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Second language learners perceptionsof listening strategy instructionJoseph Siegel aa Center for Language Education Ritsumeikan Asia PacificUniversity 1-1 Jumonjibaru Beppu-shi 874-8577 Japan

Available online 14 Feb 2012

To cite this article Joseph Siegel (2012) Second language learners perceptionsof listening strategy instruction Innovation in Language Learning and TeachingDOI101080175012292011653110

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Second language learnersrsquo perceptions of listening strategy instruction

Joseph Siegel

Center for Language Education Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University 1-1 JumonjibaruBeppu-shi 874-8577 Japan

(Received 4 September 2011 final version received 19 December 2011)

Much research regarding listening strategies has focused on assembling lists ofreported strategies and gaining better understanding of differences in strategyusage between less- and more-skilled listeners Less attention has been given tohow the accumulating knowledge based on listening strategies informs listeningstrategy instruction as classroom practice This paper reports on an investigationinto perceptions of listening strategy instruction held by English learners at auniversity in Japan Questionnaire and interview data suggest that learners viewexplicit listening strategy instruction positively Furthermore this process-oriented approach to the teaching of listening is recognized to have transferabilitybeyond the second language classroom Suggestions are made for the planningand implementation of an integrated listening strategy component within anexisting curriculum

Keywords action research listening strategies listening pedagogy learnerattitudes

Introduction

In recent years second language (L2) listening pedagogy has received more attention

in the literature than it has enjoyed in the past resulting in several developments

To improve listening instruction Field (2008) recommends attention to decoding the

speech stream and more global meaning-building activities In addition Mendelsohn

(1994 2006) promotes a strategy-based approach to listening Other methods such as

listening logs (Kemp 2009) and extensive listening (Renandya and Farrell 2011) have

also been suggested Siegel (2011a) suggests that while extensive listening provides

practice opportunities direct strategy-based listening instruction may also benefit

learners

While a clear consensus on the best way to teach L2 listening has not been

reached all of these developments are attempts to improve upon more traditional

product-based approaches such as the Comprehension Approach (CA) (Field 2008)

which involves a dubious cycle students listen to a text answer corresponding

questions and check the answers This approach involves an overemphasis on testing

conditions and overreliance on memory (Lynch 2009) What is more students do not

receive any model or direction for improving their listening skills

More traditional approaches to L2 listening are beginning to give way to methods

that focus on cognitive processes and strategy use As this transition continues

Email jojosiegelgmailcom

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

2012 118 iFirst article

ISSN 1750-1229 printISSN 1750-1237 online

2012 Taylor amp Francis

httpdxdoiorg101080175012292011653110

httpwwwtandfonlinecom

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learner perceptions regarding listening instruction can inform L2 professionals about

any subsequent internal cognitive and metacognitive effects This article reports on a

study of learner perceptions and attitudes toward listening strategy instruction (LSI)

and considers possible implications for future listening pedagogy

Background

Listening difficulties

Of the four main language skills (ie listening speaking reading and writing) many

learners maintain that listening is the most difficult (eg Field 2008 Renandya and

Farrell 2011) Obstacles reported by L2 listeners include

Concentration difficulties

Rate of speech (Hasan 2000 Lynch 2009)

Inability to recognize spoken forms of words they know (Goh 2000)

Inability to separate the speech stream into manageable chunks (Goh 2000) Inability to recognize transitions or markers in speech (Underwood 1989)

Length of texts leading to listening fatigue (Hasan 2000 Rost 1994)

Failure to comprehend message despite understanding individual words (Goh

2000)

Ineffective listening strategy use (Hasan 2000)

In order to address these and other difficulties related to L2 listening some listening

methodologists (ie Mendelsohn 1994 Siegel 2011a) have recommended directteaching of listening strategies However obstacles to listening strategy use have also

been identified

Listening strategy obstacles

Chenrsquos (2005) study revealed impediments to the acquisition and use of listening

strategies After a course of listening strategy training Chen identified seven maingroups of obstacles related to listening strategy use Several of these categories reflect

previously mentioned language processing problems for example lsquoinformation

processing barriers [such as] spoken-word recognition processing speed [and]

fatiguersquo (2005 8) The study also mentions specific barriers related to listening

strategies for instance forgetting to utilize strategies while listening dealing with the

complex nature of some strategies and inability to comprehend a text despite

applying strategies (Chen 2005) These obstacles not withstanding L2 listening

methodologists to varying degrees are encouraging educators to acknowledgelistening strategies in their classrooms

Listening theory terminology

What is a strategy

Though debate over the term lsquostrategyrsquo is prevalent in the literature (eg Field 2008

Macaro 2006) such discussion is beyond the more practical and pedagogic

orientation of this paper For the purposes of this study lsquostrategyrsquo includeslsquoconscious plans to manage incoming speech particularly when the listener knows

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that he or she must compensate for incomplete input or partial understandingrsquo (Rost

2002 236)

Cognitive and metacognitive strategies

According to Goh (2000) cognitive strategies are those that are directly applied to

linguistic input in order to make sense of and gain meaning from it Mendelsohn

(1994) points out that cognitive strategies are used for particular materials being

learned Thus the cognitive strategies one uses may differ according to text or

situation Cognitive strategies involve processes such as prediction inference and use

of prior knowledge (Goh 2000) Metacognitive strategies on the other hand are used

to manage cognitive strategies (Goh 2000) They contribute to a conscious awareness

of the cognitive processes used when listening (Mendelsohn 1994) Examples of

metacognitive strategies include preparing to listen monitoring listening progress

and evaluating listening (Goh 2000)

Top-down and bottom-up approaches

It has been theorized that two complimentary processes combine during the listening

process the top-down and the bottom-up approach (eg Graham and Macaro 2008)

The top-down approach begins with a global broad view and moves from the whole

to the individual parts (Lynch and Mendelsohn 2002) In other words listeners

process the context of the listening situation using their existing knowledge and build

up expectations about what they will likely hear In contrast the bottom-up

approach begins with the parts and combines them in an ascending direction towards

holistic understanding It focuses on the perception of individual sounds which

combine to form words then sentences and so on (Lynch and Mendelsohn 2002)

Strategy-based listening instruction

The shift in L2 listening pedagogy is moving away from the products of listening

(Flowerdew and Miller 2005) to the cognitive and metacognitive processes that occur

within the mind of the learner A process-based approach to listening involves

teaching students lsquohow torsquo listen in an L2 by promoting the transfer of first language

(L1) listening strategies to the L2 as well as developing other necessary listening

strategies specifically in the L2 (Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 1994) Mendelsohn

was among the first to describe in detail the specific workings of a strategy-based

approach to the teaching of L2 listening lsquoIt is an approach that sees the objective as being to train students how to listen by making learners aware of the strategies

that they use and training them in the use of additional strategies that will assist

them in tackling the listening taskrsquo (1994 37)

A strategic approach must include development of both bottom-up and top-

down processes (Flowerdew and Miller 2005) While top-down strategies have been

widely advocated in the past bottom-up approaches are beginning to gain

momentum in the literature (Vandergrift 2010) Moreover a combination of

cognitive and metacognitive strategies is also necessary for effective listening

instruction (Goh 2005 Vandergrift 2003)

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 3

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Previous listening strategy research

Several studies have generated frequency data on and inventories of listening

strategies (eg Goh 2002) as well as investigated ways in which learners

utilize strategies (eg Goh and Taib 2006 Graham and Macaro 2008) Other studies

focus on differentiating between less- and more-skilled listeners (eg Vandergrift

2003) Nevertheless more research is needed in order to develop our understanding

of listening processes and importantly how best to teach them (Field 2008 Goh

2005) Although description of strategy use is a requisite initial step and evaluations

of the effectiveness of strategy instruction represent the potential of listening

strategies there is a need to transfer the body of accumulating research knowledge to

pedagogic improvements in the listening classroom

Acknowledging learnersrsquo perceptions

To further the expanding field of L2 listening pedagogy student perceptions of LSI

are needed to help educators better understand how to best guide learners in

developing their L2 listening skills Data on strategy utilization demonstrate patterns

of usage and pre- and post-test scores measure gains in listening ability However

learner perspectives on LSI also deserve attention as they can offer insights on any

resulting internal cognitive and metacognitive changes stimulated by LSI as well as

viewpoints as to the effectiveness of a strategy-based approach Beliefs such as these

are not often revealed through listening test scores and they need to be better

understood for listening pedagogy to continue its evolution Learner beliefs

regarding LSI can offer some indication as to whether it is viewed as a practical

undertaking or an ineffective use of class time Furthermore results of strategy

instruction may not manifest themselves in the short term which could explain the

lack of consensus noted by Graham and Macaro (2008) concerning the value of such

methods and the mixed results of previous LSI studies

The underlying rationale for this study is based in part on the integration of two

works one on listening strategy program evaluation the other on learnersrsquo beliefs

about listening comprehension In the former Chen (2007) discusses alternative

methods for evaluating strategy instruction and promotes qualitative methods of

assessment in order to provide more comprehensive understanding of strategy

instruction results The conceptual model she proposes includes the following

dimensions learner attitudes strategy transfer and language proficiency (Chen

2007) Chen (2007) argues that qualitative information may be a more appropriate

measure of the impact of LSI and her report on Taiwanese junior college students

demonstrates both positive feedback and difficulties of strategy methodologies

The notion of qualitative methods for listening strategy evaluation is also linked

to Grahamrsquos (2006) study of French learners which investigated learner perceptions

of listening difficulties As Graham (2006) notes while the number of studies on

general language learning beliefs is growing investigations of beliefs about listening

are less common Those in existence often focus on the strategies learners believe

they use or in the case of Grahamrsquos (2006) study on learner perceptions of success

and struggle when listening Fewer studies focus on learner perceptions about

listening pedagogy Therefore the study described in this paper merges alternate

methods of strategy instruction evaluation with learnersrsquo points of view in an effort

to determine whether LSI is a worthwhile option for L2 listening pedagogy

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The study

Overview

Although previous authors have described methods for implementing LSI (egMendelsohn 1994 2006) few reports have investigated how university students

perceive such teaching methods therefore the current project was begun in order to

address this gap

This study reports on the initial phase of an ongoing longitudinal project related

to learner beliefs about LSI The study sought to investigate the following research

questions

(1) What are learner perceptions of LSI(2) Do students believe LSI will be useful to them in their futures If so how

Context

This project was set at a private university in Japan in 2010 It involved an action

research intervention (Burns 2010) of LSI in two intermediate English classes The

two classes were taught by the same teacher using the same methodology materials

and classroom activities A total of 54 Japanese university students were enrolled in

the two classes

The study took place in Intermediate English 2 (IE2) a course that focuses onlistening reading and vocabulary skills A TOEFL score of 450 was required for

enrolment The course met four times per week for 90 minutes over the 15-week

semester Classes met twice a week in computer labs and lecture rooms respectively

According to the course syllabus class time is typically spent on teacher directed

listening and reading activities student pair and group work and individual

computer-based language study Also included are video lectures which consist of

authentic video material (eg documentaries presentations etc) divided into brief

one to two minute segments and interspersed Power point slides with related listeningactivities and discussion topics

Course modification

Previous IE2 listening pedagogy

After teaching IE2 for one semester I felt that the existing course materials for

listening had some fundamental shortcomings One issue was a traditional CA

pedagogic cycle which has been identified by several authors as one that emphasizes

the products of listening rather than the cognitive processes that lead to those

products (eg Field 2008 Flowerdew and Miller 2005) To put it another way thiscourse relied to a large extent on a lsquolisten answer checkrsquo sequence It continuously

tested listening but any actual teaching of listening was largely absent

A second drawback was a lack of directions instructions or methods that

students could use to develop their aural abilities In other words requisite listening

skills would develop naturally without explicit attention from teachers or learners a

teaching method promoted by Ridgway (2000) Furthermore listening in the course

was limited in scope as it only addressed correct answers in a classroom context It

did not encourage development of listening skills that were transferable to real lifetasks beyond the classroom

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 5

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Integration of listening strategies

To modify IE2rsquos listening component so that it included a more process-based

orientation a pedagogical change involving LSI was designed which aimed to

address the shortcomings described above a product-based approach no method for

improvement and the limiting of listening to a classroom context The underlying

notion of the LSI intervention was that development of listening strategies would

enable students to apply those strategies in and out of the classroom Learners were

exposed to instruction that could improve their listening through introduction and

scaffolded practice of strategies In addition connections between listening strategies

and real life contexts were made thereby encouraging transferability from items

practiced in the classroom to experiences outside The capacity of LSI to foster

learner autonomy is gradually being recognized and several commentators support

methodology which is based on developing a set of listening skills and strategies that

can be transferred to new and future situations beyond the classroom context (eg

Field 2008 Lynch 2009) Chen defines such strategy transfer as lsquothe learnersrsquo ability

to generalize a strategy learnt in connection with a specific task to other related

tasksrsquo (2007 21) Oxford also observes that integrated strategy instruction may

include teaching students lsquowhen [strategies] should be transferred to other tasks or

situationsrsquo (2011 180)

Modifying course materials

This LSI element included alterations to existing video materials and corresponding

worksheets Although additional or replacement video material may have been better

suited to LSI administrative policies dictated that existing video materials be used

therefore videos were re-edited with LSI in mind I watched the videos and

attempted to identify the internal listening processes and the external linguistic input

that aided my successful comprehension I also consulted video transcripts to locate

linguistic features that helped me unlock meaning as well as consulted with other

teachers on the course The strategies and linguistic features we identified became the

foundation of the new IE2 classroom listening materials Worksheet items were

changed to reflect the shift in focus from products to processes for example rather

than completing a matching exercise students were asked to list keywords repeated in

a text which could be used to reconstruct a main idea Additional materials were

designed to introduce practice and review the listening strategies

Explicit strategy instruction

This LSI component was taught in a direct explicit and integrated manner It was

lsquocompletely informed strategy trainingrsquo (Oxford 2011 181) in which strategies were

named demonstrated taught and practiced Students were made aware of the

strategies and their potential benefits in academic and real world listening Hajer

et al provide an example of explicit instruction lsquoStrategy X is a useful technique

Here is an example of how you can use it Here are practice opportunities to help

you learn this strategy Here is how you can transfer it to another exercisersquo (1996

121) Techniques for explaining listening strategies included teacher modeling (Goh

2008) and Power point slides as well as gestures and diagrams (Oxford 2011)

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Integrated strategy instruction

During integrated strategy instruction strategies are taught through existing

curriculum and materials The course content is decided first after which a strategicapproach is applied Nunan endorses integrated strategy training lsquo[when strategies

are] woven into the ongoing fabric of the lesson learners can see the applications

of the strategies to the development of effective learningrsquo (1998 7) Other

endorsement for integrated instruction is also evident in the literature on strategy

training in general (eg Oxford 1990) and for LSI in particular (eg Vandergrift

2004)

When the overhaul was complete a typical LSI cycle spanned 1 week

Monday Introduction awareness raising brief practice

Tuesday Practice with authentic video materials

Thursday Review and expansion to other listening situations (ie real world

and academic affairs)

Friday Integrated listening practice with interview videos and discussion

Data-collection procedure

All 54 students responded to an online questionnaire and 7 students participated in

group interviews at the end of the semester Questionnaire data provided a general

descriptive overview of beliefs and perceptions related to listening instruction while

the interview data offered more in-depth explanatory information These are two of

the research methods recommended by Oxford (2011) for general strategy assessment

studies The questionnaire was administered first followed approximately 2 weekslater by the group interviews In an effort to limit lsquosocial desirability response biasrsquo

(Oxford 2011 142) students were informed that their questionnaire and interview

responses would be kept confidential and would not affect their course grades

Questionnaire

The questionnaire design was based on one used in a previous study on perceptionsof LSI (Siegel 2011b) It consisted of 24 statements pertaining to listening

background the LSI component of IE2 the roles of various aspects of the classroom

context and projected listening strategy usage (see Appendix 1) Scaled options were

strongly disagree somewhat disagree somewhat agree strongly agree and I donrsquot know

The questionnaire was administered in both English and Japanese in order to

increase the trustworthiness of responses Since the questionnaire was administered

online the respondents had no opportunities to ask for clarification if necessary

Likewise the researcher was not able to exemplify or rephrase items if respon-dents were uncertain Therefore the questionnaire was presented in a bilingual

format

Interviews

Group interviews were used for practical reasons such as time and availability Datafrom interviews proved valuable as they provided more detailed thought processes

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 7

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explanations for stated attitudes and reactions to the methodological changes

introduced in IE2 Dornyei highlights the lsquoexploratory nature [of interviews] as

an effective way of exploring new uncharted areasrsquo (2007 39) Furthermore Mann

(2011) points out that qualitative interviews are receiving increased attention in

applied linguistics

The interview format was semi-structured and consisted of 15 main items (see

Appendix 2) which built on questionnaire items Questions were thematically

organized (Burns 2010) for clarity of responses and recording of data During the

interviews the order of items shifted in response to participant replies The

researcher wrote field notes and digitally recorded the interviews which lasted

approximately one hour each Responses were first quantified and then scrutinized in

order to determine their explanatory value in relation to the research questions

In contrast to the bilingual questionnaires the interviews were conducted in

English the studentsrsquo L2 Because the interviews were conducted in person the

researcher was able to assess learnersrsquo comprehension of the questions and rephrase

or exemplify items if needed As these students were at the L2 upper intermediate

level it was felt that they would be able to understand and respond to the items with

available support from the researcher Use of English during the interview was

thought to be an incentive for students (eg Cross 2010) who often seekopportunities for English conversation especially in an EFL context like Japan

Results

This section displays findings from both the online questionnaire (n54) and the

group interviews (n7) Interviewees are labeled as Students AG for anonymity

Results are organized into three categories general listening background perceived

listening improvement and future listening strategy use In each subsection

questionnaire findings are displayed first followed by interview data

The questionnaire was completed anonymously therefore it was not possible to

compare questionnaire and interview responses for a given student However

individual interview responses were compared to the overall class findings manifested

by the questionnaire data In addition not all data were deemed relevant to the

stated research questions therefore some data have been omitted

General listening background

Results displayed in Figure 1 show that a majority of students either strongly agree

(577) or somewhat agree (404) that they enjoy listening to English Despite this

enjoyment most students lack confidence when listening 176 strongly disagree

that they are confident when listening to English while 451 somewhat disagree In

response to the statement lsquoI practice listening outside of classrsquo more than half of the

students (451 somewhat agree 255 strongly agree) indicated that they engage in

some form of independent listening practice

To the question lsquoWhich of the four main language skills is most important to

yoursquo some interviewees responded with more than one skill Three studentsresponded that listening was the most crucial language skill while two replied that

both listening and speaking were equally important Student A said that the most

important skill was context dependent in academic situations reading and writing

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abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 9

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

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Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

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Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

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through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

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that he or she must compensate for incomplete input or partial understandingrsquo (Rost

2002 236)

Cognitive and metacognitive strategies

According to Goh (2000) cognitive strategies are those that are directly applied to

linguistic input in order to make sense of and gain meaning from it Mendelsohn

(1994) points out that cognitive strategies are used for particular materials being

learned Thus the cognitive strategies one uses may differ according to text or

situation Cognitive strategies involve processes such as prediction inference and use

of prior knowledge (Goh 2000) Metacognitive strategies on the other hand are used

to manage cognitive strategies (Goh 2000) They contribute to a conscious awareness

of the cognitive processes used when listening (Mendelsohn 1994) Examples of

metacognitive strategies include preparing to listen monitoring listening progress

and evaluating listening (Goh 2000)

Top-down and bottom-up approaches

It has been theorized that two complimentary processes combine during the listening

process the top-down and the bottom-up approach (eg Graham and Macaro 2008)

The top-down approach begins with a global broad view and moves from the whole

to the individual parts (Lynch and Mendelsohn 2002) In other words listeners

process the context of the listening situation using their existing knowledge and build

up expectations about what they will likely hear In contrast the bottom-up

approach begins with the parts and combines them in an ascending direction towards

holistic understanding It focuses on the perception of individual sounds which

combine to form words then sentences and so on (Lynch and Mendelsohn 2002)

Strategy-based listening instruction

The shift in L2 listening pedagogy is moving away from the products of listening

(Flowerdew and Miller 2005) to the cognitive and metacognitive processes that occur

within the mind of the learner A process-based approach to listening involves

teaching students lsquohow torsquo listen in an L2 by promoting the transfer of first language

(L1) listening strategies to the L2 as well as developing other necessary listening

strategies specifically in the L2 (Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 1994) Mendelsohn

was among the first to describe in detail the specific workings of a strategy-based

approach to the teaching of L2 listening lsquoIt is an approach that sees the objective as being to train students how to listen by making learners aware of the strategies

that they use and training them in the use of additional strategies that will assist

them in tackling the listening taskrsquo (1994 37)

A strategic approach must include development of both bottom-up and top-

down processes (Flowerdew and Miller 2005) While top-down strategies have been

widely advocated in the past bottom-up approaches are beginning to gain

momentum in the literature (Vandergrift 2010) Moreover a combination of

cognitive and metacognitive strategies is also necessary for effective listening

instruction (Goh 2005 Vandergrift 2003)

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 3

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Previous listening strategy research

Several studies have generated frequency data on and inventories of listening

strategies (eg Goh 2002) as well as investigated ways in which learners

utilize strategies (eg Goh and Taib 2006 Graham and Macaro 2008) Other studies

focus on differentiating between less- and more-skilled listeners (eg Vandergrift

2003) Nevertheless more research is needed in order to develop our understanding

of listening processes and importantly how best to teach them (Field 2008 Goh

2005) Although description of strategy use is a requisite initial step and evaluations

of the effectiveness of strategy instruction represent the potential of listening

strategies there is a need to transfer the body of accumulating research knowledge to

pedagogic improvements in the listening classroom

Acknowledging learnersrsquo perceptions

To further the expanding field of L2 listening pedagogy student perceptions of LSI

are needed to help educators better understand how to best guide learners in

developing their L2 listening skills Data on strategy utilization demonstrate patterns

of usage and pre- and post-test scores measure gains in listening ability However

learner perspectives on LSI also deserve attention as they can offer insights on any

resulting internal cognitive and metacognitive changes stimulated by LSI as well as

viewpoints as to the effectiveness of a strategy-based approach Beliefs such as these

are not often revealed through listening test scores and they need to be better

understood for listening pedagogy to continue its evolution Learner beliefs

regarding LSI can offer some indication as to whether it is viewed as a practical

undertaking or an ineffective use of class time Furthermore results of strategy

instruction may not manifest themselves in the short term which could explain the

lack of consensus noted by Graham and Macaro (2008) concerning the value of such

methods and the mixed results of previous LSI studies

The underlying rationale for this study is based in part on the integration of two

works one on listening strategy program evaluation the other on learnersrsquo beliefs

about listening comprehension In the former Chen (2007) discusses alternative

methods for evaluating strategy instruction and promotes qualitative methods of

assessment in order to provide more comprehensive understanding of strategy

instruction results The conceptual model she proposes includes the following

dimensions learner attitudes strategy transfer and language proficiency (Chen

2007) Chen (2007) argues that qualitative information may be a more appropriate

measure of the impact of LSI and her report on Taiwanese junior college students

demonstrates both positive feedback and difficulties of strategy methodologies

The notion of qualitative methods for listening strategy evaluation is also linked

to Grahamrsquos (2006) study of French learners which investigated learner perceptions

of listening difficulties As Graham (2006) notes while the number of studies on

general language learning beliefs is growing investigations of beliefs about listening

are less common Those in existence often focus on the strategies learners believe

they use or in the case of Grahamrsquos (2006) study on learner perceptions of success

and struggle when listening Fewer studies focus on learner perceptions about

listening pedagogy Therefore the study described in this paper merges alternate

methods of strategy instruction evaluation with learnersrsquo points of view in an effort

to determine whether LSI is a worthwhile option for L2 listening pedagogy

4 J Siegel

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The study

Overview

Although previous authors have described methods for implementing LSI (egMendelsohn 1994 2006) few reports have investigated how university students

perceive such teaching methods therefore the current project was begun in order to

address this gap

This study reports on the initial phase of an ongoing longitudinal project related

to learner beliefs about LSI The study sought to investigate the following research

questions

(1) What are learner perceptions of LSI(2) Do students believe LSI will be useful to them in their futures If so how

Context

This project was set at a private university in Japan in 2010 It involved an action

research intervention (Burns 2010) of LSI in two intermediate English classes The

two classes were taught by the same teacher using the same methodology materials

and classroom activities A total of 54 Japanese university students were enrolled in

the two classes

The study took place in Intermediate English 2 (IE2) a course that focuses onlistening reading and vocabulary skills A TOEFL score of 450 was required for

enrolment The course met four times per week for 90 minutes over the 15-week

semester Classes met twice a week in computer labs and lecture rooms respectively

According to the course syllabus class time is typically spent on teacher directed

listening and reading activities student pair and group work and individual

computer-based language study Also included are video lectures which consist of

authentic video material (eg documentaries presentations etc) divided into brief

one to two minute segments and interspersed Power point slides with related listeningactivities and discussion topics

Course modification

Previous IE2 listening pedagogy

After teaching IE2 for one semester I felt that the existing course materials for

listening had some fundamental shortcomings One issue was a traditional CA

pedagogic cycle which has been identified by several authors as one that emphasizes

the products of listening rather than the cognitive processes that lead to those

products (eg Field 2008 Flowerdew and Miller 2005) To put it another way thiscourse relied to a large extent on a lsquolisten answer checkrsquo sequence It continuously

tested listening but any actual teaching of listening was largely absent

A second drawback was a lack of directions instructions or methods that

students could use to develop their aural abilities In other words requisite listening

skills would develop naturally without explicit attention from teachers or learners a

teaching method promoted by Ridgway (2000) Furthermore listening in the course

was limited in scope as it only addressed correct answers in a classroom context It

did not encourage development of listening skills that were transferable to real lifetasks beyond the classroom

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 5

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Integration of listening strategies

To modify IE2rsquos listening component so that it included a more process-based

orientation a pedagogical change involving LSI was designed which aimed to

address the shortcomings described above a product-based approach no method for

improvement and the limiting of listening to a classroom context The underlying

notion of the LSI intervention was that development of listening strategies would

enable students to apply those strategies in and out of the classroom Learners were

exposed to instruction that could improve their listening through introduction and

scaffolded practice of strategies In addition connections between listening strategies

and real life contexts were made thereby encouraging transferability from items

practiced in the classroom to experiences outside The capacity of LSI to foster

learner autonomy is gradually being recognized and several commentators support

methodology which is based on developing a set of listening skills and strategies that

can be transferred to new and future situations beyond the classroom context (eg

Field 2008 Lynch 2009) Chen defines such strategy transfer as lsquothe learnersrsquo ability

to generalize a strategy learnt in connection with a specific task to other related

tasksrsquo (2007 21) Oxford also observes that integrated strategy instruction may

include teaching students lsquowhen [strategies] should be transferred to other tasks or

situationsrsquo (2011 180)

Modifying course materials

This LSI element included alterations to existing video materials and corresponding

worksheets Although additional or replacement video material may have been better

suited to LSI administrative policies dictated that existing video materials be used

therefore videos were re-edited with LSI in mind I watched the videos and

attempted to identify the internal listening processes and the external linguistic input

that aided my successful comprehension I also consulted video transcripts to locate

linguistic features that helped me unlock meaning as well as consulted with other

teachers on the course The strategies and linguistic features we identified became the

foundation of the new IE2 classroom listening materials Worksheet items were

changed to reflect the shift in focus from products to processes for example rather

than completing a matching exercise students were asked to list keywords repeated in

a text which could be used to reconstruct a main idea Additional materials were

designed to introduce practice and review the listening strategies

Explicit strategy instruction

This LSI component was taught in a direct explicit and integrated manner It was

lsquocompletely informed strategy trainingrsquo (Oxford 2011 181) in which strategies were

named demonstrated taught and practiced Students were made aware of the

strategies and their potential benefits in academic and real world listening Hajer

et al provide an example of explicit instruction lsquoStrategy X is a useful technique

Here is an example of how you can use it Here are practice opportunities to help

you learn this strategy Here is how you can transfer it to another exercisersquo (1996

121) Techniques for explaining listening strategies included teacher modeling (Goh

2008) and Power point slides as well as gestures and diagrams (Oxford 2011)

6 J Siegel

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Integrated strategy instruction

During integrated strategy instruction strategies are taught through existing

curriculum and materials The course content is decided first after which a strategicapproach is applied Nunan endorses integrated strategy training lsquo[when strategies

are] woven into the ongoing fabric of the lesson learners can see the applications

of the strategies to the development of effective learningrsquo (1998 7) Other

endorsement for integrated instruction is also evident in the literature on strategy

training in general (eg Oxford 1990) and for LSI in particular (eg Vandergrift

2004)

When the overhaul was complete a typical LSI cycle spanned 1 week

Monday Introduction awareness raising brief practice

Tuesday Practice with authentic video materials

Thursday Review and expansion to other listening situations (ie real world

and academic affairs)

Friday Integrated listening practice with interview videos and discussion

Data-collection procedure

All 54 students responded to an online questionnaire and 7 students participated in

group interviews at the end of the semester Questionnaire data provided a general

descriptive overview of beliefs and perceptions related to listening instruction while

the interview data offered more in-depth explanatory information These are two of

the research methods recommended by Oxford (2011) for general strategy assessment

studies The questionnaire was administered first followed approximately 2 weekslater by the group interviews In an effort to limit lsquosocial desirability response biasrsquo

(Oxford 2011 142) students were informed that their questionnaire and interview

responses would be kept confidential and would not affect their course grades

Questionnaire

The questionnaire design was based on one used in a previous study on perceptionsof LSI (Siegel 2011b) It consisted of 24 statements pertaining to listening

background the LSI component of IE2 the roles of various aspects of the classroom

context and projected listening strategy usage (see Appendix 1) Scaled options were

strongly disagree somewhat disagree somewhat agree strongly agree and I donrsquot know

The questionnaire was administered in both English and Japanese in order to

increase the trustworthiness of responses Since the questionnaire was administered

online the respondents had no opportunities to ask for clarification if necessary

Likewise the researcher was not able to exemplify or rephrase items if respon-dents were uncertain Therefore the questionnaire was presented in a bilingual

format

Interviews

Group interviews were used for practical reasons such as time and availability Datafrom interviews proved valuable as they provided more detailed thought processes

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 7

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explanations for stated attitudes and reactions to the methodological changes

introduced in IE2 Dornyei highlights the lsquoexploratory nature [of interviews] as

an effective way of exploring new uncharted areasrsquo (2007 39) Furthermore Mann

(2011) points out that qualitative interviews are receiving increased attention in

applied linguistics

The interview format was semi-structured and consisted of 15 main items (see

Appendix 2) which built on questionnaire items Questions were thematically

organized (Burns 2010) for clarity of responses and recording of data During the

interviews the order of items shifted in response to participant replies The

researcher wrote field notes and digitally recorded the interviews which lasted

approximately one hour each Responses were first quantified and then scrutinized in

order to determine their explanatory value in relation to the research questions

In contrast to the bilingual questionnaires the interviews were conducted in

English the studentsrsquo L2 Because the interviews were conducted in person the

researcher was able to assess learnersrsquo comprehension of the questions and rephrase

or exemplify items if needed As these students were at the L2 upper intermediate

level it was felt that they would be able to understand and respond to the items with

available support from the researcher Use of English during the interview was

thought to be an incentive for students (eg Cross 2010) who often seekopportunities for English conversation especially in an EFL context like Japan

Results

This section displays findings from both the online questionnaire (n54) and the

group interviews (n7) Interviewees are labeled as Students AG for anonymity

Results are organized into three categories general listening background perceived

listening improvement and future listening strategy use In each subsection

questionnaire findings are displayed first followed by interview data

The questionnaire was completed anonymously therefore it was not possible to

compare questionnaire and interview responses for a given student However

individual interview responses were compared to the overall class findings manifested

by the questionnaire data In addition not all data were deemed relevant to the

stated research questions therefore some data have been omitted

General listening background

Results displayed in Figure 1 show that a majority of students either strongly agree

(577) or somewhat agree (404) that they enjoy listening to English Despite this

enjoyment most students lack confidence when listening 176 strongly disagree

that they are confident when listening to English while 451 somewhat disagree In

response to the statement lsquoI practice listening outside of classrsquo more than half of the

students (451 somewhat agree 255 strongly agree) indicated that they engage in

some form of independent listening practice

To the question lsquoWhich of the four main language skills is most important to

yoursquo some interviewees responded with more than one skill Three studentsresponded that listening was the most crucial language skill while two replied that

both listening and speaking were equally important Student A said that the most

important skill was context dependent in academic situations reading and writing

8 J Siegel

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abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 9

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

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Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

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Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

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through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

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Previous listening strategy research

Several studies have generated frequency data on and inventories of listening

strategies (eg Goh 2002) as well as investigated ways in which learners

utilize strategies (eg Goh and Taib 2006 Graham and Macaro 2008) Other studies

focus on differentiating between less- and more-skilled listeners (eg Vandergrift

2003) Nevertheless more research is needed in order to develop our understanding

of listening processes and importantly how best to teach them (Field 2008 Goh

2005) Although description of strategy use is a requisite initial step and evaluations

of the effectiveness of strategy instruction represent the potential of listening

strategies there is a need to transfer the body of accumulating research knowledge to

pedagogic improvements in the listening classroom

Acknowledging learnersrsquo perceptions

To further the expanding field of L2 listening pedagogy student perceptions of LSI

are needed to help educators better understand how to best guide learners in

developing their L2 listening skills Data on strategy utilization demonstrate patterns

of usage and pre- and post-test scores measure gains in listening ability However

learner perspectives on LSI also deserve attention as they can offer insights on any

resulting internal cognitive and metacognitive changes stimulated by LSI as well as

viewpoints as to the effectiveness of a strategy-based approach Beliefs such as these

are not often revealed through listening test scores and they need to be better

understood for listening pedagogy to continue its evolution Learner beliefs

regarding LSI can offer some indication as to whether it is viewed as a practical

undertaking or an ineffective use of class time Furthermore results of strategy

instruction may not manifest themselves in the short term which could explain the

lack of consensus noted by Graham and Macaro (2008) concerning the value of such

methods and the mixed results of previous LSI studies

The underlying rationale for this study is based in part on the integration of two

works one on listening strategy program evaluation the other on learnersrsquo beliefs

about listening comprehension In the former Chen (2007) discusses alternative

methods for evaluating strategy instruction and promotes qualitative methods of

assessment in order to provide more comprehensive understanding of strategy

instruction results The conceptual model she proposes includes the following

dimensions learner attitudes strategy transfer and language proficiency (Chen

2007) Chen (2007) argues that qualitative information may be a more appropriate

measure of the impact of LSI and her report on Taiwanese junior college students

demonstrates both positive feedback and difficulties of strategy methodologies

The notion of qualitative methods for listening strategy evaluation is also linked

to Grahamrsquos (2006) study of French learners which investigated learner perceptions

of listening difficulties As Graham (2006) notes while the number of studies on

general language learning beliefs is growing investigations of beliefs about listening

are less common Those in existence often focus on the strategies learners believe

they use or in the case of Grahamrsquos (2006) study on learner perceptions of success

and struggle when listening Fewer studies focus on learner perceptions about

listening pedagogy Therefore the study described in this paper merges alternate

methods of strategy instruction evaluation with learnersrsquo points of view in an effort

to determine whether LSI is a worthwhile option for L2 listening pedagogy

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The study

Overview

Although previous authors have described methods for implementing LSI (egMendelsohn 1994 2006) few reports have investigated how university students

perceive such teaching methods therefore the current project was begun in order to

address this gap

This study reports on the initial phase of an ongoing longitudinal project related

to learner beliefs about LSI The study sought to investigate the following research

questions

(1) What are learner perceptions of LSI(2) Do students believe LSI will be useful to them in their futures If so how

Context

This project was set at a private university in Japan in 2010 It involved an action

research intervention (Burns 2010) of LSI in two intermediate English classes The

two classes were taught by the same teacher using the same methodology materials

and classroom activities A total of 54 Japanese university students were enrolled in

the two classes

The study took place in Intermediate English 2 (IE2) a course that focuses onlistening reading and vocabulary skills A TOEFL score of 450 was required for

enrolment The course met four times per week for 90 minutes over the 15-week

semester Classes met twice a week in computer labs and lecture rooms respectively

According to the course syllabus class time is typically spent on teacher directed

listening and reading activities student pair and group work and individual

computer-based language study Also included are video lectures which consist of

authentic video material (eg documentaries presentations etc) divided into brief

one to two minute segments and interspersed Power point slides with related listeningactivities and discussion topics

Course modification

Previous IE2 listening pedagogy

After teaching IE2 for one semester I felt that the existing course materials for

listening had some fundamental shortcomings One issue was a traditional CA

pedagogic cycle which has been identified by several authors as one that emphasizes

the products of listening rather than the cognitive processes that lead to those

products (eg Field 2008 Flowerdew and Miller 2005) To put it another way thiscourse relied to a large extent on a lsquolisten answer checkrsquo sequence It continuously

tested listening but any actual teaching of listening was largely absent

A second drawback was a lack of directions instructions or methods that

students could use to develop their aural abilities In other words requisite listening

skills would develop naturally without explicit attention from teachers or learners a

teaching method promoted by Ridgway (2000) Furthermore listening in the course

was limited in scope as it only addressed correct answers in a classroom context It

did not encourage development of listening skills that were transferable to real lifetasks beyond the classroom

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 5

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Integration of listening strategies

To modify IE2rsquos listening component so that it included a more process-based

orientation a pedagogical change involving LSI was designed which aimed to

address the shortcomings described above a product-based approach no method for

improvement and the limiting of listening to a classroom context The underlying

notion of the LSI intervention was that development of listening strategies would

enable students to apply those strategies in and out of the classroom Learners were

exposed to instruction that could improve their listening through introduction and

scaffolded practice of strategies In addition connections between listening strategies

and real life contexts were made thereby encouraging transferability from items

practiced in the classroom to experiences outside The capacity of LSI to foster

learner autonomy is gradually being recognized and several commentators support

methodology which is based on developing a set of listening skills and strategies that

can be transferred to new and future situations beyond the classroom context (eg

Field 2008 Lynch 2009) Chen defines such strategy transfer as lsquothe learnersrsquo ability

to generalize a strategy learnt in connection with a specific task to other related

tasksrsquo (2007 21) Oxford also observes that integrated strategy instruction may

include teaching students lsquowhen [strategies] should be transferred to other tasks or

situationsrsquo (2011 180)

Modifying course materials

This LSI element included alterations to existing video materials and corresponding

worksheets Although additional or replacement video material may have been better

suited to LSI administrative policies dictated that existing video materials be used

therefore videos were re-edited with LSI in mind I watched the videos and

attempted to identify the internal listening processes and the external linguistic input

that aided my successful comprehension I also consulted video transcripts to locate

linguistic features that helped me unlock meaning as well as consulted with other

teachers on the course The strategies and linguistic features we identified became the

foundation of the new IE2 classroom listening materials Worksheet items were

changed to reflect the shift in focus from products to processes for example rather

than completing a matching exercise students were asked to list keywords repeated in

a text which could be used to reconstruct a main idea Additional materials were

designed to introduce practice and review the listening strategies

Explicit strategy instruction

This LSI component was taught in a direct explicit and integrated manner It was

lsquocompletely informed strategy trainingrsquo (Oxford 2011 181) in which strategies were

named demonstrated taught and practiced Students were made aware of the

strategies and their potential benefits in academic and real world listening Hajer

et al provide an example of explicit instruction lsquoStrategy X is a useful technique

Here is an example of how you can use it Here are practice opportunities to help

you learn this strategy Here is how you can transfer it to another exercisersquo (1996

121) Techniques for explaining listening strategies included teacher modeling (Goh

2008) and Power point slides as well as gestures and diagrams (Oxford 2011)

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Integrated strategy instruction

During integrated strategy instruction strategies are taught through existing

curriculum and materials The course content is decided first after which a strategicapproach is applied Nunan endorses integrated strategy training lsquo[when strategies

are] woven into the ongoing fabric of the lesson learners can see the applications

of the strategies to the development of effective learningrsquo (1998 7) Other

endorsement for integrated instruction is also evident in the literature on strategy

training in general (eg Oxford 1990) and for LSI in particular (eg Vandergrift

2004)

When the overhaul was complete a typical LSI cycle spanned 1 week

Monday Introduction awareness raising brief practice

Tuesday Practice with authentic video materials

Thursday Review and expansion to other listening situations (ie real world

and academic affairs)

Friday Integrated listening practice with interview videos and discussion

Data-collection procedure

All 54 students responded to an online questionnaire and 7 students participated in

group interviews at the end of the semester Questionnaire data provided a general

descriptive overview of beliefs and perceptions related to listening instruction while

the interview data offered more in-depth explanatory information These are two of

the research methods recommended by Oxford (2011) for general strategy assessment

studies The questionnaire was administered first followed approximately 2 weekslater by the group interviews In an effort to limit lsquosocial desirability response biasrsquo

(Oxford 2011 142) students were informed that their questionnaire and interview

responses would be kept confidential and would not affect their course grades

Questionnaire

The questionnaire design was based on one used in a previous study on perceptionsof LSI (Siegel 2011b) It consisted of 24 statements pertaining to listening

background the LSI component of IE2 the roles of various aspects of the classroom

context and projected listening strategy usage (see Appendix 1) Scaled options were

strongly disagree somewhat disagree somewhat agree strongly agree and I donrsquot know

The questionnaire was administered in both English and Japanese in order to

increase the trustworthiness of responses Since the questionnaire was administered

online the respondents had no opportunities to ask for clarification if necessary

Likewise the researcher was not able to exemplify or rephrase items if respon-dents were uncertain Therefore the questionnaire was presented in a bilingual

format

Interviews

Group interviews were used for practical reasons such as time and availability Datafrom interviews proved valuable as they provided more detailed thought processes

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 7

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explanations for stated attitudes and reactions to the methodological changes

introduced in IE2 Dornyei highlights the lsquoexploratory nature [of interviews] as

an effective way of exploring new uncharted areasrsquo (2007 39) Furthermore Mann

(2011) points out that qualitative interviews are receiving increased attention in

applied linguistics

The interview format was semi-structured and consisted of 15 main items (see

Appendix 2) which built on questionnaire items Questions were thematically

organized (Burns 2010) for clarity of responses and recording of data During the

interviews the order of items shifted in response to participant replies The

researcher wrote field notes and digitally recorded the interviews which lasted

approximately one hour each Responses were first quantified and then scrutinized in

order to determine their explanatory value in relation to the research questions

In contrast to the bilingual questionnaires the interviews were conducted in

English the studentsrsquo L2 Because the interviews were conducted in person the

researcher was able to assess learnersrsquo comprehension of the questions and rephrase

or exemplify items if needed As these students were at the L2 upper intermediate

level it was felt that they would be able to understand and respond to the items with

available support from the researcher Use of English during the interview was

thought to be an incentive for students (eg Cross 2010) who often seekopportunities for English conversation especially in an EFL context like Japan

Results

This section displays findings from both the online questionnaire (n54) and the

group interviews (n7) Interviewees are labeled as Students AG for anonymity

Results are organized into three categories general listening background perceived

listening improvement and future listening strategy use In each subsection

questionnaire findings are displayed first followed by interview data

The questionnaire was completed anonymously therefore it was not possible to

compare questionnaire and interview responses for a given student However

individual interview responses were compared to the overall class findings manifested

by the questionnaire data In addition not all data were deemed relevant to the

stated research questions therefore some data have been omitted

General listening background

Results displayed in Figure 1 show that a majority of students either strongly agree

(577) or somewhat agree (404) that they enjoy listening to English Despite this

enjoyment most students lack confidence when listening 176 strongly disagree

that they are confident when listening to English while 451 somewhat disagree In

response to the statement lsquoI practice listening outside of classrsquo more than half of the

students (451 somewhat agree 255 strongly agree) indicated that they engage in

some form of independent listening practice

To the question lsquoWhich of the four main language skills is most important to

yoursquo some interviewees responded with more than one skill Three studentsresponded that listening was the most crucial language skill while two replied that

both listening and speaking were equally important Student A said that the most

important skill was context dependent in academic situations reading and writing

8 J Siegel

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abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 9

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

10 J Siegel

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

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Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

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Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

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through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

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The study

Overview

Although previous authors have described methods for implementing LSI (egMendelsohn 1994 2006) few reports have investigated how university students

perceive such teaching methods therefore the current project was begun in order to

address this gap

This study reports on the initial phase of an ongoing longitudinal project related

to learner beliefs about LSI The study sought to investigate the following research

questions

(1) What are learner perceptions of LSI(2) Do students believe LSI will be useful to them in their futures If so how

Context

This project was set at a private university in Japan in 2010 It involved an action

research intervention (Burns 2010) of LSI in two intermediate English classes The

two classes were taught by the same teacher using the same methodology materials

and classroom activities A total of 54 Japanese university students were enrolled in

the two classes

The study took place in Intermediate English 2 (IE2) a course that focuses onlistening reading and vocabulary skills A TOEFL score of 450 was required for

enrolment The course met four times per week for 90 minutes over the 15-week

semester Classes met twice a week in computer labs and lecture rooms respectively

According to the course syllabus class time is typically spent on teacher directed

listening and reading activities student pair and group work and individual

computer-based language study Also included are video lectures which consist of

authentic video material (eg documentaries presentations etc) divided into brief

one to two minute segments and interspersed Power point slides with related listeningactivities and discussion topics

Course modification

Previous IE2 listening pedagogy

After teaching IE2 for one semester I felt that the existing course materials for

listening had some fundamental shortcomings One issue was a traditional CA

pedagogic cycle which has been identified by several authors as one that emphasizes

the products of listening rather than the cognitive processes that lead to those

products (eg Field 2008 Flowerdew and Miller 2005) To put it another way thiscourse relied to a large extent on a lsquolisten answer checkrsquo sequence It continuously

tested listening but any actual teaching of listening was largely absent

A second drawback was a lack of directions instructions or methods that

students could use to develop their aural abilities In other words requisite listening

skills would develop naturally without explicit attention from teachers or learners a

teaching method promoted by Ridgway (2000) Furthermore listening in the course

was limited in scope as it only addressed correct answers in a classroom context It

did not encourage development of listening skills that were transferable to real lifetasks beyond the classroom

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 5

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Integration of listening strategies

To modify IE2rsquos listening component so that it included a more process-based

orientation a pedagogical change involving LSI was designed which aimed to

address the shortcomings described above a product-based approach no method for

improvement and the limiting of listening to a classroom context The underlying

notion of the LSI intervention was that development of listening strategies would

enable students to apply those strategies in and out of the classroom Learners were

exposed to instruction that could improve their listening through introduction and

scaffolded practice of strategies In addition connections between listening strategies

and real life contexts were made thereby encouraging transferability from items

practiced in the classroom to experiences outside The capacity of LSI to foster

learner autonomy is gradually being recognized and several commentators support

methodology which is based on developing a set of listening skills and strategies that

can be transferred to new and future situations beyond the classroom context (eg

Field 2008 Lynch 2009) Chen defines such strategy transfer as lsquothe learnersrsquo ability

to generalize a strategy learnt in connection with a specific task to other related

tasksrsquo (2007 21) Oxford also observes that integrated strategy instruction may

include teaching students lsquowhen [strategies] should be transferred to other tasks or

situationsrsquo (2011 180)

Modifying course materials

This LSI element included alterations to existing video materials and corresponding

worksheets Although additional or replacement video material may have been better

suited to LSI administrative policies dictated that existing video materials be used

therefore videos were re-edited with LSI in mind I watched the videos and

attempted to identify the internal listening processes and the external linguistic input

that aided my successful comprehension I also consulted video transcripts to locate

linguistic features that helped me unlock meaning as well as consulted with other

teachers on the course The strategies and linguistic features we identified became the

foundation of the new IE2 classroom listening materials Worksheet items were

changed to reflect the shift in focus from products to processes for example rather

than completing a matching exercise students were asked to list keywords repeated in

a text which could be used to reconstruct a main idea Additional materials were

designed to introduce practice and review the listening strategies

Explicit strategy instruction

This LSI component was taught in a direct explicit and integrated manner It was

lsquocompletely informed strategy trainingrsquo (Oxford 2011 181) in which strategies were

named demonstrated taught and practiced Students were made aware of the

strategies and their potential benefits in academic and real world listening Hajer

et al provide an example of explicit instruction lsquoStrategy X is a useful technique

Here is an example of how you can use it Here are practice opportunities to help

you learn this strategy Here is how you can transfer it to another exercisersquo (1996

121) Techniques for explaining listening strategies included teacher modeling (Goh

2008) and Power point slides as well as gestures and diagrams (Oxford 2011)

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Integrated strategy instruction

During integrated strategy instruction strategies are taught through existing

curriculum and materials The course content is decided first after which a strategicapproach is applied Nunan endorses integrated strategy training lsquo[when strategies

are] woven into the ongoing fabric of the lesson learners can see the applications

of the strategies to the development of effective learningrsquo (1998 7) Other

endorsement for integrated instruction is also evident in the literature on strategy

training in general (eg Oxford 1990) and for LSI in particular (eg Vandergrift

2004)

When the overhaul was complete a typical LSI cycle spanned 1 week

Monday Introduction awareness raising brief practice

Tuesday Practice with authentic video materials

Thursday Review and expansion to other listening situations (ie real world

and academic affairs)

Friday Integrated listening practice with interview videos and discussion

Data-collection procedure

All 54 students responded to an online questionnaire and 7 students participated in

group interviews at the end of the semester Questionnaire data provided a general

descriptive overview of beliefs and perceptions related to listening instruction while

the interview data offered more in-depth explanatory information These are two of

the research methods recommended by Oxford (2011) for general strategy assessment

studies The questionnaire was administered first followed approximately 2 weekslater by the group interviews In an effort to limit lsquosocial desirability response biasrsquo

(Oxford 2011 142) students were informed that their questionnaire and interview

responses would be kept confidential and would not affect their course grades

Questionnaire

The questionnaire design was based on one used in a previous study on perceptionsof LSI (Siegel 2011b) It consisted of 24 statements pertaining to listening

background the LSI component of IE2 the roles of various aspects of the classroom

context and projected listening strategy usage (see Appendix 1) Scaled options were

strongly disagree somewhat disagree somewhat agree strongly agree and I donrsquot know

The questionnaire was administered in both English and Japanese in order to

increase the trustworthiness of responses Since the questionnaire was administered

online the respondents had no opportunities to ask for clarification if necessary

Likewise the researcher was not able to exemplify or rephrase items if respon-dents were uncertain Therefore the questionnaire was presented in a bilingual

format

Interviews

Group interviews were used for practical reasons such as time and availability Datafrom interviews proved valuable as they provided more detailed thought processes

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 7

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explanations for stated attitudes and reactions to the methodological changes

introduced in IE2 Dornyei highlights the lsquoexploratory nature [of interviews] as

an effective way of exploring new uncharted areasrsquo (2007 39) Furthermore Mann

(2011) points out that qualitative interviews are receiving increased attention in

applied linguistics

The interview format was semi-structured and consisted of 15 main items (see

Appendix 2) which built on questionnaire items Questions were thematically

organized (Burns 2010) for clarity of responses and recording of data During the

interviews the order of items shifted in response to participant replies The

researcher wrote field notes and digitally recorded the interviews which lasted

approximately one hour each Responses were first quantified and then scrutinized in

order to determine their explanatory value in relation to the research questions

In contrast to the bilingual questionnaires the interviews were conducted in

English the studentsrsquo L2 Because the interviews were conducted in person the

researcher was able to assess learnersrsquo comprehension of the questions and rephrase

or exemplify items if needed As these students were at the L2 upper intermediate

level it was felt that they would be able to understand and respond to the items with

available support from the researcher Use of English during the interview was

thought to be an incentive for students (eg Cross 2010) who often seekopportunities for English conversation especially in an EFL context like Japan

Results

This section displays findings from both the online questionnaire (n54) and the

group interviews (n7) Interviewees are labeled as Students AG for anonymity

Results are organized into three categories general listening background perceived

listening improvement and future listening strategy use In each subsection

questionnaire findings are displayed first followed by interview data

The questionnaire was completed anonymously therefore it was not possible to

compare questionnaire and interview responses for a given student However

individual interview responses were compared to the overall class findings manifested

by the questionnaire data In addition not all data were deemed relevant to the

stated research questions therefore some data have been omitted

General listening background

Results displayed in Figure 1 show that a majority of students either strongly agree

(577) or somewhat agree (404) that they enjoy listening to English Despite this

enjoyment most students lack confidence when listening 176 strongly disagree

that they are confident when listening to English while 451 somewhat disagree In

response to the statement lsquoI practice listening outside of classrsquo more than half of the

students (451 somewhat agree 255 strongly agree) indicated that they engage in

some form of independent listening practice

To the question lsquoWhich of the four main language skills is most important to

yoursquo some interviewees responded with more than one skill Three studentsresponded that listening was the most crucial language skill while two replied that

both listening and speaking were equally important Student A said that the most

important skill was context dependent in academic situations reading and writing

8 J Siegel

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abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 9

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

10 J Siegel

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

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Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

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Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

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through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

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Integration of listening strategies

To modify IE2rsquos listening component so that it included a more process-based

orientation a pedagogical change involving LSI was designed which aimed to

address the shortcomings described above a product-based approach no method for

improvement and the limiting of listening to a classroom context The underlying

notion of the LSI intervention was that development of listening strategies would

enable students to apply those strategies in and out of the classroom Learners were

exposed to instruction that could improve their listening through introduction and

scaffolded practice of strategies In addition connections between listening strategies

and real life contexts were made thereby encouraging transferability from items

practiced in the classroom to experiences outside The capacity of LSI to foster

learner autonomy is gradually being recognized and several commentators support

methodology which is based on developing a set of listening skills and strategies that

can be transferred to new and future situations beyond the classroom context (eg

Field 2008 Lynch 2009) Chen defines such strategy transfer as lsquothe learnersrsquo ability

to generalize a strategy learnt in connection with a specific task to other related

tasksrsquo (2007 21) Oxford also observes that integrated strategy instruction may

include teaching students lsquowhen [strategies] should be transferred to other tasks or

situationsrsquo (2011 180)

Modifying course materials

This LSI element included alterations to existing video materials and corresponding

worksheets Although additional or replacement video material may have been better

suited to LSI administrative policies dictated that existing video materials be used

therefore videos were re-edited with LSI in mind I watched the videos and

attempted to identify the internal listening processes and the external linguistic input

that aided my successful comprehension I also consulted video transcripts to locate

linguistic features that helped me unlock meaning as well as consulted with other

teachers on the course The strategies and linguistic features we identified became the

foundation of the new IE2 classroom listening materials Worksheet items were

changed to reflect the shift in focus from products to processes for example rather

than completing a matching exercise students were asked to list keywords repeated in

a text which could be used to reconstruct a main idea Additional materials were

designed to introduce practice and review the listening strategies

Explicit strategy instruction

This LSI component was taught in a direct explicit and integrated manner It was

lsquocompletely informed strategy trainingrsquo (Oxford 2011 181) in which strategies were

named demonstrated taught and practiced Students were made aware of the

strategies and their potential benefits in academic and real world listening Hajer

et al provide an example of explicit instruction lsquoStrategy X is a useful technique

Here is an example of how you can use it Here are practice opportunities to help

you learn this strategy Here is how you can transfer it to another exercisersquo (1996

121) Techniques for explaining listening strategies included teacher modeling (Goh

2008) and Power point slides as well as gestures and diagrams (Oxford 2011)

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Integrated strategy instruction

During integrated strategy instruction strategies are taught through existing

curriculum and materials The course content is decided first after which a strategicapproach is applied Nunan endorses integrated strategy training lsquo[when strategies

are] woven into the ongoing fabric of the lesson learners can see the applications

of the strategies to the development of effective learningrsquo (1998 7) Other

endorsement for integrated instruction is also evident in the literature on strategy

training in general (eg Oxford 1990) and for LSI in particular (eg Vandergrift

2004)

When the overhaul was complete a typical LSI cycle spanned 1 week

Monday Introduction awareness raising brief practice

Tuesday Practice with authentic video materials

Thursday Review and expansion to other listening situations (ie real world

and academic affairs)

Friday Integrated listening practice with interview videos and discussion

Data-collection procedure

All 54 students responded to an online questionnaire and 7 students participated in

group interviews at the end of the semester Questionnaire data provided a general

descriptive overview of beliefs and perceptions related to listening instruction while

the interview data offered more in-depth explanatory information These are two of

the research methods recommended by Oxford (2011) for general strategy assessment

studies The questionnaire was administered first followed approximately 2 weekslater by the group interviews In an effort to limit lsquosocial desirability response biasrsquo

(Oxford 2011 142) students were informed that their questionnaire and interview

responses would be kept confidential and would not affect their course grades

Questionnaire

The questionnaire design was based on one used in a previous study on perceptionsof LSI (Siegel 2011b) It consisted of 24 statements pertaining to listening

background the LSI component of IE2 the roles of various aspects of the classroom

context and projected listening strategy usage (see Appendix 1) Scaled options were

strongly disagree somewhat disagree somewhat agree strongly agree and I donrsquot know

The questionnaire was administered in both English and Japanese in order to

increase the trustworthiness of responses Since the questionnaire was administered

online the respondents had no opportunities to ask for clarification if necessary

Likewise the researcher was not able to exemplify or rephrase items if respon-dents were uncertain Therefore the questionnaire was presented in a bilingual

format

Interviews

Group interviews were used for practical reasons such as time and availability Datafrom interviews proved valuable as they provided more detailed thought processes

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 7

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explanations for stated attitudes and reactions to the methodological changes

introduced in IE2 Dornyei highlights the lsquoexploratory nature [of interviews] as

an effective way of exploring new uncharted areasrsquo (2007 39) Furthermore Mann

(2011) points out that qualitative interviews are receiving increased attention in

applied linguistics

The interview format was semi-structured and consisted of 15 main items (see

Appendix 2) which built on questionnaire items Questions were thematically

organized (Burns 2010) for clarity of responses and recording of data During the

interviews the order of items shifted in response to participant replies The

researcher wrote field notes and digitally recorded the interviews which lasted

approximately one hour each Responses were first quantified and then scrutinized in

order to determine their explanatory value in relation to the research questions

In contrast to the bilingual questionnaires the interviews were conducted in

English the studentsrsquo L2 Because the interviews were conducted in person the

researcher was able to assess learnersrsquo comprehension of the questions and rephrase

or exemplify items if needed As these students were at the L2 upper intermediate

level it was felt that they would be able to understand and respond to the items with

available support from the researcher Use of English during the interview was

thought to be an incentive for students (eg Cross 2010) who often seekopportunities for English conversation especially in an EFL context like Japan

Results

This section displays findings from both the online questionnaire (n54) and the

group interviews (n7) Interviewees are labeled as Students AG for anonymity

Results are organized into three categories general listening background perceived

listening improvement and future listening strategy use In each subsection

questionnaire findings are displayed first followed by interview data

The questionnaire was completed anonymously therefore it was not possible to

compare questionnaire and interview responses for a given student However

individual interview responses were compared to the overall class findings manifested

by the questionnaire data In addition not all data were deemed relevant to the

stated research questions therefore some data have been omitted

General listening background

Results displayed in Figure 1 show that a majority of students either strongly agree

(577) or somewhat agree (404) that they enjoy listening to English Despite this

enjoyment most students lack confidence when listening 176 strongly disagree

that they are confident when listening to English while 451 somewhat disagree In

response to the statement lsquoI practice listening outside of classrsquo more than half of the

students (451 somewhat agree 255 strongly agree) indicated that they engage in

some form of independent listening practice

To the question lsquoWhich of the four main language skills is most important to

yoursquo some interviewees responded with more than one skill Three studentsresponded that listening was the most crucial language skill while two replied that

both listening and speaking were equally important Student A said that the most

important skill was context dependent in academic situations reading and writing

8 J Siegel

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abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 9

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

10 J Siegel

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

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012

Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

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Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

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through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

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Integrated strategy instruction

During integrated strategy instruction strategies are taught through existing

curriculum and materials The course content is decided first after which a strategicapproach is applied Nunan endorses integrated strategy training lsquo[when strategies

are] woven into the ongoing fabric of the lesson learners can see the applications

of the strategies to the development of effective learningrsquo (1998 7) Other

endorsement for integrated instruction is also evident in the literature on strategy

training in general (eg Oxford 1990) and for LSI in particular (eg Vandergrift

2004)

When the overhaul was complete a typical LSI cycle spanned 1 week

Monday Introduction awareness raising brief practice

Tuesday Practice with authentic video materials

Thursday Review and expansion to other listening situations (ie real world

and academic affairs)

Friday Integrated listening practice with interview videos and discussion

Data-collection procedure

All 54 students responded to an online questionnaire and 7 students participated in

group interviews at the end of the semester Questionnaire data provided a general

descriptive overview of beliefs and perceptions related to listening instruction while

the interview data offered more in-depth explanatory information These are two of

the research methods recommended by Oxford (2011) for general strategy assessment

studies The questionnaire was administered first followed approximately 2 weekslater by the group interviews In an effort to limit lsquosocial desirability response biasrsquo

(Oxford 2011 142) students were informed that their questionnaire and interview

responses would be kept confidential and would not affect their course grades

Questionnaire

The questionnaire design was based on one used in a previous study on perceptionsof LSI (Siegel 2011b) It consisted of 24 statements pertaining to listening

background the LSI component of IE2 the roles of various aspects of the classroom

context and projected listening strategy usage (see Appendix 1) Scaled options were

strongly disagree somewhat disagree somewhat agree strongly agree and I donrsquot know

The questionnaire was administered in both English and Japanese in order to

increase the trustworthiness of responses Since the questionnaire was administered

online the respondents had no opportunities to ask for clarification if necessary

Likewise the researcher was not able to exemplify or rephrase items if respon-dents were uncertain Therefore the questionnaire was presented in a bilingual

format

Interviews

Group interviews were used for practical reasons such as time and availability Datafrom interviews proved valuable as they provided more detailed thought processes

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 7

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explanations for stated attitudes and reactions to the methodological changes

introduced in IE2 Dornyei highlights the lsquoexploratory nature [of interviews] as

an effective way of exploring new uncharted areasrsquo (2007 39) Furthermore Mann

(2011) points out that qualitative interviews are receiving increased attention in

applied linguistics

The interview format was semi-structured and consisted of 15 main items (see

Appendix 2) which built on questionnaire items Questions were thematically

organized (Burns 2010) for clarity of responses and recording of data During the

interviews the order of items shifted in response to participant replies The

researcher wrote field notes and digitally recorded the interviews which lasted

approximately one hour each Responses were first quantified and then scrutinized in

order to determine their explanatory value in relation to the research questions

In contrast to the bilingual questionnaires the interviews were conducted in

English the studentsrsquo L2 Because the interviews were conducted in person the

researcher was able to assess learnersrsquo comprehension of the questions and rephrase

or exemplify items if needed As these students were at the L2 upper intermediate

level it was felt that they would be able to understand and respond to the items with

available support from the researcher Use of English during the interview was

thought to be an incentive for students (eg Cross 2010) who often seekopportunities for English conversation especially in an EFL context like Japan

Results

This section displays findings from both the online questionnaire (n54) and the

group interviews (n7) Interviewees are labeled as Students AG for anonymity

Results are organized into three categories general listening background perceived

listening improvement and future listening strategy use In each subsection

questionnaire findings are displayed first followed by interview data

The questionnaire was completed anonymously therefore it was not possible to

compare questionnaire and interview responses for a given student However

individual interview responses were compared to the overall class findings manifested

by the questionnaire data In addition not all data were deemed relevant to the

stated research questions therefore some data have been omitted

General listening background

Results displayed in Figure 1 show that a majority of students either strongly agree

(577) or somewhat agree (404) that they enjoy listening to English Despite this

enjoyment most students lack confidence when listening 176 strongly disagree

that they are confident when listening to English while 451 somewhat disagree In

response to the statement lsquoI practice listening outside of classrsquo more than half of the

students (451 somewhat agree 255 strongly agree) indicated that they engage in

some form of independent listening practice

To the question lsquoWhich of the four main language skills is most important to

yoursquo some interviewees responded with more than one skill Three studentsresponded that listening was the most crucial language skill while two replied that

both listening and speaking were equally important Student A said that the most

important skill was context dependent in academic situations reading and writing

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abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

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Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

Dow

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Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

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24 2

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through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

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explanations for stated attitudes and reactions to the methodological changes

introduced in IE2 Dornyei highlights the lsquoexploratory nature [of interviews] as

an effective way of exploring new uncharted areasrsquo (2007 39) Furthermore Mann

(2011) points out that qualitative interviews are receiving increased attention in

applied linguistics

The interview format was semi-structured and consisted of 15 main items (see

Appendix 2) which built on questionnaire items Questions were thematically

organized (Burns 2010) for clarity of responses and recording of data During the

interviews the order of items shifted in response to participant replies The

researcher wrote field notes and digitally recorded the interviews which lasted

approximately one hour each Responses were first quantified and then scrutinized in

order to determine their explanatory value in relation to the research questions

In contrast to the bilingual questionnaires the interviews were conducted in

English the studentsrsquo L2 Because the interviews were conducted in person the

researcher was able to assess learnersrsquo comprehension of the questions and rephrase

or exemplify items if needed As these students were at the L2 upper intermediate

level it was felt that they would be able to understand and respond to the items with

available support from the researcher Use of English during the interview was

thought to be an incentive for students (eg Cross 2010) who often seekopportunities for English conversation especially in an EFL context like Japan

Results

This section displays findings from both the online questionnaire (n54) and the

group interviews (n7) Interviewees are labeled as Students AG for anonymity

Results are organized into three categories general listening background perceived

listening improvement and future listening strategy use In each subsection

questionnaire findings are displayed first followed by interview data

The questionnaire was completed anonymously therefore it was not possible to

compare questionnaire and interview responses for a given student However

individual interview responses were compared to the overall class findings manifested

by the questionnaire data In addition not all data were deemed relevant to the

stated research questions therefore some data have been omitted

General listening background

Results displayed in Figure 1 show that a majority of students either strongly agree

(577) or somewhat agree (404) that they enjoy listening to English Despite this

enjoyment most students lack confidence when listening 176 strongly disagree

that they are confident when listening to English while 451 somewhat disagree In

response to the statement lsquoI practice listening outside of classrsquo more than half of the

students (451 somewhat agree 255 strongly agree) indicated that they engage in

some form of independent listening practice

To the question lsquoWhich of the four main language skills is most important to

yoursquo some interviewees responded with more than one skill Three studentsresponded that listening was the most crucial language skill while two replied that

both listening and speaking were equally important Student A said that the most

important skill was context dependent in academic situations reading and writing

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abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 9

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

10 J Siegel

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

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Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

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Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

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through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

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ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

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ry 2

012

abilities are paramount but for person-to-person communication speaking and

listening skills are needed

Student B cited the close chronological relationship between listening and

speaking

If we canrsquot listening English we canrsquot speak English I think listening skill is connectedto speaking skill so listening is most important

Student F described listening as essential

Listening absolutely listening because if no skill of listening we can no skill ofconversation and donrsquot understand each other so we absolutely need listening

Perceived listening improvement

This subsection addresses student perspectives about the LSI component in IE2 and

its relation to listening development Specifically results of items on student

impressions of the following are displayed the course in general teacher explana-

tions listening materials listening activities and LSI

A combined 808 of students either somewhat agree or strongly agree that this

class helped improve their listening ability While 173 responded I donrsquot know only

a single student responded that they somewhat disagree that the class enhanced their

listening skills Results indicate that LSI-based teacher explanations along with

listening materials practices and activities were effective in development of student

listening ability In addition a large proportion (49 somewhat agree and

314 strongly agree) considered LSI advantageous to their listening development

However nearly 20 of students were unsure about the effectiveness of LSI

(Figure 2)A series of interview questions explored the impact made by these various

pedagogic aspects When asked if their listening skills stayed the same decreased or

increased as a result of the listening component in IE2 six of the seven participants

responded that their skills increased Only Student A responded that her listening

ability decreased due to a decline in English exposure compared to high school

Students also expressed their perceived improvements by citing gains on listening

Figure 1 General listening background

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 9

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sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

10 J Siegel

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The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

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ded

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l] a

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24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

sections of standardized tests (for example TOEFL) and increased confidence when

listening to English in academic and social situationsA focus on standardized tests was likewise evident when students were asked

about the teacherrsquos listening explanations and modeling of listening processes All

commentary included some acknowledgment that teacher input contributed to

listening test-taking ability and test-taking strategy usage Student F also commented

that the teacher modeling was accessible and clear

Not speedy itrsquos like how do I say every time itrsquos easy to understand and explain tous very well so I think itrsquos very useful

Moreover Student G recognized that teacher input itself provides opportunities for

listening practice

Before I listen if I listen to instruction by you I can prepare for listening and also getpractice

Listening strategy recall

Participants were also asked about listening strategies they recalled from class This

question was asked with no priming in an effort to determine if students could

report strategies unprompted Two students did not answer this question possibly

because they could not recall any specific strategies Responding partici-

pants reported listening for keywords and focusing on question front words as

strategies practiced in class along with listening for main ideas and tenses Inference

was also mentioned as was recognition of phrase and sentence relationship

After reviewing a list of strategies along with corresponding activities and texts

that had been covered in class I asked lsquoWhich of these strategies do you think is the

most usefulrsquo Six students replied that predicting upcoming content was the most

useful strategy Student E discussed the relationship of prediction to success on the

TOEFL test but Student G described a more interactional application of prediction

I think prediction because when I talk with foreign students sometimes foreign studentslike forgot the vocabulary so I can help them because I can guess the vocabulary

Figure 2 Perceived listening improvement

10 J Siegel

Dow

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l] a

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24 2

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ry 2

012

The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

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iege

l] a

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24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

The only student who gave a different answer was Student F who believes that no

single strategy is superior to the others

All this is all things is good Each is different to grow up English skill so nothing isbetter nothing is worse

Future listening strategy use

In an effort to determine whether students believe the listening strategies introduced

and practiced in class will be utilized beyond the classroom interviewees were asked

to speculate about future perceived strategy use Although responses are hypothe-

tical they demonstrate that students consider LSI useful not only for immediate

academic purposes but also for broader objectives as well

Responses in Figure 3 demonstrate that students believe listening strategies will

benefit them in a number of contexts including academic business and travel When

responses from the categories somewhat agree and strongly agree are combined

627 of students believe LSI will help them in English content classes

74 believe LSI will help them when listening in conversation

784 say LSI will be advantageous when listening to English entertainment

such as movies or music

666 think LSI will be useful in future employment

823 answer that LSI will help them when traveling

While a majority of students answered positively regarding perceived future strategy

use notable percentages of students replied I donrsquot know to the same items which

may be indicative of the speculative nature of this data

Interviewees responded in line with the questionnaire data citing academic

business travel and interpersonal situations as circumstances in which they believe

listening strategies will be beneficial Several students mentioned that LSI will help

them understand lectures in their English content courses Student F observed that

Figure 3 Perceived future strategy use

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 11

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[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

Dow

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ded

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iege

l] a

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24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

[IE2] helped me understand other classes in English because if I didnrsquot take this classand go to English-based class this maybe understand on 1 I think because nativespeaker speaking is very hard to understand really really difficult so now I took thisclass a little bit understand maybe 5 or 10

When probed to elaborate beyond the immediate academic context four students

cited travel benefits two mentioned study abroad programs and business and one

specified social situations as occasions when LSI would aid his comprehension

Discussion

Overview

In general both questionnaire and interview data show that these learners have

positive perceptions of the LSI framework Many students reported that their

listening abilities improved as a result of the course as a whole and specific aspects of

the LSI were identified as useful elements for listening pedagogy However most

students reported via the questionnaire that their confidence when listening to

English remained fragile Additionally students recognized that the cognitive

developments resulting from LSI are potentially advantageous for academic and

social situations beyond the L2 course Some of their reports indicate that the

transferable nature of listening strategies can impact their English listening futures

Motivated yet lacking confidence

Listening background data show that these students are motivated to become more

successful listeners of English as they both enjoy and spend time outside of class

listening to English As evidenced by the interview data several students recognize

the classification of listening as a crucial language skill At the same time however

these learners report a lack of confidence in their listening ability This lack of

confidence exists despite the fact that so many students believe their listening abilities

improved as a result of IE2 These findings seem inconsistent with those of Yashima

who in her study of Japanese EFL learnersrsquo willingness to communicate found that

lsquoa motivated individual tends to perceive that his or her competence is higher than

a less motivated person [and that] studying gives learners confidence in

communicationrsquo (2002 62) While it might be expected that perceived improvements

in listening abilities would trigger increases in confidence as well this assumption

was not demonstrated in the present study

These results are however consistent with other findings in the literature Field

(2008) points out students are more insecure about their listening abilities than any of

the other major language skills Reasons for insecurity may include a lack of tangible

evidence that listening skills are developing and the time pressure of understanding

spoken speech as it happens Regarding Japanese learners specifically OrsquoDonnell

(2003) found that student confidence was low in all four main language skills and

that of 135 participants 467 reported having no ability in listening and 43 only

reported a little ability Therefore the findings of low confidence mentioned above

are not unusual for the Japanese EFL context Furthermore after Chenrsquos (2005)

listening strategy training session some learners expressed frustration that they were

unable to notice any progress in their listening skills

12 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Such feelings of low confidence and disappointment regarding studentsrsquo

development of L2 listening capabilities may be due to lack of tangible evidence of

listening success as Field (2008) points out They may also be related to the slow rate

of development in aural abilities In other words listening improvement often occurs

incrementally and is not immediately or clearly perceptible In addition many

Japanese learners believe that they do not have a natural aptitude for learning

English (OrsquoDonnell 2003) High levels of anxiety and fear of making errors are other

characteristics that may be detrimental to the confidence of Japanese EFL students

(OrsquoDonnell 2003) Another reason for the low confidence levels may be due to

assumptions on the parts of learners that perfect test scores or precise word for word

comprehension are achievable goals for all L2 learners That is they may only feel

confident after answering all questions correctly or after they are able to understand

every single word in a text goals which are unrealistic Failure to meet such high

expectations in turn may result in low confidence

This study did not examine other aspects of L2 learner psychology nor did it

separate the notion of confidence into constituent parts Additionally it should be

noted that students with similar levels of confidence may rate them differently and

thus it is difficult to measure the feeling of confidence Still the situation seems

frustrating students feel their listening abilities improved in class and they commit

to additional practice however their confidence remains fragile Despite being

motivated students struggle to achieve adequate levels of confidence when listening

Perhaps listening teachers materials and methodologies are failing to improve

student confidence when listening and this point signals the need for more attention

to L2 listening pedagogy

Emphasis on test scores

Results also indicate that a majority of students believe the LSI improved their aural

abilities This listening improvement is especially applicable to standardized tests of

listening which were referenced repeatedly in interviews The fact that students

found LSI useful for language testing is positive as they feel the LSI addresses one of

their listening priorities However any LSI should have a broader goal of preparing

students not only for listening on tests but also listening in other academic (eg

discussions lectures) and social (eg conversations travel) situations While students

did acknowledge these other listening circumstances much of their focus was on the

relationship between LSI and test scores

There may be several reasons why test scores were important to this group of

students First part of their IE2 grade (30) was based on their TOEFL score

Secondly many students at this university participate in study abroad and immersion

programs which require minimum TOEFL scores for acceptance Thirdly although

a conjecture on the part of this author it is possible that because of the pervasive

emphasis on test scores throughout Japanese education some of these students may

equate (perhaps to some degree) their TOEFL test score with their English ability

To enhance this study pre- and post-test scores could be included to determine

any quantifiable gains in student listening ability according to standardized tests

although inclusion of product-based test scores is incompatible to an extent with the

process-oriented nature of LSI

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 13

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Previous classroom listening experiences

In the interviews students described what they remember from past listening

methodologies and the use of music and gap-fill exercises to teach listening wasconsistently reported This approach is similar to the CA (Field 2008) and the notion

of testing rather than teaching listening (eg Flowerdew and Miller 2005) Such

listening activities (ie fill in the blank matching etc) are not uncommon as this

manner of lsquoteachingrsquo listening is established and accepted in the field of L2

education Indeed recent textbooks feature music and corresponding comprehension

questions (eg Kadoyama and Capper 2011) However as Student B pointed out in

such exercises

[answers] are just correct or wrong Itrsquos not feel I improve my English skill

This viewpoint suggests that university students may be aware of the limitations of

such activities While this approach may be suitable for younger learners it seems

somewhat simplistic and limited in scope for university students Recent L2 listening

methodologists (eg Goh 2008 Mendelsohn 2006) are encouraging teachers and

materials writers to foster more worthwhile underlying approaches and classroom

practices

Alternative assessment methods

While Field (2008) observes that comprehension questions are necessary efficient

and widely used methods of determining student comprehension levels they are

often misused as tools for lsquoteachingrsquo listening rather than for their evaluative

function A gap exists between LSI pedagogy and methods to evaluate its effects in a

more process-oriented way however new methods for the evaluation of listening are

evolving Chenrsquos conception of strategy assessment includes lsquochanges in the learnersrsquo

internal learning processesrsquo (2007 27) which can be applied to listening evaluationsOther studies (eg Graham and Macaro 2008 Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari 2010)

have attempted to evaluate strategy transfer between listening tasks

Listening outside the classroom

As Lynch (2009) observes a listening teacherrsquos goal is to help students prepare for

listening beyond the classroom When teachers ask students to identify for example

a specific number or name from a text that particular piece of information often has

little use beyond the context of that question or classroom Of more potential use to

the student is the development of cognitive processes that lead to appropriateidentification of the answer rather than the answer itself As such one goal of LSI is

to support cognitive development so that it can be applied in whatever situation a

student needs to function

Regarding the potential transferable qualities of listening strategies these data

indicate that students acknowledge a connection between the LSI and their lives

outside the L2 classroom Per the IE2 course schedule each Thursday included a

segment in which a particular strategy was demonstrated and practiced in relation to

different contexts This strategy review and extension session proved a key factor inencouraging learners to envision the possibilities of what they can accomplish

14 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

through effective application of listening strategies Students believe that listening

strategies are potentially useful in a myriad of situations including English content

classes employment and travel Such expectations could be seen as contrasting with

the lsquotesting not teachingrsquo approach in which each correct answer is restricted to one

isolated question

One aim of this LSI was for students to be able to use the strategies after the

completion of the course Based on student perceptions they will be able to do that

in a number of ways Regardless of whether students actually use the strategies in thefuture they believe that they have a cache of listening strategies that they can operate

in the future Many acknowledge that they have gained a skill set that they can

take with them and transfer to other situations Still several students were uncertain

about the potential use of these strategies

While an investigation of listening strategy use after completion of the course

would provide valuable follow-up information one has not been conducted with

these students as yet Chen refers to this area of research as lsquostrategy main-

tenance [which] measures how long the learners retain a given strategy in theirlearning technique repertoirersquo (2007 21) Such investigations are needed in order to

determine whether time spent on strategy instruction is actually being used

advantageously Though no data is currently available student projections of future

strategy use are promising

A strategic component

With the majority of students claiming that LSI contributed to their listening

improvement it seems that a strategic component should be included in some way

in university listening courses However some students were unsure if LSI helpedthem which may reflect larger uncertainties related to listening How can it be

taught How can it be learned What leads to improvement These questions are far

from answered

Conclusion

This paper acknowledges learner perceptions as valuable to the understanding of

process-based LSI methodology It has asserted that LSI is a viable improvement on

previous L2 listening pedagogy as focus shifts from the products to the strategic

processes of listening In doing so this LSI encouraged the transfer of listeningstrategies beyond the classroom Findings showed that students have a positive view

of LSI as it enhanced their listening abilities and has potential to positively influence

subsequent L2 encounters To build upon this study future research may include

classroom observation in combination with LSI (eg Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari

2010) pre- and post-test scores and teacher viewpoints A further need is to develop

better teacher education as it pertains to the teaching of L2 listening in order to

equip teachers with the ability to plan and deliver LSI effectively

Notes on contributor

Joseph Siegel has taught for several years at university level in Japan He is currently a PhDcandidate in applied linguistics at Aston University (UK) where his research focuses on theimplementation of L2 listening strategy instruction at university level

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

References

Burns A 2010 Doing action research in English language teaching A guide for practitionersNew York Routledge

Chen Y 2005 Barriers to acquiring listening strategies for EFL learners and their pedagogicalimplications TESL-EJ [online] 8 no 4 httpwwwtesl ejorgej32a2html (accessed April10 2011)

Chen Y 2007 Learning to learn The impact of strategy training ELT Journal 61 no 1 209Cross J 2010 Utilizing dialogic recalls to determine L2 listenersrsquo strategy use Innovation in

Language Learning and Teaching 5 no 1 81100Dornyei Z 2007 Research methods in applied linguistics Oxford Oxford University PressField J 2008 Listening in the language classroom Cambridge Cambridge University PressFlowerdew J and L Miller 2005 Second language listening Theory and practice Cambridge

Cambridge University PressGoh C 2000 A cognitive perspective on language learnersrsquo listening comprehension

problems System 28 5575Goh C 2002 Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns

System 30 185206Goh C 2005 Second language listening expertise In Expertise in second language learning and

teaching ed K Johnson 6484 Basingstoke UK Palgrave MacmillanGoh C 2008 Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development Theory

practice and research implications RELC 39 no 2 188213Goh C and Y Taib 2006 Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners ELT

Journal 60 no 3 22232Graham S 2006 Listening comprehension The learnersrsquo perspective System 34 16582Graham S and E Macaro 2008 Strategy instruction in listening for lower intermediate

learners of French Language Learning 58 no 4 74783Hajer M T Meestringa Y Park and R Oxford 1996 How print materials provide strategy

instruction In Language learning strategies around the world Cross-cultural perspectivesed R Oxford 11941 Hawairsquoi University of Hawairsquoi Press

Hasan A 2000 Learnersrsquo perceptions of listening comprehension problems LanguageCulture and Curriculum 13 no 2 13753

Kadoyama T and S Capper 2011 English with hit songs Tokyo SeibidoKemp J 2009 The listening log Motivating autonomous learning ELT Journal 64 no 4

38595Lynch T and D Mendelsohn 2002 Listening In An introduction to applied linguistics ed N

Schmitt 193210 London ArnoldLynch T 2009 Teaching second language listening Oxford Oxford University PressMacaro E 2006 Strategies for language learning and for language use Revising the

theoretical framework Modern Language Journal 90 no 3 32037Mann S 2011 A critical review of qualitative interviews in applied linguistics Applied

Linguistics 32 no 1 624Mendelsohn D 1994 Learning to listen A strategy-based approach for the second-language

learner San Diego Dominie PressMendelsohn D 2006 Learning how to listen using listening strategies In Current trends in the

development and teaching of the four language skills ed E Uso Juan and A Martınez-Flor7589 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter

Nunan D 1998 Approaches to teaching listening in the language classroom In Proceedingsof the 1997 Korea TESOL Conference 110 Taejon Korea KOTESOL

OrsquoDonnell K 2003 Uncovering first year studentsrsquo language learning experiences theirattitudes and motivations in a context of change at the tertiary level of education JALTJournal 25 no 1 3162

Oxford R 1990 Language learning strategies What every teacher should know Boston Heinleamp Heinle

Oxford R 2011 Teaching and researching language learning strategies Harlow UKLongman

Renandya W and T Farrell 2011 Teacher the tape is too fast Extensive listening in ELTELT Journal 65 no 1 529

Ridgway T 2000 Listening strategies I beg your pardon ELT Journal 54 no 2 17985

16 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Rost M 1994 Introducing listening London PenguinRost M 2002 Teaching and researching listening Harlow UK LongmanSiegel J 2011a Thoughts on L2 listening pedagogy ELT Journal 65 no 3 31821Siegel J 2011b Listening strategies beyond the classroom Evidence of transfer Paper

presented at the American Association for Applied Linguists Conference March 2629 inChicago USA

Underwood M 1989 Teaching listening New York LongmanVandergrift L 2003 Orchestrating strategy use Toward a model of the skilled second

language listener Language Learning 53 no 3 46396Vandergrift L 2004 Listening to learn or learning to listen Annual Review of Applied

Linguistics 24 325Vandergrift L 2010 Researching listening In Continuum companion to research methods in

applied linguistics ed B Paltridge and A Phakiti 16073 London ContinuumVandergrift L and M Tafaghodtari 2010 Teaching L2 learners how to listen does make a

difference An empirical study Language Learning 60 no 2 47097Yashima T 2002 Willingness to communicate in a second language The Japanese EFL

context Modern Language Journal 86 no 1 5466

Appendix 1 Questionnaire results

Items from the questionnaire are listed in Table A1 accompanied by Likert scale ratingaverages chi square (x2) and degree of freedom (df) statistics Questionnaire options wereassigned as follows Strongly disagree1 Somewhat disagree2 Somewhat agree3Strongly agree4 I donrsquot know0

Table A1 Further analysis of questionnaire items

Questionnaire itemRatingaverage x2 df

I like listening to English 356 252 2I feel confident when listening to English 222 291 4I practice listening outside of class 284 295 4My listening ability improved as a result of my teacherrsquos

explanations290 221 3

My listening ability improved as a result of listeningmaterials used in this class

263 351 4

My listening ability improved as a result of listeningpractices and activities in this class

312 315 4

The listening strategy training in this class helped toimprove my English listening ability

273 66 2

I will be able to use listening strategies in future classesconducted in English

237 157 3

I will be able to use listening strategies in conversations 278 103 3I will be able to use listening strategies when listening to

entertainment in English282 180 3

I will be able to use listening strategies in future jobs 239 125 3I will be able to use listening strategies when traveling 288 243 3

pB 001Note Only items relevant to this article are given

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 17

Dow

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012

Appendix 2 Group interview questions

Note Only questions relevant to this article are given

(1) Is studying English important for you Why or why not(2) There are four main language skills reading writing speaking listening In general

which one do you think is the most important for you(3) Do you feel your English skills improved during this semester If yes in which skills(4) One of the skills this class focused on was listening Did your listening skills stay the

samego downgo up because of this class Why(5) Was the teacherrsquos listening instruction in this class useful Why or why not(6) Did the listening activities help your listening skills How(7) How was listening taught in your previous English classes(8) Was the teaching of listening in this class the same or different than in other English

classes yoursquove taken (junior high high school APU)(9) Listening strategies were introduced and practiced in this class What listening

strategies can you remember(10) In your class you learned these strategies (Remind participants of a full list of

strategies) Which strategies do you think are the most useful Why(11) Which strategies do you think are the least useful Why(12) Will you be able to use these listening skills in the future Why or why not If yes

please give an example

18 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012

Appendix 2 Group interview questions

Note Only questions relevant to this article are given

(1) Is studying English important for you Why or why not(2) There are four main language skills reading writing speaking listening In general

which one do you think is the most important for you(3) Do you feel your English skills improved during this semester If yes in which skills(4) One of the skills this class focused on was listening Did your listening skills stay the

samego downgo up because of this class Why(5) Was the teacherrsquos listening instruction in this class useful Why or why not(6) Did the listening activities help your listening skills How(7) How was listening taught in your previous English classes(8) Was the teaching of listening in this class the same or different than in other English

classes yoursquove taken (junior high high school APU)(9) Listening strategies were introduced and practiced in this class What listening

strategies can you remember(10) In your class you learned these strategies (Remind participants of a full list of

strategies) Which strategies do you think are the most useful Why(11) Which strategies do you think are the least useful Why(12) Will you be able to use these listening skills in the future Why or why not If yes

please give an example

18 J Siegel

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Jose

ph S

iege

l] a

t 08

24 2

9 Fe

brua

ry 2

012