THE LOSS OF INNOCENCE:Some Thoughts on the Discipline of International

Relations and on South Africa's International Dilemma

Dirk Kunert

OCCASIONAL PAPER

The South African Instituteof

International Affairs

\934-I984 GELEENTHEIDSPUBLIKASIE

Die Suid-Afrikaanse Instituutvan

Internasionale Aangeleenthede

PROFESSOR DIRK KUNERT Is Jan Smuts Professor of International Relations atthe University of the WItwatersrand* He was appointed to the Chair In1981, after having Joined the Department as Senior Lecturer In 1976-

Thls Occasional Paper contains the text of Professor Kunert' s InauguralLecture, delivered on 5 October 1985*

The Jan Smuts Chair of International Relations was established In 1957 bythe Smuts Memorial Trust, and the first Smuts Professor was appointed In1962* The parties to the Trust were the University of the WItwatersrand,the South African Institute of International Affairs and the Jan SmutsMemorial Committee. The main purpose of the Trust, In addition to thecreation of the Chair, was the erectfon and maintenance of Jan Smuts House,on the University Campus, as a centre of International studies and a livingmemorial to Jan Christian Smuts as an International statesman. Thebuilding, opened In 1960, now houses the headquarters of the Institute andthe Library. The Professor and Department of International Relations wereformerly also housed In Jan Smuts House.

It should be noted that any opinions expressed In this article are theresponsibility of the author and not of the Institute.

THE LOSS OF INNOCENCE :

Some Thoughts on the Discipline of InternationalRelations and on South Africa's International Dilemma

Dirk Kunert

SBN: 0-908371-23-3

The South African Institute of International AffairsJan Smuts HouseP 0 Box 31596BRAAMFONTEIN

2017South Africa

June 1984

To past and present students of the

Department, who have always shown themselves

willing to distinguish between "real

posslbi I I ties" and "possible realities1 1*

C O N T E N T S

REALITY AND UTOPIA IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

The Nature of the State In Theory and Reality

"Friends and Enemies" In Inter-state Relations

THE STATE SYSTEM SINCE 1945

The United Nations and International Unity

The Impact of United States Ideology

THE IMPACT OF MARXISM-LENINISM ON AFRICA

Africa : Myth and Reality

THE LOSS OF INNOCENCE

PAGE

BIBLIOGRAPHPY 13

R E A L I T Y A N D U T O P I A IN T H E S O C I A L S C I E N C E S

In m y a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n for t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e gapingc h a s m t h a t a p p e a r s to d i v i d e t h e s e p a r a t e w o r l d s of t h e v i s i o n a r i e s on t h eo n e h a n d a n d t h e c o m m o n s e n s e r e a l i s t s on t h e o t h e r , I h a v e p o n d e r e d on t h eq u e s t i o n of I n n o c e n c e , a n d It s e e m s t o m e t h a t w h a t s o o f t e n Is t a k e n t o b ee i t h e r v i r t u e or c y n i c i s m Is u l t i m a t e l y a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e d u a l i t y ofm a n ' s n a t u r e e x p r e s s e d In t h e o p p o s i n g c o n d i t i o n s of I n n o c e n c e a n de x p e r i e n c e . W i t h i n e a c h h u m a n b e i n g a t all t i m e s , a n d f o r e a c h g e n e r a t i o n ,t h e s t r u g g l e Is w a g e d b e t w e e n t w o c o n t r a s t i n g p e r c e p t i o n s : t h e i d e a l ,w h i c h Is r o o t e d In I n n o c e n c e , and t h e r e a l , r o o t e d In e x p e r i e n c e . In t h ec o n d i t i o n of I n n o c e n c e , h o w e v e r , w e a r e a l w a y s t h r e a t e n e d by e x p e r i e n c e ,a n d s e n s e t h a t w e a r e p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e t o l o s i n g t h e c h i l d l i k e I n n o c e n c ew h i c h e n a b l e s us t o c o n s t r u c t b e a u t i f u l and f r a g i l e I n t e l l e c t u a l t o y s Ino u r g l o b a l l y s p a c i o u s p l a y r o o m . T h i s is t h e r e a l m at w h i c h i n n o c e n c e c o m e sIn t o c o n t a c t w i t h p o l i t i c s ; t h e e x p e r i e n c e e m e r g e s f r o m t h e a c t of h u m a na s s o c i a t i o n and d i s a s s o c l a t l o n .

W e w h o l i v e In t h i s a g e and in t h i s c o r n e r of t h e g l o b e h a v e for longd e l u d e d o u r s e l v e s I n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t o u r s m a l l w o r l d c o u l d c o n t i n u e Ini n n o c e n c e In Its r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d b e y o n d . T h e t i m e h a s c o m e f o rus t o e m e r g e f r o m t h e s e c h i l d l i k e n o t i o n s and t o c o n f r o n t t h e e x t e r n a lr e a l m and t h e f o r c e s w h i c h s w i r l and t u m b l e t h e s t a t e s of t h e w o r l d Inc u l t u r a l c l a s h e s , p o l i t i c a l a n a r c h y and I d e o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r .

M a n y , If n o t m o s t , of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l s c i e n c e s p r o v i d e " n o n - a n s w e r st o t r i v i a l q u e s t i o n s " and a n a e s t h e t i z e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y - (a c o n c e p t i o n ofp o l i t i c s w h i c h p l a c e s c o n s i d e r a b l e t r u s t In c o m m o n s e n s e ) - by m e a n s o ft e r m i n o l o g i c a l and c o n c e p t u a l " s o r c e r y " . T h e r e I s , In t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ,a c o m p u l s i o n t o p r e s s f o r w a r d In t h e s e a r c h f o r a s o c i a l s c i e n c e s 'e q u i v a l e n t of t h e laws of t h e " h a r d or n a t u r a l " s c i e n c e s , a n d m a i n l yb e c a u s e t h i s s e a r c h Is p u r s u e d In t h e u n - c h a r t e d r e a l m s of f a n t a s y , I t sp o i n t s of r e f e r e n c e a r e l o c a t e d In t h e i m p e n e t r a b l e s o c i a l s c i e n c ee q u i v a l e n t of " p i l o t J a r g o n " . A s A l i c e , t h e e p i t o m e of t h e b e w i l d e r e dr e a l i s t -in t h e w o n d e r l a n d p u t It : " T h e H a t t e r ' s r e m a r k s s e e m e d t o h a v e n os o r t of m e a n i n g In It - and y e t It w a s c e r t a i n l y E n g l i s h " .

H e l n r l c h R l c k e r t ' s a d m o n i t i o n t h a t m e t a p h o r s a n d c o n c e p t s c a n " d o n o t h i n gm o r e ... t h a n c o n s t r u c t b r i d g e s o v e r t h e s t r e a m of r e a l i t y " g o e s to t h eh e a r t of t h e m a t t e r , for t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e m o d e l s i n e v i t a b l y o v e r s i m p l i f yt h e p h e n o m e n a t h e y p u r p o r t t o ex p l a i n and t e n d t o s a c r i f i c e r e l e v a n c e t or e a l i t y t o l o g i c a l e l e g a n c e . If s t r i p p e d of t h e i r p r e t e n s e s , t h e y o f t e ns t r i k e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t in t h e d e b a t e as " s t r e a k e r s " d a n c i n g on an I m a g i n a r yA r c h e m e d f a n h e a d of t h e n e e d l e .

W h e n t h e i r c o n f r e r e s of t h e s i s t e r d i s c i p l i n e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n se n g a g e e a c h o t h e r , f r e q u e n t l y al I t o o f r e q u e n t l y . In i n c e s t u o u s Intel l e c -t u a l p s e u d o - d 1 s p u t a t I o n s , t h e i r s c l e n t i s t l c m e t h o d o l o g y e n d e a v o u r s t ot r a n s f o r m t h e e v e r m o r e t e n a c i o u s r e a l i t y of s t a t e s and n a t i o n - s t a t e s I n t oI m a g e s of c o n t e m p o r a r y I n t e r n a t i o n a l l i f e w h i c h a p p r o x i m a t e s a m u t a t i o n ofh i s t o r y I t s e l f and n o t a m u t a t i o n w i t h i n h i s t o r y , In w h i c h c h a n g e s ofs y s t e m s a r e n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m c h a n g e s w f t h f n s y s t e m s , fn w h i c h t h ea - s o c l e t a l ( K a n t ) or a n a r c h i c a l and f r a g m e n t e d s t a t e - s y s t e m Is s e e n ash a v i n g r e a c h e d t a k e - o f f as " s p a c e s h i p e a r t h " , a t e c h n o l o g l s e d a r t i f a c te n g i n e e r e d t h r o u g h c l o c k - w o r k m e c h a n i s m s of I n t e r d e p e n d e n t r e c i p r o c a t i n gp a r t s .

B u t , d e s p i t e t h e u p - b e a t i m a g e r y , t h e d e l u s i o n s of m a n y of t o d a y ' s s o c i a ls c i e n t i s t s a r e n o t , as t h e y l i k e t o p r e t e n d or f e r v e n t l y d e s i r e In t h e i rh u b r i s to b e l i e v e , t h e c h e r i s h e d p r o d u c t of twentieth century e n t i g h t e n -

- 2 -

m e n t , b u t t h e l e g a c y of g n o s t i c m o v e m e n t s w h i c h r e a c h b a c k i n t o t i m e a n dr e c u r In o u r a g e . T h e s e m o v e m e n t s h a v e a l w a y s b e e n t h e v e h i c l e s of t h e" g r e a t s i m p l i f l e r s " w h o c a r r y t h e m a s t e r k e y s t o u n l o c k t h e w o r l d ' ss e c r e t s . T h e i r v a s t a p p e a l , w h i c h s w e e p s e v e r g r e a t e r m u l t i t u d e s I n t ot h e i r I d e o l o g i c a l v o r t e x , Is t h a t t h e y p r o m i s e e s c a p e f r o m t h e w o r l d a n dt h e c o n d l t l o h u m a n a a n d p r e t e n d t o c o m m a n d t h e m e a n s of d e l i v e r a n c e . T h e yc o n j u r e up a v i s i o n of r e b i r t h , r e d e m p t i o n a n d r e t u r n fo p a r a d i s e a n d t h er e c a p t u r e o f t h e R o u s s e a u l s t l c n a t u r e of t h e " n o b l e s a v a g e " . T h e yf a n t a s i s e a b o u t t h e c h i m e r a of a t h o r o u g h l y d e - p o l i t i c i s e d w o r l d , w h e r ec o n f l i c t w i l l b e c o n v e r t e d I n t o v o l u n t a r y f r e e l a b o u r a n d m a n k i n d u n i t e du n d e r o n e s o v e r e i g n t y n o l o n g e r c o n f r o n t i n g a n y e n e m y . T h e s e v i s i o n s a r en o r m a l l y d r i v e n by d i s a s t e r e x p e r i e n c e d a n d / o r A r m a g e d d o n e x p e c t e d a n da n t i c i p a t e d . In t h e s e a c u t e l y e x i s t e n t i a l c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s m o d e l s areb u l t t t o g i v e m a n , s u s p e n d e d In h i s " s t a t e of f l u n g n e s s " ( H e i d e g g e r ' s" G e w o r f e n s e l n " ) , a g l i m p s e of t h e b e c k o n i n g f u t u r e t o c o m e . L a n g u a g eb e c o m e s h i g h l y m e t a p h o r i c a l , a n d d a n g e r o u s , t o t h e e x t e n t of m i s t a k i n ga t t r i b u t e s of a n a l o g y f o r a t t r i b u t e s of r e a l i t y . T o p u t It b l a s p h e m o u s l y ,t a k i n g c o m m u n i o n In t h e o n e E u c h a r l s t l c b o d y of I n e v i t a b l e , I m m a n e n t ,u n i f o r m , n e c e s s a r y , a n d d i r e c t i o n a l c h a n g e a r e all t o o f r e q u e n t l y t h e" s o c I a 1 s c 1 e n c e s " .

T h e N a t u r e o f t h e S t a t e In T h e o r y a n d R e a l i t y

B y p o s t u l a t i n g g r o w t h , w h o l e n e s s , a n d o n e n e s s , t o b e c o n s u m m a t e d t h r o u g hp r o c e s s , t h e i r u l t i m a t e r e a l i s a t i o n Is p r e s u m e d . T h e " m y t h of u n i t y "c r o w d s o u t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f a c t t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l w o r l d Is n o t a u n l v e r s u mb u t a p l u r l v e r s u m , In w h i c h m e n l i v e as t h e y a r e In a w o r i d a s it I s , w h e r ep e a c e Is p r e c a r i o u s l y b a l a n c e d a n d w a r s a l l t o o f r e q u e n t . T h e w o r l d isc o m p o s e d of " l i t t l e c o s m l o n s " , w h i c h w i t h Its o w n s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n ds e l f - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , of a w o r l d m o u l d e d In t o t e r r i t o r i a l , s o v e r e i g n a n dI n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s . F o r w h i l e t h e s t a t e c o n c e p t h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l yI n d i c t e d b y t h e s c l e n t l s t l c , b e h a v i o u r l s t l c I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n st h e o r i s t s as c o n c e p t u a l l y a m b i g u o u s , e q u i v o c a l and v a c u o u s , in t h e v a s te x t e r n a l r e a l m t h e r e a l i t y of t h e s t a t e h a s p r o v e d t o b e I n t r a c t l b l yr e s i l i e n t . I n d e e d , n o t o n l y d o e s t h e s t a t e s u r v i v e , b u t It g o e s f r o ms t r e n g t h t o s t r e n g t h , h a v i n g m u l t i p l i e d t h r e e - f o l d o v e r t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o fa c e n t u r y . T h i s r e s i l i e n c e Is b e g i n n i n g t o p e r p l e x s o m e of t h e l e s se c s t a t i c t h e o r i s t s , l i k e W o l f r a m H a n r l e d e r w h o , w i t h l e g i o n s of o t h e rp o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e b e h a v i o u r i s t s , h a d l o n g a g o p r o n o u n c e d t h e s t a t e d e a d .H e n o w d e c l a r e s "... it Is n o t a n e w t y p e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s w h i c hI s " d l s o l v l n g " t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i o n - s t a t e , b u t a n e w n a t i o n - s t a t e w h i c hIs d i s s o l v i n g t r a d i t i o n a l I n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s " .

P o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e t e r m i n o l o g y a n d m e t h o d o l o g y m a y b e a s I n s c r u t a b l e t o t h elay o b s e r v e r of I n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s as t h e m e d i c a l l a n g u a g e Is u n f a t h o m -a b l e t o t h e u n i n i t i a t e d t o t h e O a t h of H i p p o c r a t e s , b u t t h e v e r d i c t Isa u d i b l e a n d , f o r t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i s t , e n c o u r a g i n g . E v e n T h u c y d l d e s w o u l df i n d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d , a f t e r a c r a s h c o u r s e In m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y a n dg e o g r a p h y , n o t all t h a t u n f a m i l i a r . H e w o u l d f a c e a w o r l d of o r g a n i s e de n t i t l e s , c l e a r l y d e m a r c a t e d . J e a l o u s l y w a t c h i n g e a c h o t h e r , J o s t l i n g f o ri n f l u e n c e , c o n t r o l a n d d o m i n a t i o n , e m p l o y i n g p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , andm i l i t a r y p o w e r t o f u r t h e r t h e i r g o a l s , a n d l o c k e d , o n t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l ,e v e n In b i p o l a r c o n f l i c t a s w e r e S p a r t a a n d A t h e n s In h i s l i f e t i m e . H ew o u l d f i n d r e a f f i r m e d h i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t p.ast a n d f u t u r e c o u l d b e J u d g e dc o m p a r a t i v e l y t o t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s a r e I n f l u e n c e db y " t h e c o u r s e o f h u m a n t h i n g s " - H a v i n g o n c e p a i n s t a k i n g l y , b u t s u c c e s s -ful l y , p e e l e d o f f t h e e n c r u s t a t i o n s of p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e J a r g o n to r e v e a lt h e m o r e s u b s t a n t i v e s t a t e m e n t s , a n d h a v i n g o n c e m o u n t e d t h e b a r b e d - w i r e so f s c l e n t i s t l c m e t h o d o l o g i e s , T h u c y d i d e s w o u l d e n c o u n t e r t e l l i n g f e a t u r e so f p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s c a p t u r e d In h i s " T h e P e I o p o n n e s I an W a r " of a l m o s t

- 3 -

2 5 0 0 y e a r s a g o , a n d h i s n e a r - c o n t e m p o r a r y of H i n d u I n d i a , K a u t l l y a , w o u l dc l e a r l y r e c o g n i s e t h e a c t i o n - p a t t e r n s of l a t e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y I n t e r n a t i o n a lp o l i t i c s a s r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h h i s c l a s s i c A r t h a s a s t r a .

T h e v e i l o f I n n o c e n c e , carefuI Iy woven by b e h a v f o u r l s t l c p o l i t i c a lsclertct I s t s , a n d a l m o s t s p i t e f u l l y c o n c u r r e n t l y u n r a v e l l e d by s t a t e s m e n Int h e d a l l y c o n d u c t of t h e i r b u s i n e s s , Is b e i n g l i f t e d o n t h e s t a t e c o n c e p t ,t h o u g h t h e v i s i o n of m a n y a s c l e n t l s t l c d i s c i p l e Is s t i l l b l u r r e d . W h i l et h e a c a d e m i c d e t r a c t o r s of t h e s t a t e a r e far f r o m b e a t i n g a h a s t y r e t r e a t ,t h e y a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s g r o p i n g t h r o u g h t h e s e l f - g e n e r a t e d f o g t r y i n g n o t t olag t o o far b e h i n d t h o s e w h o h a v e s t u b b o r n l y , a n d o f t e n t h o u g h t f u l l y .I n s i s t e d t h a t k n o w l e d g e o f p o l i t i c a l s u b s t a n c e In Its I n s t i t u t i o n a l ,h i s t o r i c a l , a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l a s p e c t s be r e a s s e r t e d .

M a n k i n d b e g a n by d i v i s i o n , a n d h u m a n s o c i e t i e s , c a s t In t h e r o l e s ofs t a t e s , c o n t i n u e t o l i v e In an I n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i s e d bya n a r c h y In t h e s t r i c t s e n s e of t h e t e r m : t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n s u b j e c t e d t oan " a r c h e " , t h a t I s , an o v e r a r c h i n g w o r l d a u t h o r i t y . T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a ls y s t e m Is n o t h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r g a n i s e d a c c o r d i n g t o e c o n o m i c e x c h a n g er e l a t i o n s , b u t h o r i z o n t a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o a u t h o r i t y r e l a t i o n s w h i c h f i n dt h e i r f u l l e s t e x p r e s s i o n in s e l f - h e l p by p o l i t i c a l u n i t s , c a l l e d s t a t e s , a st h e f u n d a m e n t a l b a s i s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n a n d d l s - a s s o c l a t l o n .

I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a d v e s a r y r e l a t i o n s , I n d i v i d u a l i s t i cIn o r i g i n , b u t a m e l i o r a t e d by m o d e s of c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n .A t t e m p t s a t " d o m e s t i c a t i n g " w o r l d p o l i t i c s I n e v i t a b l y r u n I n t o t h eu n s u r m o u n t a b le o b s t a c l e a n d b a r r i e r of t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e t e r r i t o r i a ls t a t e . S t a t e c o n d u c t r e m a i n s a c t u a t e d by t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r a 1 s o n d ' e t a t ,p r e c a r i o u s l y s u s p e n d e d , a n d h e l d In t e n s i o n , b e t w e e n K r a t o s a n d E t h o s o r ,In t h e w o r d s of F r l e d r l c h M e 1 n e e k e , b e t w e e n b e h a v i o u r p r o m p t e d by t h e" p o w e r - I m p u l s e " a n d b e h a v i o u r p r o m p t e d by " m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " . In t h el a s t a n a l y s i s , s t a t e a c t i o n s a r e c o n d i t i o n e d by n e c e s s I t a s rerurn ( t h en e c e s s i t y of t h i n g s ) w h i c h m a k e s p o l i t i c s n o t t h e a b o d e of t h e S a m a r i t a nb u t t h e r e a l m o f r e s d u r a ( t h e " h a r d a n d t o u g h t h i n g " , V i r g i l ) . It Is t h eh i g h e s t I r r a t i o n a l i t y In p o l i t i c s In g e n e r a l a n d In I n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c sIn p a r t i c u l a r t o a c t , a s W e b e r r e m a r k e d , o u t of t h e s u p p o s e d l y p u r e m o t i v e so f c o n s c i e n c e w i t h o u t w e i g h i n g t h e p r o b a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s of s u c h a c t i o n .P o l i t i c s Is o f t e n a m a t t e r , n o t of c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n g o o d a n d e v i l , b u t o fc h o o s i n g b e t w e e n d e g r e e s of e v i l ( M a c h l a v e l l l ) , o r , p e r h a p s , b e t w e e n t h e" d i s a g r e e a b l e " a n d t h e " I n t o l e r a b l e " ( B u r k e ) . A n " e t h i c s o fr e s p o n s i b i l i t y " , o r " c o n s e q u e n c e s " , m a y w r i n g f r o m t h e s t a t e s m a n of v i r t u e ,as c o n c e s s i o n s t o n e c e s s i t y , v i o l e n c e a n d o t h e r e v i l s . O f t e n , o u t of f e a rof a c q u i r i n g t h e r e p u t a t i o n of b e i n g c r u e l o r I n h u m a n , h e m a y fall In h i sa s s u m e d a n d a s s i g n e d t a s k o f s t o p p i n g " t h e s o n s of B r u t u s " ( M a c h l a v e l l l ) .

" F r i e n d s " a n d " E n e m i e s " In I n t e r - s t a t e R e l a t i o n s

It Is o n l y w h e n I n t e r e s t s , I d e o l o g i e s , v a l u e s a n d c u l t u r e s c l a s h t h a tp o l i t i c s b e g i n s . C e n t r a l t o p o l i t i c s Is p e o p l e " g e t t i n g " o n e a n o t h e r t o d os o m e t h i n g . It Is r e l a t i o n a l , h a s d l r e c t l v e n e s s , a n d I n v o l v e s a g g r e g a t e s o fp e o p l e . T h e d e g r e e s of u t o p l a n c o n s t r u c t s can b e j u d g e d in p r o p o r t i o n t ot h e i r p r o m u l g a t o r s 1 e n v i s a g i n g t h e e n d of " p o l i t i c s " a n d " I d e o l o g y "n o t i o n s t h a t p r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t M a r x i s m , d e m o c r a t i s m , a n d p r o g r e s s I v I s m .P o l i t i c s in Its r e l a t i o n a l c o n t e x t , a n d e s p e c i a l l y as It s t r u c t u r e s t h eI n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n s t a t e s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of a n a r c h y , Is e s s e n t i a l l ys h a p e d 1 by t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " f r / e n d " a n d e n e m y " . P o U t f c a l r e f a t f o n sIn t h e h a r s h , and p r o u d , w o r l d of s t a t e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by t h e " d e g r e eof i n t e n s i t y of an a s s o c i a t i o n of d I s a s s o c I a t I o n " . T h e c o n c e p t s o f" f r i e n d " a n d " e n e m y " , a s d e f i n e d by C a r l S c h m l t t , a r e t o b e t a k e n " i n t h e i rc o n c r e t e , e x i s t e n t i a l m e a n i n g s " , a n d n o t " a s m e t a p h o r s o r s y m b o l s " . T h e

- 4 -

d i s t i n c t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s In t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l m t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s m a d e Ino t h e r , r e l a t i v e l y I n d e p e n d e n t s p h e r e s s u c h a s g o o d a n d b a d In m o r a l s ,b e a u t i f u l a n d u g l y In a e s t h e t i c s , o r p r o f i t a b l e a n d n o n p r o f I t a b Ie Ine c o n o m i c s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n Is " I n d e p e n d e n t , t h a t Is t o s a y , n o t d e r i v e df r o m o r t r a c e a b l e b a c k t o o n e o r m o r e of t h e s e o t h e r a n t i t h e s e s " , t h o u g hp o l i t i c s a s t h e r e l a t i o n a l w i l l b e a f f e c t e d by t h e m .

M o d e r n g n o s t i c m o v e m e n t s a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y a p o l i t i c a l , a n d a r e g o v e r n e d b yt h e c o m p u l s i o n t o " d e p o l i t i c i s e " t h e p o l i t i c a l , by c a l l i n g f o r t h e " l a s tw a r " a n d t h e " l a s t C r u s a d e " , o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , f o r t h e f i n a l c a t a c l y s m i c" r e v o l u t i o n " , t o u s h e r In p e r p e t u a l p e a c e a n d h a r m o n y . M o d e r n l i b e r a l i s m

s e e K s t o e f f a c e t h e d i s t i n c t l y p o l i t i c a l f r o m t w o s i d e s , t h e e c o n o m i c a n dt h e e t h i c a l , o r , In t h e r e a l m of g l o b a l p o l i t i c s , a " n e w I n t e r n a t i o n a le c o n o m i c o r d e r " a n d " h u m a n r i g h t s " . In M a r x i s m , r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n Is at e m p o r a r y , t r a n s i e n t c o n c e s s i o n t o p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y , w h i c h Is u l t i m a t e l yt o b e t r a n s f o r m e d , t h r o u g h t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s , I n t o ag l o b a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h i n g s a n d a d e - p o I 1 1 1 c i s e d u n i v e r s a l c l a s s l e s ss o c i e t y , w h e r e n o - o n e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e U t o p i a n s c r i p t , w i l l b e " I nc h a r g e " , b u t w h e r e t h e " C h a r t e r of B a r b a r i s m " ( O r t e g a y G a s s e t ) Is m o r el i k e l y t o b e b r a n d i s h e d by t h e " M i n i s t e r o f T r u t h " . T h e g u l f s e p a r a t i n gt h e " r e a l m of n e c e s s i t y " , t h a t I s , of p o l i t i c s , f r o m t h e " r e a l m of f r e e d o m "( u t o p l a ) is b r i d g e d by r e v o l u t i o n a r y t a c t i c s , w i t h t h e " P u g a c h e v w i t h au n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n " ( d e M a l s t r e ) - t h e f a n t l c i s e d , r a d i c a l i s e dI n t e l l i g e n t s i a , a n d s e l i - s t y l e d a v a n t - g a r d e - In c h a r g e . But' t h e e n e m y t ob e c o m b a t t e d w i l l n o l o n g e r b e t h e J u s t u s h o s 11 s - t h e j u s t o p p o n e n ta c c e p t e d a s an e q u a l - b u t r a t h e r t h e In.lustus h o s t i s - t h e a b s o l u t e f o e -t o b e v a n g u l s h e d a n d a n n i h i l a t e d in p u r s u i t of a J u s t a c a u s a a s a" c r i m i n a l " o f " m a n k i n d " .

U t o p i a s h a v e n o f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s . O n e of A r l s t o t l e s ' c r i t i c i s m s o f P l a t o ' sI d e a l s t a t e s w a s t h a t t h e y t a k e n o a c c o u n t of f o r e i g n a f f a i r s .U t o p l a s - i n - t h e - s t a t e - o f - b e c o m l n g a r e c o m p e l l e d , by t h e s h e e r f o r c e o fn e c e s s i t y , t o d e v i s e f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s b u t s i n g u l a r l y f a i l t o f o r m u l a t et h e o r i e s of f o r e i g n p o l i c y . T h e i r d e s i g n e r s m a y u s e t h e t o o l s of e c o n o m i ca n a l y s i s in a m o d i f i e d f o r m s o a s t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d c o m e t o g r i p s w i t hI n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . T h e y e m p l o y c o n c e p t s s u c h a s " s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s " ," f e e d b a c k " a n d " i n p u t " a n d " o u t p u t " , o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , p e r m i t t h e i ru n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w o r l d a c t i o n - p a t t e r n s , a s w e l l a s t h e i r r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t so n b r i g a n d s a n d m o b s , t o b e d r i v e n by t h e d i a l e c t i c s of t h e M a r x i s t " l a w ofi n e r t i a , f o r ... c h a n g e is n a t u r a l , t h a t i s , r e q u i r e s n o s p e c i a le x p l a n a t i o n ...". N o t o n l y Is t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e of h i s t o r y . p r e d i c t a b l e ,b u t M a r x i s t h i s t o r i o g r a p h y Is " t e I e o I o g 1 c a 1 a n d c h i l l a s t i c a s w e l l " .

H i s t o r y is s e e n a s t h e h i s t o r y of c l a s s s t r u g g l e , of t h e w o r k i n g s of f o r c e sof p r o d u c t i o n , m o d e s of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d ,t r a n s p o s e d t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , of c o r e " e x p l o i t e r s " a n d p e r i p h e r y" e x p l o i t e d " . In S o v i e t M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t p a r l a n c e , t h e r e l e n t l e s s s t r u g g l eIs w a g e d b e t w e e n t h e " c a m p of s o c i a l i s m " a n d t h e " c a m p of I m p e r i a l i s m " . Int h e m o r e r e c e n t r a d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on I n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s t h e t h r u s t ofa r g u m e n t Is e n c a p s u l a t e d In " s y s t e m s of d e p e n d e n c y " , w h e r e t h e a t t e m p t e de x p l a n a t o r y m o d e Is c a s t in t e r m s of s t r u c t u r a l l y u n e q u a l e c o n o m i c e x c h a n g er e l a t i o n s , e v a c u a t e d a l m o s t t o t a l l y of e s s e n t i a l d i p l o m a t i c - s t r a t e g i c m o d e so f a c t i o n s . T h e " d e p e n d e n c y " a p p r o a c h Is a s v a c u o u s as i t s L e n i n i s tp r o g e n i t o r . T h e f o r m e r ' s a b i l i t y t o e x p l a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s In t h es e c o n d h a l f of t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y Is as l a m e as L e n i n ' s t r e a t i s e onI m p e r i a l i s m w a s In a t t e m p t i n g t o c o m e t o g r i p s w i t h l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r yc o l o n i a l i s m . As a r g u e d s u c c i n c t l y b y T o n y S m i t h , "... d e p e n d e n c y t h e o r yr e p r e s e n t s an h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n c r e t e a t t e m p t of M a r x i s m t o a b s o r b s o u t h e r nn a t i o n a l i s m ( T h i r d W o r l d ) i n t o a k i n d of I d e o l o g i c a l u n i t e d f r o n t " a g a i n s t

t h e F i r s t W o r l d .

_ 5 —

N o - o n e Is c o m p e l l e d t o a c c e p t t h e s p i r i t u a l , c f v f I f s a t l o n a I c r i s i s of o u ra g e a s I n e s c a p a b l e f a t e , n o - o n e Is f o r c e d t o J u m p o n t h e b a n d w a g o n on w h i c h" a r m e d d o c t r i n e s " c r o w d , o r f i l t e r o n e ' s p e r c e p t i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l w o r l dt h a t s u r r o u n d s u s t h r o u g h t h e v a c u i t y of s c l e n t l s t l c t h e o r i e s .M I s p e r c e p t l o n , s t i m u l a t e d by u n e x a m l n e d a s s u m p t i o n s , o n l y p r o d u c em i s c o n d u c t In t h e p o l i t i c a l f o r u m a n d o f t e n f a t e f u l d e r a i l m e n t s In t h eI n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a . In I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s a r er a r e l y , If e v e r , s o l v e d . P a r t i a l s o l u t i o n s p r o d u c e n e w p r o b l e m s . O n e b u y st i m e a n d m u d d l e s t h r o u g h , g e n e r a t i o n a f t e r g e n e r a t i o n , by m a k e s h i f t s a n dt e m p o r i z i n g e x p e d i e n t s .

T H E S T A T E S Y S T E M S I N C E 1 9 4 5

B u t an a l l u r i n g p r o m i s e w a s b e c k o n i n g In 1 9 4 5 . C o n f l i c t s c o u l d be b a n i s h e dw h e n s t a t e s c o n v e n a n t e d a n d f a s h i o n e d t h e c o m p a c t m y t h of w o r l d u n i t y . O u ra g e s t a r t e d w i t h t h e b i g b a n g of H i r o s h i m a , a n d a t l e a s t a w h i m p e r ofI n n o c e n c e a t D u m b a r t o n O a k s . T h a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r , p r o j e c t i n gt h e I m a g e of a u n i v e r s a l f a m i l y , w a s t h e p r o d u c t of m i l l e n n i a ofo c c l d e n t l a l J u r i d i c a l a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t r I a I - a n d - e r r o r v e n t u r e s , w a sc e r t a i n l y f o r a f l e e t i n g m o m e n t . I g n o r e d . O n l y w h e n o l d s o c i e t i e s a n da n c i e n t c u l t u r e s , a n i m a t e d by t h e i r o w n n o r m s a n d b e l i e f s y s t e m s ,r e - p a r c e l l e d t h e g l o b a l s p a c e I n t o a m y r i a d of s t a t e s a n d a s c o r e of newnation-states d f d w e b e g i n gradually to s h e d o f f t h e p o w e r f u l , y e tp a r o c h i a l l y O c c i d e n t a l , I n n o c e n t n o t Ion of t h e " m y t h of u n i t y " . B u t t h em y t h h a s r e m a i n e d I m p a c t e d In t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o d e s of g l o b a l l y e x p a n s i v ep o l i t i c a l f o r c e s a n d m o v e m e n t s , f l o w i n g f r o m t h e s p r i n g s , o r l y i n g d o r m a n tIn t h e b r a c k w a t e r s , o f O c c i d e n t a l c i v i l i s a t i o n - T h e I d e a s y s t e m s , a n da c c o m p a n y i n g t h o u g h t - w a y s , of " i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y " s t r u c t u r e d by l a w ,g o o d f a i t h , c o n t r a c t , a n d t h e b a l a n c i n g a c t s , o f e g a I f t a r I anf s m ,d e m o c r a t i s m , a n d of a u n i v e r s a l c l a s s l e s s s o c i e t y a r e n o t s u s t a i n e d by t h em e n t a l a n d p s y c h o - c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e s of t h e n o n - O c c i d e n t a l o r b i t s . A sp r o b l e m s m o u n t e d , p e o p l e s t h e w o r l d o v e r w e r e g r o w i n g b a c k I n t o t h e i r o w ns k e l e t o n s , f i l l i n g t h e m o u t w i t h t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u m u l a t e d e x p e r i e n c ea n d r e s o u r c e s . T h e w o r l d , r a t h e r t h a n r e s e m b l i n g O n e W o r l d , w a s s u d d e n l ym i r r o r e d In a m u l t i t u d e o f e x o s k e l e t o n s e n c l o s i n g d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s 'e l e m e n t a l a n d e x i s t e n t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .

T h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i t y

W i t h " z e r o - h o u r - 1 9 4 5 " , t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r s e e m e d t o c l o c k a w a y a tt h e " a b s o l u t e " s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e s t a t e , a n d t o p h a s e In " r e l a t i v e "s o v e r e i g n t y , n o w e n t a n g l e d a n d e n m e s h e d in a c o b w e b of I n d i v i d u a l a n d h u m a nr i g h t s . T h e l i n e s b e c a m e s u d d e n l y b l u r r e d , a n d t h e w o r l d p r o m i s e d t o t a k eo n n e w c o n t o u r s . T h e I d e a of a " f a m i l y of n a t i o n s " s e e m e d t e n a b l e as l o n ga s t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y w a s c o m p o s e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w h o s e s h a r e dh i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e g a v e s o m e s u b s t a n c e t o t h e n o t i o n of c u l t u r a lh o m o g e n e i t y a n d u n i f o r m i t y e m b e d d e d In t h e s t r e a m o f O c c i d e n t a l r e l i g i o u s ,p o l i t i c a l , a n d I e g a I - c o n s t 1 t u t I o n a I v a l u e s y s t e m s . B u t w i t h t h e I n f l u x ofn o n - O c c i d e n t a l p e o p l e s I n t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a , t h e I d e a of " u n i t y " ,r o o t e d a n d a n c h o r e d In v a l u e c o n s e n s u s , c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e p r e s u m e d t or e f l e c t p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y . U n a b l e t o I d e n t i f y w i t h t h e c o m p l e x s u b s t a n t i v ev a l u e s , a s e m b o d i e d In t h e C h a r t e r by Its O c c i d e n t a l l e g a l draftsmen,n o n - W e s t e r n p e o p l e s f a s t e n e d u p o n t e r m i n o l o g i c a l a n d p r o c e d u r a l a s p e c t s o ft h e C h a r t e r , w h i c h , o n c e d r a i n e d of Its o r i g i n a l s u b s t a n c e , w a s f i l l e d w i t ha n o t h e r s y n c r e t i c , b u t d e c i d e d l y n o n - O c c i d e n t a l , c o n t e n t . A n d p a l a v e r , n o td e l i b e r a t i o n s , e n s u e d . S i n c e c o n f l i c t a n d s t r i f e a r e n o r m - e n g e n d e r i n gr e a l i t i e s In m o s t n o n - W e s t e r n c u l t u r a l o r b i t s , t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l yI n e v i t a b l y g e n e r a t e d f n t o a c o m b a t t h e a t r e o f t h e a b s u r d , a n d n o wl a n g u i s h e s In a s t a t e o f b a n a l i t y . T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t M a r x I s t - L e n I n I s t

- 6 -

" r e g i m e - m o v e m e n t s " , w i t h t h e i r p o l I t 1 c a 1 t e r r i t o r i a l s p a c e c o n v e r t e d I n t oI n t e r l o c k i n g " r e v o l u t i o n a r y b a s e s " , h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d In t h e f o u n d i n g a c t o ft h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , m a d e s u r e t h a t t h e r e w o u l d n e v e r b e m o r e t h a na p p e a r a n c e In w o r l d u n i t y .

S e a r e d by w a r , t h e d e s i r e , if n o t p a s s i o n , t o b a n i s h t h e s p e c t r e o fc o n f l i c t and t h e s c o u r g e of m i l i t a r y c o n f r o n t a t i o n e x e r t e d a p o w e r f u l l ys u a s i v e I n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e m i n d s of t h o s e s t a t e s m e n w h o w e r e " p r e s e n t a tt h e c r e a t i o n " In 1 9 4 5 . T h e n o t i o n of w o r i d u n i t y w a s p o w e r f u l l y f u e l l e d byc u r r e n t s t h a t h a d r u n for m i l l e n n i a t h r o u g h t h e b o d y p o l i t i c of O c c i d e n t a lc i v i l i s a t i o n . P a x R o m a n a a n d r e s p u b l l c a C h r i s t i a n a h a d b e e n left as ap e r v a s i v e l e g a c y t o t h e m o d e r n E u r o p e a n f a m i l y of n a t i o n s , w h i c h , t h o u g hf r a g m e n t e d I n t o s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s , w a s y e t b o u n d t o g e t h e r In a c o m m u n i t y ofs h a r e d v a l u e s . C o m m o n t r a d i t i o n s as e x p r e s s e d In r e l i g i o n , c o n t r a c t ,j u s t i c e , c u s t o m s , and p r e c e p t s w e r e r e i n f o r c e d by t h e m u t u a l l y f a s h i o n e dI n s t i t u t i o n s of I n t e r n a t i o n a ! law and d i p l o m a c y , t o I n t r o d u c e a b a l a n c i n ga c t I n t o I n t e r s t a t e p o l i t i c s .

O c c i d e n t a l c i v i l i s a t i o n h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i s e d , e v e r s i n c e t h e l a t e M i d d l eA g e s , by I n c r e a s i n g f a i t h In t h e e f f i c a c y of r e a s o n a n d t h e s c i e n t i f i cm e t h o d a s a m e a n s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g n a t u r e and s o c i e t y , and by t h e g r o w i n gh u m a n c a p a c i t y t o u s e v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s In d e a l i n g w i t h p h y s i c a l a n ds o c i a l p r o b l e m s . T h e s e f o r m a t i v e f e a t u r e s w e r e t h r e a d e d t o g e t h e r I n t o t h e" d r a m a t i c d e s i g n " of m o d e r n W e s t e r n c i v i l i s a t i o n - Its " p o s ( t I v I s m " f o u n de x p r e s s i o n in Its r a t i o n a l i s t i c , m a n i p u l a t i v e , a n d p e r f e c t i o n i s tc o n v I c t I o n .

T h e I m p a c t o f U n i t e d S t a t e s I d e o l o g y

S i n c e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b y 1 9 4 5 t h e p r i m u s I n t e r p a r e s w i t h i n t h e W e s t e r nc o m m u n i t y , had b e e n I n s t r u m e n t a l In s t r u c t u r i n g t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s ands h a p i n g t h e C h a r t e r , It a s s u r e d t h a t its o w n n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y , o ro p e r a t i o n a l c o d e , w a s w o v e n I n t o t h e f a b r i c of t h e n e w s o c i e t y of n a t i o n s .S t a r t i n g f r o m t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t all p r o b l e m s a r e u l t i m a t e l y s o l u b l e , Ite l o n g a t e d a n d t r a n s p o s e d I t s o w n n a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e of e c o n o m i cd e v e l o p m e n t , s o c i a l I n t e g r a t i o n a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m I n t o t h e w o r l d a tl a r g e . Its d e m o c r a t i c , I n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , and e g a l i t a r i a n v a l u e s ,c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e " A m e r i c a n C r e e d " , w e r e p e r c e i v e d as l e n d i n g t h e m s e l v e sI d e a l l y t o u n i v e r s a l I s a t t o n . T h e n a t i o n a l I d e o l o g y b e c a m e e v e r m o r e m o o r e dIn t w o v e r s i o n s o f " p o s i t i v i s m " , t h a t I s , " c o m m o n - s e n s e p o p u l a rp o s i t i v i s m " , a n d " t e c h n o c r a t I c - e I I t e - g r o u p p o s i t i v i s m " . O n c e c o - m l n g l e d ,o r f u s e d , t h e y m a g n i f i e d and e x p a n d e d t h e p o s t u l a t e s of 1 8 t h c e n t u r y" e n l i g h t e n m e n t " of I m m a n e n t c h a n g e and p r o g r e s s . " C o m m o n s e n s e p o p u l a rp o s i t i v i s m " , w i t h I t s o p e n , s e l f - r e l i a n t , a c t i v l s t l c , a n d o p t i m i s t i cs t r e a k , f o s t e r e d t h e b e l i e f In I n d i v i d u a l I n i t i a t i v e a n d g r o u p c o - o p e r a t i o nIn t h e s o l u t i o n of p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s - T h e . s e c o n d , a n d m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,v e r s i o n o f " p o s i t i v i s m " s u s t a i n e d t h e c o n v i c t i o n of m a s t e r y o v e r n a t u r e a n ds o c i e t y , and f o u n d Its s h a l l o w e x p r e s s i o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h i s c e n t u r yIn A m e r i c a n " p r o g r e s s l v l s m " - In t h e n o t i o n of m a n ' s d e s t i n y s h i f t i n g f r o m" d r 1 f t " t o " m a s t e r y " .

T h i s c o n v i c t i o n " I s c o n t i n u o u s l y r e i n f o r c e d by Its o w n p r a g m a t i ce f f e c t i v e n e s s , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s U t o p i a n e x p e c t a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t of u r t h e r e f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l a n d r e f o r m s o c i e t y and t h e r e b y s t r e n g t h e n s t h em o t i v a t i o n t o u n d e r t a k e t h e m " ( T h . G e l g e r ) .

W h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s " p r e s e n t at t h e c r e a t i o n " It b e g a n Its a s c e n t t os u p e r p o w e r s t a t u s w i t h m l s p e r c e p t i o n s a n d u n r e a l i s t i c e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d t h eb e l i e f t h a t Its o w n n o r m s and act I o n s c o u l d In f a c t e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l o v e rt h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d a n d Its p a r t i c i p a t i o n In w o r l d a f f a i r s .

— 7 —

W e s t e r n r e d e m p t f v T s m a n f m a t e s m i s s i o n a r y o b i f g a t i o n s . O t h e r - w o r c f Iyr e d e m p t i o n b e c o m e s t r a n s f o r m e d I n t o t h l s - w o r d l y r e d e m p t i o n , t h r o u g h t h em e d i u m o f f a i t h In p r o g r e s s a n d c h a n g e . W h e n e v e r i d e a l s a n dI n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d r e a l i t y c l e a v e , " c r e e d a t p a s s i o n s " e r u p t u p o n t h e s c e n e .T o r n b e t w e e n t h e i r i d e a l s a n d r e a l i t y , A m e r i c a n s v a c i l l a t e b e t w e e n r e f u s i n gt o u s e t h e n e c e s s a r y p o w e r a n d u s i n g It w i t h a g u i l t y c o n s c i e n c e . T h e i rb e l i e f in t h e i r C r e e d c a u s e s t h e m t o v i e w p o w e r u l t i m a t e l y a sI l l e g i t i m a t e . A n a l m o s t c h i l d l i k e I n n o c e n c e Is l e a s t c o n d u c i v e o v e r t i m et o p e r f o r m t h e e s s e n t i a l r o l e of t h e P r a e t o r i a n g u a r d o f t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d .

F o r e i g n p o l i c y t r a n s l a t e s I t s e l f I n t o s t a n d a r d s o f d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c s ,o p e r a t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e " r u l e s of reason". L i k e t h e i r 1 8 t h c e n t u r y" p h I I o s o p h e s " p r o g e n i t o r s , A m e r i c a n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i m b u e d w i t h t h eW l l s o n t a n l s m o f s e c u l a r i s e d h u m a n i s m , t e n d t o c o n s i d e r " t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n o fa n e w a n d p e a c e f u l e r a In f o r e i g n p o l i c y a s d e p e n d e n t o n a r e o r g a n i s a t i o no f d o m e s t i c p o l i c y . T h e r e is n o n e e d t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u tt h e p r o b l e m s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y ; t h e y a r e o n l y a p a r t i a l a s p e c t of t h e w i d e rp r o b l e m s o f p l a c i n g d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s o n a r a t i o n a l b a s i s " . S i n c e" p r o g r e s s I v I s m " u s u a l l y s t a r t s f r o m t h e s u p p o s e d l y m o r e " r a t i o n a l i s t i c "a s s u m p t i o n t h a t h a r m o n y e x i s t s , o r m a y e v e n t u a l l y b e r e a l i s e d , p o w e r Iss e e n as a n a b e r r a t i o n t h a t c a n u l t i m a t e l y b e e l i m i n a t e d f r o m h u m a nr e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e a b s e n c e o f t h e o r i e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n sc o n s t i t u t e s In I t s l e f " t h e m o s t t y p i c a l ... t h e o r y o f I n t e r n a t l o n a)r e l a t i o n s " o n t h e p a r t of " p o l i t i c a l I d e a l i s m " . S i n c e - p o l i t i c s isr a t i o n a l i s e d a s a " m a n a g e r i a l s c i e n c e " , p o l i t i c a l I d e a l i s t s h a v e d i f f i c u l t yIn t h i n k i n g g e o p o l l t l c a l l y , a n d t h e i r v e r s i o n of p e a c e h a s f o r t h e m o s tp a r t b e e n n o n - s t r a t e g i c . P o l i t i c a l I d e a l i s m , e s p e c i a l l y In i t s m o r eu n r e f l e c t l v e g u i s e , h a s o n l y s c a p e g o a t s , p r e - e m i n e n t l y m a n i f e s t e d In t h e" i n d u s t r i a l - m i l i t a r y c o m p I e x " .

T H E I M P A C T O F M A R X I S M - L E N I N I S M O N A F R I C A

L a p p i n g a w a y a t t h e t e r r i t o r i a l s t a t e , a n d s p i l l i n g o v e r I n t o I t s d o m e s t i cd o m a i n , h a s b e e n t h e t i d a l w a v e of M a r x I s m - L e n I n I s m . T h e M a r x I s t - L e n 1 n I s ts e n s e o f m i s s i o n Is e s c h a t o I o g I c a I , m e s s i a n i c , a n d U t o p i a n . It p o s t u l a t e st h a t c l a s s s t r u g g l e d r i v e s t h e w o r l d r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s t o i t sc o n s u m m a t i n g a c t of r e d e e m i n g m a n k i n d f r o m s o c i a l a n t a g o n i s m s a n dc o n f l i c t . I t s t h e o r e t i c i a n s i n s i s t t h a t s o c i a l c l a s s Is t h e u n d e r l y i n gs t r u c t u r e , as w e l l as t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t . In a g l o b a l a n a l y s i s o f t h a ts t r u c t u r e . S i n c e s o c i a l c l a s s e s , a n d t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s In t h e s h a p e o f" b l o c k s " a n d " c a m p s " , a r e l o c k e d In I n e v i t a b l e s t r u g g l e t h r o u g h o u t t h ee x t e n d e d p e r i o d of " i m p e r f e c t p e a c e " , g l o b a l p o l i t i c s is c o n c e p t u a l i s e d a ss t r u c t u r a l d i s e q u i l i b r i u m . T h i s m o d e l h a s p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h ep r a c t i c a l r e a l m of p o l i t i c a l c o n d u c t . It v i e w s r e v o l u t i o n a r y a d v a n c e asi n e v i t a b l e a n d , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e " c o r r e l a t i o n of f o r c e s " , a s m a n d a t o r y .W h i l e It m a k e s p r o v i s i o n f o r t e m p o r a r y , c o n c i l i a t o r y p o l i c i e s , It l e a v e s n or o o m f o r u l t i m a t e c o m p r o m i s e . T h e g u a r d i a n s of t h e s e c u l a r f a i t h , e n g a g e dIn " p s e u d o - I o g l c a I s p e c u l a t i o n s " a n d a b s o r b e d by " I n t r a - m u n d a n e m y s t i c i s m " ,a r e , In t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , l e f t o n l y w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r a x i s a n d t a c t i c st o r e v i t a l i s e . In t h e r e a l m o f n e c e s s i t y , t h e e s c h a t o I o g I c a I e x p e r i e n c e .T h i s m o d e o f o p e r a t i o n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c o m p e l s I t s a d v o c a t e s t o d i s r u p te x i s t i n g s o c i e t i e s In t h e h o p e of c r e a t i n g d i s o r d e r a n d c h a o s s o t h a t t h em i n o r I t y o f t h e " e l e c t " c a n r i s e t o v i c t o r y . I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e I a t I o n sp r e - s u p p o s e t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i v i s i o n of m a n k i n d I n t o s t a t e s / n a t i o n - s t a t e s .M a r x i s t t h o u g h t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p o s u t u l a t e s v e r t i c a l c o n f l i c t b e t w e e nc l a s s e s , u l t i m a t e l y t o b e r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h t h e a b s o l u t e u n i t y o f m a n k i n d .In t e r m s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s , t h e M a r x I s t - L e n I n I s t m o d e l Is I n f o r m e db y t h e n o t i o n of an I m p e r l u m m u n d l In s t a t u n a s c e n d i (a w o r I d - e m p I r e - 1 n -t h e - s t a t e - o f - m a k i n g ) w h e r e s t a t e s , or o r g a n i s e d e n t i t l e s a n d I n s t i t u t i o n s

In g e n e r a l , are seen as dei J u r e p a r t s of It, though may t e m p o r a r i l y and def_acto be o u t s i d e Its e x p a n d i n g o r b i t .

A f r i c a : M y t h and R e a l i t y

W h e n A f r i c a was launched on t h e t r a j e c t o r y to I n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e I d e o l o g i c a le l i t e s of s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a c r e a t e d t h e i r own d i s t i n c t i v e myth of ap r i m o r d i a l s t a t e of n a t u r e and I n n o c e n c e , from which t h e i r p e o p l e s had beene j e c t e d by t h e I n t r u s i o n of the E u r o p e a n . They p o r t r a y e d the tribals o c i e t y as an e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e w h e r e t h e " n o b l e s a v a g e " of R o u s s e a u r o a m e df r e e to e n j o y u n c o r r u p t e d n a t u r e . They p a i n t e d a p i c t u r e of c o n f I f c t l e s sI n t e r - h u m a n r e l a t i o n s , a n i m a t e d by a s o c i a l i s t " a t t i t u d e of m i n d " , p e r h a p se v e n s h a p e d or m o u l d e d by s o c i a l i s t I n s t i t u t i o n s . A f r i c a , t h e a b o d e Inw h i c h s t a t e l e s s s o c i e t i e s , s t a t e l e t s , e m p i r e s , p r o t o - and s e m i - s t a t e s ,a g e - g r o u p s , c l a n s , t r i b e s , and k i n s h i p g r o u p s d w e l t , was Ideal Ised w i t h o u tr e c o g n i t i o n of w h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s s u g g e s t e d a b o u t t r a d i t i o n a lA f r i c a n p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y . T h e A f r i c a n world w a s , In t h i s v i e w , cast Int e r m s of t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m , e g a I i t a r I an Ism, and f e a t u r e d an e x t e n s i v en e t w o r k of social o b l i g a t i o n s . A f r i c a n I d e o l o g i s t s l y r l c l s e d , and c o n t i n u eto f a n t a s i s e , a b o u t the A f r i c a n qua A f r i c a n as " n a t u r a l l y s o c i a l i s t ,n a t u r a l l y d e m o c r a t i c , n a t u r a l l y c o - o p e r a t i v e " . W h a t are for o t h e rs o c i e t i e s p o s t u l a t e d as g o a l s a r e , "by ... A f r i c a n natural law, p o s t u l a t e dn o t o n l y as g o a l s , b u t as a natural I n h e r i t a n c e " . By e m p h a t i c a l l y r e f u s i n gto a l l ow t h e I n d i g e n o u s I d e n t i t y to be cast as a m i r r o r Image of a E u r o p e a no n e , m i r e d In c o r r u p t i o n . I n e q u a l i t y , e x p l o i t a t i o n , and e n e r v a t e d andg r a f t i n g I n d i v i d u a l i s m , A f r i c a n " m y t h - m a k e r s " f a s h i o n e d a s e l f - i m a g e w h i c hr e f l e c t e d only the ant I - W e s t e r n I s m of Its c r e a t o r s , framed In W e s t e r ns h i b b o l e t h s . The i n t e l l i g e n t s i a ' s q u e s t for identity g e n e r a t e d In Itst r a i n a n e a r - p a t h o l o g i c a l d i s t o r t i o n of s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a ' s a n c i e n tc u l t u r e . W h a t was e x p u n g e d from the A f r i c a n h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d , but Is sovital to our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of A f r i c a n s t a t e c o n d u c t In the c o n t e m p o r a r ye r a , was t h e i n d i s p u t a b l e fact t h a t c o n f l i c t and war w e r e e n d e m i c to t h eA f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t .

M o d e r n , h i g h l y p o l i t i c i s e d A f r i c a has d e f i n e d Itself a g a i n s t s o m e t h i n gr a t h e r t h a n c a p t u r e d the a n c i e n t c u l t u r e ' s e s s e n t i a l m e a n i n g t h r o u g hs e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s e l f - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It Is s u s p e n d e d b e t w e e n anIdeal 1sed s t a t e of n a t u r e and v i t r i o l I c , e n v i o u s r e s e n t m e n t , b r i d g e d byp o l i t i c a l c o n c e p t s and I n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t , horrI b II e d l c t u , can u l t i m a t e l ybe t r a c e d back to b e d e v i l l e d E u r o p e . The t e r r i t o r i a l , s o v e r e i g n s t a t e ,f u n d a m e n t a l ly al ten to t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a , r e m a i n e d as a legacy of theC o n g r e s s of B e r l i n . W i t h o u t E u r o p e a n r u l e , " t h e r e m i g h t h a v e been n oA f r i c a n n a t i o n a l i s m " . A f r i c a n n a t i o n a l i s m has b e e n d e f i n e d as an" I n e v i t a b l e end p r o d u c t of the Impact of W e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m and m o d e r n i t yupon A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s " . W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a s i n g u l a r l y lacked Inc o n t i n e n t - s p a n n i n g p o l i t i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n s and n o r m s , P a n - A f r i c a n i s m , t o o ,has Its r o o t s In the O c c i d e n t a l W o r l d and Its guiding s p i r i t s in Du B o l sand G a r v e y . A f r i c a n s o c i a l i s m , r a t h e r than b e i n g h o m e g r o w n , can t r a c e itsI d e o l o g i c a l l i n e a g e to t h e s o c i a l i s t " t r e e of life" of its E u r o p e a na n c e s t o r s , and Mazrul a f f i r m s t h a t "all s c h o o l s of s o c i a l i s m a m o n g A f r i c a nl e a d e r s t o d a y owe s o m e t h i n g to M a r x ...". T h e r e - E u r o p a n i s a t I on of A f r i c a ,t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m of W e s t e r n " t h r o w b a c k " I d e o l o g i e s , w a s , If notf o r e - o r d a i n e d , t h e n at least to be e x p e c t e d * Since "so few f e a t u r e s oft r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n s o c i e t y are r e l e v a n t to m o d e r n e x p e c t a t i o n s ,I n s t i t u t i o n s and t e c h n i q u e s , t h e imported W e s t e r n c o n c e p t s and a c t i v i t i e sare likely to play a s i g n i f i c a n t l y larger r o l e in the e v e n t u a l new d r a m a t i cd e s i g n s of A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s than In those of A s i a " .

R e c e i v e d A f r i c a n i d e o l o g i e s , r a n g i n g from K a u n d a ' s v a p o u r l n g s about A f r i c a n

h u m a n i s m to t h e " a r m e d d o c t r i n e s " ( B u r k e ) of M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m seized upon

b y t h e R e d U n c l e T o m s , a r e b a s e d o n t h e e c o n o m i c s a n d p o l i t i c s ofr e s e n t m e n t , a n d of s o c i a l i s m a s r a t i o n a l i s e d e n v y . T h e p o l i c i e s t h e yI n f o r m , a n d p r o p o s a l s t h e y a d v a n c e , a r e n o t p r i m a r i l y t o a l l e v i a t e t h em i s e r y of o r d i n a r y A f r i c a n s b u t r a t h e r t o t a k e r e v e n g e o n t h e O c c i d e n t a lW o r l d . T h e i r I n t e n t m a y b e s t b e c a p t u r e d by t h e m o o d t h a t d r i v e s M a z r u t ' sv i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e ; " t h e d e c l i n e o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i s a t i o n m i g h t w e l l b e a th a n d . It Is t h e I n t e r e s t of h u m a n i t y t h a t s u c h d e c l i n e s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e

T h e a p p e a l o f t o t a l i t a r i a n s o c i a l i s t I d e o l o g i e s l i e s In t h e i r s i n g u l a r a n du n r l v a l led a n t I - W e s t e r n I s m . T h e y e x e r t a s p e c i a l m a g n e t i c put I o n t h eI n t e l l i g e n t s i a t h a t p o w e r s r a d i c a l r e g i m e s . It Is a l i e n a t e d f r o m I t s o w nc u l t u r e , a n d ' n o r m a n d b e l i e f s y s t e m s , a n d c a n n o t f u l l y e n t e r t h e W e s t e r nm e n t a l u n i v e r s e . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e of h a v i n g n o p l a c e t o s t a n d * It t e n d s t ol a t c h o n t o t h e m o s t r a d i c a l I d e o l o g i e s as r e v e l a t i o n . I t s t r i b u l a t i o n sp a r a l l e l t h e c o u r s e t h a t O s w a l d S p e n g l e r ' s h i g h l y p e r t i n e n t c o n c e p t o f" h i s t o r i c a l p s e u d o - m o r p h o s I s " h a s c h a r t e d . I m i t a t i o n Is a l w a y s p o i s o n e d byJ e a l o u s y a n d h a t r e d a n d " I n s t e a d o f r e a r i n g I t s e l f up on I t s o w n c r e a t i v ep o w e r . It c a n o n l y h a t e t h e d i s t a n t p o w e r w i t h a h a t e t h a t g r o w s t o bem o n s t r o u s " .

If t h i s s y n o p t i c v i e w c a p t u r e s o n l y p a r t of c o n t e m p o r a r y r a d i c a l i s e dA f r i c a n p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y , t h e I m p l i c a t i o n s , t h o u g h t r o u b l i n g . If n o tf r i g h t e n i n g , a r e w o r t h p o n d e r i n g . T h e r a d i c a l e l i t e s ' r a l s o n d ' e t r e m a y b es u s t a i n a b l e o n l y t h r o u g h t h e d a l l y p l e b i s c i t e of v e n g e f u l l y c a s t i n g v o t e sa g a i n s t t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d . T h e i r o w n I n e p t i t u d e In t a c k l i n g p r e s s i n gs o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s l i k e l y t o m o u n t , m a y n e c e s s i t a t e k e e p i n ga l i v e t h e m o n s t r o u s I m a g i n a r y e n e m y In t h e s h a p e of W e s t e r n - e x p l o i t a t i v en e o - c o l o n l a l l s m . If t h e u l t i m a t e b a t t l e s , a s M a z r u I c o n t e n d s , w i l l h a v e t ob e f o u g h t In t h e " s t r e e t s o f B i r m i n g h a m , g h e t t o s of D e t r o i t , h a r b o u r s o fM a r s e i l l e s a n d t h e m o t e l s of t h e r e s t of t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d « « . " , t h e n , f o rt h e m e a n t i m e , S o u t h Africa, as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of W e s t e r n t h e o l o g i c a l s i n ,w i l l c o n t i n u e t o s e r v e a s a l i g h t n i n g c o n d u c t o r t o d e f l e c t f r o m t h e W e s t asa w h o l e r a d i c a l i s e d A f r i c a n f r u s t r a t i o n s v e n t e d v e n g e f u l l y a g a i n s t t h et o t a l i t y of t h e O c c i d e n t a l w o r l d .

T H E L O S S O F I N N O C E N C E

S o u t h A f r i c a , w i t h I t s " l i t t l e c o s m i o n s " , h a s g o n e t h r o u g h b o u t s o fI n n o c e n t b e l i e f s . T h e A f r i k a n e r d r e a m t of a " N e w J e r u s a l e m " t o I n s u l a t eh i m s e l f f r o m t h e c o r r u p t a n d d e g e n e r a t e O l d W o r l d . E n g l i s h m e n s a wt h e m s e l v e s a s ml s s I d o m l n I c 1 o f an E m p i r e on w h i c h t h e s u n w o u l d n e v e rs e t . T h e B l a c k e t h n i c g r o u p s l i v e d s e l f - c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e i r " c l o s e d "p r e d i c a m e n t . T h e s e c u r i t y u m b r e l l a o f t h e E m p i r e p r o m i s e d to p r o v i d es h e l t e r f r o m t h e t u r b u l e n c e s t h a t w e r e g u s h i n g t h r o u g h t h e w o r l d . T h e s eI n n o c e n t v i s i o n s w e r e s h a t t e r e d a g a i n o n c e w a r e n g u l f e d t h e w o r l d , b u t t h et e n a c i t y of I n n o c e n c e s t u b b o r n l y p r e v a i l e d . Jan S m u t s , t h e a r c h i t e c t o f" h o l i s m " , m a d e a l a s t , d e s p e r a t e , a n d u l t i m a t e l y f u t i l e , a t t e m p t t or e c a p t u r e a s e n s e of I n n o c e n c e by e n v i s a g i n g t h e g o v e r n a n c e of m a n k i n d s ot h a t " n o t h i n g w o u l d be l e f t t o c h a n c e o r t h e c a p r i c e of I n d i v i d u a l s t a t e so r g r o u p s " . P r o b l e m s w e r e t o b e r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h t h e s t e e r i n g m e c h a n i s m o ft h e " t r i n i t y " . An e n l a r g e d C o m m o n w e a l t h , d r a w i n g I n t o I t s o r b i t t h eS c a n d i n a v i a n k i n g d o m s a n d t h e n a t i o n s o f w e s t e r n a n d s o u t h e r n E u r o p e ,t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , w o u l d f o r m t h e" t r i n i t y " at t h e h e a d of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . T h r o u g h t h e i r c o n c e r t e de f f o r t s , t h e " r u l e of l a w " w a s e x p e c t e d " t o c o m e t o c o v e r t h e w h o l ew o r l d " . By a d f a l e c t f c a f p r o c e s s , t h e g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t d e v a s t a t i n g w a rw o u l d b e c o m e " t h e p r e l u d e t o t h e g r e a t e s t p e a c e " .

- 1 0 -

It Is t h e p i n n a c l e of Irony t h a t at t h e m o m e n t of r e a l i s i n g t h e e p i t o m e of" h o l i s m " , as i n s t i t u t i o n a l Ised In t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s O r g a n I s a t ion ( U N O ) ,t h e d a w n of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t b r o k e . A s " h o l i s m " d i s i n t e g r a t e d Intos e p a r a t e n e s s of a m u l t i t u d e of r i v a l l i n g and v y e l n g s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s In t h ee x t e r n a l r e a l m , it col l a p s e d c o n c u r r e n t l y w h e n s e p a r a t e n e s s a s s e r t e d i t s e l fIn t h e I n t e r n a l a r e n a . S o u t h A f r i c a ' s s e n s e of I n n o c e n c e Is e v a p o r a t i n g asIt p r o g r e s s i v e l y p i t s i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e " m y t h of w o r l d u n i t y " e n s h r i n e d int h e C h a r t e r of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . A n d In t h e p r o c e s s of s h e d d i n g ItsI n n o c e n t b e l i e f s , It d e f i n e s Itself as a s o v e r e i g n s t a t e , and t h i sm e a n d e r i n g c o u r s e of s e I f - d e f I n 1 1 1 on wilt I n e v i t a b l y be a c c o m p a n i e d byp o l i t i c o - s t r a t e g i c c o n t e n t i o n s w i t h t h e R e p u b l i c ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l o p p o n e n t sas w e l l as Its a b s o l u t e e n e m i e s . In t h i s v e n t u r e , It Is r e p e a t i n g t h eh i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e of t h e m o d e r n E u r o p e a n s t a t e s w h o s e p h y s i o g n o m y w a sl a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c o n t i n u o u s I n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n I n t e r n a l a d j u s t m e n t sand e x t e r n a l s t r a t e g i c chal l e n g e s .

O n c e s t a t e h o o d and s o v e r e i g n t y are c o l l a p s e d I n t o e c o n o m i c s a n d / o rs o c i o l o g y , I n t e r n a I t o n a I p o l i t i c s Is d e n u d e d of Its e s s e n t i a l ande x i s t e n t i a l m e a n i n g * T h e I m p e r i a l a g g r a n d i z e m e n t of t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s ,c l o a k e d in t h e i r b e h a v i o u r I s t l c , s c l e n t l s t l c g a r b , h a v e t h r e a t e n e d to p u s hs t u d e n t s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a l t l o n s In t o a c o m a t o s e c o n d i t i o n . B u t Int h e i r e m p l r e - b u l l d l n g v e n t u r e s , e c o n o m i c s and s o c i o l o g y h a v e b e e np o w e r f u l l y a s s i s t e d by t h e a p p e a s i n g C a r t h a g i n i a n m e n t a l i t y of s e l f - r e p u t e dt h e o r i s t s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . S o v e r e i g n t y and s t a t e h o o d d e n o t e n o to n l y t h e e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s but a l s o e m p h a s i s e t h e s e p a r a t e n e s s ofs t a t e s - T h e m o d e r n s t a t e s y s t e m Is d e f i n e d by " t h e p r i n c i p l e s on t h e b a s i so f w h i c h t h e c o n s t i t u e n t u n i t s a r e s e p a r a t e d f r o m o n e a n o t h e r " . A n ds o v e r e i g n t y , tn its p r o p e r m o d e r n u s a g e , s i g n i f i e s "a f o r m of l e g i t i m a t i o nt h a t p e r t a i n s t o a s y s t e m of r e l a t i o n s . . . " . T h e s e s t a t a l u n i t s live w i t h ap e r m a n e n t s e c u r i t y d i l e m m a .

T h e c o n c e p t s of I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l s o v e r e i g n t y e x p r e s s a p r o f o u n de t h i c a l and m o r a l s u b s t a n t i v e m e a n i n g . I n t e r n a l l y , s o v e r e i g n t y w a sf a s h i o n e d to n e u t r a l i s e , and s u p e r s e d e , d e s t r u c t i v e r e l i g i o u s , I d e o l o g i c a lc i v i l w a r s t h a t t h r e a t e n e d s o c i e t i e s w i t h a n n i h i l a t i o n . E x t e r n a l l y , byl e g i t i m i s i n g s y s t e m s of r e l a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e h u m a n i s i n g c o n c e p t s of .1 u s t u sh o s 1 1 s a n d a e q u a 1 1tas {equal Ity a m o n g s t a t e s p o r t r a y e d as m a g n 1 horn Inest h u s e n d o w i n g t h e m w i t h m o r a l w o r t h ) , s o v e r e i g n t y w a s m e a n t t od e - c r i m i n a l i s e I n t e r - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s , and t o put a b r a k e on t h e b r u t a l i s i n gf o r c e s of I d e o l o g i e s r u n a m o c k . I d e o l o g i e s w e r e t o be a r r e s t e d at t h es t a t e b o u n d a r y , n o t t o s p i l l o v e r , and t h u s e n g u l f , t h e b o d y p o l i t i c of as e p a r a t e s t a t e . S o v e r e i g n t y w a s t o e r e c t a b a r r i e r a g a i n s t j u s t i f i c a t i o nof w a r by r e f e r e n c e to t h e I n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s of a n o t h e r s t a t e .

T h i s p r o f o u n d l y h u m a n i s t i c p r i n c i p l e , c l o t h e d In t h e j u r i d i c a l l a n g u a g e ofA r t i c l e 2,7 of t h e C h a r t e r of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , h a s b e e n e r o d e d byc i r c u m s t a n c e s * It was c h a l l e n g e d by t h e evil t h a t f o u n d Its d e - h u m a n i s i n ge x p r e s s i o n in N a t I o n a I - S o c I a I I s m , w i t h Its v e r t i c a l war a m o n g r a c e s . Itf i n d s Its m o s t b a r b a r o u s c o n t e m p o r a r y e x p r e s s i o n In M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m , w i t hIts v e r t i c a l c o n f l i c t a n d w a r a m o n g c l a s s e s . In e a c h I n s t a n c e , t h ee s s e n t i a l and e x i s t e n t i a l m e a n i n g of h u m a n p o l i t i c s w a s e i t h e r l i q u i d a t e d ,o r Is b e i n g l i q u i d a t e d , by t h e " g r e a t s i m p I 1 f i e r s " . " H o m o h o m l n i h o m o e s t "( m a n t r e a t i n g m a n as m a n ) Is t r a n s l a t e d into t h e d e a d l y " h o m o horn 1n1 I u p u se s t " (man t r e a t i n g man as w o l f ) .

B l a c k A f r i c a ' s r e - d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c o n c e p t of s o v e r e i g n t y In to " r a c i a ls o v e r e i g n t y " c o m p l e t e s t h e t r i n i t y of " d a e m o n i c h u m a n m e n d a c i t y "( V o e g e l i n ) . T h e " p i g m e n t a l l s a t t o n " of e x t e r n a l s o v e r e i g n t y e r a s e s t h eb a r r i e r , a l w a y s f r a g i l e u n d e r t h e b e s t of c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h a t s e p a r a t e sJ u s t u s h o s t l s and 1 n.f u s t u s h o s t i s. It t h r e a t e n s t o p l u n g e t h e c l a s h i n g

- n-

f o r c e s I n t o a w a r of a n n i h i l a t i o n , f o r S o u t h A f r i c a is, u n i l a t e r a l l yI n d i c t e d a s a " c r i m i n a l " , a n d , t h u s , a s t h e a b s o l u t e f o e . T h er e - c r l m l n a l l s a t t o n of I n t e r - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s Is c o u c h e d In l e g a lp h r a s e o l o g y - A r t i c l e I I I , c l a u s e 6, of t h e O A U C h a r t e r e x p l i c i t l yJ u s t i f i e s w a r s of a g g r e s s i o n a n d a r m e d s t r u g g l e , a g a i n s t " w h i t e r e g i m e s " ,s o m e t h i n g a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e c o l o u r - b l i n d A r t i c l e 2 , 4 o f t h e U N O C h a r t e rs t r o n g l y I n v e i g h s . T h e c h a s m s e p a r a t i n g t h e s e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d o c u m e n t s Isb r i d g e d by t h e c o n c e p t of " r a c i a l s o v e r e i g n t y " , a n d t h u s h i g h l i g h t s t h ed i s t a n c e t h a t A f r i c a n " p t g m e n t a t l o n a l " I n t e r n a t i o n a l law h a s t r a v e l l e d f r o mt r a d i t i o n a l I n t e r n a t i o n a l law d e v o i d o f r a c i a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . By m a k i n g" p i g m e n t a t i o n " t h e d e f i n i n g c r i t e r i o n o f e x t e r n a l s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e c o n c e p tIs t r a n s f o r m e d I n t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n i s i n g v e r s i o n of s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a n" c o n t i n e n t a l r a c i a l " s o v e r e i g n t y , o r , a s e x p r e s s e d In t h e w o r d s o f M a z r u l :" s o m e t i m e s t h e u n i t of e x c l u s l v e n e s s Is n o t s t r i c t l y a c o n t i n e n t b u t a r a c e...". B u i l t i n t o t h i s c o n c e p t Is a h i g h l y e x p l o s i v e m a s s , w h i c h m a y w e l l ,o n c e I g n i t e d , c o n s u m e A f r i c a t h r o u g h an u n i n t e r r u p t e d s e r i e s InI n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t i n e n t a l c i v i l w a r s * M i l i t a r y I n t e r v e n t i o n by o n e b l a c ks t a t e a g a i n s t a n o t h e r b e c o m e s , in l i n e w i t h , " r a c i a l s o v e r e i g n t y " , ad o m e s t i c a f f a i r w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r f r a m e w o r k of an I m a g i n a r y s u b - S a h a r a nb l a c k A f r i c a n s t a t e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t of s o v e r e i g n t y w a s d e v i s e d t op e r f o r m t h e s i n g u l a r l y I m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n of h e d g i n g a g a i n s t t h e H o b b e s i a nc o n d i t i o n o f I n t e r - s t a t e "anarchy", s l i d i n g In t o a c t u a l war a n d a l m o s tp e r p e t u a I c h a o s •

I r o n i c a l l y , A f r i c a ' s r a d i c a l i s e d s o c i a l i s t r u l i n g e l i t e s s e e m t o e x h i b i t ac o m p u l s i v e l y f a t e f u l a t t r a c t i o n t o e x a c t l y t h o s e E u r o p e a n I d e o l o g i e s t h a tw r o u g h t d e s t r u c t i o n o n t h e o l d o r d e r , a n d s e e m a t t h e v e r y s a m e t i m er e p e l l e d b y e x a c t l y t h o s e E u r o p e a n n o r m s a n d v a l u e s t h a t h o l d at l e a s t t h ep o t e n t i a l f o r a m e l i o r a t i n g I n t e r g r o u p a n d I n t e r s t a t e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s .A f r o - S o c i a l i s m , a n d e v e n m o r e s o I t s b a s t a r d i s e d v e r s i o n In t h e s h a p e o fA f r o - C o m m u n I s m , l o n g a g o e n t e r e d I n t o a s y m b i o t i c c o m m u n i o n w i t hp a r a d i g m a t i c F a s c i s m a n d c o r e f e a t u r e s o f N a t I o n a I - S o c I a I I s m , t o p r o d u c eA f r i c a n M a r x o - F a s c i s m , w h i c h . In t h i s v o l a t i l e m i x t u r e , p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t st h e m o s t e x t r e m e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n t l - W e s t e r n l s m y e t a r t i c u l a t e d byA f r i c a n " s o c i a l i s t " e l i t e s .

M a r x i s m , r e d I f I n e d a s an I d e a - a n d a c t i o n - s y s t e m by L e n i n a n d S t a l i n ,c o n v e r g e s w i t h p a r a d i g m a t i c F a s c i s m on t h e I d e o l o g y of d e v e l o p m e n t a ld i c t a t o r s h i p , m o n o l i t h i c s i n g l e - p a r t y r u l e , m a s s m o b i l i s a t i o n m o v e m e n t ,e x p r o p r i a t i o n of t h e m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n t i - c a p i t a l i s ma n d a n t I - I m p e r I a I I s m , a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s d o m i n a t i o n . W h i l e n a t i o n a l i s mp o w e r s a n d p r o p e l s t h e F a s c i s t d e v e l o p m e n t a l d i c t a t o r s h i p , a n d f u s e s t h ed i s p a r a t e s o c i a l e l e m e n t s I n t o o n e - n e s s , In t h e M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t s c h e m e oft h i n g s It Is e m p l o y e d a s a v i t a l l y I m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t , w i t h t h e s o l eo b j e c t i v e of d i s r u p t i n g a n d r e v o l u t i o n i s i n g m u l t i - e t h n i c s o c i e t i e s . InN a t l o n a I - S o c I a I Ism a n d F a s c i s m , It p e r f o r m s a n e s s e n t i a l l ys t r a t e g I c - c e n t r I p e d a I r o l e ; in M a r x I s m - L e n I n I s m , It f u n c t i o n s a s at a c t ! c a I - c e n t r I f u g a l f o r c e t o s p e e d up t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t a r g e ts o d e t i e s .

In all i n s t a n c e s , p a r t y , m o v e m e n t , a n d c a u s e t r a n s c e n d t h e s t a t e , w h i c hp r i m a r i l y s e r v e s a s a t e r r i t o r i a l b a s e f o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a v a n t - g a r d e ,e n a b l i n g It t o e x t e r n a l i s e t h e c l a s s / r a c e s t r u g g l e by p i t t i n g t h e" p r o l e t a r i a n n a t i o n s " a g a i n s t t h e " p l u t o c r a c y " ( M u s s o l i n i a n d H i t l e r ) , t h e" c a m p of s o c i a l i s m " a g a i n s t t h e " c a m p o f I m p e r i a l i s m " ( M a r x i s m -L e n i n I s m - S t a I I n I sm ) , a n d t h e " p r o l e t a r i a n A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t " a g a i n s t t h e" e x p l o i t a t i v e n e o - c o i o n i a t I s m / I m p e r I a l I s m " of t h e W e s t . A f r I c a n - M a r x o -F a s c i s m , a n d t h e rrfore r a d i c a l v e r s i o n s o f P a n - A f r I c a n I s m , m o s t s t r o n g l yr e s e m b l e t h e P a n - E u r o p e a n l s m of F a s c i s m a n d N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l I s m .

- 1 2 -

A s G r e g o r c o n t e n d s ; " P a n - A f r i c a n i s m h a r b o u r s all t h e p a r a d o x e s and c o m p I e x -Ity of F a s c i s t e t h n a r c h l c I m p e r i a l i s m , P a n - E u r o p e a n I s m " .

A f r i c a n M a r x o - F a s c l s m ' s a f f i n i t y w i t h F a s c i s m a n d N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s m w o u l ds u g g e s t t h a t t h e " p o t e n t i a l f o r a v i r u l e n t f o r m of r a c i s m , s i m p l eo p p r e s s i o n a n d m i l i t a r y a d v e n t u r e ... c a n n o t be l i g h t l y d i s m i s s e d " .

T o t a l i t a r i a n o r d e r s a r e s u s t a i n e d by c o n f l i c t . T h e I m a g i n a r y a b s o l u t e f o ep r o v i d e s t h e i r s u s t e n a n c e . T h e y a r e " g o v e r n m e n t s of w a r " and d e s t a b l I 1 s a -t l o n . A c l o s e r e l a t i o n e x i s t s b e t w e e n a s t a t e ' s d o m e s t i c I n s t i t u t i o n s a n dI t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . W h e n p o w e r Is s e i z e d by m e a n s of v i o l e n c e andm a i n t a i n e d by t h e I n s t r u m e n t s of f o r c e a f t e r Its c o n q u e s t , t h e r u l i n ge l i t e s c a n n o t e a s i l y c o n f o r m t o a p a t t e r n of t r u s t and p e a c e f u lr e l a t i o n s h i p s In t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s .

S o u t h A f r i c a f i n a l l y l o s t Its I n n o c e n c e w h e n It r e - e n c o u n t e r e d E u r o p e Int h e b a s e n e s s of I t s d e s t r u c t i v e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y I d e o l o g i e s , w h i c h h a v e s e i z e dt h e I m a g i n a t i o n of t h e r u l i n g b u r e a u c r a t i c e l i t e s of t h e R e p u b l i c ' sn e i g h b o u r s , a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l c o d e s . H o u p h o u e t - B o I g n y ,I m m e r s e d In t h e F r e n c h t r a d i t i o n of s t a t e h o o d , p r e s c l e n t l y o b s e r v e d m o r et h a n t e n y e a r s a g o t h a t a p a r t h e i d s h o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a s e c o n d a r y p r o b l e m Int h e s c h e d u l e of A f r i c a n p r i o r i t i e s . S o u t h A f r i c a ' s I n t e r n a l p r o b l e m w a so v e r - s h a d o w e d by t h e t h r e a t of S o v i e t C o m m u n i s m l o o m i n g on t h e h o r i z o n .M i l i t a r y c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e R e p u b l i c a n d B l a c k A f r i c a w o u l d p r o v i d e "an e w o p p o r t u n i t y t o C o m m u n I s m t o I n t e r v e n e w i t h t h e w e l l - k n o w nc o n s e q u e n c e s " . In S o u t h A f r i c a , w i t h Its " m i l i t a r y a n d I n d u s t r i a l p o w e r " ,h e s a w t h e c o n t i n e n t ' s " b e s t b u l w a r k " a g a i n s t C o m m u n i s t a g g r e s s i o n .D i a l o g u e w i t h S o u t h A f r i c a o f f e r e d t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e to' p r o t r a c t e d w a ra n d m u r d e r o u s C o m m u n i s t I n t r u s i o n I n t o t h e a f f a i r s of t h e A f r i c a n s .

B l a c k A f r i c a w i l l l o s e I t s I n n o c e n c e at t h e m o m e n t It d e c i d e s t o b r e a k o u tof t h e v i c i o u s c i r c l e of t h e " p r o h i b i t i o n of q u e s t i o n i n g " , a n d leap b e y o n dt h e s t e r e o t y p e a n s w e r : S o u t h A f r i c a , t h e a b s o l u t e f o e .

U n t i l A f r i c a s h i f t s d r a m a t i c a l l y f r o m t h e " c l o s e d p r e d i c a m e n t " t o t h e " o p e np r e d i c a m e n t " , w e h a v e t o s u s t a i n o u r s a n i t y by l i v i n g w i t h B i s m a r c k ' sm e m o r a b l e I n j u n c t i o n :

" B y h i m s e l f t h e I n d i v i d u a l c a n c r e a t e n o t h i n g ; h e c a n o n l yw a i t u n t i l h e h e a r s G o d ' s f o o t s t e p s r e s o u n d i n g t h r o u g he v e n t s a n d t h e n s p r i n g f o r w a r d t o g r a s p t h e h e m ' o f h i sm a n t l e - t h a t Is a l l " .

If m a n c a n d o l i t t l e , It Is a t l e a s t h i s m o r a l d u t y t o a c c o m p l i s h w h a t h e

c a n .

- 13-

BIBUOGRAPHY

Abdl, Said Ysuf : Racial Belief Systems of Nat 1\on_a I 1 st Movements : A Case

Study of Angola and South Africa. Ph.D. Dissertation, University

of Denver, 1976.

Almond, Gabriel A. and Genco, Stephen J., "Clouds, Clocks and the Study of

Politics", World PolItlcs, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1977.

Aron, Raymond, "The Anarchical Order of Power", Daeda I us. Vol. 95, 1966.

Barlon, Hans {ed.) : Eplrrhosls : Festgabe fur Carl Schmltt. BerI In :

Duncker & Humblot, 1968, 2 vols.

Barkun, Michael ; Disaster and the MlllenJum. New Haven : Yale Unf versify

Press, 1974.

Bauer, Peter, "All Mazrul : A Prophet out of Africa : Broadcasting the

Liberal Death-Wish", Encounter, Vol. 54, No. 6, 1980.

Bernstein, Howard R., "Marxist HIstor(ograpy and the Methodology of

Research Programs", History and Theory, Vol. 20, No. 4,

Beiheft 20.

Beyme, Klaus von : Die Pol I t_l.schen Theorlen der Gegenwart. Munich :

R. Piper & Co., 1976.

Bockenforde, Ernst-Wolfgang (ed.) : Staat und GesseI Ischaft. Darmstadt :

Wlssenschaftllche Buchgesellschaft, 1976.

Bos I, Kar I : FrGhformen der Gesel Ischaft Im mlttela I terI Ichen Europa.

Munich : R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1964.

Bozeman, Adda B. : Politics and Culture In Interstate Relations.PrI neeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, I960.

Bozeman, Adda B. : The Future of Law In a Multicultural WorId. PrI neeton,

N.J. : PrInceton University Press, 1971.

Bozeman, Adda B. : Conflict 1n_ Afr1ca : Concepts and Reality. Pr1nceton,

N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1976.

Bull, Hedley : The Anarchical Society* New York : Columbia University

Press, 1977.

Bull, Hedley : "Hobbes and the International Anarchy", Social Research,

Vol. 48, No. 4, 1981 .

Chroust, Anton-Hermann, "The Function of Law and Justice In the Ancient

World and the Middle Ages", Journal of the History of Ideas,

Vol . 7, 1947.

Coleman, James, "Nationalism In Tropical Africa", American Political

Science Review, Vol. 48, No. 2, 1954.

Colson, Elizabeth, "African Society at the Time of the Scramble", in :

Dulgan, Peter and Gann, L.A. (eds.) : Colonialism In Africa

1860-1960. Cambridge t Cambridge University Press, 1969, Vol. 1.

. • • •- 1 4 -

Conquest, Robert (ed.) : Defending America : Toward a New Role In thePost-Detente World. New York ; Basic Books, 1977.

Dempf, Alois and Arendt, Hannah (eds.) : Polltlsche Ordnung un'd MenschllcheExlstenz : Festgabe fur Eric Voe^elln zum 60. Geburtstag.Munich *. Verlog C H . Beck, 1967.

Doehrlng, Karl, "Internationale OrganIsatlonen und StaatllcheSouveran1 tat", In : Grewe, Wllhelm G. (ed.) : Festgabe fur ErnostForsthoff zum 6 5 . Geburststag. Munich : C.H. Beck'scheVerlagsbuchhandlung, 1967.

Dyson, Kenneth H.F. : The State Tradition In Western Europe : A Stuudy ofan Idea and Institution. Oxford : Martin Robertson, 1980.

Feher, Ferenc and Heller, Agnes, "Class, Democracy, Modernity", Theory andSociety, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1983.

Feuer, Lewis S., "Marx and Engels as S o d ob t ol ogl sts", Survey, Vol. 23,N o . 4, 1977/78.

Finer, Samuel E., "State-bufId1ig> state boundaries and border control",International Social Science Information, Vol. 13, Nos* 4/5.

Flless, Peter J«, "Thucydldes and International Politics Today", In : Dempfand Arendt

Friedman, Bernard : Smuts : A Reappraisal. Johannesburg :• Hugh KeartlandPublIshers, 1975.

Frohock, Fred M., "The Structure of Pol 1 tics", American Pol It lea I ScienceReview, Vol. 72, No. 3, 1978.

Gehlen, Arnold : Moral and Hypermoral : Elne pIura I I st 1 sche Ethlk.Frankfurt A.M. : Atheniium Verlag, 1970 2nd ed.

Gelger, Theodore : The Conflicted Relationship : The West and theTransformation of Asia, Africa and Latin America. New York :McGraw-HII I Book Comp., 1 967.

Germlno, Dante : Beyond Ideology t The Revival of Political Theory. NewYork : Harper & Row, 1967.

G1 Ibert, Fel tx, "The 'New Diplomacy' of the Eighteenth Century", Wor I dPol Itlcs, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1951.

Gllpin, Robert : War and Change In World Politics. London : CambridgeUniversity Press, 1981.

Grsaubard, Stephen R. (ed.) : The State. New York : W.W. Norton & Comp.,1979.

Gray, Colin S., "National Style In Strategy : The American Example",Internat I ona I SecurIty, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1981.

Gray, Colin S., Strategic Studies and Public Policy : The AmericanExper lence. Lexington : The University of Kentucky, 1982.

.- 1 5 -

G r e g o r , A. J a m e s , " A f r i c a n S o c i a l i s m : S o c i a l i s m and F a s c i s m : AnA p p r a i s a l " , R e v i e w of P o l I t l c s , V o l . 2 9 , N o . 3, 1 9 6 7 .

G r e g o r , A. James • : The I d e o l o g y of F a s c i s m : T h e R a t i o n a l e ofTotaI I tar 1 an 1sm. New York : Co I I Ier-MacmI I I an, 1 9 6 9 .

G r e g o r , A. J a m e s : The F a s c i s t P e r s u a s i o n In R a d i c a l P o l i t i c s . P r i n c e t o n ,N . J . : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 4 .

G r e g o r , A. James : Italian F a s c i s m and D e v e l o p m e n t a l D i c t a t o r s h i p .P r i n c e t o n , N.J. : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 .

H a d a s , M o s e s , " A s p e c t s of N a t i o n a l i s t S u r v i v a l under H e l l e n i s t i c and R o m a nI m p e r i a l i s m " , Journal of t h e H i s t o r y of I d e a s , V o l . 1 1 , N o . 3,1 9 5 0 .

H a m m o n d , Y . , " T h e P o l i t i c a l O r d e r and t h e B u r d e n and E x t e r n a l R e l a t i o n s " ,World P o l I t l c s , V o l . 19, N o . 3, 1 9 6 7 .

H e n r l e d e r , W o l f r a m F., " D i s s o l v i n g I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s : R e f l e c t i o n s ont h e N a t i o n - S t a t e " , A m e r i c a n P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e R e v i e w , V o ! . 7 2 ,N o . 4, 1 9 7 8 .

H e r m e n s , F e r d i n a n d A., " T o t a l i t a r i a n Power S t r u c t u r e and R u s s i a n F o r e i g nP o l i c y " , Journal of P o l I t l c s , V o l . 2 1 , N o . 3, 1 9 5 9 .

H e r z , John H . , " I d e a l i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m and the S e c u r i t y D i l e m m a " , Wor I dP o l i t i c s , V o l . 2, N o . 2, 1 9 5 0 .

H l n t z e , O t t o , "The State In H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e " , In : 3 e n d l x , R e l n h a r d(ed.) : State and S o c i e t y . B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i aP r e s s , 1 9 7 3 .

H o b b e s , T h o m a s : Ley 1athan. Ed. with an I n t r o d u c t i o n by C . B . M a c p h e r s o n .New York : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1 9 7 9 .

H o f f m a n n , S t a n l e y : D u t i e s Beyond B o r d e r s : On t h e L i m i t s and P o s s i b i l i t i e sof Ethical I n t e r n a t i o n a l Polities'. S y r a c u s e : S y r a c u s eU n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 .

H o r t o n , R o b i n , " A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l T h o u g h t and W e s t e r n S c i e n c e : FromT r a d i t i o n to S c i e n c e " , A f r i c a , V o l . 3 7 , N o . 1, 1 9 6 7 .

H o r t o n , R o b i n , " A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l T h o u g h t and W e s t e r n S c i e n c e : T h e• C l o s e d ' and 'Open' P r e d i c a m e n t " , A f r i c a , V o l . 3 7 , N o . 1, J 9 6 7 .

H u n t l n g t o n , Samuel P. : A m e r i c a n P o l i t i c s t T h e P r o m i s e of D i s h a r m o n y .C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : The B e l k n a p P r e s s of H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 1 .

H u n t l n g t o n , Samuel P., " A m e r i c a n Ideals v e r s u s A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t i o n s " ,P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y , V o I . 9 7 , N o . 1, 1 9 8 2 .

J o u v e n e l , B e r t r a n d de : The P u r e T h e o r y of P o l i t i c s . C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g eU n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 .

J a n l c k e , M a r t i n : T o t a l I t a r e H e r r s c h o f t : A n a t o m l e e l n e s po.lltlschenBegr 1 f f e s . B e r l i n : D u n c k e r & H u m b l o t , 1 9 7 1 .

K a i s e r , J.H., " E u r o p e f s c h e s G r o s s r a u m d e n k e n " , In B a r l o n .

- 16-

Kampft, Hel Imut (ed.) : Herrschaft und Staat lm MIttelalter- Darmstadt :Wlssenschaf11 Iche BuchgeseI Ischaft, 1972.

Keohane, Robert 0. and Nye, Joseph S. : Power and Interdependence : WorldPolitics In Transition. Boston : Little, Brown and Comp., 1977.

KolakowskI, Leszek : Main Currents^ of Marxism. New York : OxfordUnIverslty Press, 1978, Vols. II and III.

Kruger, Herbert, "SouveranI tat und StaatengemeInschaft", Berlchte derDeutschen Gesellschaft fur Volkerrecht, Heft 1, 1957.

L a u f e r , H e i n z , "Homo H o m l M Homo : Das 'AnthropologIscheGlaubensbekenntnIs' elnes Doktrlnars", In : Dempf and Arendt.

Le Vine, Victor T., "African Patrimonial Regimes In ComparativePerspective", Journal of Modern African Studies, V o l . 18, No. 4,1980.

L ewis, Bernard : The Muslim Discovery of Europe* London : Weldenfeld andNIcolson, 1982.

Ltska, George, "The Vital Triad ; International Relations Theory, History,and Social Philosophy", Social Research, Vol. 4 8 , No. 4, 1981.

Lobkowlcz, Nlkolaus, "Marxlsmus : Realltat and Illusion", Kont1nent.Vol. 9, No. 4, 1983.

M a r s h a l l , Charles Burton, "National Security : Thoughts on the1 ntanglabIes", In : Conquest

Mazrul, All A» and Patel, Hasu H. (eds.) : Africa : The Next Thirty Years*Lewes, Sussex : Julian Frledmann Publishers, 1974

M a z r u l , A M A* : Toward a Pax Afrlcana : A Study of Ideology and Ambition*London : Weldenfeld and NIcolson, 1967.

Mazrul, All A. : Cultural Engineering and Natlon-Bulldlng In East Africa.Evanston, 111 : Northwestern University Press, 1972.

M e t z , Steven, "In Lieu of Orthodoxy : The Socialist Theories of Nkrumah andNyerere", Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 20, No. 3,1982.

MItchel I, R. Judson : Ideology of a Superpower : Contemporary SovietDoctrine on International Relations. Stanford : HooverInstitution P r e s s , 1982.

ModelskI, George, "The Long Cycles of Global Politics and theNat Ion-State", Comparative Studies In History and Society,Vol. 2 0 , 1978.

Nettle, J.P., "The State as a Conceptual Variable", World Pol ItIcs,Vol - 2 0 , No. 4, 1968.

NIsbet, Robert A. : Social Change and History : Aspects of the WesternTheory of Development. New York : Oxford Unlverstty Press, 1969.

Nolte, Ernst : Der FaschIsmus In Seiner Epoche. Munich : R. Piper & C o .Verlag, 1963.

- 1 7 -

N o l t e , E r n s t : M a r x i s m , F a s c i s m , Cold W a r . A t l a n t i c H i g h l a n d s , N.J. :H u m a n i t i e s P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 .

N u r s e y - B r a y , P a u l , "Race and Nation : Ideology In the T h o u g h t of F r a n t zF a n o n " , Journal of M o d e r n A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , Vol 1 8 , N o . 1, 1 9 8 0 .

O t t a w a y , David and O t t a w a y , M a r i n a : AfrocommIun1sro. New York : A f r l c a n aPubl Ishlng C o m p . , 1 9 8 1 .

P t e y d e l l , A l a n , " L a n g u a g e , C u l t u r e and the C o n c e p t of InternationalPolitical C o m m u n i t y " , in : M a y a l l , James (ed.) : The C o m m u n I t y ofS t a t e s : A Study In International P o l i t i c a l T h e o r y . London :G e o r g e Allen & U n w l n , 1 9 8 2 .

P o g g l , G l a n f r a n c o : The D e v e l o p m e n t of the M o d e r n S t a t e . S t a n f o r d :S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 8 .

R a d u , M i c h a e l , " I d e o l o g y , P a r t i e s , and Foreign Policy In S u b - S a h a r a nA f r i c a " , O r b l s , V o l . 2 5 , No- 4 , 1 9 8 2 .

R I c k e r t , H e t n r l c h : Science and HIstory_ _:_ A c r i t i q u e of P o s l t l v i s tE p I s t o m o l o g y . New York : Van N o s t r a n d C o m p . , 1 9 6 2 .

R o t b e r g , R . I . , "African N a t i o n a l i s m : C o n c e p t or C o n f u s i o n ? " . Journal ofM o d e r n A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , V o l . 4, No. 1, 1 9 6 6 .

R u g g l e , John G e r a r d , " C o n t i n u i t y and T r a n s f o r m a t i o n In the World P o l i t y :Toward a N e o r e a l l s t S y n t h e s i s " , WorId P o I I t l c s , V o l . 3 5 , 1 9 8 3 .

S a m o f f , J o e l , " C l a s s , Class C o n f l i c t and the Stata fn A f r i c a " , P o l I t l c a IS c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . 9 7 , No- 1, 1 9 8 2 .

S c h m l t t , Carl : Per Beorlff des P o l i t i s c h e n : T e x t von 1932 rclt e l n e mV o r w o r t und drel C o r o l l a r l e n . Berlin : D u n c k e r & H u m b l o t , 1 9 7 9 .

S c h m l t t , Carl : T h e o r t e des P a r t l s a n e n : Z w i s c h e n b e m e r k u n g zuro B e g r l f f desP o l I t l s c h e n . Berlin : D u n c k e r & H u m b t o t , 1 9 7 5 , 2nd ed.

S c h m l t t , Carl : Per Nomos der E r d e Im V o j k e r r e c h t des Jus P u b l l c u mE u r o p a e u m . Berlin : D u n c k e r & H u m b l o t , 1 9 7 4 , 2nd ed.

S c h w a b , G e o r g e , "Enemy oder Foe : Der K o n f l l k t der m o d e r n e n P o l l t l k " , In :Bar I o n .

S h a w , T i m o t h y M-, "Beyond Neo-CoI on 1 a I Ism : V a r i e t i e s of C o r p o r a t i s m InA f r i c a " , Journal of M o d e r n A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , V o l . 2 0 , N o . 2, 1 9 8 2 .

S m i t h , Anthony D. : State and N a t i o n In the Third World : T h e W e s t e r n S t a t eand African N a t i o n a l i s m . B r i g h t o n , Sussex : W h e a t s h e a f B o o k s ,1 9 8 3 .

S m i t h , T o n y , "The U n d e r d e v e I o p m e n t of t h e D e v e l o p m e n t Theory : The C a s e ofD e p e n d e n c y T h e o r y " , WorId P o l i t l c s , V o l . 3 1 , N o . 2, 1 9 7 9 .

S m i t h , T o n y , "The L o g i c of D e p e n d e n c y Theory R e v i s i t e d " , Internatl onaIO r g a n l z a t l o n . V o l . 3 4 , N o . 4, 1 9 8 1 .

S p e g e l e , R o g e r P., "Toward R e d i s c o v e r i n g Political R e a l i s m " , II P o l I t l c o ,V o l . 4 7 , No. 3, 1 9 8 2 .

- 18-

S p e g e l e , Roger D., " A l a r u m s and E x c u r s i o n s : The S t a t e of the D i s c i p l i n e ofInternational R e l a t i o n s " , P o l I t l k o n , V o l . 1 0 , N o . 2 , 1 9 8 3 . (Thispaper was originally presented to the Theory Workshop jointlyorganised by the Department of International R e l a t i o n s ,University of the W I t w a t e r s r a n d , and the South African Instituteof International A f f a i r s , J o h a n n e s b u r g , In May 1983-)

S p e n g l e r , Oswald : Per Unterqang des A b e n d l a n d e s : Umrlss elnerm o r p h o l o g l s c h e n We 1 t g e s c h I c h t e . Munich : C.H. Beck, 1963, 2v o I s • In o n e .

S p r a g e n s , Thomas A. : The D i l e m m a of Contemporary Political Theory : Towarda PostbehavloraI Science of P o l i t i c s . New York : D u n e l l e n , 1 9 7 3 .

S p r l n z a k , Ehud, "African Traditional Socialism - A Semantic A n a l y s i s ofPolitical Ideology", journal of Modern African S t u d i e s , V o l . 11,1 9 7 3 .

T i l l y , C h a r l e s (ed.) : The F o r m a t i o n of National States In Western E u r o p e *P r i n c e t o n , N.J. : Princeton University P r e s s , 1975.

T l v e y , Leonard (ed.) : The N a t i o n - S t a t e : The Formation of ModernPol I t l c s . Oxford : Martin R o b e r t s o n , 1 9 8 1 .

United N a t i o n s , Centre A g a i n s t Apartheid, "Appeal by the Meeting of theInternational P r e p a r a t o r y Committee of the InternationalC o n f e r e n c e In Solidarity with the F r o n t l i n e S t a t e s , and forNational Liberation and Peace In Southern A f r i c a " , InformatIonN o t e , No. 7 / 8 2, May 3 1982.

United N a t i o n s , C e n t r e A g a i n s t A p a r t h e i d , "African G r o u p at the UnitedNations Observe 70th Anniversary of African National Congress ofSouth Africa ( A N C ) " , Notes and D o c u m e n t s , N o . 1 0 / 8 2 , May 1 9 8 2 .

V a l l l a n t , Janet G « , " D i l e m m a s for Anti-Western P a t r i o t i s m : Slavophilismand N e g r l t u d e " , Journal of Modern African S t u d i e s , V o l . 1 2 , 1 9 7 4 .

V o e g e l i n , Eric : The New S c i e n c e of P o l i t i c s . C h i c a g o : The University ofCh Icagb P r e s s , 1 9 5 2 .

V o e g e l i n , Eric : S c i e n c e , P o l i t i c s & G n o s t 1 c I s m . South Bend, I n d• GatewayE d i t i o n s , 1 9 6 8 .

Voegel In, Eric : From E n l i g h t e n m e n t to R e v o l u t i o n . Durham, N.C. : DukeUniversity P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 .

V o e g e l i n , Eric : Anamnesis : Zur Theorle der G e s c h l c h t e und P o l l t l k .Munich : R. Piper & C o . Verlag, 1966.

W a l t z , K e n n e t h , "Theory of International R e l a t i o n s " , In : G r e e n s t e l n , F.and P o l s b y , N. (eds.) : Handbook on Political S c i e n c e . R e a d i n g ,M a s s . : Add Ison-WesIey , 1975.

W e l t z , Kenneth : Theory of International P o l i t i c s . R e a d i n g , M a s s . :A d d l s o n - W e s l e y , 1 9 7 9 .

W e s s o n , Robert G. : State Systems : International P l u r a l i s m , Politics andC u I t u r e . New York : The Free P r e s s , 1 9 7 8 .

- 19-

W e s s o n , R o b e r t G. : Why M a r x i s m ? T h e C o n t i n u i n g S u c c e s s of a F a i l e dT h e o r y . L o n d o n : T e m p l e S m i t h , 1 9 7 6 .

W e s t e r m a n n , D I e d r l c h : G e s e h l c h t e A f r l k a s ; S t a a t e n b l I d u n q e n S u d t l c h derS a h a r a . C o l o g n e : G r e v e n - V e r I a g , 1 9 5 2 .

Way I , N a t h a n i e l : Karl M a r x t Racl st. New R o c h e I Ie, N . Y . : Ar I I n g t onH o u s e , 1 9 7 9 .

Z o l b e r g , A r l s t l d e R., "The S t r u c t u r e of Political C o n f l i c t In the NewS t a t e s of Tropical A f r i c a " , A m e r i c a n P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e R e v i e w ,V o l . 6 2 , 1 9 6 8 .

Z o l b e r g , A r t s t t d e R., " S t r a t e g i c I n t e r a c t i o n s and t h e F o r m a t i o n of M o d e r nS t a t e s : F r a n c e and E n g l a n d " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Social S c i e n c eJ o u r n a l , V o l . 3 2 , N o . 4, 1 9 8 0 .

Z o l b e r g , A r l s t l d e R-, " O r i g i n s of the M o d e r n W o r l d S y s t e m : A M i s s i n gL i n k " , WorId P o l I t l c s , V o l . 3 3 , N o . 3, 1 9 8 1 .