Self-Regulated Multimedia Learning: Instructional Scaffolding to Acquire Chinese Characters Reading

PSU-USM Research Seminar Program 2013

Faculty of Education, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand, Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia, University Sains Malaysia, Malaysia, 13th -14th December, 2013, at Prince of Songkla Universiti, Trang Campus, Pattani, Thailand.

Self-Regulated Multimedia Learning:

Instructional Scaffolding to Acquire Chinese Characters Reading

Choy Khim Leow

Centre for Instructional Technology &

Multimedia

Univesiti Sains Malaysia

[email protected]

Wan Ahmad Jaafar Wan Yahaya

Centre for Instructional Technology &

Multimedia

Univesiti Sains Malaysia

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Chinese Mandarin, the language of new world’s economic giant – China, has now become

the most sought-after language, notwithstanding with the complexity of learning the

language. Chinese as foreign language (CFL) learners (from alphabetic reading background)

have often found Chinese characters reading difficult due to the fact that Chinese characters

orthography, which mainly pictographic in nature, and the representing of phonemes in

characters are highly irregular, and less. Hence, CFL learners often required phonetic symbol

(pinyin) when reading Chinese characters; this however, would hamper the higher literacy

development for them, as ultimately all Chinese literacy are solely in characters form. This

study, therefore to investigate from self-learning perspective, to examine the effectiveness of

self-regulated multimedia learning (SRML) to scaffold reading acquisition for CFL learners

in Malaysian International Schools. Instructional scaffolding is prioritized and clearly

identified, which were then explained to learners when learning with the SRML system to

promote a deeper level of understanding to reading Chinese characters. Besides stress-free

learning, SRML grants learners with full-control of learning; therefore autonomous learners

are intrinsically motivated, and produced positive impact in learning. For this purpose,

instruments of Chinese reading performance test and Instructional Materials Motivation

Survey were used to measure the effective of SRML software and perceived motivation of

learners; while pilot testing for content validity and reliability were tested prior to the

treatment of self-regulated software. Results show that SRML scaffold Chinese characters

reading acquisition, and learners’ perceived motivation were significant. Despite that, this

process must be incorporated with appropriate instructional scaffolding strategies, whereby

Chinese characters prioritized, followed by presenting both verbal pinyin and written pinyin.

The significant results of SRML in acquiring reading Chinese characters could serve as

alternative teaching and learning approaches, as well as a platform for future extended

studies. As educators, researchers and instructional technologist, we understand technology is

changing learners’ learning approaches; hence we may seek integration of SRML to scaffold

learning process.

Keywords: Self-regulated Multimedia Learning, Chinese as Foreign Language, Chinese

Characters Reading, Scaffolding.

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]



1. INTRODUCTION

The large influx of people learning Chinese as Foreign Language (CFL); reported 600, 000

candidates registered for International Chinese Proficiency Test (HSK) as consequence of

China’s policy of CFL and the expansions of Confucius Institute available in the world, ever

since in year 2004, has grown to 833 today, according the official website by Hanban –

Chinese Language Council International, accessed on 30th

October 2013; with it the chief

aim, is for non-Chinese in other countries to have opportunity to be educated in the use of the

Chinese language, and about Chinese culture. (Huang & Zhao, 2012) In Malaysia,

nonetheless with no Confucius Institute, CFL learners are relatively high, particularly in local

International School, when Malaysian government liberalised the intake policy for Malaysian

students in 2006, which resulted 43% of local students enrolled themselves in International

schools (Tan, 2012). Chinese language is also a taught in International schools as to cater the

global markets’ needs; students will sit for either Malaysia examination, Cambridge

International examination or HSK examination.

Whilst learning CFL is important, yet study in Malaysian context is comparatively

less; thus this study becomes substantial, particularly pertaining to difficulties that most CFL

learners are facing now – Chinese characters reading and writing, as explained by Clay

Williams (2012). Therefore, this study is to find alternative solution to support Chinese

characters reading acquisition (Note: writing skill is not in discussion) through multimedia

environment setting, despite the requirement of ‘high literacy skills’ in learning CFL.

Two objectives in this study are i) to investigate the effectiveness of self-regulated

multimedia learning to scaffold Chinese characters acquisition among CFL learners by

conducting experimental study on two different modes of presentations; and ii) to conduct a

perceived motivation (ARCS) test to assess the learners learning experience after the

exploration of the two different modes of presentations on the self-regulated multimedia

learning.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Reading is the source for knowledge, productive approach to improve word power and to

understand the universal cultures and world views. This however, to be able to read, foreign

language learners, they need to acquire the fundamental speech processing skills when

reading (example like pronouncing with appropriate intonation) before reaching to higher

ability skills (understanding, analysis and etc…) in Bloom’s Learning taxanomy (2000), in



order to become a competent communicator in the target language learning. Reading in

Chinese employs a dual route model (Patterson & Morton, 1985), which refers to two

processes: reading via semantic representation of the word; reading via non-lexical procedure

of grapheme-phoneme conversion (e.g., Coltheart, 1978; Bi, Han, Weeks & Shu, 2007), as

cited in C. Williams (2012), hence it is a complex set of reading process, as compared to

alphabetic languages (e.g, English, Malay, French, etc.). Hence, the fact that CFL learners

(from alphabetic language background) to pronounce characters, becomes difficult.

Moreover, the phonetic symbols, pinyin, which represent the sounds of Chinese

characters, required a much different set of pronounciation skills; whereby with diacritical

marking used to represent the tones, and the system used violates many principles in English

(Everson, 2008). Therefore, learning to read characters, two skills must be mastered, the

pinyin system, and the reading of characters; to promote life-long learning and higher literacy

attainment in Chinese language.

Given this situation, researcher believes SRML is able to scaffold reading ability of

Chinese characters; by providing constructivist learning environment in multimedia setting,

learner’s active and self-control autonomous freedom (SRL), to facilitate learners to master

the pinyin pronounciation skill as well as the Chinese characters reading skill.

3. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

To investigate the above mentioned objectives, two strategies have been implemented to

understand the brain functioning and multimedia learning approaches, from macro viewpoint

and micro viewpoint, respectively.

Figure 1. Theoretical Foundation (Adapted from Zimmerman, 2002; Mayer, 2009; Krashen, 1982)

From macro viewpoint, Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs) Principles,

Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theory and Zimmerman’s Social Cognitive

Models of Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) Model were adapted, forming the captology –

Instructional Scaffolding (IS) with multimedia technology. The three overlapping segments

shared the mutual criteria to IS learning of foreign language, which includes of learning

supports, knowledge construction, stress-free and motivation, as illustrated in Figure 1. The

shared understanding for SLA, SRL and CLEs in forming IS explained below:



1. SRL + CLEs = Environments shall made meaningful interpretation for learners for

performing phase (Jonassen, 1991; Zimmerman, 2002)

2. SLA + CLEs = Natural communication, which initiate from learners current linguistic

competence (i) ; learning shoud be internally controlled and mediated by learner

(Krashen, 2007; Jonassen, 1991, p11-12).

3. SRL + SLA = Self-reflection to understand own’s linguistic competence (Jonassen,

1991); which could help to minimise the anxiety of being making mistakes, thus

motivated to learn, which ultimately lower the affective filter and promote

comprehensible input, acquire the language (Krashen, 2007).

Ultimately, IS was formed based on the understanding mentioned above; on the other

hand, promote positive learning environment when integrated with multimedia.

Constructivist learning environment fosters integration of new and existing knowledge;

information will be kept in long-term memory after information being selected and organized

in working memory, according to Mayer’s Model of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia

Learning (2009). Krashen’s (1985) theory of second language acquisition explains if optimal

input is taken place, learners could perform better; for this to happen, learning shall be stress-

free, as to encourage message encoding process or constructivist process. SRL is interrelated

with social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1991), given that SRL is a goal-oriented process

(Puustinen & Pulkkinen, 2001) by learners, who personally activate and sustain cognition

affects, and behaviours that are systematically oriented toward the attainment of learning

goals (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008). Mayer’s Multimedia Learning Principles (2009)

explains people learn better from words and pictures rather than words alone. The theoretical

rationale is when words and pictures are both presented; learners have the opportunity to

build connections between them. This foster the knowledge constructions process, hence

improving the characters reading ability in learning CFL.

To promote independent and effective learning, IS is necessary. Faculty Development and

Instructional Design Center (2013) from Northen Illinois University defines IS, as it is similar

to the scaffolding used in the in construction to support workers as they work on a specific

task, instructional scaffolds are temporary support structures faculty put in place to assist

students in accomplishing new tasks and concepts they could not typically achieve on their

own. IS through multimedia in this study, therefore, was discussing the learning environment

in both soft scaffolding and hard scaffolding.

Scaffold, which is grouped into soft scaffold and hard scaffold, is supported by teachers or

peers and multimedia software respectively. Hard scaffold, which is found in multimedia and

hypermedia setting, is useful for learning because it is portable, asynchronously, and self-

paced control (Kao, Lehman, & Cennamo,1996) and feedback (specific strategic scaffolds)

provided could scaffold learners at their points of need.

SRML experience, hence parallel with the rationale of learning CFL which scaffold

learning by giving adequate supports to learner through multimedia learning; to empower

learners to actively participate and constructing knowledge in the stress-free learning

environment.

This study believes, when appropriate instructional supports given to self-regulated

multimedia learning, learners acquire language by receiving comprehensible input (learning

to read Chinese characters); from subconscious (acquired system) and conscious (learning



system) process, which scaffolding the learning of CFL, in the context of reading the Chinese

characters, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Instructional Scaffolding to Foreign Language Acquisition and Production (Adapted from Cook, 1993,

combined model of acquisition and production by Krashen, 1982; and Gregg, 1984; and Mayer’s Multimedia

Learning Principles, 2009)

Apart from that, perceived motivation towards the experience of using online SRML

software was also conducted, using the instrument Instructional Materials Motivation Survey

(IMMS) by Keller’s to understand the motivational level in ARCS Model (Attention,

Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction).

4. HYPOTHESIS

This study will examine the effectiveness of SRML to scaffold Chinese reading acquisition;

and perceived motivation towards the SRML; with two independent variables (to measure

cause) and two multivariate variables (to understand the relationship between variables) are

taken into consideration, to better investigate the causal effect towards learning.

H01 - There is no significant effect in learners' reading score between two modes of

presentation.

H02 - There is no significant effect in learners' reading score among types of learners in mode

#1 presentation.

H03 - There is no significant effect in learners' reading score among types of learners in mode

#2 presentation.

H04 -There is no significant effect in learners' reading score among locals in both presentation

modes.

H05 - There is no significant effect in learners' reading score among foreign in both

presentation modes.

H06 - There is no significant difference in learners' motivation score between two modes of

presentation.



H07 - There is no significant difference in learners' perceived motivation score among local

learners between two modes of presentation.

H08 - There is no significant difference in learners' perceived motivation score among foreign learners between two modes of presentation.

5. LITERATURE REVIEW

China’s economic power on the world stage; Her drastic and rapid development of overseas

Confucius Institutes; these modern evolution of CFL curriculum policy has marked the

emergence of learning CFL globally (Xing 2006; Gil 2008; Lo Bianco 2007; Everson and

Xiao 2009). Given to this, many researches been conducted in the field of CFL teaching and

learning, yet a general agreement exist: CFL learners are facing difficulty in reading and

writing (Clay William, 2012). This study, therefore, to investigate alternative approaceh to

acquire reading skill, due to the fact that the chinese character requires a study in itself,and

the lack of association between the written character and sound makes for difficulty in

learning (Kane 2006; Xing 2006), due to the fact that Chinese characters writing system is

based on a closer association between graphic form and meaning rather than is alphabetic

script (Eike M. Richter, Hua Shu, Ming Yan, Reinhold Kliegl, 2009); with the only 30% of

Chinese characters have the same pronounciation as their phonetic symbol (Gan, Fan & Fei,

1993; Zhou & Marslen-Wilson, 1999), it imposes more challenges to CFL learners when

learning to read Chinese characters.

Pinyin – an distinctive phonetic symbols, which indicates the pronouciation of

Chinese characters, is an International standard of phonetic system widely used in the

teaching and learning of CFL. Pinyin plays an important role in Chinese education and

International Communication, explained by Ang Dengfeng, vice-chairman of the National

Language Committee and director of language department of the Education Ministry.

(Xinhua News Agency, 2008). This, however, were claimed by Chung (2003) to questioned

the practice of pairing a character with its pinyin to find out the effectiveness of this

approach; following his line of reasoning, his finding suggested to learning meaning and

pronounciation of characters is more efficient when pinyin and English equivalent prompts

were presented a few seconds after the character, as a feedback; this were to allow time for

learners to capture attention on the Chinese characters, before prompts of feedback (pinyin).

In short, pinyin is only a prompt for pronounciation, and therefore learning to read characters

is important, to promote higher literacy learning in Chinese language (which presented solely

in characters).

Learning CFL has turned to be so convenient when various instructional technology and

multimedia available online as well as accessible via mobile phone, for learners to acquire

characters reading skill. Invention of software, increase the learning opportunities for

difference learners’ needs; which includes linear multimedia presentation like power points to

two ways interactive learning. Examples of software includes Seicho Nigo, Baldi, MyCT;

mobile applicatios are Chinese Pronounciation Tutor, PROnounce and etc. Looking at the

current rapid grwth of instructional technology and multimedia in software, programmes and

mobile applications, self-regulated learning were being fostered unconsciously; hence there is

no better time than now to provide instructional scaffolding pedagogy in SRML learning,

which is reading acquisition of CFL, in this study.



6. METHODOLOGY

This study compared intervention of two presentation modes (SRML) when learning CFL in

SRML setting, whereby total 40 local and 40 foreign learners from Penang and Ipoh, which

were selected through non-random sampling strategy - two schools researcher ever taught

were deliberately chose for investigation as to reduce the sampling bias and errors. Keller’s

Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) and Chinese Reading Performance Test

by International Baccalaurate (IB) World School were the experimental instruments used to

gauge the perceived motivation scale as well as leaners’ reading performance. Treatment and

control groups tested for the pre-test and post-test experiment to find out the effects of

instructional scaffolding in SRML environment.

Apart from that, pilot test were performed to test on the instruments (Chinese reading

passage) and treatment (online software - MyCT) validity and reliability evidences. Chinese

reading passage were developed and reviewed by experience CFL teacher (with 20 years

teaching experiences); the treatment, MyCT, validity data provided by the lab manager, with

cronbach alpha of reliability coefficient 0.8, indicates scores given by human teachers and

MyCT system is reliable.

7. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The following discussion is pertaining to the reading scores and perceived motivation among

types of learners. Hypotheses 1 to 5 were using ANCOVA for covariance analysis pretest-

posttest designs which has groups differ in means on the pretest (Gay, Mills & Airasian,

2011). Independent t-test was used for hypotheses 6 to 8.

Table 1. Levene’s test of equality of error variances

Prior to the test, Levene’s test was performed, results shows that the error variances is

not significant (p > .05); H01 (p=.455), H02 (p=.138), H03, (.611), H04 (.124), H05 (.234), H05

(.764) hence the assumption of equality of error variance was not violated for Hypotheses 1

to 5 (Table 1).

Table 2. ANCOVA on effect of SRML in reading score between M1 and M1

presentation Dependent

Variables

Type III Sum

of Squares

df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

Squared

Pre-test 114.007 1 114.007 148.87 .000 .659 Post-test 33.775 1 33.775 44.103 .000 .364

Hypotheses F df1 df2 Sig

H01_M1_M2 .584 1 78 .455

H02_M1_learners 1.272 1 38 .266

H03_M2_learners .263 1 38 .611

H04_M1M2_local 1.461 1 38 .234

H05_M1M2_foreign .091 1 38 .764



An overall instructional scaffolding occurred when learners learning to read Chinese

characters. After adjusting for pretest scores, there was a significant effect of the between two

modes of presentation, H01, F(1, 77) = 44.103, P < .05, partial η2

= .36.

Adjusted mean reading score suggest that SRML without verbal pinyin cues (M1) has

lowered reading scores compared with SRML with verbal pinyin cues (M2), M1=4.512a,

M2=3.213a . Therefore SRML with verbal pinyin cues is more effective than SRML with

only written pinyin cues, to scaffold the reading ability of CFL learners.

Table 3. ANCOVA on learners’ reading score in M1 and M2 presentation

Source Type III Sum

of Squares df

Mean

Square F Sig.

Partial Eta

Squared

Noncent.

Parameter

Observed

Powerb

M1_Type_Of_Students .147 1 .147 .153 .698 .004 .153 .067

M2_Type_Of_Students 1.323 1 1.323 2.477 .124 .063 2.477 .355

Investigation on the effect of different modes of SRML presentation (Table 3)

indicates that there is no siginifacant effect, with p value at .698 (p >.05) in M1 presentation;

and p value at .124 (p > .05) in M2 presentation, across all learners.

However, when statiscally control for gain score between pretest-posttest, a

significant relationship exist, F(1,37) = 35.12 in M1, but no significant relationship exist, F(1,

37) = 137.77 in M2. Hence, M1 presentation contributes significant effect to learners reading

score, comparing to M2 presentation, which does not have significant effect.

Table 4. ANCOVA on types of learners’ reading score in M1 and M2 presentation

Source Type III Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Partial Eta

Squared

Noncent.

Parameter

Observed

Powerb

Local_M1M2 22.712 1 22.712 24.195 .000 .395 24.195 .998

Foreign_M1M2 11.722 1 11.722 19.469 .000 .345 19.469 .990

Reading score achieved by local and foreign learners (Table 4) shows significant difference

in two modes of presentation; with local learners, F (1, 37) = 24.20, P < .05; with foreign

learners, F (1, 37) =19.47, P < .05. Hence there is significant effect of SRML (mode #1 and

mode #2) on reading score achieved by local and foreign learners.

Findings from hypotheses 6 to 8 reports on the perceived motivation towards the SRML

environment, paired sample t-test was used to investigate.

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2-



Table 5. Paired sample t-test on perceived motivation towards SRML in M1 and M2

At alpha .00 (p < .05), researcher reject the null hypothesis, which shows that there is

statistical significant difference in learners’ perceived motivation score between two modes

of presentation, across types of learners, t (79) = 17.558, p < .05.

Table 6. Independent Sample Test on Perceived Motivation among local and foreign

learners in SRML presentation

Levene's Test for Equality of

Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence

Interval of Difference

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference Lower Upper

Local_

PM

Equal variance

assumed 8.294 0.007 0.203 38 0.84 0.0375 0.18474 -0.33648 0.41148

Equal variance not assumed

0.203 30.839 0.84 0.0375 0.18474 -0.33935 0.41435

Foreign

_PM

Equal variance

assumed 0.534 0.469 2.091 38 0.043 0.31528 0.1508 0.01 0.62056

Equal variance not assumed

2.091 36.365 0.044 0.31528 0.1508 0.00954 0.62101

Table 6 indicates the results of perceived motivation among local and foreign learners

towards SRML presentation. Given that Levene’s test has a probability greater than .05, the

population variances (local and foreign learners) are relatively equal. The two-tailed test of

significance however reports two phenomenon: there is no significant difference in local

learners’ perceived motivation, p = .840 (p > .05); however foreign learners’ perceived

motivation is significant, p = .043 (p < .05).

8. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The analsis shows the effectivenss of SRML acquire reading Chinese characters proficiency,

with appropriate instructional scaffolding strategies executed for CFL learners. Findings from

objective one’s hypotheses explains that SRML is effective to learn reading Chinese

characters, particularly when written and verbal pinyin are both presented, for

comprehensible pronounciation. This study, however, suggested learning reading Chinese

charactres shall be made consecutively, whereby characters as initial prompt (for

constructivist learning), followed by written and verbal pinyin (for temporary cues), to give

effective instructional scaffold to CFL learners on this matter.

Results for research objective two, shows learners’ were motivated to learn CFL in

this online SRML setting; however levels of motivation perceived differently between local

and foreign learners, with foreign learners are more motivated to learn when written and

verbal pinyin are presented, but local learners react same, across both presentations. This

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

95% Confidence Interval of

the Difference

tailed)

Lower Upper

Pair 1 perceived_motiva

tion - SRML 1.56667 .79807 .08923 1.38907 1.74427 17.558 79 .000



findings, perhaps, due to local learners social cultural background, in Malaysia, where

Chinese Mandarin is one of the languge wide spoken; or due to the limitation in sample.

SRML, therefore, could alternatively assist teachers to scaffold learners’ reading

skills; yet appropriate instructional prior to the self-regulated learning is critical, to ensure

effective learning taken place. In times, SRML will not only reduce the over-dependency on

pinyin reading, but to cultivate independent and lifelong Chinese language learning; because

ultimately, Chinese literacy is all in characters form. To teachers who teach CFL, SRML

could serve as an extended learning activity, apart from classroom teaching; to cater different

learning ability and learning styles among learners. To learners of CFL, instructional advice

should be put into practice when learning with SRML, for effective learning experience.

9. CONCLUSION

Taking the view from learning perspective, it helps teachers to plan for better teaching

syllabus and approaches; which, majority find it difficult, especially to deal with learner from

diversified social cultural background and educational background. Hence, it is indeed,

important to find alternatives to facilitate learners’ learning, especially in the this study,

context of learning CFL. Perhaps findings from this study, wouls provide some insights to

instructional technologis, teachers, school stakeholders, and learners, pertaining to the issue

of reading Chinese characters for CFL learners, locally as well as globally.

Following Mayer’s multimedia prinples (2009), whereby people learn better from

words and pictures rathe than words alone; increase learner attention and intention will make

learning more active and effective (Foti & Hannafin, 2008), hence when applying them in

learning to read Chinese characters; the condition, where Chinese characters have to be first

shown, to learners, for constructivist learning, follow by pinyin (written and verbal pinyin

concurrently) as prompt; eliminate the pinyin (written and verbal pinyin) by times, to scaffold

reading of Chinese characters. This promotes internal motivation to learners, as to achieve

their goal to reading Chinese characters, independently.

For future research, it is suggested that more sampling should be collected, due to the

fact of this study, which was conducted under various limitations (only from two local

international schools). Besides that, it is worthwhile that the assumptions on second language

equivalent to Foreign Language (L2 = LF) could be investigated further, as the learners’

learning context are much difference , and this may result to different learning and teaching

approaches shall be taken into consideration.

REFERENCES

Bandura. Albert. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behaviour

and Human Decision Process. 50, 248-287.

Clark. R.C., & Mayer, R. (2008) E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines

for designers of multimedia learning. (2nd

ed.). Santa Barbara, United States:

University of California.



Clay Williams. (2012). Emerging development of semantic and phonological routes to

characters decoding in Chinese as a foreign language teachers. Read Writ. doi:

10.1007/s11145-012-9368-5.

Chung K.H. (2003). Effects of pinyin and first language words in learning of chinese

characters as a second language. Journal of Behavioural Education, 12(3),207-223.

doi: 1053-0819/03/0900-0207/0.

Gay, Mills, Airasian. (2011). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and

applications. (10th

ed.). USA: Pearson Education. International.

Huang. J. & Zhao. H. (2010). China’s policy of Chinese as a foreign language and the use of

overseas Confucius Institutes. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 9(2),

127-142.

Keller J. (2000). How to integrate learner motivation planning into lesson planning: The

ARCS Model Approach, United States: Florida State University.

Krashen, S.D. (1985). Second language acquisition and second language learning. U.S.A:

University of Southern California.

L.T. Foti & R.D. Hannafin (2008). Games and multimedia in foreign language learning.

International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 3(3), 43.

Mayer, R. (2009) Multimedia Learning. (2nd

ed.). Santa Barbara, United States: University of

California.

Patterson, K. E., & Morton, J. (1985). From orthography to phonology: An attempt at an old

interpretation. (pp. 335–359). Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Yan. Ming. Et al. (2009). Readers of chinese extract semantic information from parafoveal

words. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(3), 561-566.

Zhou. X.L. & Marslen-Wilson. W. (2000). The relative time course of semantic and

phonological activation in reading Chinese. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 26

(5), 1245-1265. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1245

Zimmerman. B.J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into

Practice, 41(2), 64-70.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2008). Motivation: An essential dimension of

self-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and

self-regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 1-30). Mahwah, NJ:

Erlbaum.

Electronic Sources (Web Publications)

Krashen. Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition. (2007, July 2).

Retrieved November 28, 2013, from internet http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html

"Pinyin celebrates 50th birthday". Xinhua News Agency. (2008, February 11). Retrieved

December 21, 2012, from http://www.china.org.cn/english/news/242463.htm

Hanban. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2013, from http://english.hanban.org/node_7586.htm

Tan Ee Loo. High-end learning Retrieved April 15, 2012, from

http://thestar.com.my/education/story.asp?file=/2012/4/15/education/10884438&sec=

education.

http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html

http://www.china.org.cn/english/news/242463.htm

http://www.china.org.cn/english/news/242463.htm

http://thestar.com.my/education/story.asp?file=/2012/4/15/education/10884438&sec=education

http://thestar.com.my/education/story.asp?file=/2012/4/15/education/10884438&sec=education



Toru Takagi. (2002). Chinese pronounciation training system “Seicho Nigo”. Retrieved April

15, 2012, from http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/publica/bt/en/rd0010.html.

http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/publica/bt/en/rd0010.html

Self-Regulated Multimedia Learning: Instructional Scaffolding to Acquire Chinese Characters Reading

Documents

Transcript of Self-Regulated Multimedia Learning: Instructional Scaffolding to Acquire Chinese Characters Reading