclobutrazol, ZnSO4, KH2PO4, CuSO4, choline, chitosan, putrescine, ethanol and Se are used in seed priming to enhance growth and tolerance in crop plants.

4) Nutrient Priming

The saturation of seeds with a certain concentration of nutrients for a specific period before sowing is called as nutrient priming. Priming of seeds with either micro- or macronutrients increases the nutrient substances and augments the germination, sprout (seedling) development and water uptake efficiency. Micronutrient seed priming is a famous technique to increase the osmosis for water regulation in seeds during the germination period.

5) Biopriming

It is a seed-presoaking technique along with the inoculation of beneficial microorganisms. It combines both the biological agent.

6) Priming with Plant Growth Regulators

Seed treatment with plant growth regulators is known to minimize the harmful effects of several environmental stresses.

7) Priming with Plant Extract

Allelochemicals such as phenolic compounds,



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, and steroids may inhibit or stimulate plant growth. Saponins can enhance nutrient absorption as they are readily soluble in water.

B) Advanced Methods

1) Use of Nanoparticles

Nanotechnology utilizes nanoparticles less than 100 nm in size, and it has a promising role in transforming food production and agriculture.

2) Use of Physical Agents

The magnetic field, UV radiation, gamma radiation, X-rays, and microwaves are some of the physical agents that are used for seed priming. The

application of mechanical waves is another way of physical method of priming having a frequency in the range of 20–100 kHz.

Importance of Seed Priming � Increases speed of emergence � Improves uniformity to optimise harvesting

efficiency � Increases the vigour of the plant � Increases the germination percentage � Improves the resistance towards water and

temperature stress � Increases the shelf life of seed � Highly suitable for small seeds � Increases yield potential

PLANT PATHOLOGY

19879

59. non-Infectious Diseases of Plants1BIMLA, 2LALITA LAKHRAN, AND 2MEERA CHOUDHARY1Division of Plant Pathology, Rajasthan Agriculture Research Institute, Durgapura, Jaipur2Department of Plant Pathology, S.K.N. College of Agriculture Jobner, Jaipur Rajasthan

Introduction: Non-infectious diseases which occur without presence of pathogen organisms. These diseases caused by the lack or excess of environmental factors like that soil moisture, temperature, pH, soil nutrients, soil structure, air and soil pollutants, light and air humidity. Non-infectious diseases may affect all plants and their all lives stages like that seed, seedling, adult, fruit, and at the market or storage condition. These diseases are usually non epidemic in nature. The symptoms of Non-infectious diseases vary with particular environmental factor. Symptoms occurs slight to severe form and effected plants may even die. The diagnosis of Non-infectious diseases is more difficult than that of infectious diseases, because absences of pathogen in these diseases and distinguish further among environmental factors or some viruses and MLO causing similar symptoms.

Non-infectious Diseases are caused by following factors:-

Temperature: The diseases which occur due to unfavourable conditions of temperature for plant growth. Low temperature affects Seedlings more than later stages of plant and high temperature affects both stages similarly. The affection by temperature is also vary plant to plant such as tropical plant e.g. tomato, citrus are grow best at high temperature and injure at low temperature as well as temperate plants e.g. alfalfa, cabbage are grow best at low temperature and injure at high temperature. Due to High temperature in temperate plants some enzyme systems are accelerated and others are inactivated

which leads abnormal biochemical reaction and cell death. In tomato plants an ice crystal form by Low temperature within cell that disrupts plasma membrane which leads to the injury and cell death.

List of High Temperature effected disease

List of Low Temperature effected disease

Blossom end rot of citrus fruits

Frost injury on apple

Water core of apple Injury in potato tuber Sunscald on fleshy fruits Storage spot on citrus

fruitsBlack heart of potatoes Cold water rings on

African violet

Light: The diseases which occur due to high and low intensity of light than essential for plant growth. Due to insufficient light chlorophyll formation decreased and slender growth with long internodes enhanced which cause spindly growth, pale leaves and pre mature fall of flowers and leaves as well as excess light than sufficient light is also effects plants. Such as the pods of beans grown at high altitude develop water soaked spots which become brown/red, shrink and grow small.

� Low light disease: Etiolation � High light disease: Bean scald

Oxygen: Deficiency of oxygen cause the desiccation of different plants roots in waterlogged soils. Low level of oxygen is generally associated with high soil moisture or high temperature. It generally



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

occurs in the middle of fleshy fruits or vegetables in the field mainly during rapid respiration while high temperature and low oxygen supply condition.

Black heart of potato: Inadequate oxygen and high temperature

Soil Moisture: The diseases which occur due to inadequate condition of soil moisture. Due to low soil moisture plant remain stunted and it’s leaves are few and there colour pale green to light yellow, small in size and drooping and it’s fruits and flower sparingly wilt and die. For short time, Annual plants are comparatively more susceptible to the low moisture but for long time they are damaged and productivity of plants are affected and produce small, low growth and scorched leaves. High soil moisture caused by any reason such as high density of irrigation, flood or poor drainage etc. decays the fibrous roots of plant by reducing the supply of oxygen which deprivation causes stress,

asphyxiation and collapse root cell.Disease caused by low soil moisture:

Leaf scorch, Drought Wilting etc.Disease caused by high soil moisture:

Bitter pit of apples, Oedema of vegetable, Flood damage of annual crops etc.

Nutrient: The diseases which occur due to inadequate amount of Nutrients for plant growth. Many minerals are necessary required by plants for growth such as P, N, K, Ca, Mg, S etc. Known as major elements and Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl etc are known as trace elements. Both major and trace elements are essential for plant in certain amount, if the amount of these elements is less than minimum level or greater than maximum level required by plant for normal growth of plant than plant become diseased and shows many internal and external symptoms of disease on its leaves, stems, flowers, fruits, seeds, roots etc

nutrient element Disease symptom name of the Disease

Nitrogen Lower leaves are yellow where upper leaves are light green, old leaves are shrivelled and yellow

Red leaves of cotton

Phosphate Dark leaves than normal and loss of leaves Purple blotchMagnesium Lower leaves turn yellow from outside and remaining part is

greenSand drown of Tobacco

Manganese Yellow spots and holes between veins Grey speck of oatsIron Mature leaves are normal but young leaves are yellow and white

with green veinsGreen netting in citrus

Potassium Yellow at tip and edges on young leaves, dead or yellow patches develop on leaves.

Leaf Scorch of Apple

Calcium New leaves stunted and exiting leaves remain green Blossom end rot of Tomato

Agrios, G.N. (2005). Plant Pathology 5th edition, page No.357-384.

19934

60. Various Detection Methods of seed MycofloraASHUTOSH C. PATIL1 AND ANANTA G. MAHALE 2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, VNMKV, Parbhani.2Ph.D. Scholar, Division of soil science& Agriculture Chemistry, SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar.

1. Blotter Paper Method

For this purpose, 400 seeds are employed for this test. Three layers of blotter paper of Petridish size (140 mm dia,) are soaked in sterile distilled water and kept on bottom plate of the Petridish. To detect internally seedborne fungus, seeds are surface sterilized with 2-3% sodium hypochlorite solution for 3 to 5 minutes, washed in three sequential changes of sterile distilled water in glass Petriplates and blott dried. Ten seeds are placed equidistantly on three layers of moist blotter paper lined on bottom plate of

the Petridishes. To detect external seedborne fungi, surface non-sterilized seeds are kept on three layers of moist blotter paper in Petridish. All Petridishes are incubated at 27±2°C for 7 days and sterile distilled water is added to moisten the blotter paper as and when required. After seven days of incubation, these plates are observed under stereo-binocular microscope to ascertain growth of various fungi associated with seeds. Based on cultural characters, various fungi appeared in Petriplates are aseptically isolated individually onto autoclaved and cooled PDA medium in separate Petriplates and incubated



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

further for a week. After a week of incubation, well developed fungal colonies appeared. By applying hyphal tip technique, these fungi are transferred aseptically onto autoclaved and cooled PDA slants in test tube, incubated to proliferate and stored in refrigerator for further studies.

2. 2,4-D Blotter Method

Four hundred seeds are employed for this test. The seeds are placed (10 seeds / Petriplate) onto the blotter paper impregnated in 0.2 per cent solution of 2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid and incubated at 27±2°C, for a week. After a week of incubation, these plates are observed under stereo-binocular microscope, to ascertain growth of various fungi associated with the seeds. Based on cultural characters, various fungi appeared in Petriplates are aseptically isolated individually onto autoclaved and cooled PDA medium in separate Petriplates and incubated further for a week. After a week of incubation, well developed fungal colonies appeared. By applying hyphal tip technique, these fungi are transferred aseptically onto autoclaved and cooled

PDA slants in test tube, incubated to proliferate and stored in refrigerator for further studies.

3. Agar Plate Method

Four hundred seeds are employed for this test. Seed are placed at the rate of (10 seeds / Petriplate) containing 20 ml of two per cent water agar and incubated at 27±2°C, for a week, as described under standard blotter method. After a week of incubation, the fungal colony growth is examined under stereo-binocular microscope.

4. Modified PDA Method

Four hundred seeds are employed for this test. Seed are placed at the rate of (10 seeds / Petriplate) containing 20 ml of autoclaved and cooled acidified Potato Dextrose Agar (pH 4.5). Seeds are placed after pre-treatment with 2-3% sodium hypochlorite solution for 3 to 5 minutes, washed in three sequential changes of sterile distilled water and the plates are incubated at 27±2°C, for a week. After a week of incubation, the fungal colony growth is examined under stereo-binocular microscope.

Blotter paper method 2, 4-D blotter method

Agar plate method Modified PDA method

5. Seed Washing Method

This test is one of the seed healths testing method

used exclusively to estimate externally seedborne pathogens. Sample seeds @ 2.0 g are dispensed in a test tube containing 10 ml sterile distilled water and



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

shaken gently for 10 minutes. The suspended fungal spores are concentrated by centrifuging at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes and discarded the supernatant. The pellet containing spores are re-suspended in two ml solution of lactophenol-cottonblue stain and the suspension is then examined under research microscope for the presence of externally seedborne fungi.

Except seed washing test, in rest of the four SHT methods employed, observations on growth of various fungi are recorded under stereo-binocular microscope. Based on habit characters, number of seeds showing growth of a particular fungus are counted and their per cent frequency / incidence are

calculated by following formula

% Frequency (PF) = No. of seeds showing growth of a specific fungus

Total No. of seeds observed X100

Reference

Agarwal, V. K. and Sinclair J. B. (1996). Principles of Seed Pathology. Second edition. Lewis publishers pp. 11

Khare, M. N. (1996). Methods to test seeds for associated fungi. Indian Phytopathology. 49: 319-328.

19943

61. Major Diseases of sesame: An overviewNEELAM GEAT1 AND DEVENDRA SINGH2

1Assistant Professor, Agricultural Research Station, Mandor, Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, 342304.2Scientist, ICAR-NAARM, Hyderabad, Telangana state, 500030

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is one of the most established oil seed crops that belong to pedaliaceae family. This is rainfed crop and cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. This crop is significant source of income, making India the world’s single largest producers and exporters nation on the planet. India accounts for 12-15% of oilseeds area, 7-8% of oilseeds production, 6-7% of vegetable oils production, 9-12% of vegetable oils import and 9-10% of edible oils consumption (Jha et al., 2014). Seed of sesame is a rich source of protein (20%), edible oil (50%) and contains about 47% oleic acid and 39% linolenic acid (Shyu and Hwang, 2002). India contributes the highest sesame acreage of above 17.73 lakh hectare, production eight lakh tones and productivity of 445 kg/hectare. The low productivity is attributed to poor crop management and exposure of the crop to a number of biotic and a biotic stresses. Now days, area and production of sesame is declining in the traditional areas due to severe biotic stresses such as Macrophomina stem and root rot, Phyllody, Powdery mildew, Alternaria leaf spot, Cercospora leaf spot, Bacterial leaf spot and blight.

1. Macrophomina stem and root rot: Stem and Root rot are caused by Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. The disease symptom starts as yellowing of lower leaves, followed by drooping and defoliation. At ground level stem gets black, which expands upward rupturing the stem and Black dots appear on the infected stem. The roots will become weak and brittle. The sudden death of plants is seen in patches. In the adult plants, the stem portion near the soil level shows enormous number of black pycnidia. The stem part can be easily pulled out leaving the rotten root portion in the

soil. The infection when spreads to pods, they open prematurely and immature seeds become shrivelled and black in colour. The disease also causes severe losses starting from seedling to maturity of the crop (Khan, 2007). The fungus remains dormant as sclerotia in soil and also in infected plant debris in soil. The infected plant debris also carries pycnidia.

The fungus principally spreads through infected seeds which carry sclerotia and pycnidia. The fungus additionally spreads through soil- borne sclerotia. The secondary spread is through the conidia transmitted by wind and downpour water. For infection, this pathogen requires 30°C day temperature or more and delayed dry spell followed by copious irrigation. This disease can be managed by treating the seed with Trichoderma viride at 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens 10 g/kg or treat the seeds with [email protected]% or Thiram at 4g/kg. Intercropping of Sesame + Mothbean (1:1 or 2:1) and soil solarization with transparent polythene mulch of 50µ for about a month and a half during hot summer after ploughing and irrigation is also helpful.

2. Phyllody: It is an intense and wide spread disease caused by phytoplasma. This disease is transmitted by the insect vector Orosius albicintus. The disease manifests itself mostly during flowering stage; all floral parts are transformed into green leafy structures, which grow profusely. The vein clearing can be seen in various flower parts. In severe infection, the entire inflorescence is replaced by short twisted leaves closely arranged on a stem with short internodes, abundant unusual branches twist down. At last, plants look like witches broom. The infected plants generally do not bear capsules, but if capsules are formed they don’t yield quality seeds. In some cases, phyllody cause crop losses as high as 99



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

per cent in yield. The losses as high as 90% has been reported by Gopal et al., 2005. This disease favours the dry climate, moderate temperature (25°C), low humidity (65%), least precipitation (0.6mm). Management practices like rogue out the infected plants periodically, expelling all the reservoir and weed and delay sowing in the endemic regions to decrease the vector population are helpful to reduce disease. Intercropping of Sesame+redgram (6:1), spraying of neem oil @50ml/l and 2-3 times with Monocrotophos (0.03%) or [email protected]% at flowering stage reduces the vector population significantly.

3. Powdery mildew: Powdery mildew of sesame is caused by Erysiphe cichoracearum (Conidial stage: Oidium acanthosperma). Initial symptom of the disease are greyish-white powdery growth appears on the upper surface of leaves. When these several spots coalesce together, the entire leaf surface may be covered with white powdery coating. In excess severity, the infection may be seen on the flowers and young capsules, leading to premature shedding. The severely affected leaves may be twisted and malformed. In the later stages of disease, the mycelial development changes to dark or black because of cleistothecia development. Powdery mildew fungus is an obligate parasite and perenneates through cleistothecia in the infected plant debris in soil. The ascospores from the cleistothecia cause primary infection. The secondary spread is occurs through wind-borne conidia. Dry humid weather and low relative humidity are favorable condition for the disease occurrence. Management of this disease can be done by removing the infected plant debris, destroy and spraying with wettable [email protected]% or dust sulphur at 20 kg/ha and repeat after 15 days if required.

4. Alternaria leaf spot: The disease caused by Alternaria sesame, is one of the most common and economically significant foliar diseases of sesame. All the growth stages of plant affected and symptoms produce are small dark brown water soaked, round to irregular lesions with concentric rings varying from 1-8 mm in diameter. Dark brown spots are developed on cotyledons, water soaked circular or irregular brown spots on leaves, and brown stripes are formed on stem. The lower surface of the spots is greyish brown in color. In severe blighting condition, defoliation occurs. Infected capsules result in premature splitting with shriveled seeds. The plants were observed to be most susceptible at 8-10 week of age. This leaf spot causing fungus is seed-borne and also soil-borne as it remains dormant in the infected plant debris. It requires low temperature (20-250C), high relative humidity, more rainfall and cloudy weather to cause infection. Seed treatment with Captan or [email protected]% or Carbendazim@ 0.1%, hot water treatment at 530C for 30 minutes gives good control of this disease. Spray with [email protected]% or Thiophanate [email protected]% or Carbendazim @ 0.1% also provide protection from the disease.

5. Cercospora leaf spot: This disease is

caused by (Cercospora sesami Zimm) and is one of the most monetarily significant diseases of sesame. All the growth stages of crop is affected at and causes huge economic losses. It appears as small, angular brown leaf spot 5-15 um in diameter on both leaf surfaces. In advance stage of the disease defoliation occurs. Under favourable environmental conditions, the disease spreads to leaf petiole, stem and capsules producing linear dark coloured deep seated lesions. The fungus is both internally and externally seed borne, but can also survive in the plant debris. Thus, primary infection in the field may be from seed and infested plant debris and secondary spread may be through wind borne conidia. Severe infection of foliage and capsule leads to defoliation and damage of sesame capsule and yield losses may extend from 22 to 53% (Enikuomehin et al., 2002). Intercropping of Sesame+Pearl millet (3:1) and spray mancozeb 1000g/ha is helpful for controlling this disease.

6. Bacterial leaf spot: Bacterial leaf spot disease is caused by Pseudomonas syringe pv. sesami. Manifestations of this disease are light brown angular spot with dark purple margin appears in the leaf veins. The disease appears as water- soaked yellow specks on the upper surface of the leaves. They expand and become angular as limited by veins and veinlets. The color of spot may be dull dark colored to purple with glossy slimes of bacterial masses. Under high rainfall or high humid conditions, spots coalesce together and at last defoliation occurs. The bacterium remains viable in the infected plant tissues. It is internally seed-borne pathogen and secondary spread occurs through rain splash. Seed treatment with hot water at 520C for 10 minutes, steeping the seed in Agrimycin 100 (250 ppm) or streptocycline suspension (0.055) for 30 minutes and spray twice with streptomycin sulphate or Oxy-tetracycline hydrochloride at 100g/ha at 15 days’ interval are the management options for the disease.

7. Bacterial blight: It is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. sesami. All the stages of plant are affected. In favourable conditions, water soaked, tiny and irregular spots are formed on the leaves which later increases and turn brown. Leaves become dry, weak and brittle, defoliation of leaves happens. Management practices like early planting i.e. immediately after onset of monsoon, destruction of crop residues, steep the seed in Agrimycin-100 (250 ppm) or streptocycline suspension (0.05%) for 30 minutes and foliar spray of streptocycline (500 ppm) are necessary to deal with the disease.



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

Macrophomina stem &root rot

Phyllody Powdery mildew Alternaria leaf spot Cercospora leaf spot

References

Enikuomehin, O. A. and Peters, O. T. (2002). Evaluation of crude extracts from some Nigerian plants for the control of field diseases of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Tropical Oilseeds Journal, 7, 84-93.

Gopal, K., Jagadeswar, R. and Prasad, G. (2005). Evaluation of sesame (Sesamum indicum) genotypes for their reaction to powdery mildew and phyllody diseases. Plant Disease Research, 20(2):126-130.

Jha, G. K., Pal, S., Mathur, V. C., Bisaria, G. and Dubey, S. K. (2014). Edible oilseed supply and demands scenario in India: Implication of policy, Division of Agriculture Economics, IARI, New Delhi.

Khan, S.N. (2007). Macrophomina phaseolina as causal agent for charcoal rot of sunflower. Mycopathologia, 5:111- 118.

Shyu, Y. S. and Hwang, L. S. (2002). Antioxidative activity of the crude extract of lignin glycosides from unroasted Burma black sesame meal. Food Research International, 35 (4): 357-365.

19950

62. Impact of environmental Factors on Disease DevelopmentPRIYANKA1, ANAND KUMAR MEENA2 AND VIRENDRA KUMAR3

Ph.D. scholar, Division of Plant Pathology, RARI, Durgapura, SKNAU, Jobner,Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, SKNAU, JobnerAssistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, Carrier Point University, Kota.

Plant diseases play key role in the agricultural production and productivity. Plant pathologists have long considered that environmental factors like, temperature, moisture, CO2 and soil pH influences the plant diseases; the classic disease triangle emphasizes the interactions between plant hosts, pathogens and environment which are responsible in causing plant disease. An understanding of these factors and their interactions for a particular disease in a particular locality allows prediction of disease outbreaks and prevention measures to reduce the amount of disease.

Effect of Temperature

Temperature is indubitably one of the most important factors influencing the occurrence and development of many diseases because each pathogen has a specific temperature range for growth, activity and

infection. � The significant change in temperature may

affect crop physiology and resistance to a disease. Each pathogen has an optimum temperature for its growth, spore production and disease development. Example, spores of Phytopthora may germinate in many ways at different temperatures. Sporangia of Phytopthora infestans produce germ tubes directly at 25°, but at 10° C temperature, they produce zoospores.

� Temperatures for Storage of fruits, vegetables and nursery stock are manipulated to control fungi and bacteria that cause decay during storage, provided the temperature does not change quality of products. For example, rotting of sweet potatoes due to Rhizopus stolonifera (Fr.) Lind can be prevented by storage for short



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

periods at 20. � Temperature also effects plant diseases

by masking symptoms of certain viral and mycoplasmal diseases and make them more difficult to detect. For example, barley yellow dwarf is masked at 32°, but produces marked symptoms at 16°, whereas symptoms of aster yellows on barley are severe at 32° but absent at 16° C.

� Unfavorable temperatures may lengthen the incubation period of a pathogen which influence the more number of spore generations occurring during a season. Example, The incubation period of Pseudoperonospora humuli can vary from 3 days at 21-25° to 23 days at 5°, or 11 days at 29° C.

Effect of CO2 Concentration

Increased levels of CO2 can impact both the host and the pathogen in several ways. The increased concentration of CO2 and temperature change the sense and responses of the plant and soil microbes and affect the plant pathogen interactions. Pathogen growth can also be affected by higher CO2 concentrations which resulting in greater fungal spore production.

Effect of Moisture

Moisture in the plant environment can include wetness, rainfall, relative humidity or water obtained from irrigation. Moisture is critical to the spread of most plant diseases and it influences the initiation and development of infectious plant diseases in many ways. Some diseases are most serious in dry soils and others in wet soils. For example, club root of crucifers is favored by wet soils and in Pea foot rot caused by Fusarium solani is most severe in soils of intermediate moisture.

� Moisture is essential for the fungal spores’ germination and penetration to the host by formation of germ tube.

� Moisture in the form of rain splashes and running water also play an important role in the dispersal and spread of the pathogens.

Effect of Light

Intensity and duration of light may either increase or decrease the susceptibility of plants to infection and also to the severity of disease. For example, low light intensity reduces the level of club root attack in cabbages except where the soil is heavily contaminated by Plasmodiophora brassicae. Each pathogen requires quite different light for their growth and spore germination, like Uredospores of various rust fungi have quite different light requirements for germination.

� Light intensity also enhances the plants susceptibility to viral infections.

Effect of Soil pH � The occurrence of some plant diseases is greatly

influenced by soil pH. Important example of effect of soil pH is club root of crucifers, which is most severe at a pH of 5.7.

� Infection of potato scab pathogen (Streptomyces scabies) is suppressed at a pH of 5.2 but it become more severe at a pH 5.2 to 8.0 or above.

Soil Type

Type of soil may affect plant growth and development of some pathogens. For example light sandy soil low in organic matter favors growth and development of many types of nematode diseases and another pathogen like Damping-off disease pathogen increases in heavy, cold, water-logged soils. Fusarium wilt disease also causes more damage in lighter and higher soils.

References

Sharma J. N., Karthikeyan G., Singh M., Fundamental of Plant Pathology p 109-112.

Van der Plank, J.E. (1983). Plant diseases: epidemics and control. Academic Press, New York.

Waggoner, P.E., Horsfall, J.G. and Lukens, R.J. (1972). EPIMAY A simulator oJ southern cornleaJbLight. Bulletin of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station No. 729.

19953

63. Defense Mechanisms in Plants against Plant PathogensDR. ANAND KUMAR MEENA1, PRIYANKA2 AND VIRENDRA KUMAR3

1Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, SKNAU, Jobner2Ph.D. scholar, Division of Plant Pathology, RARI, Durgapura, SKNAU, Jobner.3Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, Carrier Point university, Kota.

Introduction

Most probably adjustment is, one of the most important virtues of a system that ensures it

survival. Plants do not exist in isolation but interact with many other species in their natural habitats, and plants are surrounded by number of potential



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

enemies like biotic and various kinds of abiotic stresses. Thus, defense against any ‘deleterious act’ has become a natural and universal response of plant system against the pathogens. Plants counter these threats with defense systems that prevent infection or combat pathogens that do manage to infect the plant.

Pre-existing Structural Defenses (Morphological Defence Mechanism)

Cell Wall Defense Structures

The first line of defence in plants is its surface which acts as pre-formed structural barriers that help limit pathogen attachment, invasion and infection. Cell wall of plants which act as a major line of defense against fungal and bacterial pathogens. It provides an excellent structural barrier that also incorporates a wide variety of chemical defenses that can be rapidly activated when the cell detects the presence of potential pathogens. For example, Potato tubers resistant to a fungal pathogen Pythium debaryanum contain higher fiber which provide resistant against this certain pathogen.

Cutin, suberin, and waxes are fatty substances of the host plant that may be deposited in either primary or secondary cell walls and outer protecting tissues of the plant body, including bark which also acts as structural defense against many pathogens.

Some plants have cells which are highly specialized for plant defense mechanism like, Idioblasts (which act as crazy cells”) which help and protect plants against herbivores because they contain toxic chemicals or sharp crystals that tear the mouthparts of insects and mammals as they feed upon the host plant.

Histological Defense Structures

Formation of Cork Layers

Plants are induced to form several cork layers beyond the point of infection, by several fungi or bacteria, and even by some viruses and nematodes. These cork layers formed by the plant inhibit further invasion by the pathogen beyond the initial lesion and also block the spread of the toxic substances secreted by the pathogen. Furthermore, cork layers also stop the flow of nutrients and water from the healthy tissues to the infected tissues and withdraw the pathogen without nourishment later the pathogen die due to lack of nutrient and he dead tissues, including the pathogen, are thus delimited by the cork layers. Tree cankers, caused by the pathogen Seiridium cardinale on cypress trees, resistant plant restrict growth of the pathogen by forming ligno-suberized boundary zones.

Formation of Abscission Layers

An abscission layer consists of a gap formed between two layers of leaf cells surrounding the locus of infection. Upon infection, the middle lamella at the site of infection is dissolved throughout the thickness of the leaf and completely cut off the area

of the infection.

Formation of Tyloses

Tyloses are overgrowths of the adjacent living parenchymatous tissues, which protrude into xylem vessels by forming pits. Tyloses are formed in xylem vessels of most plants during invasion by most of the xylem-invading pathogens.

Chemical defense mechanism

Plant secret some chemicals on the surfaces of plants or compounds in plant cells which may inhibit the development of pathogens. Phytoanticipins may be excreted into the external environment like rhizosphere or phylloplane of the plant, accumulate in dead cells or they may be sequestered in vacuoles in an inactive form which help the host plants to inhibit the growth of the pathogen. Onion of brown skins contain the quinones catechol and protocatechuic acid, which inhibit germination of spores of the smudge pathogen of onion. In another example, the take-all pathogen GaeumannomAces graminis var. auenae that attacks oats as well as wheat and barley, releases the enzyme avenacinase which inhibit the growth and development of the pathogen. Avenacinase detoxifies the triterpenoid saponin, avenacin, found in epidermal cells of the roots of oat plants.

Pathogen recognition

Host require a specific recognition factors, they may not become infected by a pathogen if their surface cells lack these specific recognition factors or specific molecules or structures that can be recognized by the pathogen to infect a host plant. If the pathogen does not recognize one of its host plants, it may not become attached to the plant or may not infect the host plant which provides the defense the host plant to the certain pathogen.

Lack of Host Receptors and Sensitive Sites for Toxins

In host–pathogen interactions in which the pathogen produces a host-specific toxin, which is responsible for the symptoms, is contemplation to attach to the host and react with specific receptors or sensitive sites in the cell of the host.

Lack of Essential Substances for the Pathogen

Some plant species or varieties due to some reason do not produce one of the substances essential for the survival of a pathogen, or for development of infection by any pathogen, would be resistant to the pathogen that requires it to cause infection. For example, Rhizoctonia require hyphal cushion to infect a plant from which the fungus sends into the plant for penetration of its hyphae another pathogen Venturia inaequalis, that cause of apple scab, which had lost the ability to synthesize a certain growth factor, also lost the ability to cause infection.



PLA

nt

PAtH

oLo

GY

Conclusion

Plants have evolved multiple defense mechanisms during their evolutionary process against the pathogens and various types of environmental stress which help them to defend themselves against the biotic and abiotic stresses.

References

Agrios, G.N. 2005. Plant Pathology.5th Ed. Reed Elsevier India Pvt. Ltd publishers. New Delhi 208-244pp.

Blackhurst, F.M. and R.K.S. Wood 1963. “Resistance of tomato plant to Verticillium albo- atrum”, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc.,40:145-154

Dufrenoy, J. 1936. “Cellular immunity,” Am. J. of Bot.,23:70-79

Lawrence, K.C.F., E.B. Levine, D.M.S 2005. Peries, O.S. (1992) “Studies on strawberry mildew varities”, Ann. App. Biol.,50:225-233.

Van Loon, L. C., 1997. Induced resistance in plants and role of pathogenesis-related proteins. Eur. J. Plant Pathol., 103, 753–765.

19958

64. Perspectives of PGPR / Rhizosphere Microbes in Management of Plant DiseasesSATYADEV PRAJAPATI AND LALITA LAKHRAN

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology at Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur (Raj.)*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

In present day sustainable agriculture is the burning issue and it is impossible to work in this direction without taking into account the soil biodiversity. Soil microflora is an integral part of agricultural biodiversity and has a strong influence on crop growth and yield. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are plant-friendly rhizospheric bacteria which influence the plant growth and health in a positive manner. Soil bacteria that indirectly stimulate plant growth may be referred to as biocontrol PGPB with production of siderophores, antibiotics, hydrolytic enzymes, HCN and with the ability for colonizing of root surface. But there is ample evidence that induce that induced systemic resistance (ISR) can be an alternative mechanism to antagonism for achieving biocontrol of plant diseases. Variability of PGPR is due to performance at different locations and seasons and numerous biotic and abiotic factors.

What is PGPR

Rhizobacteria are root-colonizing bacteria that form a symbiotic relationship with many legumes. Though parasitic varieties of rhizobacteria exist, the term usually refers to bacteria that form a relationship beneficial for both parties (mutualism). Such bacteria are often referred to as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, or PGPRs.

Importance of Rhizosphere Bacterial Populations

Help to host for uptake of nutrient from soil. Help to host for tolerate against environmental stress. Example: Nodulation of soybean are inhibited by low root zone temperature, B. subtilis NEB4, NEB5 and B. thuringiensis NEB17 can help host to overcome

this stress. Increase crop yield. PGPR suppress plant diseases. Produce Phytohormones which enhance growth and increase yield. Enhancing population of other beneficial bacteria or fungi.

Mechanism of Action of Biocontrol Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)

Siderophores

Siderophores means iron chelating compound secreted by microorganisms. In rhizosphere, where there is a high competition for nutrients among the heterogeneous micro-flora, secretion of low molecular mass (400-1000 daltons) iron binding molecules termed as siderophores permit the producers to outgrow other micro flora. The bacteria that produce the siderophore take up the iron in the outer cell membrane of cell. Fungal siderophores generally have a lower affinity than do the siderophores produced by bio control PGPR. So biocontrol PGPR are better competitors for available iron. Siderophores produced by fluorescent pseudomonads mediate iron regulated antagonism against a variety of phytopathogens in culture. Essential nutrient for plants are relatively insoluble in soil solutions. Siderophores produced by PGPR can chelate iron.

Antibiosis

Antibiosis is the dominant mechanism of disease suppression by the introduced strains that produce these secondary metabolites. These antibiotics are produced in the spermosphere and rhizosphere and play a major role in the suppression of soil borne pathogens. e.g. Phenazines, oomycin A, pyrrolnitrin, pyoluteorin, 2,4-Diacetylphloroglucinol like



en

toM

oLo

GY

antibiotics are produced by Pseudomonas fluroscens. The antibiotics may act on plant pathogen by inducing fungistatic, inhibition of spore germination, lysis of fungal mycelia or by exerting effects.

Induced Systemic Resistance

Induced systemic resistance (ISR) is based on long term activation of plant defense mechanisms induced by pathogens, non-pathogens (PGPR) and chemical agents such as salicylic acid, 2-6 dichloro-isonicotinic acid (INA). PGPR induces systemic resistance (ISR) leading to plant protection against a broad spectrum of pathogens without causing any symptoms. It has been demonstrated that PGPR Pseudomonas induce systemic resistance to fungal root pathogens, bacterial leaf pathogens, and viruses under green house and field conditions (Alka Gupta et al, 2000). Induced resistance is a state of enhanced defensive capacity developed by a plant when appropriately stimulated.

Role of Ethylene

Ethylene can induce some of the PR proteins e.g. IM-3-glucanase and Chitinase. Structural reinforcements of cell wall such as lignifications and accumulation of hydroxyproline rich cell wall proteins are also enhanced by ethylene.

Root Colonization and Competition

Extensive colonization of root surface by pseudomonads and other micro flora is essential for an efficient biocontrol activity. Competition for nutrients and suitable ecological niches on the

root surface is also a mechanism by which some biocontrol PGPB are known to protect plants against phytopathogens. The root surface and surrounding rhizosphere in the available source of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphate and micro nutrient rich niches attracting a great diversity of microorganisms, including phytopathogens. Competition for these nutrients and niches is a fundamental mechanism by which PGPB protect plants from phytopathogens.

Hydrogen Cyanide

Many PGPR produce diverse range of low molecular weight metabolites with antifungal activity. Many Pseudomonads produce hydrogen cyanide (HCN) from oxidation of glycine. There is extensive evidence that HCN producing rhizospheric and phylloplane colonizing Pseudomonads suppress soil borne and foliar phytopathogens.

Phytohormones Production by PGPR

PGPR produce Phytohormones which stimulate plant growth through root development and proliferation resulting in the efficient uptake of water and nutrient. Phytohormones such as Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), Cytokinin, Gibberellins, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase produce by PGPR.

Lytic Enzyme Production

Hydrolytic enzymes produced by some biocontrol PGPB lyse specifically fungal cell wall and their by prevent phytopathogens from proliferating. P. stutzeri produced chitinease that lyse cell wall of fusarium solani.

ENTOMOLOGY

19779

65. Bioluminescence in InsectsJ. KOUSIKA AND M. THIYAGARAJAN

Post-Doctoral Fellow, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Bioluminescence is defined when a living organism produces and emits lights based on the chemical reaction. Bio is a Greek work meaning ‘living’ and ‘lumen’ is a Latin word meaning light. Here the chemical energy is converted as light energy mediated by an enzyme-catalyst, luciferase. During the reaction process the chemical luciferin is oxidized in the presence of the enzyme luciferase to produce light and an ineffective product oxyluciferin. The insect produces light for courtship, predation and defence. In Coleoptera, beetles have largest variety of light producing species mainly in the Elateroidae superfamily which includes the family Lampyridae (fireflies), Phengodidae (railroad worms) and Elateridae (click beetles). In species of Xantholinusin

belonging to the family Staphylinidae, the larva is said to be luminescence. Fireflies emit greenish yellow light with specific duration and frequency for courtship. Similarly, the click beetles have two dorsal prothoraxic lanterns, which emits green light continuously and ventral abdominal organ that emits green orange light continuously during its flight. The railroad worms emit wide range of light from green to orange light from lateral lanterns along the body and cephalic lanterns emitting yellow- green to red light depending on the species. The insects which produces lights also to attract the prey for example the Brazilian larvae of click beetle Pyrearinuster mitilluminans. In New Zealand caves the larvae of Arachnocampa sp., Mycetophilidae belonging to the



en

toM

oLo

GY

order Diptera construct webs in the roof. The larvae produce blue green light from its Malpighian tubules to attract the prey. For courtship, the male lands on the female pupa and it glows during its emergence. Other genera belonging to this family is Orfelia fultoni which construct webs in the stream banks of Appalachian Mountains of eastern USA. In order Hemiptera the planthoppers of family, Fulgoridae are bizarre and charismatic insects. The fulgorid species are vibrantly coloured and produce cuticular waxes belonging to keto Esters.

Attraction

In fireflies, the light it produces is used as mating signal to attract the individuals of same species for aggregation which improves the chances for finding its mate. In some species females are wingless where light production is an important clue for the male. The flash pattern in insect varies between species and sex. In Photurispyralis sp., the male and female emerges at dust emitting single short flash at a time. The female will climb the grass and find the males within 10-12 feet and they will exchange the signals before mating.

Predation

The New Zealand glowworm fly, Arachnocampa luminosa constructs it uses light as a lure to attract prey. The female lay eggs in the ceiling of the caves and after hatching the larvae hang in the sticky thread producing light which attracts the prey. The attracted prey gets stuck with the sticky thread. During the dark night, the cave will glow because the light produced by the insects and it is a tourist spot in New Zealand. Similarly, in North America Orfelia fultoni lives in the stream banks and overhangs to catch the prey by producing deep blue light in darkness. Mimicry

The female firefly Photuris produces light pattern similar to another flirefly Photinus to attract its male for prey so that they get their prey as well as the defensive chemical lucibufagins which it cannot synthesis. The south American giant cockroach belonging to the genus Lucihormetica is said to imitate the poisonous bioluminescent click beetle but there is no evidence to prove that the cockroaches are bioluminescence.

Defence

The railroad worms produce light continuously from their head region as the larvae walks which is the normal light producing situation. The light production switches over to the lateral region indicates the defensive function of the insect. The sudden light in the lateral region repels the predator. They used to live in high densities with small areas and uses light simultaneously to frighten the enemies approaching. It is also said that the light emission is also used to indicate the females which is ready to lay their eggs in places of high population and limited food.

Bioluminescence for Pest Management

It is used to mapping the distribution pattern of an organism. In USA (2001), scientist have developed genetically modified pink bollworm, which is a major pest in cotton infesting bolls with a green fluorescent protein derived from a jelly fish, Aequora Victoria which is called GFP. The genetically modified poll worm strain use to produce green in larval stage and this is used to study the distribution of the pest.

Reference

Long Kumer Y and Ram Kumar. 2018. Bioluminescence in Insects. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci 7(3): 187-193

19803

66. Productive Pest silkworm and their ProductTARA YADAV AND RICHA BANSHIWAL

Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Entomology, RARI (S.K.N.A.U.), Durgapura*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Silk is a valuable natural protein fiber produced by certain insects. Pure silk is one of the finest and most beautiful natural fibers of the world and is said to be “the queen of fibres”. Pure silk produced from mulberry silkworm. Sericulture is an ancient industry in our country India, dating back to at least second century BC (Jadhav et al., 2011) [In India, sericulture is one of the most important agro and forest based cottage industry, earning a foreign exchange of Rs. 400 corers / annum and providing gainful employment. Sericulture is rearing of silkworms either on mulberry or non-mulberry plants for production of silk.

Types of Silkworm

There are many species of silk-moth which can produce the silk of commerce, but only few have been exploited by man for the purpose. Moths belonging to families Saturniidae and Bombycidae produce silk of commerce.1. Mulberry silkworm: Bombyx mori which

feeds on mulberry leaves. It belongs to the family Bombycidae. It is totally domesticated insect and is never found in a wild state. It is most important of all the silkworm.

2. Tasar silkworm: Antheraea mylitta, A.



en

toM

oLo

GY

paphia, A. royeli, A. pernyi, A. proyeli etc. This silk is of coppery colour. They feed on the leaves of Arjun, Asan, Sal, Oak and various other secondary food plants.

3. Eri silkworm: Attacus ricini feeds on castor leaves.

4. Munga silkworm: Antheraea assama which feeds on Som, Champa and Moyankuri.Female silk moth lays eggs and then the larvae

are hatched out of eggs known as caterpillars. The grown size and they enter in next stage of life called as pupa. Pupa secretes fiber when this fiber comes in contact of air and it hardens to become as silk fiber.

Product of Sericulture � Silk filaments are the main product of silk

industry which are obtained from cocoon by reeling process.

� Oil is obtained from dead pupae. Pupae oil is used in soap industry. The faeces of silkworms are used in the extraction of vitamin E and vitamin K. Cake is used for poultry feed.

� After silk filament removal the remaining parts of the pupal covering are used for the manufacture of garlands.

� Silkworm faeces are also uses as organic manure and fish food.

� Activated carbon and acid resistant plastic

sheets are made from faeces of silkworms. This is also used in the production of Biogas along with cow dung.

� The remaining of mulberry leaves after feeding silkworms, are given to milch cows. This increase the milk yield.

� Mulberry fruits are edible and also used in the wine industry. Mulberry wine is obtained from over ripened sour mulberry fruits (Ehow, 2009).

� Silk cream protects the skin from sunburn and is especially suitable for sensitive skin. Silk cream contains eighteen amino acids which are absorbed instantly to nourish the skin and make it moist.

� Silk lotions are good moisturizers to keep the skin soft and moist.

� Stems of matured mulberry trees are used in the preparation of cricket bats and leaves of mulberry plant are of medicinal value too.

References

Jadhav A.D., Sathe, T.V, Dubal, R.S., Yankanchi, S.R., Bhusnar, A.R., Muley, D.V. 2011. The research trend for improving added value of sericulture. In: Proceedings of 5th Bacsa International Conference Sericulture for Multi products–New Prospects for Development, Bucharest, Romania.

Ehow. How to make mulberry wine. Food and Drink.www.eHow.com, 2009.

19819

67. Defensive Behavior in Ladybird Beetle (Coccinellidae)*SASWATI PREMKUMARI, MAHALLE RASHMI MANOHAR AND SABUJ GANGULY

Department of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, B.H.U. Varanasi- 221005*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Lady bird beetles belong to the family Coccinellidae of the insect order Coleoptera. They are holometabolous insects and possess five stages in their life cycle i.e., egg, larva, pupa, and adult. There are three molting and four larval instars. Members of this family are commonly known as ladybirds, ladybugs, or lady beetles. Approximately 6000 known species of Coccinellidae have been recorded worldwide.

These are small beetles of about 1 mm to over 10 mm in length depending upon species. Generally, females are larger in size than the males. They have a dome-shaped back and a flat underside. Elytra display bold colors and markings, usually red, orange or yellow with black spots. They have short legs, which tuck away under the body. Their short

antennae form a slight club at the end. The head is almost hidden beneath a large pronotum and the mouthparts are modified for chewing. The term “lady” references the Virgin Mary, the blessed lady who was often depicted in a red cloak. The 7-spots on ladybird are believed to represent the Virgin’s seven joys and seven sorrows (Science daily, 2012). There are many other types of lady bird beetles such as 7 spotted (Coccinella septempunctata), 2 spotted ladybugs (Adalia bipunctata) etc.

Food and habitat of ladybugs: Most of the ladybugs are predators which generally feed on aphids and other soft bodied insects. An adult ladybug can devour 50 aphids per day, several hundred aphids before mating and scientists estimate that the beetle consumes as many as 5,000 aphids over its lifetime. Some of the ladybug species feed on fungus and its mildew even some feed on the



en

toM

oLo

GY

leaf. Those that feed on aphids develop faster, age faster, move faster, typically are larger, and lay their eggs in clusters. Those that feed on scale insects develop more slowly, live longer, move more slowly, typically are smaller, and lay their eggs singly.

Special Adaptations and Defense Mechanisms of Ladybug

Reflex bleeding

When threatened, ladybugs exude small droplets of hemolymph from their leg joints (tibio-femoral articulations), an unusual response known as “reflex bleeding.” The yellow colored haemolymph act as a repellent by having foul smell as well as containing various alkaloid toxins (adaline, coccinelline, exochomine, hippodamine, etc.) that make them unpalatable to spiders, ants, or other predators. The exudate, which can account for up to 20% of their body weight, functions and able to repel vertebrate and invertebrate predators. The immature stages (eggs, larvae, and pupae) also contain the toxins and the toxins are said to be produced by dorsal glands in the larvae (Dixon and Dixon, 2000). Due to this bad smelling fluid they can effectively deter the predators.

Aposematic coloring

Ladybirds are a diverse group of species and come in many different colors and patterns, from yellow and orange to even camouflaged browns. The color combination black and red or orange is known as aposematic coloring. The bright coloration of different ladybird species acts as a warning signal

for the predators to beware of the foul smelling, poisonous chemicals secreted by them which they use for defense. Some ladybugs use a camouflage coloration to match the vegetation when they are in hibernation and develop the characteristic bright colors to warn off predators during their mating season. Research shows that a ladybug’s colors are an indication of its toxicity. Brighter ladybugs have higher levels of toxins than paler beetles.

Playing dead

Ladybugs can play dead if they feel threatened. This is a technique in which they fold in their legs as though mimicking a dead insect. The apparent look of death, generally deter the predators from eating them. They don’t play dead forever; they recover once the threat has passed.

Chemical defense mechanism

The 7-spot ladybird beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, emits some volatile compounds such as isopropyl methoxy pyrazine or pyrazine. Pyrazine function in antipredatory defense as well as in intraspecific communication, attraction, and aggregation behavior (Schimidtberg et. al., 2019). One species of ladybugs, Harmonia axyridis secretes a defensive chemical ‘harmonine’ which is isolated from its heamolymph.

Generally during the scarcity of food, the insect shows its cannibalism behavior. They can eat the newly emerged adult and also the larvae of its own. Eggs or pupae also provide protein to an adult in food scarcity condition. But the larvae secret an intraspecific repellent to repel the adult ladybugs.

19826

68. Values of Insects in Medicinal scienceKANCHAN BISHT

Assistant Professor, Department of Agriculture, Sai Institute of Paramedical and Allied Sciences, Dehradun

Today there has been an upsurge of interest in the use of insects as medicine. Insects and the substances extracted from them have been used as medicinal resources by human cultures all over the world. Besides medicine, these organisms have also played mystical and magical roles in the treatment of several illnesses. However, there is one fascinating area of entomology known as “Entomothrapy” that study the medicinal uses of insects.

Science has already proven the existence of immunological, analgesic, antibacterial, diuretic, anesthetic and antirheumatic properties in the bodies of insects. Here are some lesser-known insects, who are used in human medicine:

1. Ants: One species of ant that has been given the name “Devil’s ant” appears to produce chemicals

that can help with “arthritis sufferers”. Dr. Roy Altman and a team of researchers at the University of Miami recently completed their first controlled study of ant venom’s benefits for arthritis patients.

The South American tree ant, Pseudomyrmex sp., commonly called as the ‘Samsum Ant’s’ venom can reduce inflammation, inhibit tumor growth and treat liver ailments Even 3,000 years ago the mandibles of soldier ants were used as stitches.

2. Grasshoppers and Mole cricket: Several African cultures use herb made from ground grasshoppers as pain relievers, especially for migraine. Sundried grasshopper is turned into a tea for the treatment of asthma and hepatitis.



en

toM

oLo

GY

For treating sprain, the paste of Gryllotalpa Gryllotalpa (mole cricket) is spread over the affected area by the Kurichchan tribe.

3. Blister Beetle: Across southeast Asia, healers have capitalized on blister beetles healing power science ancient times. The beetles allegedly have aphrodisiac power and probably represent humankind’s first remedy for erectile dysfunction.

Blister beetle secretions reduce burning pain sensations commonly associated with urinary tract infection, insect bites, kidney problems, etc.

Blister beetle secretes cantharidin, which acts as a powerful protein blocker in the human body. Researchers subsequently discovered that cantharidin may be useful in the treatment of cancerous tumors most resistant to radiation and chemotherapy.

4. Termites: Traditional Indian Ayurveda practitioners uses termites and their mounds for ulcers, rheumatic diseases, anemia, and pain. In Africa, termites are used in asthma, bronchitis, influenza and whooping cough.

5. Maggots: Maggot therapy used in military medicine very effectively. These were used in Renaissance Europe, in the Napoleonic wars, the American civil war, in first and second world wars. These days’ maggots are being used again to help people who suffer from flesh-eating bacteria or who are not responding to standard antibiotic treatment. Burn treatments are also helped by maggots that will eat away dead and dying tissue and allow new and healthy tissue to grow.

6. Bees: The use of bee products for medicinal purpose stands out as one of the few alternative medicines that have its technical term “Apitherapy”. Honeybee products have a long medicinal history. All cultures have folk medicine traditions that include the use of honeybee products, that is, honey, bee pollen, propolis, royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom. These products have been found to exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-

viral and antioxidant activities. It has been also shown that natural honeybee products inhibit tumor cell growth and metastasis and induce apoptosis of cancer cells. Hence, these bioactive natural products may prove to be useful in cancer therapy.

7. Silkworm: Emerging science suggests that silkworm extracts may have special benefits as dietary supplements for patients with heart disease and circulatory disorders. Silkworm extracts also used as anti-cholesterol medications without harmful side effects.

8. Spiders: Spider silk is an ideal material to use in skin grafts or ligament implants because it is one of the strongest known natural fibers and triggers little immune response. Spider silk may also be used to make fine sutures for stitching nerves.

9. Wasps: Scientists from the Institute of Biomedical Research, Barcelona have carried out successful in vitro tests using wasp venom, to kill cancer cells. Wasp venom contains peptides, which show anti-tumor activity and kills only cancer cells, leaving the healthy cells around it.

10. Cockroaches: In the head of cockroach there is a chemical compound that can kill E. coli and methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), two harmful bacteria that are resistant to most drugs. It was discovered that tissues taken from the brains and nervous system of the insects killed off over 90% of MRSA and E. coli.

References

Srivastava SK, Babu N, Pandey H 2009. Traditional insect bioprospecting-as human food and medicine. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 8: 485–494.

Wilsanand V.; Varghese P and Rajitha P. 2007. Therapeutics of insects and insect products in South Indian traditional medicine. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 6(4): 563:568.

Van Huis A 2003. Insects as food in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 23: 163–185.

19831

69. Locust MenaceMONICA JAT AND GAURANG CHHANGANI1Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Entomology, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-1100122Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, MPUAT, Udaipur-303001*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Locusts are polyphagous insect pest which can be serious pests of agriculture due to their swarming

behaviour. Locusts is like grasshopper which develops gregarious characteristics. Favourable environmental conditions leads to increase in tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in



en

toM

oLo

GY

levels of serotonin, allow the transition from solitary to gregarious phase like change in colour, eat and breed much more. There are three species of true locusts in India- 1. Desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria 2. Bombay locust, Patanga succinata 3. Migratory locust, Locusta migratoria. The first and second species are important in Gujarat and Rajasthan but the desert locust is of all India importance. It is an international pest and efforts are constantly made to control through (LWO) Locust Warning Organization, Jodhpur, Rajasthan along with the DPPQS.

Breeding Season of Locust

In India, there are two breeding season in one year-

Summer breeding season ii. Monsoon breeding season.

In Iran, Baluchistan and South-eastern Arabia rainfall is common in winter and early spring and vegetation too available there which create favourable conditions for locust to breed late in winter or in spring. For example, in Baluchistan breeding starts in January and then again in april. Thus, the swarms that originate in Arabia breed in Baluchistan and the surrounding countries during the spring and migrate to Pakistan and India in summer season. In western India there is vegetation after the monsoon and locust swarms breed up to November. If rainfall is low and vegetation is poor, then locust population transformed in to the solitary phase and even in this phase it damages some of the crops.

Life Cycle

Gregarious phase adults are rosy pink on fledging which darkens with age to grayish or brownish red then to yellow on sexual maturation. Locust completes its life-cycle in three stages i.e., egg, nymph and adult. Egg laying starts immediately after mating and continues for weeks.

A single female lays 11 egg-pods, which contain 120 eggs each. Before egg laying, female bores hole in sandysoil up to 5-10 cm deep with the help of her ovipositor and covers the hole with some frothy secretions which makes the pod water proof. The duration of egg stage depend upon the soil

conditions, temperature and moisture. Eggs hatch in 3-4 weeks. The newly hatched nymphs creep out of the holes and march in swarms and feed on all the vegetation. After 5 nymphal instars, it fledged in to adult which matures up to 2 weeks. Adult locust swarms can fly up to 150 km a day with the wind and adult insects can consume roughly their own weight in fresh food per day. The locust swarms generally rest during night on vegetation. In morning, when temperature rises they hop and fly to form a swarm.

Present Scenario

According to LWO, earlier the year 1993 witnessed the biggest attack, but the time has already been surpassed. Coming months will pose major challenges, as locusts numbers in Iran and Pakistan are alarming, and summer breeding time for them is also approaching. Farmers of the west Rajasthan faced the worst attack of locusts which migrated from neighbouring country, Pakistan, there is now danger of the swarms of insects laying eggs which can lead to even more damage to crops. Officials said that one locust lays around 100 eggs, and hence, it will be very tough to control the menace.

The locusts have already affected around 11 districts in the Rajasthan. In Barmer district locusts started giving eggs because temperature touched 15-20 degrees. However, the threat shall increase with rising temperatures. According to girdhwari report, farmers have really incurred big losses and the locust menace has been ongoing since May 2019, and it continues till date despite all measures taken.

LWO, termed it as the biggest locust attack in the last four or five decades. The challenge is that every time a new swarm comes and the air direction changes. Locusts take rest during night hours, only at that time, it can be attacked. Those still left out are being hit the next day when they sit, but this time swarms coming were really big.

Anti-Locust Organization

In India the anti-locust organization consists of1. The Central Anti-Locust Organization2. The State Anti- Locust Organization

Activities carried out by this Organization are:

1. Monitoring of locust activity2. Issuance of fortnightly locust situation bulletins3. Organizing Indo-Pak border meetings on locust

situation4. Conducting trainings to the farmers and locust

staff on locust control5. Conducting research on locusts and

grasshoppersEarlier this year, Indian authorities were able

to bring swarms of desert locusts under control, but an outbreak in neighbouring Pakistan has again raised concerns about the safety of crops such as wheat and oilseeds in India. The plague has already caused extensive damage to pastures and crops and threatened food security in several countries over the Indian Ocean in east Africa, including Somalia,



en

toM

oLo

GY

Ethiopia, Kenya Eritrea and Djibouti. Swarms have also spread into Tanzania, Uganda and now South Sudan. India has planned to buy drones and

specialist equipment to monitor the movement of locusts and spray insecticides to ward off a new outbreak.

19835

70. endosymbionts in Insect DefenceA. VASUDHA*1 AND M. SREEDHAR2

Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore-641003 (Tamil Nadu).Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pant nagar-263145 (Uttarakhand).*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Endosymbionts are the organisms that live within the body of the hosts. The endosymbionts associated with the insects are mostly microbes like bacteria, fungi, protists and yeasts providing wide variety of benefits such as digestive symbiosis, nutritional symbiosis and defensive symbiosis. The digestive symbiosis seen in termites such as Reticulitermes flavipes bears a dense community of protists that degrade cellulose, yielding short chain fatty acids which are utilized as a carbon source by the insect.

The endosymbionts in insects is broadly classified into obligate (primary) symbionts and facultative (secondary) symbionts. The primary symbionts exhibit essentially nutrient based relationship providing essential nutrients to the host. Primary symbionts typically occupy specialized host organs called bacteriomes. The example for the obligate symbiosis is Buchnera aphidicola, which infects the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum and provides its host with essential amino acids. The facultative endosymbionts are not essential for host survival and their presence can be neutral, beneficial or detrimental to the host. These facultative microbes inhabit variety of cells and in the heamolymph. Common examples of the endosymbionts are Wolbachia, Rickettsia, Cardinium, Spiroplasma, Hamiltonella, Regiella and Serratia.

Defence Mediated Functions by Endosymbionts

Primary symbionts have not been reported to provide protection to hosts. Insect facultative symbionts, providing defence against natural enemies is one of the major effects recently discovered for several insect–symbiont associations. The following are some of the examples of the defences provided by symbionts.

Pea aphid, A. pisum has primary endosymbiont Buchnera in addition to it also infected with secondary symbionts. The most common secondary symbionts are Regiella insecticola, Serratia symbiotica and Hamiltonella defensa. A. pisum

natural enemy Aphidius ervia solitary endoparasitic wasp, deposit an egg in the nymph of aphid resulting the death of the aphids. The secondary symbionts Hamiltonella and Serratia both conferred partial protection to attack by A. ervia by causing mortality to developing wasp larvae. The fungal pathogen Pandora neoaphidis infection results in the mortality of aphids. A. pisum lines showing resistance towards P. neoaphidis are infected with endosymbiont Regiella.

Females of the digger wasp, Philanthus triangulum (European bee wolf) hunt honeybees (Apis mellifera) and paralyze them with venom. It mummifies the bees with glandular secretions before depositing an egg and then sealing each egg/prey combination within a brood cell. Warm and humid environment in brood cell is permissive for the development of pathogens. However female digger wasps place copious amounts of a white antennal gland secretion into each brood cell and larval survival was much higher in cells containing this secretion. Scanning electron microscopy studies revealed the presence of cells and spores typical of actionmycetes bacteria like Streptomyces philanthi in these antennal gland secretions conferring protection.

In the western strain of alfalfa weevil, Hypera postica (Gyllenhal) presence of Wolbachia caused high mortality of the braconid wasp larvae, M. aethiopoides. Wolbachia was absent in Eastern and Egyptian strains of H. postica, which are permissive hosts for the parasitoid.

The lactic acid bacterial community present in gut region of honeybees - inhibit the organisms, Paenibacillus and Melissococcus plutonius causing American and European foulbrood disease by producing the inhibitory compound, bacteriocins.

Symbiont Mediated Insecticide Resistance

The pod bug Riptortus pedestris the pest of legume crops is associated with gut bacterial symbiont Burkholderia in a posterior region of the midgut. The genus Burkholderia is acquired by the second instars of insect from the soil every generation.



en

toM

oLo

GY

The fenitrothion-degrading Burkholderia strains establish a specific and beneficial symbiosis with the stinkbugs and confer a resistance to host insect against fenitrothion.

Endosymbiont Mediated Detoxification

The apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella has ability to detoxify the phlorizin due the presence of the endosymbiont Enterobacter agglomerans. The coffee berry borer Hypothenemus campei was found efficient in degrading the alkaloid due to the presence of gene caffeine methylase present in the gut bacterium Pseudomonas of coffee berry borer.

Protection of Host from Predators

The rove beetle paederus sabaeus get protected against predation because of the presence of the bacterium pseudomonas that synthesizes toxins against predator. The proftella symbiont in psyllid Diaphronia citri functions similarly by synthesizing the defensive toxins against predators. These symbionts less likely to protect hosts against predators compared to the parasites having intimate association with hosts.

Thermal Resistance

The secondary endosymbiont, Serratia symbiotica of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum provides providing thermal resistance to its host and protects from heat stress.

Conclusion

Facultative symbionts are present in most species, and a defensive effect on hosts may be a very common mechanism enabling their spread. The ability of bacterial symbionts to act as portals for novel genetic material makes them an ideal source of defense against natural enemies. Antagonistic coevolution of insects with their natural enemies may be fueled by defensive symbionts.

References

Oliver, K. M. and Torres, M. S. 2009. Defensive symbionts in Aphids and other insects. In: Defensive mutualism in microbial Symbiosis, ed J.F. White and M.S. Torres, pp.129-147. Taylor and Francis.

Douglas, A. E. 2009. The microbial dimension in insect nutritional ecology. Functional Ecology, 23:38-47.

19840

71. Chemical and Molecular ecology of Herbivore Induced Plant Volatiles (HIPV)K. ASHOK1 AND M. MUTHUKUMAR2

1PG Research Scholar and 2Post-Doctoral Fellow, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 03

Introduction

One of the significant aspects of growth and reproduction in plants is defences against herbivorous arthropods. Plants may defend themselves either directly by producing toxins, repellents, digestibility reducers, etc., or indirectly by enhancing the effectiveness of carnivorous natural enemies of herbivores. In the last decade, HIPVs have been looked at again with special interest by plant molecular biologists as well as chemical and behavioural ecologists. The two major groups of herbivore-induced volatiles, i.e. volatile terpenoids and green leaf volatiles (GLVs), and their ecological functions.

Regulation of Volatile Terpenoid Biosynthesis in Response to Herbivory

HIPVs may vary with the attacking herbivore, various components and cross-talk between the involved signaling pathways are thought to be responsible for the characteristic terpenoid blend. Several oxylipin compounds [jasmonic acid (JA), its precursors, and

related compounds] very probably act as master switches for herbivore-stimulated plant responses, activating distinct sets of defense genes leading to terpenoid formation. Synergistic and antagonistic cross-talk among the signaling pathways (Ca2+, JA and ethylene signaling) is involved in terpenoid biosynthesis, and this integrated signaling is responsible for volatile terpenoid formation in plants. For example: When plants are damaged by sucking arthropods (e.g. spider mites or aphids), antagonistic cross-talk of salicylic acid (SA) with JA seems to regulate the biosynthesis of HIPVs in the infested leaves.

Ethylene also contributes to the terpenoid biosynthesis induced by chewing caterpillars in at least two ways: by modulating both early signaling events such as cytoplasmic Ca2+ influx and the downstream JA-dependent biosynthesis of terpenoids.



en

toM

oLo

GY

Regulation of Green Leaf Volatiles in Response to Herbivory

GLVs include C6 aldehydes, alcohols, and their esters. GLVs are compounds produced by the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway when leaves are injured or suffer from biotic/abiotic stresses. The fi rst product, (Z)-3-hexenal, is formed through oxygenation of linolenic acid by LOX to form linolenic acid 13-hydroperoxide (13HPOT), and subsequent cleavage of 13HPOT by fatty acid 13-hydroperoxide

lyase (13HPL). n -Hexanal is formed similarly, but from linoleic acid. Enzymatic or non-enzymatic isomerization of (Z)-3-hexenal yields (E)-2-hexenal. Those C6 aldehydes are further converted to the corresponding C6 alcohols by alcohol dehydrogenases [e.g. (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol from (Z)-3-hexenal]. An acyltransferase is thereafter responsible forformation of the acetate [e.g. (Z)-3-hexen-1-yl acetate (Hex-Ac) from (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol]. It should be noted that 13HPOT serves as a precursor of not only GLVs but also JA, and thus the use of this compound as a substrate for allene oxide synthase [(AOS) in JA biosynthesis] and 13HPL (in GLV biosynthesis) is potentially competitive. JA plays a core role in defense signalling pathways and in the production of herbivore-induced volatile terpenoids. GLV differs spatially between local and distal sites of the herbivore-damaged leaf.

Ecological functions of HIPVs

Interaction between a plant and a carnivorous natural enemy of herbivores mediated by HIPVs

HIPVs are known to attract carnivorous natural enemies of the herbivores. Interactions between plants and carnivorous natural enemies of herbivores have been reported in systems consisting of plants, caterpillars and parasitic wasps. For example, maize plants infested by African cotton

Leaf worm (S. littoralis) emit volatiles that attract parasitic wasps Cotesia marginiventris and Microplitis rufiventris

Interaction between plant and herbivore mediated by HIPVs

Herbivorous arthropods use host-food plant volatiles as one of the foraging cues. HIPVs can be

used by con- and heterospecific herbivores as one of their host-food-finding cues

For example: Neonates and larvae of fall armyworms (S. frugiperda) exploit fall armyworm-induced corn plant volatiles as host plant location and recognition cues.

Interaction between two plants mediated by HIPVs

In response to HIPVs or volatiles from artificially damaged plants, neighbouring intact plants enhance either their direct defences (i.e. become a less suitable resource for herbivores) or their indirect defences (i.e. attract carnivorous natural enemies of herbivores). For example: (E)-2-hexenal, one of the commonly found HIPVs in many plant–herbivore combinations, induced several defences related genes in Arabidopsis. Thus, artificially damaged plant volatiles are the key to intra- and interplant communication.

Interactions between plants and pathogens mediated by HIPVs

The interactions have been studied from the viewpoint of possible defensive function of HIPVs, especially GLVs, against subsequent attack of microorganisms. A subset of GLVs, especially C6 aldehydes, have a direct defensive effect, as they are formed and accumulated at the wounded sites to prevent the invasion of pathogens and herbivores locally. For example: (E)-2-hexen-1-ol enhanced resistance of citrus trees (Citrus jambhiri) against Alternaria alternata.

Conclusion

Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) are involved in plant communication with natural enemies of the insect herbivores, neighbouring plants, and different parts of the damaged plant. HIPVs are released from leaves, flowers, and fruits into the atmosphere or into the soil from roots in response to herbivore attack. Hence, this can be used in the effective pest management.

Reference

Karban, R. (2011). The ecology and evolution of induced resistance against herbivores. Functional Ecology, 25(2), 339-347.



BIo

Co

ntR

oL

19954

72. Utilization of nanotechnology for Reduction of Insect Pest RiskTARA YADAV AND RICHA BANSHIWAL

Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Entomology, RARI (S.K.N.A.U.), Durgapura*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Broad spectrum conventional insecticides were developed and used to control insect pests over the past few decades, resulting in increasing agricultural yield. However, the detrimental effects of these pesticides on the environment, resistance development in insect pest against these pesticides and public protests led to stricter regulations and legislation aimed at reducing their use. To overcome these problems, we urgently need to move new technique, which are helpful for pest management. Nanotechnology as a new powerful technology has the ability to create massive changes in agricultural systems. The use of nanotechnology in agriculture will likely have ecological earnings (Froggett, 2009). Nanoparticles not only play a crucial role in killing of pathogens but also its early detection through the application of nanobiosensor. The potential application and benefits of nanotechnology are enormous. Application of nano-silica to the tomato crop may minimize Spodoptera littoralis infestation. Different types of nanoparticles like silver nanoparticles (SNP), aluminium oxide nano particles (ANP), zinc oxide and titanium dioxide were experimented for the control of grasserie disease in

silkworm and rice weevil (Goswami et al., 2010). Combinatorial nanoparticles are quite frequently used by combining nanoparticles with any other lethal component. When drugs like tebufenozide and halofenozide are loaded with nanoparticles like CdS, nanosilver and nanotitanium dioxide they become much potent against the pests (Bhattacharyya et al., 2012).

References

Froggett, S. 2009. Nanotechnology and agricultural trade. In: OECD Conference on the Potential Environmental Benefits of Nanotechnology: Fostering Safe Innovation-Led Growth.

Bhattacharyya A, Nandi M, Bhaumik A, Ghosh M, Prakasham RS, Das SK, Mandal S (2012) Nano-meso-allelochemicals influence in silk production by Bombyx moro L. In: International conference on entomology, 17–19 Feb 2012

Goswami, A., Roy, I., Sengupta, S., and Debnath, N. (2010). Novel applications of solid and liquid formulations of nanoparticles against insect pests and pathogens. Thin solid films, 519: 1252-1257.

BIOCONTROL

19821

73. oryctes virus: A successful Biological Control AgentJ. CHANDRAKALA

Department of Plant Pathology, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

Domain: VirusFamily: NudiviridaeGenus: AlphanudivirusSpecies: Oryctes rhinoceros nudivirusThe Entomopathogenic virus, Oryctes

rhinoceros nudivirus (OrNV) was originally discovered in Malaysia (Huger 1966). It attacks both the larval stages and adult stages. The Oryctes virus is one of the few non occluded insect viruses developed as microbial control agent. The enveloped, rod shaped Oryctes virus (100x200m)

contains structural peptides of which approximately 14 are associated with the nucleo capsid component. Members of this family are heterogenous but it posses the characteristic covalently closed, circular ds DNA genome. The best studied nudivirus, the Oryctes virus, was isolated in the 1960’s from Indian



eXte

nsI

on

eDU

CAt

Ion

An

D RU

RAL D

eVeL

oPM

ent

rhinoceros beetle, O. rhinoceros.

Mode of Infection

The Oryctes virus, like other viruses able to gain entry into host through ingestion of contaminated food. When it enters the nuclei of midgut epithelials cells of larval and adults, starts replicating. After the post infection of 1-4 hr virus adsorption into plasma membrane and uptake in cytoplasmic vesicle occurs. 7 to 12 hr viral replication in hypertrophied nucleus occurs and after 16 hr virus release from plasma membrane.

Symptoms

Both grubs and adult stages are infected by Oryctes virus

Effects on Grubs or Larval Stage

Grubs become lethargic, consume less food, consumption index, growth rate and efficiency of consumption of digested and ingested food is reduced and finally stops feeding and come to the surface of food. The abdomen becomes turgid and glassy with chalky white spots.

Effects on Adults

The adults become lethargic and stops feeding. The midgut is filled with a white mucoid fluid and the longevity is reduced

Application

The practical method of virus dissemination is through release of virus infected adults. An inoculum is prepared by homogenizing 1gm infected larval tissue in 1 lit of phosphate buffer (0.05, pH 8.0) and 3% sucrose. Healthy beetles are collected from field and then allowed to wade through virus inoculum contained in a basin of 30 min. they can also be inoculated with sterile viral filtrate and released after dusk at @ 15 inoculated beetles per ha. They disperse widely before death, spreading the disease directly into wide population and contaminating breeding sites which may contain larval broods and other beetles. Succesful biological control of this pest could be achieved using the non-occluded Oryctes virus.

EXTENSION EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

19828

74. Current Prospects of Agriculture courses and opportunity in IndiaAVINASH SHARMA

Arunachal University of Studies, National Highway 52, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh-792103*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

The demand of another academic stream is declining every year because of dreary of resources and employment in India. Agriculture is the major

discipline that deals about agricultural sciences. It provides B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture, B.Sc. (Hons.) Horticulture, Master’s degree, Doctoral degree and Post-doctoral degree. These eminent degrees



eXte

nsI

on

eDU

CAt

Ion

An

D RU

RAL D

eVeL

oPM

ent

endorse by central autonomous body Indian Council Agricultural Research (ICAR) that functions under Ministry of Agriculture. The education of the courses constitutes by Department of Agriculture Research and Education, New Delhi (DARE). The enrollment in the courses is conducted through ICAR’s All India Entrance Examination for Admission (AIEEA-UG), ICAR’s All India Entrance Examination for Admission (AIEEA-PG), ICAR’s All India Entrance Examination for Admission AIEEA-PhD, Agriculture universities entrance examination (fig. 1). The ICAR provides 3000 Rs scholarship in undergraduate degree programme, 12640 Rs scholarship + 6000 Rs contingency per year in Master’s degree, 5000 Rs Non-JRF candidate in Master’s Degree programme, 25000 Rs scholarship of Ist, 2nd year & 28000 Rs scholarship of 3rd year + 10000 contingency per year in Doctoral degree programme (ICAR, 2018). The deemed to be university provides 7560 rupees per month for pursuing Master’s degree and 13,125 rupees per month for pursuing Doctoral degree. The Master’s Degree and Doctoral degree can pursue from foreign countries through HRD (Human Resource Department) higher education scholarships and ICAR-International fellowships. The benefit of Undergraduate degree is to offer basics of Agriculture & Horticulture and disclose opportunities in State Department of Agriculture-Assistant Technical Manager, Agriculture field officer, Horticulture officer, National seed corporation (NSC), Central warehousing Corporation (CWC), IFFCO (Indian farmers and fertilizers cooperatives), organized bank and companies. The Bachelor Degree offers fundamental education of agriculture and field practices. The benefits Master’s and Doctoral degree provides personality development, subject specialist

and conducts Research, conferences, seminars, books, chapters, posters, training and workshop. The conferences, seminars, posters, training and workshop are organized by various agriculture universities and colleges. The Master’s and Doctoral degree provides fundamental & applied research skills, content writing expert, forum/stage delivering expert, commutation skills and personality development and all these aptitude prepares self-reliant and nation representative. The specialized subjects Agronomy, Plant Pathology, Vegetable science (Olericulture), Pomology, Entomology, Soil science, Agricultural Economics, Genetics & Plant breeding are available more employment into current status in India. The applicant can pursue Post graduate in Agribusiness Management, Post graduate in diploma rural management, Post graduate in Management (Agriculture) into agriculture management institutions for Master’s degree programme. These are provide opportunities of State Department of Agriculture- Block Technical Manager, Professor in private & government universities, Scientists, JRF post, SRF post, NABARD posts, Agriculture field officer, FCI posts, State Department of Agriculture, National seed corporation (NSC) posts, Central warehousing Corporation (CWC), Civil service-IFS, Tea Board, Rubber Board, Coffee Board, Spice Board, Coir Board, Tobacco Board, Agro-based industries, Agro industries, KVK-SMS & its many posts, Agrochemical industries, Agriculture commissioner, SSC agriculture posts, DMI, APEDA, Agriculture insurance company, Ministry of Agriculture posts, ICAR Funded projects, Directorates, Research centre, National Bureaus, Quarantine inspectors, Mass & Media communications and many more.

FIG. 1: Admission and Functions overview of Agriculture course



eXte

nsI

on

eDU

CAt

Ion

An

D RU

RAL D

eVeL

oPM

ent

The demand of agriculture discipline has been increased compare to past period. The syllabus of the courses is revised every year under Deans Committee Meetings that is organized by ICAR. The objective of the meetings is to include technology oriented lesson and skill development lesson that offers to farmers, institutes, industries and students. The ICAR, New Delhi and the NAARM, Hyderabad were initiated “AGRI UDAAN” scheme that assists agriculture candidate to agri entrepreneurship implementation (GOI, 2017). The NAARM, Hyderabad and the BIRAC, New Delhi are initiated collaborated scheme i.e. (BIG-Biotech ignition grant) that helps to agribusiness establishment (BIRAC, 2020). The Human Resource Minister Shri Prakash Javdekar has declared to include agriculture syllabus in CBSE, ICSE, Open Schooling and Government schools. The mission is to generate employment, disseminate agriculture knowledge and emerge agriculture courses in India.

References

BIRAC, 2020. Agri-Bionest, Biotechnology Ignition Grant, NAARM-BIRAC, https://birac.nic,in/big.php

GoI, 2017. Agri Udaan- Food and Agribusiness Accelerator. Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, 1-2.

ICAR, 2018. Revised rates of National Talent Scholarship (NTS). Education division, Agricultural Education Portal, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi, https://education.icar.gov.in/circulars.aspx.

ICAR, 2018. Revised rates of Scholarship, Fellowship and Intemship Allowances. Education division, Agricultural Education Portal, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi, https://education.icar.gov.in/circulars.aspx.

19869

75. Customized e-Commerce Application for Farmer Producer organizations (FPos)V V SUMANTH KUMAR, SURYA RATHORE AND SANJIV KUMAR

Senior Scientist, Principal Scientist and Scientist (Senior Scale) at ICAR-National Academy for Agricultural Research Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Abstract

Now a day many of the Farmer Producer Organizations have turned into Farmer Producer Companies. They are procuring inputs in bulk directly from manufacturers and selling outputs to end consumer groups directly. Producer groups are into commercial transactions and it increases their bargaining power while transacting as a group. For these transactions to happen, an online platform is required and is need of the hour. Customizing open source Magento platform is helpful in meeting the needs of FPOs in implementing e-commerce.

Key Words: Agri Commerce, FPOs, web platform.

In the last two decades; sectors like banking, finance, automobile, Telecommunications, Transportation, Automotive etc. have been the bedrock of ICT innovations and huge innovation in the processes of these sectors happened. However, agriculture is yet to see such a trend and these innovations can possibly emerge at the intersection of Agriculture, Finance, ICT and Business Intelligence.

Agri inputs and output companies need to embrace ICT to seal the leakages and improve efficiencies of their supply chain and financial transactions thus increasing their efficiency themselves. Farmers and Farmer organizations

also need to use web platforms and tools as there is improvement in Rural ICT Infrastructure lately with the implementation of Bharat Broadband by the Government of India.

Now a day, Farmer Producer Organizations have turned into Farmer Producer Companies. They are procuring inputs in bulk directly from manufacturers and selling outputs to end consumer groups directly. Without proper online platforms, communicating with multiple manufacturers and consumer groups is a challenge. Also, having online financial transactions improves the efficiency of FPOs dramatically.

Producer groups are into commercial transactions and it increases their bargaining power as a group. For these transactions to happen, an online platform is required and is need of the hour. Customizing open source Magento platform is an attempt towards this and this is can be accessed at http://ictwinterschool.in/fpo/.



eXte

nsI

on

eDU

CAt

Ion

An

D RU

RAL D

eVeL

oPM

ent

Magento is a leading open-source e-commerce platform written in PHP. The software was originally developed by California based company Varien Inc with assistance from volunteers. We have leveraged the strength of Magento for demonstrating the usefulness of this open source software for FPOs in order to aggregate the produce and selling it to direct consumers with-out any middle men.

By implementing Magento, FPOs can create a repository of their produce which can be seen by the consumer groups and they can procure. The food items like fruits, vegetables, grains can be classified into different categories and their amount in numbers Kgs/Item also can be shown. These things can be ordered by the consumer till all the items are over.

At the same time, list of consumers and consumer groups also can be managed using this software and this allows transactions to happen

between Producer Organizations and Consumer Groups thus avoiding the middlemen totally and contributing to Doubling the Income of Farmers.

These kind of web platforms clearly supports the cause of increasing the producer’s share in Consumer’s rupee.

References

1). https://magento.com/ About Magento2). Magento CMS – https://www.thewebkitchen.

c o . u k / m a g e n t o - c m s - w h a t - i s - m a g e n t o -ecommerce/



eC

on

oM

ICs

3). About Small farmers Agri-business consortium at http://sfacindia.com/FPOS.aspx

4). Farmer producer bodies need help at

https://www.thehindubusinessl ine.com/opinion/farmer-producer-bodies-need-help/article25952536.ece

ECONOMICS

19776

76. An overview of Direct Benefit transfer (DBt) scheme in India DEEPALI CHADHA1* AND NIKITA INANIYA2

1PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar-2631452PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner-334001*Corresponding Author’s email: [email protected]

Since independence, Indian government has been trying hard to address the problems of poverty and deprivation in the country by providing various kinds of welfare assistance at subsidized prices. As large amounts are being spent on subsidies, the Government is examining ways to ensure that these efforts are being carried out in ways that maximize positive outcomes, and lead to significant reductions in poverty. Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) was initiated on 1st January, 2013 with the goal of improving the Government’s delivery system and making the flow of funds and information faster and secure by keeping a check on duplication and fraud. DBT that comes with the tag line “Apna Adhikar Apne Dwar” is the process of transferring the subsidy amount and other transfers directly into the account of beneficiaries rather than providing it through the intermediaries. DBT Mission was designed in the Planning Commission to act as the nodal point for the implementation of the DBT programmes. Later on, it was transferred to the Department of Expenditure in July, 2013 and continued to function till 14.9.2015. To give more impetus, DBT Mission and matters related thereto has been placed in Cabinet Secretariat under Secretary (Co-ordination & PG) w.e.f. 14.9.2015.

Objectives of DBT 1. Transfer of benefits directly to beneficiaries. 2. De-duplication and reduce leakage, duplicates

(same person getting the benefits more than once) and ghosts (non-existent person getting the benefits).

3. Ensure greater inclusion and ease of availing services.

4. Reduce fraud and corruption.Initially the scheme was implemented in 43

districts. Later on, 78 more districts were added under 27 schemes concerning labour welfare, child,

women, scholarships etc. The scheme was further expanded across the country from 12 December 2014. Now, Adhaar is not compulsory for DBT beneficiaries. Although they are encouraged to have Aadhaar as it provides unique identity and helps in targeting the intended beneficiaries. JAM i.e. Jan Dhan, Aadhaar and Mobile are DBT enablers. At present, there are around 100 crore mobile connections, more than 100 crore Aadhaar, and 22 crore Jan Dhan accounts who are making use of this scheme.

Different types of schemes covered under DBT

� Cash transfer: Under this scheme, government directly transfers cash to the individual beneficiaries. Example: PAHAL (modified DBTL for LPG subsidy), MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act), NSAP (National Social Assistance Programme) etc. This transfer of cash benefits from Ministry to beneficiaries takes place through different ways like directly to beneficiaries’ accounts, through State Treasury Account to beneficiaries, through any Implementing Agency as appointed and direct transfer through Centre/State Governments.

� In-kind transfer: In-kind benefits are provided to beneficiaries through intermediate agencies but the actual cost is borne by the government. The beneficiaries then get these benefits at a very low price or for free. Example: SSA (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan), Mid Day Meals, PDS (Public distribution system) etc.

� Other forms of transfer: Incentives, allowances, etc., that are provided to Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and community workers fall under this category. They are provided such allowances because



eC

on

oM

ICs

they help in facilitation of various government schemes. ASHA (Accredited social health activist) workers under NHM (National Health Mission), Aanganwadi workers under ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services), teachers in aided schools etc. are not beneficiaries themselves but they are given these incentives for their service to the beneficiaries/community.

Progress of DBT

A cumulative total of around ₹ 9.3 lakh Cr has been disbursed through DBT platform to nearly 169 core beneficiaries since its inception. DBT covers a total 427 schemes from 56 ministries as on Feb, 2020. DBT and other governance reforms have helped a lot in plugging the leakages, as a result of which the government has been able to target the genuine and deserving beneficiaries. Estimated benefits from some of the schemes are as under:

Ministry/ Department scheme

estimated savings / Benefits (in Rs. Cr)

Cumulative upto December 2019 % share

Department of Fertilizers FERTILIZER 10,000.00 5.87Department of Rural Development MGNREGS 24,162.09 14.18Department of Rural Development NSAP 518.04 0.30Ministry of Women and Child Development

OTHERS 1,523.75 0.89

OTHERS OTHERS 1,120.69 0.66Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas PAHAL 65,661.00 38.54Department of Food and Public Distribution

PDS 66,896.87 39.26

Ministry of Minority Affairs SCHOLARSHIP SCHEME 159.15 0.09Department of Social Justice and Empowerment

SCHOLARSHIP SCHEME 335.52 0.20

Total 1,70,377.11 100

The Public Distribution System (PDS) has brought the largest savings under Direct Benefit Transfer accounting for nearly 70% of the money saved by the government under the DBT scheme. Although there are many challenges in the path, but if the DBT scheme is implemented correctly, it has the potential to improve societal welfare with minimum government’s expenditure.

References:

K. Anwara. 2016. Direct benefit transfer scheme. Indian Journal of Applied Research. 6(3): 448-450.

Joy, J. 2018. A critical analysis of direct benefit transfer in India. Indian Journal of Economics and Development. 6(8): 1-7.

https://dbtbharat.gov.in

19811

77. Pulse Production in IndiaSHAILZA*

*Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics & Management, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur (Rajasthan)

Pulses are important component in our daily food. These are the leguminous crops with variable size, colour, shape and used for both seed and feed. Seed of some pulses are also used in extraction of oil. Besides contribution in soil health, pulses are rich source of protein, vitamins and minerals for growing population of our country. With advent of Green Revolution, main focus of cultivation shifted to rice and wheat only. This lead to the decline in production of pulses. These were shifted to the marginal lands

which further aggravated the status of pulses in farming system. The pulses remained the second choice of farmers for cultivation. However, due to better management and awareness about soil, pulse farming is gaining momentum these days. Under minimum support price also pulses are getting more recognition which encourages the farmers to go for pulse farming (Reddy, 2009). India is the largest producer (25 percent), consumer (27 per cent) and importer of pulses (14 per cent) in world. 70



eC

on

oM

ICs

per cent of total pulse production took place in the states namely Madhya Pradesh (25 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (13 per cent), Maharashtra (12 per cent), Rajasthan (11 per cent) and Andhra Pradesh (9 per

cent) (Singh et al., 2015). Production of pulses was 18.24 million tons in 2010-11 later on it increased to 19.2 MT during 2013-14 and raised to 25.41 million tons in 2017-18 (Figure 1).

Source: www.Indiastat.com

The growing population, consumption requirement and uncontrolled environmental conditions led to increase in demand and supply gap. To bridge this gap, India started importing pulses. In order to ensure self- sufficiency, the pulse requirement in the country is projected at 32 million

tonnes by the year 2030 which necessitates an annual growth rate of 4.2%. Countries like Canada, Australia, Myanmar, USA, Russia, Ukraine, etc. are serving as the major importing partners of India for pulse import. Figure 2 shows the year wise imports of pulses by India.

Source: www.Indiastat.com

Scope for Value Addition

India’s food sector is undergoing rise in the agro processing industry. Processing of agro products helps to prevent post-harvest losses and curb price declines due to upon excess production. Processing also provides opportunities of value addition which led to addition of time, form and place utility. Due to minimization of post-harvest losses would

compensate three per cent higher input cost. In the pulses sector, pulses were sold a few years back only for direct consumption as a specific commodity. Even the farmers were not getting remunerative prices for their produce. However, growing consumerism and increased demand for value added products led to branding of the pulses along with production of value added products like besan.

Food processing in the pulses is picking up



eC

on

oM

ICs

with many processors. The paste of pigeon pea or arhar or tur paste, urad papad, besan flour, etc. is being supplied to the restaurants, etc. Rise in food processing of pulses and quality specific consumerism requires specific quality of pulse which further focus on branding of pulses. The largest players under pulse processing was recorded to be highest turnover of Rs 350 crore, which means huge potential lies ahead for organised and branded players. The processing of pulses provides enormous returns as well as huge opportunity of employment generation at both farm and industry level. With the increased demand of branded and quality products among consumers categories such as Besan are given preference, where the chances of getting an adulterated product is high and the consumers value the branded product for its purity and quality parameters.

Major Constraints in Pulse production1. Unfavorable Climatic conditions2. Improper cultivation technology3. Varietal constraint4. Remunerative price availability5. Infrastructure constraint6. Market availability7. Abnormal soil

8. Pest and disease attack9. Quality of inputs10. Technological constraints11. Credit availability12. Undeveloped Policy measures

Conclusion: With the increasing demand and growing population the production of pulses must be given priority. For improving the pulse production accelerated technology adoption must be done to fill the yield gap, institutional as well as policy support must be developed, irrigation system to be improved, policy support for value chains should be enhanced, post-harvest losses must be minimized and pricing policy must be improved.

References

Singh, A. K., Singh, S. S., Prakash, V., Kumar, S. and Dwivedi, S., K. 2015. Pulses Production in India: Present Status, Bottleneck and Way Forward. Journal of Agrisearch 2(2): 75-83

Ali, M. and Gupta, S. 2012. Carrying capacity of Indian agriculture: Pulse crops Cur. Sci.102 (6): 874-81.

Reddy, A. A. 2009. Pulses Production Technology: Status and Way Forward. Economic & Political Weekly 44 (52): 73-80.

19813

78. PlasticultureDR. V. KEERTHANA

Assistant Professor, Imayam Institute of Agriculture and Technology, Thuraiyur – 621 206Affiliated to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

Abstract

With the world’s industrial development and rapid population growth, agriculture is becoming a very important issue of how to feed these rapidly growing populations, and how to feed a population of 7 billion living on small farmland today. This paper shows that plasticulture is at this point one of the most successful farming methods for agricultural sustainability and agricultural development.

Introduction

The use of plastics in agriculture, horticulture, water management, food grains and storage and related areas is plastic cultivation. A variety of plastics materials and end products are used in plasticulture applications-water conservation, irrigation quality, crop and environmental protection as well as end product storage and transport. Plasticulture applications are considered to be the most effective indirect agricultural input resulting in moisture conservation, water savings, reduction of fertilizer use and the use of creative packaging methods helps to increase the shelf-life and during fruit and

vegetable processing, storage and transportation. Plastics have definite advantages over traditional materials because they have many properties: higher strength / weight ratio, superior electrical properties, superior thermal insulation properties, excellent resistance to corrosion, superior durability, water and water impermeability, chemical resistance, less friction due to smoother surface.

Plasticulture Technologies in Agriculture Production• Intensive cultivation on small soils–higher

productivity per unit of natural resources (land and water) used.

• Less input requirement-more input uses soil solarization and efficiency labour.

• Environmentally friendly-avoiding unnecessary input uses (fertilizers and pesticides).

• Produces of high quality-free from traces of pesticides for human consumption.Higher yield and better quality production due

to optimum conditions such as climate control, good plant nutrition and plant safety that can never be



eC

on

oM

ICs

achieved under open-field conditions.

Role of Plasticulture Technologies in Post-Harvest Management

Drying of Agricultural Produce

SKUAST-K Srinagar center built multi-tunnel drier for vegetable drying results revealed that the percentage weight loss in palate, fenugreek and okra was about 88%, 86% and 54%. During the drying of the samples inside the greenhouse dryer, the max / min temperature ranged from 39.9 to-7.1°C. The final moisture content of palak and fenugreek was approximately 3.5 per cent while it was 5 per cent for okra.

Storage and Packaging, Transportation of Agriculture Produce

Plasticulture technology plays an important role in stockpiling and transporting agricultural products. This helps from short-term storage to long-term storage to storing the produce. Packaging provides itself with a microclimate that preserves its consistency and increases the product’s shelf life. It offers several advantages including ease of handling, transport flexibility and storage with lower operating costs.

Planting and Weed Control in Plasticulture

Weed control is probably one of the most frustrating

aspects of plasticulture. Weeds that emerge from planting holes can be handled by hand, but care should be taken to avoid damage to crop plants while pulling these weeds. Hoeing, rototilling, or other means of cultivation may be required between plastic strips as the season progresses.

Conclusion

Plasticulture has proven to be successful in boosting production worldwide. In India, the importance of preventing transportation and storage losses is increasing in the field of improving agricultural production and post-harvest management. Nevertheless, the real benefits of plasticulture are not realized at the farmer’s level due to lack of knowledge, standardized designs and practices kit, local level facilities and affordable technology availability.

References

Epsi E, Samleron A, Fontecha A, Garcia Y and Real A. I. (2006). Plastic Films for Agricultural Applications. Journal of Plastic Filming and Sheeting, Vol 22(85):85-102.

Z. Steinmetz, C. Wollmann, M. Schaefer, C. Buchmann, J. David, J. Tröger, K. Mu ñoz, O. Frör, G.E. Schaumann (2016). “Plastic mulching ins agriculture: Trading short-term agronomic benefits for long-term soil degradation?”. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 550, pp. 690-705.

19911

79. Current trends in Agri-Food system in IndiaJUDY THOMAS1* AND ATHULYA R2

1 Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Hyderabad2 Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Hyderabad*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

The present agri- food system in India is experiencing a shift in its pattern. The system is getting diversified primarily in two ways:1. Sectoral diversification2. Consumption diversification

Factors that Contribute to Diversification � Urbanisation � Raise in income � Feminisation � Growing of processing industries � Price factors � Technology � Infrastructure

Statistical Evidence for Change in Agri-Food System in India

Sectoral diversification is marked by change in cropping pattern. Farmers have now started growing more of high value crops instead of low value crops as their perception regarding farming has changed. The area under cereal crops are now being replaced by commercial crops. The percentage share of total food grains in total cropped area (TCA) is decreasing over the years. The share was about 75 percent during 1970-71, but has decreased to 62 percent by 2015-16 (Figure 1).



eC

on

oM

ICs

FIG. 1 Percentage share of total food grains in total cropped area (%)

FIG. 2 Percentage share of fruits and vegetables in total cropped area (%)Source: Department of Economics and statistics and NSSO reports from 60th round

The percentage share of fruits and vegetables in TCA is however, showing an increasing trend though the rate of swap is relatively slow. During 1970-71, hardly 2 percent of the TCA was under fruits and vegetables while by 2015-16 the sector has seen an overall increase to 5 percent (Figure 2). The area under fruits and vegetables during 1970-71 was only 3566 thousand hectare which has been raised to around 10200 thousand hectare by 2015-16.

More evidence is obtained while considering the commercial crop cotton, which has seen an extensive increase in area by nearly 7 percent (Figure 3). During the period of 1990-91 however cotton sector saw a dip in its share in TCA.

FIG. 3 Percentage share of cotton in TCA

� Diversification in consumption pattern is another change being observed over the years.

FIG. 4 Per capita consumption of cereals and vegetables respectively

FIG. 5 Per capita consumption of chicken and milk respectively



en

GIn

ee

RIn

G A

nD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

Over the years from 1993-94 to 2009-10, the figures 4 and 5 clearly indicates that per capita consumption of cereals is decreasing while that of vegetables, chicken and milk is escalating. On

comparing urban and rural consumption, the rate of change is more for urban than that of rural which is mainly due to urban sprawl.

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

19856

80. Importance of ozone technology in FoodsPOOJA M. R.1 AND REVANTH K.2

1Teaching Associate, College of Agricultural Engineering, Madakasira, ANGRAU2Testing Engineer, College of Agriculture, Vijayapur, UAS, Dharwad*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Consumers are nowadays very much concerned about the quality and safety of the food products. Illness resulting from food-borne pathogens has become one of the most widespread public health problems in the world. Hence it is very necessary to find solutions to break the transmission of harmful bacteria along the food chain and all food industries are giving equal importance to both high quality and safety of products. For this to achieve continuous control of food at each step of the production process is necessary. There are many decontaminating methods which not only preserve food and control the growth of microorganisms in food, but also ensure the integrity of chemical composition. Disinfecting agents are getting widespread applications to assure safety and quality in the food industry. But, some of these agents are inefficient against some organisms, particularly at high pH or against spore-forming microbes. Concerns about extending shelf life and controlling the decay and ripening of produce without depending on harmful chemicals have driven increased demand for safe, proven food storage alternatives. Therefore, the food industry is in search of applications that are:

� Effective in inactivation of common and emerging pathogens, and removing toxic contaminants

� Leading to less loss in product quality � Adaptable to food processes and � Environmental friendly

Ozone treatment of foods is one among such processes that contribute to the improvement of safety and quality of food products. Ozone is one of the most powerful oxidants known, and due to this property it has a strong capacity for disinfection and sterilization. Also it has the capacity for absorption of flavours and strong odours in the water due to fast destruction of organic compounds responsible for the smell. Ozone is widely used in disinfection of municipal water, process water, bottled drinking water, and swimming pools etc. Ozonation has been used for years to disinfect water for drinking purposes in Europe. An expert panel in 1997 decreed

that ozone was a GRAS (generally recognized as safe) substance when used in accordance with good manufacturing practices. Spontaneous decomposition of ozone without forming hazardous residues in the treatment medium makes ozone safe in food applications.

Mode of Application of Ozone during Food Processing

The mode of application may be selected based on the type of food and the need of ozone treatment. Specific health and safety aspects of ozone in food processing are direct functions of the presence of ozone at specific points in the processing plant. Because of ozone’s great versatility as an oxidant/disinfectant, there are a great number of places within any food processing plant where it can be and is being utilised. These applications can be considered in the two primary categories of aqueous ozone and gaseous ozone phases. Wherever ozone is applied in a food processing plant there is a resultant safety responsibility.

Advantages of Ozone Treatment � Ozone treatment is a promising substitute for

the conventional fumigation in use (SO2) � It can be applied to almost all types of foods,

from fruits, vegetables, spices, meat and seafood products to beverages (Tapp and Rice, 2012).

� It can be generated on-site � It can be used for both fresh and frozen foods � High antimicrobial activity � Short contact time for disinfection compared to

other disinfection methods � Ozone processing is free of the chemical residues

since it is completely utilised and get reduced � Non-hazardous at low ppm (lower than 4 ppm)

and effective in bactericidal uses � No need to store hazardous substance compared

to other sanitation methods � Lower running costs, cost matters only to filling

of oxygen cylinders and power supply � No heat requirement and no heat generation in



Foo

Ds

An

D n

UtR

ItIo

n

treatment (applicable to heat sensitive foods) and thus saves need of input energy

� Saves transport of disinfectant chemicals and storing of gas cost

� Eco-friendly and economically feasible technology

Limitations of Ozone Treatment � High capital cost compared with other

oxidation/disinfection techniques due to the fact that ozone must be generated on-site, thus eliminating the usual savings from centrally produced chemicals

� Currently the most economical generation of ozone in commercially significant quantities (by corona discharge) is an electrically inefficient process

� Ozone is toxic; when inhaled it cause throat and nasal problems, even lead to asthma

� Ozone is highly unstable gas so controlled release on requirement is to be established

� Recontamination problems in clean in process pipes as ozone decomposes completely within a short duration

� Corrosive at high ppm (higher than 4 ppm), care should be taken in using ozone and releasing to treatment chamber

� It requires regular monitoring in indoor applications for any leakages

� Onsite generation is required as it is unstable and not suitable for storage

� Storage of ozone is not possible as it decomposes quickly

� It can be mostly surface treatment as ozone decomposes in short time and it is liable to oxidation with organic matter

Conclusions

The food industry is still seeking for more effective applications to ensure the safer food products to consumers. Ozone treatment can be a suitable choice for food preservation. Although there are some negative reports regarding the impact of ozone in different types of food, ozone treatment may undeniably be used as a sterilizing agent, especially for stored food products. The advantages of using ozone in the food industry such as preserving the quality of an initial product and extending the shelf life proved that statement. Moreover, it is much safer for employees than any conventional chemicals. It eliminates all chemical usage and is chemical free. Since it is generated on site, it eliminates the transporting, storing and handling of otherwise hazardous materials. The prevention of an undesirable odour emission through the effect of ozone is an additional benefit of this technology. However, one must take into consideration that even though ozone does not leave any residues due to a quick decomposition of its structure, some restrictions should be applied in the case of human exposure to it.

FOODS AND NUTRITION

19842

81. Jack Fruit: eat well, Waste nilSTEPHY DAS, DR. MANJU K. P. AND ANU V.

Scientists Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur

Jackfruit tree is present in every household of Kerala. About 75 % of the fruits are left unutilized or unharvesrted. This delicious fruit which has been neglected is now showing a drastic revival in interest because of its valorization into different products without wasting a single part of it. Technologies of the jackfruit products like squash, Syrup, ready to serve drink (RTS), wine, Jam, Jelly, Halwa, Pappad, wine, chips, pickles, noodles, chocolates were standardized. In the current scenario vacuum fried chips is gaining popularity as it helps in retaining minerals and vitamins. It is also having low moisture and fat content. From a single ripe jack fruit an income of rupees 200-300 can be generated. It is recommended to preserve jackfruit pulp during off season which will provide an income of 1000-1500 rupees. Five kilogram of Halwa can be made from a

single Jack fruit weighing 10 kilo gram which can be marketed at the rate of 180 per kg gives an income of 810 Rupees. From Jack fruit rag 3 kilo gram of jelly can be prepared provides an income of 300 Rupees. Seeds of jack fruit is dried and used as a major ingredient in the preparation of Jack fruit chutney powder with an income of rupees 500.

Above all economic benefits Jack fruit provides a plenty of nutritional. The compounds present in the seed, flesh and other parts of jack fruit have the potential to treat a number of health conditions like heart diseases, stroke and blood pressure. They are also capable of improving nerve and muscle functions. They also help in wound healing as it is having substances with anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, and antibacterial properties. Phytonutrients present in jack have cancer fighting benefits such as



Foo

Ds

An

D n

UtR

ItIo

n

preventing cancer from forming in our body. Other benefits of Jack fruit are as follows:

• Immune System strengthening• Helps in healthy digestion• Maintains healthy eye and skin• Boosts energy• Prevents anemia• Maintains healthy Thyroid• Controls asthma

Nutritive Value of 100 gm Jack Fruit

Principle nutrient Value Percentage of RDA

Energy 95 Kcal 5 %carbohydrate 23.5 g 18%Protein 1.72 g 3%Total Fat 0.64 g 3%Cholesterol 0 mg 0%Dietary Fibre 1.5 g 4%

19931

82. time for Immunity Bell: CVoID-19SUNIDHI MISHRA

PhD Research Scholar, Department of FSN, CCAS, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Suddenly a bell is ringing in every county and this is COVID-19. COVID-19 is popularly called as corona virus. There is no confirmation that from where it is originated. Through various news channel and media, it is to be said that it’s come from the Wuhan, China. World health organization reported as a pandemic.

Corona virus is infectious disease (1). Which are communicable to human to human. Corona is speeded worldwide; total 192 countries are affected by corona including India. India is litter far away from the corona zone as it is still swiftly and smartly handled situation for India. Hence, during this time a very common asked by everyone that what should we eat during/ having COVID19. Good nutritious food is healthy for everyone and it also boost the human immunity. But it can be said the only nutrition can prevent or cure the corona virus.

World Data of Corona: (2)

Corona is adversely affected the overall the all the countries. But there are some major countries that are harshly affected by the corona. These are-

Countries Total Cases Total DeathChina 81,093 3270Italy 59138 5426United States 34717 452Spain 28768 1772Germany 24873 94Iran 21638 1685

Where India Stands?

The latest data of Indian Government shows that 15,17,327 passengers are screened at airport. Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 are 415 out of which 24 are cured and discharged. Data shows that total 7 deaths occurred due to Corona Virus. So, it can be seen that Indian government smartly and safely the corona situation in India (3).

Global Pandemic: What should we Eat?

The acquired immunity less in populations across the world during this pandemic, no vaccine, uncertainty about the true infection rate within countries and, the elderly is a vulnerable group (particularly those in care homes and similar institutions). It is well known fact the immunity can help you to fight with infection.

Therefore, nutritional aspect is important at this time. It is noticed from the various studies of animal and human that antioxidant and related nutrients support the immune system to function properly.

General Consideration � To eat a diverse and well-balanced diet � Rich in coloured fruit and vegetables � Small and frequent meals � Increase the intake of the water for the

detoxification process � Take proper sound sleep

Specific Advice in Relation to the Elderly is to Increase the Intake of

� Vitamin E (134 mg - 800 mg/day), � Zinc (30 mg - 220 mg/day), � Vitamin C (200 mg - 2 g/day) � Vitamin D (10 μg - 100 μg/day).

These nutrients have been shown to enhance T cell and B cell (antibody) immunity in human studies including in the elderly. There are no studies shows that these can be helpful in curing the COVID19. However, it does make pragmatic sense that good nutrition advised for normal health and the immune system, also it is not harmful for the health. Nutrition is good in all way either COVID-19 present or absent.

Reference

1. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/



Foo

Ds

An

D n

UtR

ItIo

n

novel-coronavirus-2019 retrieved on 21.03.20202. https://www.worldometers.info retrieved on

23.03.2020.3. https://www.mygov.in/covid-19 retrieved on

23.03.2020.4. International Society for Immunonutrition

(ISIN), Board members (March 2020). Laurence Harbige, Philip Calder, Ascensión Marcos, Mireille Dardenne, Gabriela Perdigón, Francisco Perez-Cano, Wilson Savino, Nora Slobodianik, Liseti Solano, Roxana Valdes.

19962

83. nutri-Garden: Low external Input with High nutritional outputSTEPHY DAS, DR. MANJU K. P., AND ANU V.

Scientists, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur

Fruits and vegetables play an important role in the balanced diet of human beings by providing vital protective nutrients. In order that the requisite quantity and kind of fresh fruits and vegetables are available every day to a family, it is advisable to have nutrition garden to grow them in the premises of the house or near the schools. Best quality of the fresh produce can be had from one’s own nutrition garden as the time interval between the harvest and the consumption becomes the least. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables has been shown to prevent cancer, neurological disorders and allergies. Nutrition garden by self can offer fresh and chemical free fruits and vegetables.

Points to be considered: The land available within the compound wall of the residential building is quite ideal to layout the garden, though it can be away from the residence. A model nutrition garden generally consists of growing vegetables, fruits, spices and medicinal plants by integrating in most beneficial manner. The size of the garden depends on the area available near the residence, the time available for its care, and requirement of fresh produce of a family.

� Before laying out the nutrition garden, the available area should be properly fenced.

� Vine or trailing type of crops like cucurbits and beans can be trained on the fence.

� Three sides of the fence can be made to trail cucurbits during summer and rainy season, peas in winter and fourth side for perennial beans.

� Preferred shape of the garden is rectangular compared to square ones. Southern and western side of the area is to be reserved for vegetables so that it will be receiving maximum sunlight.

� Northern side is utilized for fruit plants. The bunds created to separate main plots can be used to grow root crops like radish. High and low pergola may be prepared by using bamboo and GI wire to grow crops like spine gourd, snake gourd and other creepers. The area between perennial crops will be used to grow short duration shallow rooted annual vegetables

or spices like garlic, green leafy vegetables, coriander.

� While selecting fruit trees, dwarf types with quick yielding capacity has to be selected. One or 2 trees of following fruit crops/perennial crops can be planted in the garden: Papaya, guava, Aonla, Acid lime, banana, West Indian cherry, pineapple, fig, butter fruit, dragon fruit, carambola, passion fruit, drumstick and curry leaf. Other fruit crops, which are of dwarf in nature and develops small/medium canopy and can be included based on preference.

� Some of the medicinal and spice crops like Centella, Doddapatre (Coleus), Chakarmuni, Pudina (Mint), Brahmi (Bacopa), Ginger, Turmeric can to be included in the nutrition garden.Raising seedlings in plastic trays: Each

flat or protray having 98 cells are used for raising seedlings of tomato capsicum/ chilli, brinjal, cauliflower and cabbage. Cocopeat fully fermented by the use of organic manure and enriched with bio fertilizers is the ideal media for filling the trays. About 1-1.25 kg coco-peat is required to fill one tray. Seeds are sown in the cavity and sown trays are stalked one over other till sprouting is observed. After sprouting, the trays are spread in net house and irrigated daily depending on the weather conditions. The seedlings of 20-25 days old in cabbage, cauliflower, tomato and 30-40 days in chilli, capsicum and brinjal are ideal for transplanting and better crop establishment.

Crop cultivation: It is always better to follow organic method of crop cultivation in the nutrition garden or if not possible safe method or Integrated method has to be adopted, relying less on synthetic chemicals for nutrient supply and plant protection. Organic sources for plant nutrition are: Compost, Farmyard Manure, vermi-compost, Coco-peat, Oilcakes like neemcake, green manure crops, Panchagavya, Jeevamrutha, AMC, Bio-fertilizers.

Small-Scale Mushroom Unit

Mushroom cultivation is sustainable farming and it is very much suitable while considering it as a crop



Foo

D P

Ro

Ce

ssIn

G A

nD

PR

ese

RV

AtI

on

for nutri-garden. They are good source of proteins, B vitamins and minerals and have other medicinal properties. Furthermore, after cultivation the substrate can be utilized as a good soil conditioner. In the present scenario mushroom value added products are gaining more demand also help in doubling farmers income.

Conclusion

Nutri-garden are good for health as it conserves the

environment, soil and it works with nature rather than against it. It is a method cultivating food that relies on earth’s natural resources such as land, sun, air, rainfall, plants, animals, and people. Every family can grow nutritious vegetables as it is easy and rewarding which can save money, improve your diet, and avoid eating pesticide-tainted vegetables in the market.

FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

19883

84. An overview of Pulsed electric Field technology in Food ProcessingIFTIKHAR ALAM

Research Scholar, Department of Post-Harvest Process and Food Engineering, GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand - 263145

Demand of the processed food is increasing day by day due to the changing life style of the people all around the world. Increased demand of the processed food products is also due to the better awareness toward the nutritional value of the products and necessity of the consumers. Generally, the consumers are in demand of the fresh processed product with high nutritional value, but at the same time when the food is processed using the conventional techniques which mostly involves thermal processing, the quality in terms of the nutrition is lost. In order to overcome this problem and to fulfil the consumer’s demand, novel innovative processing techniques can be implied in place of the conventional techniques. There are various techniques by which we can achieve this requirement and one of them is the “Pulsed electric field”.

Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) is a non-thermal food preservation technology which is used for the microbial inactivation and provides a good quality food product. Puled Electric Field technology works on the principle of application of short pulses of high electric fields with intensity 10-80 kV/cm at a very short duration of time i.e. microseconds to milliseconds. In this process product is placed between the electrodes and the pulsed current is given to the electrode.

Effects of PEF on Microorganisms

There are two mechanisms governing the inactivation of microorganism of the food products by means of the pulsed electric field, ‘electrical breakdown’ and ‘electroporation’.1. Electrical Breakdown: When an electric

field is applied to the product the membrane

present in bacterial cell acts like a capacitor which is filled with dielectric material. The normal 10 mV is the resisting potential difference across membrane which is known as transmembrane potential. When the potential difference across the electrode is increased, the membrane thickness gets reduced and if this potential difference reaches to the critical limit (i.e. 1 V) the pore formation take place in the cell membrane. Due to the pore formation discharge at the membrane take place and the rupture of cell membrane occurs.

2. Electroporation: In this process when high voltage electric field is applied across the food product the conductivity and permeability of the cell membrane increases which creates the pores in the lipid bilayer of microorganism present in the product. These pores swell with time and the rupture of the cell membrane is followed.

Components of PEF System

In this process various component are involved to operate in the system, these components of the PEF are as follow.

� Power supply: this is a normal power supply system which is used to supply direct current to PEF system.

� Energy storage element: used to store energy either magnetic (inductive) or electric (capacitive).

� Switch, which may be used either ways, closing or opening. Power switching systems are the connecting bridge between the storage device and the load. These switches include a mercury ignitron spark gap, a gas spark gap,



Co

MP

Ute

R A

DD

eD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

thyratrons, semiconductor, a magnetic switch or a mechanical rotary switch.

� Pulse shaping and triggering circuit in some cases.

� Treatment chamber, in which the PEF treatment is given to the product which depends upon the raw product sample.

� Pump to supply the feed or product to the chamber.

� Cooling system to control the temperature of the feed and the output material to maintain the quality.

Factor Affecting the PEF Process

There are various factors responsible for the efficient working of the PEF. These factors are liable for the inactivation of the microorganism. These factors are broadly classified as:1. Process parameters: Parameters that are

the part of the PEF process and directly affect the inactivation of the microorganism are called process parameters and the main process parameters are the electric field strength, pulse shape and length and start temperature.

2. Product parameters: Parameters that depend on the type of product to be processed are called product parameters. Products have diverse Physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics. These differences do influence the parameters (like, pH and conductivity) in various microorganisms. PEF treatment can be applied to different food products such as fruit juices, dry herbs, milk and liquid egg (whole and white).

Application of PEF

PEF treatment can be applied for preservation and non-preservation of the food product.

a) Preservation Application1. Juice: In juices, application of PEF has led to

an increase in the shelf life of apple and orange juice from 21 to 28 days.

2. Milk: Shelf life of skimmed milk increased

to two weeks with the PEF treatment at 4°C, electric field intensity of 40 kV cm–1, 30 pulses with a 2 µs treatment time.

3. Liquid Whole Egg: In PEF treated liquid whole egg, shelf life of the liquid whole egg is extended up to 25-28 days.

4. Other Liquid Products: Pea soup treated with PEF at 33 kV cm–1, 30 pulses and 0.5-1 min, was found to have an increase in the shelf to 4 weeks without any change in the sensory properties of the product.

b) Non-preservation Applications

Although PEF processing is centered to the inactivation of microorganism and food preservation but these techniques is also useful for non-preservation application in food.1. Baking Applications: When PEF (50 kV, 20

min) treatment is applied to the wheat dough, its water loss during baking is reduced and the shelf life of the baked bread is increased.

2. Extraction: PEF application increased the product expression, extraction and diffusion processes which result in the added extraction of juice and bioactive product and reduces the drying time of the product as the cell permeability of the product increased.

Conclusion

Pulsed electric field technique is an efficient preservation technique which can thus be used to increase the shelf life of the food product. It can also be used in various other ways like to enhance the extraction of the component and for intensification the drying rate of the product. This novel technique is very effective in achieving the processed food products with minimum changes it sensory and quality attributes. PEF allows the preservation of sensory characteristics of heat sensitive food products like juices for which the main quality characters are taste and color. Need is therefore for the implementation of the technique of Pulse Electric Field at various levels and stages of food processing industry for achieving the better quality food products.

COMPUTER ADDED TECHNOLOGY

19896

85. Interventions of Artificial Intelligence for Profitable AgricultureGOTTAM KISHORE AND MATHANGI RAJASEKHAR

Ph.D. Scholars, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi)

The United Nations FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) stated that the world population



Co

MP

Ute

R A

DD

eD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

would increase by another 2 billion in 2050, while the land area under cultivation may decrease due to urbanisation. Hence there is need of technological interventions for improving crop yield. But in line agriculture is losing its viability to vulnerable onditions created due to improper management of the resource, time, opportunity and decision making. Artificial Intelligence (AI) would be the tool to address this challenge and can extract the complete potential from the agriculture. Encapturing and identifying the importance in agriculture, AI is steadily emerging as part of the agricultural technological evolution. AI is the cognitive process one can associate with human thinking like image analysis, decision making, knowledge management, real time resource management and learning etc. which will make systems powerful and useful. In agriculture sector AI can be implemented with integrated approach of almost all parameters right from weather forecasting to post harvest

management.

Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture1. Disease detection2. Identify the readiness of the crop3. Field management4. Internet of Things (IoT)5. Identification of optimal mix for agronomic

products6. Crop health monitoring7. Weed management8. Automation techniques in irrigation and

enabling farmersFarmers are not able to predict weather patterns

or crop yields accurately, making it difficult for them to make operational decisions. Smart farming with artificial intelligence in India has helped to increase the crop yield as much as 30 to 50%.

FIG: Pros and Cons of Artificial Intelligence

FIG: Sowing app developed by ICRISAT and Microsoft

In June 2016, a pilot project for the “AI-sowing application” was launched with 175 farmers in Andhra Pradesh. The farmers benefiting from this application didn’t incur any capital expenditures such as installing sensors in their fields or

purchasing of smartphones, only requirement was a simple mobile device to receive text messages. Throughout the season, the application has sent ten sowing advisory messages to farmers in their native language Telugu. The sowing-related text



Co

MP

Ute

R A

DD

eD

te

CH

no

LoG

Y

messages gave crucial information related to sowing times, weed-management, fertilizer application and harvesting time. An impact assessment of the Andhra Pradesh farmers in the pilot project showed a 30% increase in the crop yield per hectare.

Although AI presents immense opportunities in agriculture application, there still prevails a

deficiency in familiarity with advanced high tech machine learning solutions in farms around the world. If the AI efficient solutions are offered in an open source platform that would make more affordable, which eventually shall result in faster adoption and greater insight among the farming community.

19908

86. Internet of things (Iot) for Low Cost Precision ApicultureBANKA KANDA KISHORE REDDY1, J. KOUSIKA2 AND R. TAMILSELVAN

Ph.D. Scholars1,3 and Post-doctoral Fellow2

Department of Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Internet of things (IoT) has allowed countless sectors and companies to boost effectiveness through the implementation of centralized surveillance solutions for the most significant procedures over the previous few years. In apiculture or beekeeping, one such instance can be discovered. Precision apiculture is an apiary management strategy based on the monitoring of individual bee colonies to minimize resource consumption and maximize the sustainable productivity and services of honeybees (Murphy et al., 2015). Precision Beekeeping can also be split and analysed in three phases viz., data collection, data analysis and application. During the data collection phase, measurements from bee colonies and the environment are collected. The data analysis phase draws conclusions regarding bee colony behaviour and activity trends based on measurement data. In the application phase, decisions are made and actions undertaken based on data analysis for improving apiary performance. Major parameters of the hive viz., temperature, humidity, sound, video, the number of incoming/outgoing bees and hive weight were measured under data collection (Zacepins et al., 2015). Bee-watch is an IoT plot-form application for measuring all required data for the beekeepers in real-time situation. Real-time surveillance of the defined ambiental parameters of a bee colony that has become a popular instrument for both research and practical beekeeping (Dasig and Mendez, 2020).

Bee Watch

The IoT architecture with three domains or layers was considered in the system including the IoT device, IoT gateway, and IoT platform layer

� IoT device layer - observation and data gathering � IoT gateway layer - connectivity, data

aggregation, filtering, processing, data security and data management

� IoT platform layer- cloud computing services in the system to provide public access and data sharing capabilities for the end-users with mobile application.Beehive embedded system includes the

IoT devices such as sensors and actuators, microcontroller, the Arduino compatible modules for IoT gateways.

Beehive Microcontroller (Arduino ATmega328P)

� The benefit of the microcontroller is that serial communication is an extremely easy protocol which is time-tested and USB makes connection with modern computers and makes it comfortable.

� It co-ordinates all the sensors together and give accurate and reliable results in real – time.

Temperature and Humidity Sensor

The sensor DTH22 is compatible with the development board Arduino ATmega328P that was used in the system.

� The sensor utilizes thermistor and a moisture resistor to evaluate temperature.

� The element is linked to the digital pin ATmega328 and placed inside the machine to monitor the beehive’s temperature and humidity.

Load Cells (HX711) Information � HX711 is a precision 24-bit analog-to-digital

converter (ADC) developed for weighing scales purposes that can be used in small scale to industrial application by having it interfaced



DA

IRY

sC

Ien

Ce

with a bridge sensor. In this design, a 200 kg maximum weight can be measured

� The load cells are connected to the HX711 sensor, and the HX711 sensor was connected

to the Arduino development module so that Arduino can evaluate the incoming information and transmit to the server.

Wi-Fi Module � Serves the connectivity services between the IoT

devices and the IoT platform. � ESP8266 is a low-cost SOC with TCP/IP protocol

stack which allowed the Arduino module to access the Wi-Fi network and provide services and connection points between the temperature and humidity sensors, and load sensors to the Beehive online and mobile application.

References

Dasig, D.D and J. M. Mendez. 2020. An IoT and

wireless sensor network-based technology for a low-cost precision apiculture. Internet of things and analytics for Agriculture., Vol (2): 67-89.

Murphy, F. E., M. Magno, L.O. Leary, K. Troy, P. Whelen and E. M. Propviei. 2015. Big Brother for Bees- Energy neutral plotform for remote monitoring of beehive imaginery and sound. Procedia computer science., 43: 86-94.

Zacepins, A., B. Valters, J. Meitalous and E. Stalidzans. 2015. Challenges in the development of precision beekeeping. Biosystems Engg., 130: 60-71.

DAIRY SCIENCE

19903

87. Feeding Practices for sustainable Dairying FarmingSANJIV KUMAR AND VV SUMANTH KUMAR

ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad- 500 030

India stands at first position in the world in terms of milk production. During the year 2018-19, it produced 187.7 million tonne of milk accounting for around 20% of world milk production. But in terms of productivity, India’s performance is abysmally low, with 3.9 kg, 6.2 kg and 7.1 kg per day for indigenous cow, buffalo and cross-bred cow respectively. Three pillars play role in increasing the productivity and in turn the overall production- feeding, breeding and management. Of these three, the importance of feed can be visualized by the fact that it accounts

for more than two-third of cost of milk production. The animal feeds are generally categorized into roughages and concentrates. Roughages form the bulk and consist of more than 18% crude fiber (CF) and less than 60% Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) on Dry Matter (DM) basis. Whereas concentrates have less than 18% CF and more than 60% TDN.

The roughages are again of two types based on moisture content: green and dry fodder. The green fodders have moisture content ranging from 60-90% whereas dry fodder contains 10-15% moisture.



DA

IRY

sC

Ien

Ce

Green fodder includes cultivated fodder crops like Berseem, Lucerne, Cowpea, Guar, Oat, Sorghum, Maize, Bajra, Napier grass, Deenanath grass and so on as well as grasses and tree leaves. Dry fodder comprises mainly of straws of paddy, jowar, wheat etc. Concentrates include energy rich grains like maize, sorghum, wheat, barley, their by-products like wheat bran, rice bran, etc.; and protein rich oilseed cakes and meals.

In India, dairy animals are generally fed locally available feed and fodder. This leads to imbalanced feeding, thereby increasing the cost of milk production alongside affecting the health and productivity negatively. By taking some initiatives in feeding the dairy farmers can increase the productivity of the animals and ultimately achieving more profit from dairy farming. Following are some of the well proven approaches or feeding measures to be considered by the farmers.

Silage

As green fodders are not available round the year, during lean season animals can be fed with silage, which contains 65-70% moisture. Silage is a fermented fodder which retains the green colour of fodder and tastes good. Around 500 kg of silage can be made in a silo pit of 1 m3 capacity. Maize is considered to be most suitable fodder to be used for making silage. Animals can be fed 20-30 Kg of silage per day depending on the weight and stage of milk production.

There are companies which market some additives for making silage. For instance, Dupont Pioneer sells proprietary bacterial strains or inoculants which when added during silage production produces enzymes which enhances fiber digestibility.

Azola

The wide gap in requirement and availability of green and dry fodder has led the sector to explore substitutes. Azolla is one of the good substitutes which can provide required nutrients to the animals at low cost. It has very high protein content which ranges from 25 to 35% and is rich in minerals like calcium, iron, phosphorus, potassium, copper, magnesium etc. Additionally, it is easily digestible by the animals. Studies have shown increase in milk production by animals fed on azolla by more than 10%. It can be fed at the rate of 1 kg daily mixed with concentrate or fed separately. The cost on equivalent amount of concentrate be saved. Many state government animal husbandry departments are also promoting azolla cultivation and feeding.

Hydroponic Fodder Production

Hydroponic is considered as one of the alternative to meet the increasing demand of green fodder. Fodders include maize, oat, sorghum, Lucerne, as well as cow pea, ragi, bajra can be grown using the technology. The advantages include less space requirement as racks with multiple tiers are

used; yield also gets increased; minimizing use of pesticide, insecticide and herbicide. Though there is high initial investment along with labour and energy cost, the sustainability is still doubtful, hence, not so successful in developing countries. There are companies which provide complete hydroponic fodder production system along with installation in India.

Compound Cattle Feed

Compound cattle feed is considered to be a balanced mixture of concentrates consisting of grains, brans, chunnies, protein meals, some agro-industrial by-products, minerals and vitamins. The government has recommended 3 different types of compound feed, the differences in these three are based mainly on crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre and silica content. The compound feed can be fed at the rate of 2-3 kg for maintenance depending on size of the animal and 0.4 kg per litre of milk production. There are large number of branded compound feed available in the market.

Urea Molasses Mineral Block

As low quality crop residues are deficient in minerals, the animals should be provided urea molasses mineral block, particularly in those cases where only dry fodder is fed to the animal. It consists of urea, molasses and mineral mixture mixed in suitable proportion which acts as a readily available source of energy, protein and minerals for the dairy animals.

Mineral Mixture

Dairy animals need a number of dietary mineral elements for maintenance, growth and production. Deficiency of these minerals may affect milk production and reproduction performance. Hence, it is very essential that mineral mixture must be given to the animals daily. Various mineral mixture formulations are available in the market. This can be fed at the rate of 50 g daily.

As a part of National Dairy Plan, National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has developed a software for guiding dairy farmers in feeding balanced ration among the locally available feed and fodder and area-specific mineral mixture at least cost.

The above are not-so-common approaches but by adopting some or all of the above, a dairy farmer will certainly be able to make good profit in dairy farming. There is need to create more and more awareness about these feeding practices.



FIsH

An

D F

IsH

eR

Ies

FISH AND FISHERIES

19905

88. GIs as a tool for next Generation AquacultureSHIVAKRISHNA

ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction: Geographic information systems science and technology, like many other areas of computing and information management, continues to evolve at a rapid pace. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a computer-based system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying spatial

data on Earth. GIS plays an important function aquaculture development and management. The use of technology has already proved helpful in making better use of scarce resources in the world. A geographic approach will help tremendously with alleviating poverty and hunger in developing nations.

FIGURE 1: Pictorial Representation of GIS role in Aquaculture

Role of GIS in Aquaculture

Aquaculture is one of the world’s most quickly increasing processes for food production. GIS technology can be used for aquaculture site selection for targeted species and assessment of land suitability for aquaculture. GIS is used to modify and evaluate spatial details, and to predict successful aquaculture sites from all sources.

Land and water are the basic units of all data production and analysis. GIS helps produce reports in maps, databases, and statistics, field calculations, and review and text format to facilitate decision-

making. GIS would introduce a modern approach to evaluate and control geographic objects to the EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) phase and an improved method of presenting scientific conclusions that will be of considerable value to the public participation.

Monitoring of the aquaculture by integrating the remote sensing data into the GIS will be more helpful in aquaculture to sustainable management. GIS is an evolving technology that analyzes the location on maps and 3D displays by laying details. GIS helps disease monitoring teams to accelerate the curve by way of predictive modeling by utilizing



CH

ILD

De

Ve

LoP

Me

nt

sophisticated equipment and software to include historically difficult analyzes. Disease modeling can also be possible through GIS technology. GIS plays an important function in marine aquaculture development and management.

GIS used as a decision-making tool in aquaculture for better and sustainable management. GIS that could serve as an analytical and prediction tool for aquaculture production and management. Training and education efforts can go a long way towards making GIS a routine analytical tool in the aquaculture domain. Technology promises incredible economic growth prospects and a bright future. But to guarantee the development of the new generation of graduates, the newest technologies, developments and resources must be preserved.

Many of the problems affecting both aquaculture and the environment could be avoided by creating better awareness of overall coastal zone management issues, improved site selection and adoption of the proper farm management measures using remote sensing data and GIS tools. Figure 1 shows the complete pictorial representation of the role of GIS in aquaculture.

References

Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Bensch, A., Carocci, F.,

De Graaf, G. and Taconet, M., 2006. Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for Responsible Aquatic Resource Management. Fao Aquaculture Newsletter, 35, pp.13-19.

Fonseca, A., Gouveia, C., Câmara, A. and Ferreira, F., 1994, March. Environmental impact assessment using multimedia GIS. In Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference and Exhibition on Geographical Information Systems, EGIS/MARI94.

Jayanthi, M., 2011. Monitoring brackishwater aquaculture development using multi-spectral satellite data and GIS- a case study near Pichavaram mangroves south-east coast of India. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 58(1), pp.85-90.

Nayak, A.K., Pant, D., Kumar, P., Mahanta, P.C. and Pandey, N.N., 2014. GIS-based aquaculture site suitability study using multi-criteria evaluation approach. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 61(1), pp.108-112.

Nath, S.S., Bolte, J.P., Ross, L.G. and Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., 2000. Applications of geographical information systems (GIS) for spatial decision support in aquaculture. Aquacultural Engineering, 23(1-3), pp.233-278.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT

19901

89. Worried about Children???? “time to Relax”POOJA PATIL

PhD Scholar, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Community Science, University of Agricultural Sciences Dharwad 580005 Karantaka, Inida

Is all children same in terms of displaying social and emotional behaviors??? Certainly NOT, Children do exhibit speckled sort of social and emotional behaviors. Among all these, certain emotions and behaviors careful to be appropriate to the societal norms and standards where it is referred as NORMAL behavior. But certain children displayed varied pattern of anti-social behaviors which have serious and significant impact on the social, cognitive and social domains of child living. With reference to this context it is worth to discuss about conduct disorders.

Dear readers you all might be little stun and be curious to know what these conduct disorders are?? Let us have a brief and simple understandings of what these conduct disorders are????? and what are remedial measures that needs to be taken care from the parents’ part to get rid of all these issues.

Conduct disorder are serious behavioral disorder that occur during childhood and teenage. Children with conduct disorders may present varied pattern of disruptive and showed violent behavior. Behavior is considered to be a conduct disorder when it is sustained longer period and it harms to others and goes against accepted standards of behavior and disrupts the child’s or families everyday life. In this context children do varied mistakes like hiding the truth for selfish reasons or for bad reason, stealing in house, cheating, attack through physically or verbally, breaking rules of family and immediate settings, indulge in sexual misconduct and crimes, giving derogatory comments in peers, feeling happy after insulting them, causing damage to articles at home and outsides (Deceitful behavior) at certain extent violence on birds and animals, sometimes joining local rowdies or anti-social elements, taking



CH

ILD

De

Ve

LoP

Me

nt

active part in chain snatching or robbery, use and abuse of alcohol, ganja and opiates, selling these substances. etc………..ahhh.

Now hope you all evidence to come across such children in your immediate setting which displaying above mentioned group of behavior for longer time and you were really tiered in finding out main reason for all these violent behaviors and also not sure for whom to blame for such kind of behavior that exists and displayed in children. More than knowing what are the symptoms of conduct disorders, it throw a dier need to have a look on probable causes and immediate action that needs to be taken from care takers and parents are to be sensitized efficiently and equipped with appropriate knowledge while dealing with such children as it imposes big question for parents that how to take care offff….. and bring them back on track????.

It is believed that the exact cause of conduct disorder is not known but certainly it is combination of genetic, biological, environmental, psychological, and social factors plays a major role. Arry of scientific findings revealed that defects or injuries to certain areas of the brain lead to behavioral disorders. When the nerve cell circuits in the brain regions does not work properly children showed varied antisocial behavior, Children with mental retardation that cannot identify which is right and wrong. We have been many times evidenced that children with conduct disorder have close family members suffering from anxiety, substance use disorder, mental illness, mood personality disorder.

Research finding suggested that vulnerability to conduct disorder may be at least partially inherited. Children born with low levels of MAOA enzyme and received parental mal treatment resulted in antisocial personality on counterpart with children who born with high level of MAOA with little parental mal treatment brings which confirms that environment do a major and significant role in controlling genetic expression. Too much love or too much discipline from parents, imposing inconsistent consequences for children misbehavior, parents or family members do neglect children, no love and affection from family, feeling rejected, dysfunctional family life, childhood abuse, traumatic experiences, a family history of substance abuse, being teased by classmates, stopping going to school after failing. Parents or others having bad habits or criminal tendencies, neighbors or locality having bad habits or indulging in crimes also contributing for children to display conduct problems. Parental having marital discord and fights have directs effect on children. Some experts believe that conduct disorders can reflect problems with moral awareness (notably, lack of guilt and remorse) and deficits in cognitive processing. Low socioeconomic status seems to have a major risk for developing in children.

It is obliviously to accept that we cannot correct biological cause and change genetic makeup once the child is born but certainly we can control genetic expression and make the child sooth and to lead a comfortable life. Hence environmental factors need

to be taken care off and give nurturing, supportive, and consistent home environment with a counter balance of love and discipline may help reduce symptoms and also help to prevent episodes of disturbing behavior. In this situation children to be corrected with love, affection and rapt care, if we punish and make them afraid or scold them, they will certainly become even more stubborn. They are a great challenge on the part of parents to be more attentive and sensitive and try to reform the child. Reward the child when they are not naughty. Appreciate them if they behave nicely. Keep regular check and constant monitor on child at all times is very much needed, abscond the children from friends who commit mistakes and use the help of those whom child trust and believes more than anything to improve and enhance behavior of the child. It is worth to keep in mind that, timely make use to doctors help and medicines for anger, depression or fear control. If your child is displaying symptoms of conduct disorder, it is very important that you seek help from a qualified doctor. A child or teen with conduct disorder is at risk for developing other mental disorders as an adult if left untreated. These include antisocial and other personality disorders, mood or anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders. If the child has dropped out of school or failed, try to see if the child can continue education further. If it is found that child lacks interest and less interest for studies in certain situation child has to be admitted for vocational training. Dear parents do not allow the child to be idle. Teach the child common sense and general knowledge, difference between right and wrong, behavior, social etiquette. Train how to behave towards others with courtesy and good manners. If the environment at home is not conducive to studies, parents should send the child to boarding school, or a relative who can bring him up and correct him with love, or corrective school or boarding school. Treatment outcomes can vary greatly, but it is noted early intervention may do a major role and may help to reduce the risk for incarcerations, mood disorders, and the development of other co morbidities such as substance abuse. It is striking in minds of the readers that whether disorders can be prevented or not????, although it is not possible to prevent but when early detection an acting on symptoms when they appear can minimize distress to child and family and most importantly others problems associated with conduct disorderly are certain prevented.

Dear parents if you have worried about these conduct problems in your children, no need to be worry… time has not fully passed off!!!!!!! you have left with ample of time and various kinds of opportunity to make correction in your line and helping the child to reform efficiently in most acceptable manner and you surely enjoy their company in the society with positive vibes.



BIo

teC

Hn

oLo

GY

BIOTECHNOLOGY

19878

90. Protein Mini Factories: spirulinaSHRINIKETAN PURANIK1*, SRUTHY, K. S1., BARBHAI MRUNAL, D2., WAGHMARE, V. V3. AND VIKRAM, K. V1

1 ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi- 110 0122Prof. Jaishankar Telangana State Agriculture University, Hyderabad- 500 0303 University of Ag. Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru- 560 065*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

According to World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 462 million adults worldwide were hit by malnutrition in 2014. Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR) and blast within the population have paved way protein malnutrition, especially proteins. So, a number of natural food supplements to combat malnutrition are the need of the hour. Amongst these supplements, Spirulina holds a prominent position. The usage of Spirulina is dated way back in sixteenth century by the Aztecs, in the form of cakes after harvesting from salty lakes with nets. The International Society for Applied Microbiology tagged it as “wonderful future food source” in 1967. WHO has reported that Spirulina jenneri f. platensis has no perils to human health and can be regarded as a superb food supplement. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2012 also tagged it a ‘safe dietary supplement’.

Spirulina is a multicellular, filamentous cyanobacteria mainly found in soil, marshes, freshwater, brackish water, seawater and thermal springs. It grows abundantly under alkaline/ saline conditions, preferably between pH 8.5 and 11.0. It uses sunlight and CO

2 as energy and carbon source,

respectively. It contains a blue pigment called phycocyanin for photosynthesis. Additionally, it also possesses chlorophyll a, phycobilins and carotenoids. Gas vesicles help it to stay afloat in mats on water. Many microorganisms cannot grow in alkaline lakes because of high pH, unlike Spirulina, that grows in abundance under such conditions [1]. Some strains of Spirulina, isolated from lakes with salt concentration upto 270 g/l, have shown optimum growth at 20-70 g/l salts.

Nutrient content in Spirulina varies across the species. S. platensis contains very high protein content (60-70%). It has high contents of amino acids like glutamic acid (8.7 mg/ 100g), asparatic acid (5.7 mg/ 100g), Leucine (4.9 mg/ 100g), alanine (4.7 mg/ 100g), vitamin E, B-complex, K, fatty acids, potassium, sodium, phosphorus and magnesium [2]. Such a rich profile of nutrition makes Spirulina worthy of human consumption.

Spirulina is commercially produced as single cell protein (SCP). Around 15 species have been identified for various purposes like S. platensis,

S. subsalsa, S. maxima, S. lonar, S. nodosa etc. It can utilize wastewater as a substrate, which makes it eco-friendly and an efficient waste utilization option. However, strict hygienic conditions are to be maintained for cultivation of Spirulina for human consumption. Rich in vitamins, it is also used as dietary ingredient of aqua feed for fish, shrimp and poultry. It can be used as fertilizer. Due to the presence of carotenoids and phycobilins, it is used as a coloring agent. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), S. platensis helps in the control of blood sugar level for glycemic health in humans. The recommended dose of these cyanobacteria as per FDA standards is 3–10g/ day for humans.

Global shortage of food protein is a big problem in present time. The current rate of progress in agriculture is insufficient to feed increasing population as far as protein productivity is concerned. Hence, there is an urge to search out other alternatives. Single cell protein (SCP) like Spirulina is a potent source of protein, regardless of pace of agriculture and is available in both powder and tablet forms for convenience. Spirulina, being an old custom is gaining grip over the protein markets for its high nutritive value.

References

Kebede, E. and Ahlgren, G. (1996). Optimum growth conditions and light utilization efficiency of Spirulina platensis (= Arthrospira fusiformis) (Cyanophyta) from Lake Chitu, Ethiopia. Hydrobiol., 332, 99–109.

Belay, A. (1997). Mass culture of Spirulina outdoors. The Earthrise Farms experience. In Vonshak, A. (ed.), Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira). Physiol. Cell Biol. and Biotechnol., 131–158.



BIo

teC

Hn

oLo

GY

19886

91. Are GM Foods safe for Human Consumption?KISHOR PRABHAKAR PANZADE

ICAR–Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi.

Introduction

Conventional breeding and modern biotechnology methods are used to produce superior crop plant verities with improved characteristics. Genetically modified (GM) crops are produced using the modern biotechnology tools where precisely introduce the desirable traits into a crop plant. In conventional plant breeding, genetic material from two parents is mixed in several different combinations to expect the desired trait. Both methods have the prospective to change the nutritional status of plants or lead to unintended modifications in the concentration of anti-nutrients or natural toxicants. Before the commercialization of GM food, has undergone additional testing than any other food. They are assessed using procedure and guidelines issued by scientific agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization, the World Health Organization, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

These Guidelines Include the below � The risks of GM foods are of a similar nature as

those for conventional foods. � GM food will be assessed for nutrition,

allergenicity, and toxicity � Any novel constituent added to food through

genetic modification will be subject to pre-market sanction

GM Food Assessed for Food Safety

Prior to the commercialization of GM food, it has to be systematically studied by the developer and separately assessed for safety by experts in allergenicity, toxicology, nutrition, and other aspects of food science. These food safety evaluations are according to the guidelines subjected by expert regulatory agencies of each country and consist of comprehensive information about its projected use; a description of the food product including and molecular, toxicological, biochemical, allergenicity, and nutritional data.

Typical Queries That Must Be Considered Are � Does the GM food have a conventional

complement that has a history of safe use? � Does the concentration of naturally occurring

allergens or toxins in the food altered? � Does the concentration of major nutrients

altered?

� Does new material of GM food have a history of safe use?

� Does the food’s digestibility been exaggerated? � Does the food been produced using established

and accepted procedures?Even after this and many other quires about GM

food are answered, there are further additional steps in the sanction process prior to the GM food can be commercialized. Actually, GM foods are the most assessed food products ever produced.

Major Public Concerns about GM Food

Toxicity

Naturally, plants have a small concentration of toxins to guard against diseases and insect pests. Therefore, need to establish the acceptable toxin the concentration of all crops varieties consumed depends on toxicological analysis. The protein products of the transgene in the GM crops are assessed for the toxicological analysis and determined for acute toxicity analysis. Elevated doses of isolated transgenic proteins that are artificially expressed in plant systems or bacteria are administered orally to assess the toxic potential of the novel proteins.

Allergenicity

Allergen is the public’s most important concern associated with GM foods, could be unintentionally introduced into food. The amino acid sequences of known protein allergens are well characterized. Therefore, it is particularly impossible that they would ever be introduced into GM food. A range of analysis must be performed to verify whether GM food poses any possibility of allergenicity/allergens are stable during food processing and digestion and are rich in foods. A protein present into commercially existing GM foods does not have any of these properties. Protein from sources with no history of allergenicity and do not be similar to known allergens structurally and biochemically and functionally are well understood. They have been confirmed as safe in animal feeding studies.

Antibiotic Resistance

Some GM crops have antibiotic resistance genes to select transformed cells for desired gene. But huge public concerns have been raised that antibiotic resistance genes could shift from GM crops to microbes that live in a human gut and may cause of increased in antibiotic resistance. The plentiful



BIo

teC

Hn

oLo

GY

experimental studies are available on this issue and they conclude that, the probability of antibiotic resistance genes transfer from GM crops or food to any other living the organisms is virtually zero. If antibiotic resistance gene is transferred to another organism, the impact of this transfer would be insignificant, as the markers used in GM crops have limited clinical or veterinary use. However, in view to public concerns, researchers have been recommended to avoid antibiotic resistance genes in GM crops before commercialization.

Assessment of GM foods through substantial equivalence

Complete safety is unachievable for any food as people react in a different way to ingredients of food. Substantial equivalence is an approach used for the safety evaluation of GM foods. Safety assessed by comparing GM food with available traditional food that has established a safe history of use. Traditional food compared with GM food in terms of toxicological, molecular, nutritional and compositional data. Substantial Equivalence has been used in the safety assessment of all GM crops available in market.

Conclusion

GM foods are safe and protein products of the

transgene introduced in the commercially available GM crops have undergone the careful tests and proved that they are non-allergenic, non-toxic, and the nutritional content is similar to non-GM food. International agencies such as the World Health Organization, American Society of Toxicology, the American Medical Association, the European Commission, Food and Agriculture Organization and the French Academy of Medicine have reassessed these health concerns and have conclude that GM foods are safe for human consumption.

References

Konig, A., Cockburn, A., Crevel, R. W. R., Debruyne, E., Grafstroem, R., Hammerling, U., & Penninks, A. H. (2004). Assessment of the safety of foods derived from genetically modified (GM) crops. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 42(7), 1047-1088.

Pusztai, A., & Bardocz, S. (2007). Potential Health Effects of Foods Derived from Genetically Modified (GM) plants–What are the issues? BIOSAFETY FIRST, 239.

Kok, E. J., & Kuiper, H. A. (2003). Comparative safety assessment for biotech crops. TRENDS in Biotechnology, 21(10), 439-444.

19893

92. RnA Activation: RnAaRAMACHANDRA ANANTAPUR

Department of Plant Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore-560065*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

The discovery of post-transcriptional RNA interference has partially fulfilled the goal to suppress the expression of any gene using dsRNAs. Gene silencing occur at the levels of chromatin, DNA, transcription, mRNA and translation. It has been an evolutionarily conserved defense mechanism to suppress foreign sequences. This may have evolved the capability to regulate target sequences both negatively and positively. There is different type of small non coding RNAs involved in gene silencing and they are as follows-

� microRNAs (miRNAs) � small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) � PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs)

The miRNA & siRNA involve in transcriptional and posttranscriptional gene silencing mechanisms and piRNAs silence transposons in the germline and are required for fertility in many organisms. To this group of small non coding RNAs a new type has been introduced recently which is known as small

activating RNA (saRNA).This class of small dsRNA involves itself in

upregulation of gene expression at the transcriptional and/or epigenetic level. These dsRNAs are termed as “small activating RNAs” (saRNAs) to distinguish them from siRNAs. They exert an effect opposite to that of RNAi, even target gene promoter sequences. To describe such phenomena, the term RNAa (RNA activation) is used.

Genesis

In year 2004, a group of scientists, was interested in how aberrant DNA methylation of promoter sequences was regulated in cancer cells, they constructed a small interfering RNA (siRNA) against the E-cadherin promoter sequence and involved two high-scoring targets at sites just outside the



BIo

teC

Hn

oLo

GY

CpG Island which were selected for testing. These constructs were transfected into the prostate cancer PC-3 cell lines and were eagerly waiting for downregulation of E-cadherin. But the group was surprised to see that E-cadherin expression was robustly upregulated this study led to the genesis of “small activating RNAs”.

Targets of saRNA1. Promoter or Non-promoter targeting2. DNA or RNA targeting3. Sense or Antisense targeting

a) Promoter-Targeting RNAa: These saRNAs have a target size of 19 nt with 3dTdT overhangs. They target locations on gene promoters ranging from −200 to −700 relative to the transcription start site.

b) Nonpromoter-Targeting RNAa: These saRNA target genomic regions outside promoter sequences. The enhancer sequences are also targeted leading to transcriptional activation. Yue et al. found that saRNAs targeting the 3’ terminal region of the PR gene caused activation by interacting with an overlapping noncoding sense transcript.

c) DNA as target: It is possible that, with the help of an Ago protein, saRNA interacts directly with its DNA target without the need of a third ncRNA as a docking molecule.

d) RNA as target: Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), as large as a few thousand nucleotides overlap promoter regions. These may serve as binding sites of Argonaut proteins (Ago)-loaded saRNAs.

e) Sense Target: The antisense transcript serves as a docking site for target recognition, implying that RNAa activity is mediated by the sense strand.

f) Antisense Target: One of the study revealed that PR expression was activated by targeting the 3’ terminal region with saRNA, that a noncoding sense transcript recruits saRNA. Such evidence would imply that the antisense strand in this saRNA duplex guides gene activation.

Mechanism for RNA Activation

An exogenously introduced or naturally occurring saRNA is loaded into an Ago protein (Ago2) where the passenger strand is cleaved and discarded, resulting in an active Ago–RNA complex. This complex gains access to the nuclear compartment by either passive transport when the nuclear envelope disappears during mitosis or active transport mechanisms.

The Complex may then Bind to1. Complementary DNA sequences2. Nascent cognate transcripts in promoters or

3’ flanking regions, further histone modifiers are recruted, leading to an open chromatin structure and active transcription.

Challenges and Technical Considerations of RNAa1. Selecting optimal target sites: The spatial

sensitivity may be dependent on the duplex sequence and/or target site. Improper selection of the guide strand may sequester RNAa activity. Some saRNAs are restricted to the cytoplasm and have limited access to the nuclear compartment. Parameters like -chromatin/DNA accessibility– distance from the transcription start site– presence or absence of nascent transcripts

2. Off-Target Effects: Change the expression of many unrelated genes. Target sequences should not have significant homology with any other region in the genome. Off targets can be avoided by determining specificity i.e.– validation of induced phenotypes– vector based overexpression

3. Maximizing the RNAa Effect: To achieve maximised saRNA effect duration and concentration are impotant. A higher concentration of saRNA is needed to transfect cells compared to siRNA transfection. The optimal duration of gene activation is between 3 and 5 days post-transfection. A reverse-transfection protocol generally yields better results than forward transfection for RNAa.

Applications � Modulation of cell cycle and proliferation � Promotion of apoptosis � Repression of invasion and metastasis � Induction of cellular senescence � Therapeutic opportunities for cancer � Study of gene function in cancer

Conclusion � RNAa is an endogenous mechanism of gene

regulation guided by small RNAs. � In parallel to RNAi mechanisms, RNAa may

serve as a countervailing component in gene regulatory networks.

� RNAa depends on Argonaute proteins, but possesses kinetics distinct from that of RNAi.

� Epigenetic changes are associated with RNAa and may contribute to transcriptional activation of target genes.

� The potential of RNAa as amolecular tool for studying gene function and as a therapeutic for diseases.

� Further research is needed to completely elucidate its molecular mechanism



BIo

CH

eM

IstR

Y

BIOCHEMISTRY

19838

93. Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) Analysis: A Method to study Protein-Protein InteractionARTI KUMARI

Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi 110012, India*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

Introduction

This is a useful technique to study protein-protein interaction (PPI) and it is based on the reconstitution of a fluorescent protein (Kristi et al. 2016). It is used for high throughput screenings for protein binding partners and drugs that modulate PPI. Recent advances in the screening of large libraries use BiFC for genome-wide PPI studies to find out novel interacting partners that provided new insight into protein function. BiFC can be used for a wide range of living systems like yeast, plants, and mammalian cells. Other technologies for PPI studies are

� Yeast two-hybrid (YTH) system � Co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) � Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) � Tandem affinity purification (TAP) � Protein fragment complementation assays

(PCAs).YTH was designed for mapping PPIs in vivo,

but the original YTH system was limited to soluble protein only. This limitation was overcome by membrane yeast two-hybrid (MYTH) assay. MYTH is a split ubiquitin-based two-hybrid analysis for application to membrane proteins. The concept behind this technology was used for the discovery of BiFC. FRET involves the transfer of energy from an excited donor molecule to acceptor molecule placed in the nearby vicinity and is very sensitive to the distance between the donor and acceptor molecule i.e. 100 Å. This limitation is overcome by BiFC. BiFC provides visualization of protein interaction in-vivo thus overcomes the problem due to other methods such as Co-IP and TAP which require removal of proteins from its natural environment. In PCAs, a truncated reporter (either protein or an enzyme) is fused with two proteins of interest whose interaction pattern is to be studied. Interactions of these proteins reconstitute the reporter activity due to proper folding and assembly of the complementary fragments. BiFC is one among the PCA methods which is based on the reconstitution of a fluorescent protein in vivo. This method was first reported by Regan and colleagues where he reconstituted green fluorescent protein (GFP) from its truncated N- and

C-terminal fragments (Ghosh et al. 2000). Kerppola and colleagues successfully used this technology in mammalian cells for the reconstitution of yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) using truncated YFP Fused to interacting transcription factor (Hu et al. 2002), Since then this technique became popular in biological research.

FIG.1. Schematic representation of the BiFC analysis. (a) The N-terminal and C-terminal fragments of YFP (YN and YC) are fused to two proteins (A and B) whose interaction pattern needs to be studied. The interaction between A and B allows the formation of a bimolecular fluorescent complex, that produces fluorescence. (b) In contrast, b (a mutant form of B or a nonbinding partner) cannot interact with A, showing no fluorescence.

Advantage � Direct visualization of protein interactions in



MIC

Ro

BIo

LoG

Y

living cells � Gives subcellular localization of PPI � Affected less by changes in cellular conditions � Easy quantification of the BiFC signals

compared to other fluorescence-based techniques, such as FRET. BiFC analysis does not require specialized equipment, apart from an inverted fluorescence microscope.

� Because of the intrinsic fluorescence of reconstituted fluorescent protein, BiFC does not require staining or any special treatment of cells with exogenous reagents avoiding potential disturbance of the cells by these agents.

� Multiple protein interactions can be visualized in parallel using spectrally distinct bimolecular fluorescent complexes

� Does not require information about the structures of the interaction partners

Steps involved in BiFC

Selection of fusion protein production system: Protein over-expression should be avoided, as it may disturb localization and protein complexes formation. Protein should be expressed near the endogenous level. To achieve this goal weak promoters, low levels of plasmid DNA in the transfection, and plasmid vectors that do not replicate in mammalian cells should be used.

Designing linkers: Designing of linker sequence should be such that it should be sufficiently soluble and long enough to provide flexibility and freedom of movement to the fluorescent protein fragments.

Creating proper plasmid expression vectors: When designing expression vectors, the construct must be able to express fusion proteins with fluorescent protein fragments without disrupting the protein’s function.

Selection of appropriate cell culture system: The reporter proteins can fluoresce in the specific model systems. For example, GFP can be used in E. coli cells, while YFP is used in mammalian cells.

Selection of appropriate controls: To differentiate among the fluorescence from fluorescent reporter protein reconstitution, non-specific complementation and false-positive some controls are required. The control may include fluorophore fragments linked to non-interacting proteins or a protein fragment linked to proteins with mutated interaction faces (unable to interact) serves as a strong negative control.

Cell Transfection: The plasmids must be transfected into the cells where the interaction pattern of proteins needs to be studied. Then allow sometime (about eight hours) for the fusion proteins to interact and their linked fluorescent reporter protein fragments to associate and fluoresce.

Visualization: Visualize fluorescence in cells using an inverted fluorescence microscope.

References

Kristi EM, Yeonsoo Kim, Won-Ki Huh, and Hay-Oak Park. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) analysis: advances and recent applications for genome-wide interaction studies. J Mol Biol 2015; 427(11): 2039–2055.

Ghosh I, Hamilton AD, Regan L. Antiparallel leucine zipper- directed protein reassembly: application to the green fluorescent protein. J Am Chem Soc 2000; 122:5658–9.

Hu CD, Chinenov Y, Kerppola TK. Visualization of interactions among bZIP and Rel family proteins in living cells using bimolecular fluorescence complementation. Mol Cell 2002; 9:789–98.

MICROBIOLOGY

19956

94. A Brief overview of extremophiles and their ApplicationJYOTSANA TILGAM1 AND MUSHINENI ASHAJYOTHI2

1Scientist, Agricultural Biotechnology, ICAR-National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Micro-organisms, Kushmaur, Maunath bhanjan, U. P. 2751032Scientist, Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Institute of Seed Science, Kushmaur, Maunath Bhanjan, U. P. 275103

Extremophiles are known to endure under harsh and extreme environments in which a typical organism would die. This ability comes by adaptation mechanism due to altered gene expression which in turn maintains the homeostasis in the changing

harsh environmental conditions. The adaptation mechanisms include pathway-specific gene activation, protein modulation, extremozyme action, amino acid accumulation, ion channel/pump formation, chaperone activation, extremolyte



MIC

Ro

BIo

LoG

Y

synthesis, cellular compartmentalization, etc. For many years, extremophile micro-organisms are a core of attention in the scientific community due to their immense ability to live and survive in a complex environment. Examining the survival and defensive mechanism of extremophiles as to genomic to metabolite levels will aid in discovery of essential genes, novel molecules, and metabolic networks, etc. Notwithstanding recent progress, practical

application of extremophile micro-organisms in the biotechnological, industrial and medical fields is still in its infancy stage. The jillions of hidden beneficial extremophile micro-organisms need more investigation and proper understanding of underlying defensive mechanisms and biomolecule properties. Following table summarizes the types of extremophile microbes, their living condition, examples and application.

types of extremophiles

Living condition and habitats

Major examples Application References

Psychrophiles Temperature < 20 °C, cold habitats such as polar regions, high altitudes, deep oceans

Bacteria and Archaea: Alteromonas, Halobacterium, Shewanella, Psychrobacter cryopegellain, Pseudoalteromonas, Arthrobacter, Colwellia psychrerythraea, Gelidibacter, Marinobacter, Psychroflexus, Pseudomonas, Methanolobus, and Methanococcoides, Halorubrum lacusprofundi, Polaromonas vacuolata

Detergent, Biosensor, organo-synthesis and food industries, Bioremediation of oil spills

Metpally and Reddy, 2009; Irgens et al., 1996

Alkalophiles pH > 10, sodic lakes

Bacteria and Archaea: Bacillus halodurans C-125 and Bacillus firmus OF4, Halomonas, Pseudomona,Archaea: Halalkalicoccus, Halobiforma, Halorubrum, Natrialba, Natronococcus, and Natronorubrum

Detergent, medicinal

Fujinami and Fujisawa, 2010

Thermophiles/ Hyperthermophiles

Temperaturetemperature> 45 °C and up to121 °C, habitats are hydrothermal vents, volcanic sites, hot springs

Bacteria and Archaea: Pyrococcus furiousus, Aquifex aeolicus, Coprothermobacter proteolyticus, Geobacillus thermodenitrificans, Thermus aquaticus (YT-1), Aeropyrum pernix K1, Pyrolobus fumarii, Methanopyrus kandleri strain and Geogemma barossii

Detergent, paper bleaching, organic synthesis, biofuel, organic solid waste degradation, antiviral therapies, PCR Diagnostics, pharmaceutical and leather industries

Arena et al., 2009; Lin et al., 2011; Kumar et al.,2000; Toplak et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2013

Acidophiles/ metalophiles

pH < 5 or even 0.0, habitats such as acid mine drainage sites, acidic lakes; volcanic areas, geothermal hydrothermal vents, industrially polluted site

Bacteria and Archaea: Acidithiobacillus, Leptospirillum, Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius, Acidiphilium, Acidimicrobium, Ferrimicrobium, and SulfobacillusArchea: Ferroplasma, Acidiplasma, Sulfolobus, Metallosphaera, Acidianus, Picrophilusoshimae and Picrophilustorridus

Organo-synthesis, food industries, bioremediation and biomining

Reed et al., 2013; Navarro et al., 2013; Johnson 2014; Orell et al., 2013



MIC

Ro

BIo

LoG

Y

types of extremophiles

Living condition and habitats

Major examples Application References

Barophiles /piezophiles

>40Mpa, deep inside the oceans or sea

Bacteria and Archaea: Shewanella, Psychromonas, Photobacterium, Colwellia, Thioprofundum, alphaproteobacterium, Moritella, Thermococcus barophilus, Sulfolobus, and Pyrococcus abyssi

Food industry, medical

Kato and Bartlett, 1997;Kato et al., 1998; Emiley et al., 2011

Radiophiles Resistance to surviveunder ionizing radia-tion; UVR−2resistance >600 J m

Bacteria and Archaea: Deinococcus, Rubrobacter, Cellulosimicrobium cellulans, Bacillus pumilus B. stratosphericus, Enterobacter sp., Roultella planticola, Aeromonas eucrenophila, Arthrobacter mysorens, Micrococcus yunnanensis, Stenotrophomonas, Brevundimonas olei, Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1Kineococcus, Geodermatophilaceae cyanobacteria: genera Nostoc and Chroococcidiopsis

management of nuclear waste-polluted environments, Biomining, pharmaceuticals

Brim et al., 2003; Appukuttan et al., 2006; Marques, 2018

Halophiles 15-20% NaCl (Moderate Halophiles), 2.5M-5M Salt, Salter pond brines and natu-ral saline alkaline lakes

Bacteria and Archaea: Haloarcula marismortui, Thioalkalivibrio, Paenibacillus tarimensis, Halarsenatibacter silvermanii

Waste water treatment, biorefinery, detergent, Pharmaceuticals, textile, food, paper industries

Madern and Ebel 2007; Llamas et al., 2011; Alzbutas et al., 2015

References

Irwin, J. A., & Baird, A. W. (2004). Extremophiles and their application to veterinary medicine. Irish veterinary journal, 57(6), 348.

Babu, P., Chandel, A. K., & Singh, O. V. (2015). Extremophiles and their applications in medical processes. New York, NY: Springer International Publishing.

Raddadi, N., Cherif, A., Daffonchio, D., Neifar, M., & Fava, F. (2015). Biotechnological applications of extremophiles, extremozymes and extremolytes.

Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 99(19), 7907-7913

Marques, C. R. (2018). Extremophilic microfactories: applications in metal and radionuclide bioremediation. Frontiers in microbiology, 9, 1191.

Arora, N. K., & Panosyan, H. (2019). Extremophiles: applications and roles in environmental sustainability.



en

VIR

on

Me

ntA

L sC

Ien

Ce

s

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

19876

95. Biomass Briquettes: An Alternative to sustainable FuelDEEPIKA PANDEY

Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Family Resource Management, GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

Introduction

Being a developing country, India requires a well-planned energy policy for better growth and development. According to a report, India stands 81st position in overall energy self-sufficiency (2014). Presently India depends largely on import of fossil fuels to meet energy demands. About 80% of India’s electricity generation is from fossil fuels. Not only electricity but all other household chores depend on its availability. For the continuous growth of country as well as to meet the requirement we need a constant supply of energy source. Fossil fuels being non-renewable in nature would totally exploit one day, so we have to look for other alternatives. Utilization of biomass energy is gaining eye of everyone for future needs, for it would be cheap and environment friendly. We can rely on ancient records that biomass is being a constant source of energy. Following it, wood, water & wind mills and then coal & petroleum dominated energy market. Also now-a-days natural gas is being in use. When we talk about biomass energy, briquettes seem to be very conducive option to opt. Briquette, French word, usually described as compressed and consolidated block of biomass material that can be anything like sawdust, wood chips, rice husk etc. that are burned to produce heat energy. Biomass briquettes can prove to be a substitute to fossil fuels such as oil or coal that will be easily available, cheap and manageable.

Preparation of Briquettes: Raw Material Used

Biomass briquettes can be prepared from vegetative or organic wastes of on-farm or off-farm such as:

� Agricultural waste (rice husk, sawdust, groundnut shell, cotton and mustard stalks, coir pith, coffee husk, wood chips etc.)

� Industrial waste (bagasse from sugarcane industry)

� Municipal solid waste

Uses and Properties

Biomass briquettes are renewable energy source. They can be used as fuel for electricity generation, for cooking purpose, as a heat boiler in manufacturing plants and in steam generation. The various

properties of biomass briquettes are: � Less ignition time and burn longer: The time

taken for igniting the briquettes is less and they burn comparatively for longer duration.

� Reduce transportation cost and cheaper than charcoal: The biomass briquettes are prepared using the waste which is locally available leading to the reduction in transportation cost and making it cheaper than charcoal.

� No sulphur and less carbon emission. � Low net total greenhouse gas emission: The

agricultural waste utilized for the preparation of biomass briquettes leads to the reduction in emission of

� Low ash content (2 – 10%). � Higher boiler efficiency due to low moisture and

high density. � High thermal value. � Environment friendly.

In short, it can be said that biomass briquettes can prove to be suitable alternative energy source. Along with this, it also helps in curbing environmental issues raised by use of fossil fuels and improve disposal of agricultural waste.

Here are some of the factors that should be considered while selecting the raw materials, which would affect the efficiency of biomass briquettes.

� Calorific value – higher the calorific value, higher the efficiency. For example: cotton stalk (4700 kcal/kg), groundnut shell (4200 kcal/kg), soybean husk (4170 kcal/kg), rice husk (3000 kcal/kg).

� Moisture content – optimum 10-15% of moisture should be there. Less or more moisture will hamper smooth working and late drying.

� Ash content – optimum 4% ash to avoid slagging behavior.

� Particle size – it should be around 6-8 mm to allow easy flow in conveyer and bunkers.

� Easy availability – material should be easily available in nearby areas to avoid transportation cost and others.Various researches have proved briquettes to

be a substitute to coal and charcoal. The bio-coal briquettes blended with groundnut shell and maize cobs make an environment friendly fuel. It not only



stA

tIst

ICs

An

D B

IoM

etR

Y

increases the calorific value and burning efficiency but also at the same time reduces the ignition time, cooking time and ash content. Since, it is a bio fuel; it reduces the exhaust gas and smoke emission as well (Onuegbu et al., 2012). Utilization of groundnut shell and waste paper admixture in the production of briquettes improve their physical and mechanical properties and hence provide alternative fuel source for household purposes (Oyelaran et al., 2015). The briquettes made out of agricultural waste like coconut pith, sugarcane waste and saw dust gives a good alternative to kerosene and firewood (Murali et al., 2015). Production of briquettes using different biomass like dry leaves, rice husk, groundnut shell and wood chips in combination with charcoal dust gives briquette with good calorific value and physical characteristics. (Jain et al., 2015)

Conclusion

India being a rural country, about 60% population lives in rural areas and depends on natural firewoods as a source of energy for cooking and heating. They cannot afford the higher cost of fuels (coal, gas, kerosene, electricity etc.) for their household requirements. So, in this case biomass briquettes can prove to be a boon for them. Not only it will replace the fuel as an alternative but also help them to deal with higher amount of field waste. It can help in income generation as the production

of briquettes can be taken as business which will ultimately help the rural families, also will stand against environmental pollution.

References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India

Jain, H., Vijayalakshmi, Y. and Neeraja, T. 2013. Preparation of Briquettes using Biomass Combinations and Estimation of its Calorific Value. International Journal of Science and Research. 4(3): 322-324.

Murali, G., Channankaiah. Goutham, P. Hasan I.E. and Anbarasan, P. (2015). Performance Study of Briquettes from Agricultural Waste for Wood Stove with Catalytic Converter. International Journal of ChemTech Research. 8(1):30-36.

Onuegbu, T.U., Ilochi, N.O., Ogbu, I.M., Obumselu, F.O. and Okafor, I. (2012). Preparation of Environmental Friendly Bio-coal Briquette from Groundnut Shell and Maize Cob Biomass Waste: Comparative Effects of Ignition Time and Water Boiling Studies. Current Research in Chemistry. 4(4):110-118.

Oyelaran, O. A., Bolaji B. O., Waheed, M. A. and Adekunle, M. F. (2015). Characterization of Briquettes Produced from Groundnut Shell and Waste Paper Admixture. Iranica Journal of Energy and Environment. 6 (1): 34-38.

STATISTICS AND BIOMETRY

19940

96. Application of Wilk’s Lambda Criterion in MAnoVA for Compare treatment Pairs in Presence of Multiple CharactersJIT SANKAR BASAK

Department of Agricultural Statistics, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

In most of the agricultural experiments, data on more than one character is taken. One general example for most of the crop is grain yield and straw yield. For grain yield one ANOVA is performed and the best treatment is identified on the basis of character grain yield. For straw yield another separate ANOVA is performed and the best treatment is identified on the basis of character straw yield. Both of the two characters cannot be analysed simultaneously in ANOVA. But MANOVA, can solve that problem. In MANOVA, multiple characters or dependent variables can be analysed simultaneously. Let, ANOVA based on the character grain yield T

1 is

identified as best treatment and it is statistical at par with T

6, in another ANOVA based on the character

straw yield T4 is identified as best treatment and

it is statistical at par with T1. But based on the two

characters’ grain and straw yield simultaneously, ANOVA cannot say which treatments are statistical at par and which are not. But MANOVA with Wilk’s Lambda criterion can give that answer.

MANOVA

MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance) is a generalized form of ANOVA (Univariate Analysis of Variance). It is used to analyse data that involves



stA

tIst

ICs

An

D B

IoM

etR

Y

more than one dependent variable at a time. MANOVA allows us to test hypotheses regarding the effect of one or more independent variables on at least two or more dependent variables.

Assumption of MANOVA1. The dependent variables (e.g. grain yield, straw

yield) should be normally distributed within each groups.

2. There have linear relationships among all pairs of dependent variables, all pairs of covariates (e.g. between grain and straw yield).

3. Error component should be follows iid

(0 , )p p pxpN ∑

.

Model

The observations can be represented in MANOVA with RBD (Randomised Block Design) set up with two characters (p = 2) is,

ij i j ijy t b eµ= + + +

; i = 1,2,…, v ; j = 1,2,…, r ; p = 1,2

where, 1 2( , )ij ij ijy y y ′=

is a 2-variate vector of observations due to ith treatment and jth replication;

1 2( , )µ µ µ ′=

is a 2x1 vector of general means;

1 2( , )i i it t t ′=

are the effect of ith treatment on

p-character; 1 2( , )j j jb b b ′=

are the effect of jth

replication on p-characters; 1 2( , )ij ij ije e e ′=

is

a p-variate error component associated with ijy

and assumed to be distributed independently as

(0 , )p p pxpN ∑

and is the observation due to ith treatment and jth replication corresponding to pth

character.

The null hypothesis is, 0H : all it ’s are equal ;

i = 1,2,…, v and 0H : all jb ’s are equal ; j = 1,2,…, r ;

Against the alternate hypothesis is, 1H : at least one

it not equal to 0 ; i = 1,2,…, v and 1H : at least one

jb not equal to 0; j = 1,2,…, r

Let, .1 11

1 r

i ijj

y yr =

= ∑ ; .2 21

1 r

i ijj

y yr =

= ∑; . 1 1

1

1 v

j iji

y yv =

= ∑ ; . 2 21

1 v

j iji

y yv =

= ∑ ;

..1 11 1

1 v r

iji j

y yvr = =

= ∑∑ ; ..2 2

1 1

1 v r

iji j

y yvr = =

= ∑∑MANOVA Table :

source d.f. ssCPM (sum of squares and Cross Product Matrix)Treat-ment

v-1 = h

( ).1 ..1.1 ..1 .2 ..2

1 .2 ..2

vi

i ii i

y yH r y y y y

y y=

− = − − −

∑

Replica-tion

r-1 = t

( ). 1 ..1. 1 ..1 . 2 ..2

. 2 ..21

rj

j jjj

y yB v y y y y

y y=

− = − − −

∑

Error (v-1) (r-1) = s ( )1 .1 . 1 ..1

1 .1 . 1 ..1 2 .2 . 2 ..22 .2 . 2 ..21 1

v rij i j

ij i j ij i jij i ji j

y y y yR y y y y y y y y

y y y y= =

− − + = − − + − − + − − +

∑∑

Total vr-1

( )1 ..11 ..1 2 ..2

2 ..21 1

v rij

ij ijiji j

y yT y y y y H B R

y y= =

− = − − = + + −

∑∑

Wilk’s Lambda ( )Λ :

The Wilk’s Lambda statistics ( )Λ is defined by, | |

| |R

H RΛ =

+

Where, | |R

and | |R H+

represent

the determinant value of matrix R

and

( )R H+

respectively. For 2p = and any

(2 ,2( 1))(1 )( 1): h s

sh Fh −

− Λ −Λ

. If calculated



stA

tIst

ICs

An

D B

IoM

etR

Y

value of ,(2 ,2( 1))(1 )( 1): h s

sh Fh α −

− Λ − >Λ

then

0H is rejected at α % level of significance, Otherwise it is accepted. Before application of multivariate analysis, it should be keep in concern that the rank

of R

matrix should not be smaller than the number of character “p” or in the other words error degrees of freedom “s” should be greater than or equal to

“p” ( )s p≥ . If Wilk’s Lambda ( )Λ statistics is significant, then we go for Wilk’s Lambda criterion

*( )Λ , otherwise not.

Wilk’s Lambda Criterion *( )Λ :

Suppose the null hypothesis is, 0 : i iH t t ′=, against the alternate hypothesis is,

1 : ; 1, 2,...,i iH t t i i v′ ′≠ ≠ = . For testing the null hypothesis for each pair of treatment, we have to calculate another SSCPM. Let, this SSCPM is

denoted by 2 2xG

. The diagonal elements of the

matrix is obtained by,

2( )2kk ik i krg y y ′

= − and off diagonal elements are obtained by,

( )( ); 1, 2; 1,2,...,2kk ik i k ik i krg y y y y k i i v′ ′ ′ ′ ′

′= − − = ≠ =

.

Then the Wilk’s Lambda *( )Λ is defined

by, * | |

| |R

G RΛ =

+

. Where, | |R

and

| |G R+

represent the determinant value of

matrix R

and ( )G R+

respectively. Here,

*

( , 1)*

(1 )( 1)p s p

s p Fp − +

− Λ − +Λ

. If calculated

value of

*

,( , 1)*

(1 )( 1)p s p

s p Fp α − +

− Λ − + >Λ

, then 0H is rejected at α % level of significance, Otherwise it is accepted. If this is not significant

then two treatments for which *Λ is calculated, are

statistical at par. For Compare in between each pair of treatments [(1,2), (1,3),…,(1, v),(2,3),…,(2, v),…

(v-1, v)], each time we have to calculate new 2 2xG

matrix. In case of v number of treatments, we have

to calculate ( 1)

2v v −

numbers of 2 2xG

matrixes

and *Λ .

19966

97. Multi-observation Data in strip Plot DesignAGASHE NEHATAI WAMANRAO

Department of Mathematics, Statistics & Computer Science, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India.*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

The strip plot design is specifically suited for two-factor experiment in which the desired precision for measuring the interaction effect between the two factors is higher than that of measuring the main effects of either one of the two factors. This is accomplished with the use of three plot sizes: 1) Vertical strip plot for the first factor (vertical factor), 2) Horizontal strip plot for the second factor (horizontal factor) and 3) Interaction plot for the interaction between the two factors.

When a single character from the same experimental unit is measured more than once, the data are called multi-observation data. These are of two types, first, data from plot sampling in which sampling units are measured from each plot, as in

the measurement of the plant height in transplanted rice where 10 hills may be measured in each plot and second, data from measurement made over time in which the same character is measured at different growth stages of the crop, as in plant height tiller number and dry matter production, which may be measured every 20 days. Standard analysis of variance, which requires a single observation per character per experimental unit, is not directly applicable to multi observational data. It can be applied by the analysis of multi observational data over different times or growth phases through one of the standard designs.



stA

tIst

ICs

An

D B

IoM

etR

Y

Analysis of Multi-Observation data in Strip Plot Design (Measurement Over Time)

When a character in an experiment is measured over time, the researcher generally may be interested in observing the rate of change from one time point to another. For example, when a researcher measures weight of dry matter (g m-2) of soybean plant at different growth stages, attention is usually on the effects of treatment on growth pattern or rate of change over time based on dry matter (g m-2) at individual growth stage. It is essential to determine the interaction between treatment and stages of observations, hence the common method is to combine data from all stages of observations and get single analysis of variance.

a) Strip Plot Design

The mathematical model for strip plot design in randomized block design is

yijk=µ+γi+αj +(γα)ij+βk+ (γβ)ik+(αβ)jk+(γαβ)ijki=1,2,…., r ; j=1,2,..., p ; k=1,2,…, q

In which, µ - is overall effect,

yijk is the observation corresponding to ith replicate, jth main plot and kth subplot, γi-is ith block effect, αj- effect of jth level of horizontal plot (A), βk– effect of kth level of vertical plot (B), (γα)ij- error I, (γβ)ik- error II and (γαβ)ijk- error III.

In addition αj and βk are fixed effects of horizontal and vertical factors respectively with==0. (αβ)jk is interactions effect of jth level of A and kth level of B with= 0.

Here (γα)ij = Error I N(o,), (γβ)ik = Error II N(o,), (γαβ)ijk N(o,). All these error terms are independent random errors.

We can also find the coefficient of variation (CV) for main plot, sub plot and interaction of main plot and sub plot by using

C.V. (A) =100C.V. (B) =100

C.V. (A*B) =100

Table 1 shows the ANOVA Table for above said model.

Table 1 ANOVA Table for Strip-Plot Design

source of Variation DF ss Mean square F-RatioReplication r-1 SSR MSR=SSR/(r-1)Factor A p-1 SSA MSA=SSA/(p-1) FA=MSA/ MSEI

Error I (p-1)(r-1) SSEI MSEI=SSEI/(p-1)(r-1)Factor B q-1 SSB MSB=SSB/(q-1) FB=MSB/ MSEII

Error II (q-1)(r-1) SSBEII MSEII=SSEII/(q-1)(r-1)A*B (p-1)(q-1) SSAB MSAB=SSAB/(p-1)(q-1) FAB=MSAB/ MSEIII

Error III (p-1)(q-1)(r-1) SSEIII MSEIII=SSEIII/(p-1)(q-1)(r-1)Total pqr-1 TSS

c) Pooled Analysis of Variance for Measurement over Time

Let t be the number of times data were collected from each plot. The steps for data analysis are given as:

Step 1: Compute an analysis of variance for each one of the t stages of the observation, following the procedure for standard analysis of variance based on experimental design used. In our study we use strip plot design.

Step 2: Test the homogeneity of variance of the t error variances, for our study, the chi- square test of homogeneity of variance is applied to the error mean square.

We compute the χ2 value by using

χ2 =

where, f is error d.f. for individual growth stage.

We compare the computed χ2 value with the table value, with (t -1) degree of freedom. If χ2 >

2,( 1)tαχ − then there is heterogeneity of variances.

Step: 3 Based on the result of the test for homogeneity of variance of step 2, we apply suitable analysis of variance. If heterogeneity of variance is displayed, we choose proper data transformation that can stabilize the error variances and compute the pooled analysis of variance based on transformed data.

Hypothesis for pooled analysis of variance � H

0T: All growth phases (different time points)

are insignificant. � H

0AT: Interaction (A*T) is insignificant.

� H0BT

: Interaction (B*T) is insignificant. � H

0ABT: Interaction (A*B*T) is insignificant.

Table 2 Pooled ANOVA for Strip-Plot Design

source of Variation DF ss Mean square F-RatioReplication r-1 SSR MSR=SSR/(r-1)Factor A P-1 SSA MSA=SSA/(p-1) FA=MSA/ MSEI



stA

tIst

ICs

An

D B

IoM

etR

Y

source of Variation DF ss Mean square F-RatioError I (p-1)(r-1) SSEI MSEI=SSEI/(p-1)(r-1)Factor B q-1 SSB MSB=SSB/(q-1) FB=MSB/ MSEII

Error II (q-1)(r-1) SSBEII MSEII=SSEII/(q-1)(r-1)A*B (p-1)(q-1) SSAB MSAB=SSAB/(p-1)(q-1) FAB=MSAB/ MSEIII

Error III (p-1)(q-1)(r-1) SSEIII MSEIII=SSEIII/(p-1). (q-1)(r-1)T (Time) (t-1) SST MST= SST/(t-1) FT=MST/MSEIV

T*A (t-1)(p-1) SSAT MSAT= SSAT/(t-1)(p-1) FTA=MST/MSEIV

T*B (t-1)(q-1) SSTB MSBT= SSTB/(t-1)(q-1) FTB=MSTB/MSEIV

T*A*B (t-1)(p-1)(q-1) SSTAB MSTAB= SSTAB/(t-1). (p-1)(q-1) FTAB=MSTB/MSEIV

Error IV (t-1)(r-1).(p-1)(q-1)

SSEIV MSEIV= SSEIV/(t-1). (r-1)(p-1)(q-1)

Total pqrt-1 TSS

Reference

Gomez and Gomez (1984). Statistical procedure for agricultural Research. Wiley- interscience.

STAY SAFE. STAY HEALTHY. STAY HOME. #COVID19...

Documents

Transcript of STAY SAFE. STAY HEALTHY. STAY HOME. #COVID19...