Science Truth and Gandhi Govind Madhav

Govind, Madhav (2009). Science, Truth and Gandhi: Divergence and Convergence. Gandhi Marg: Quarterly Journal of the Gandhi Peace Foundation, 31(1), pp. 57-82.

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Science, Truth and Gandhi:., Divergence and Convergence,

Madhav Govind

ABSTRACT

Gandhi's notion of truth transcended the narrow conception of truth articulated

by science. In this paper it is argued that Gandhi's criticisms of science emanated

not only from the blind application of science but also from the methods and

..practices of scientists to acquire scientific knowledge. He advocated for the

incorporation of "theo-centric" humanism within the body of science and

technical practices to bring back the much needed humility in man and to put

an end to the arrogance prevalent today in the pursuit of knowledge and its

application. His argument for the democratization of knowledge production,

not only to bring the scientists and experts from across the nations in dialogue

..but also to the people in the vicinity who would be directly affected by the

application of such knowledge, seeks immediate attention of our scientific

community and policy-makers.

". my experiments have not been conducted in the closet, but in the

open; and I do not think that this fact detracts from their spiritual value.

Far be it from me to claim any degree of perfection for these

experiments, I claim for them nothing more than does a scientist, who,

though he conducts his experiments with the utmost accuracy,

forethought and minuteness, never claims any finality about hisconclusions, Qut keeps an open mind regarding them. "I

IIIn experiments I come to conclusions which, if partly right, are sure to

be in part wrong; if I correct by other experiments, I advance a step, my

old error is in part diminished, but is always left with a tinge of humanity,evidenced by its imperfection. I' 2 I

Introduction:

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of a truth-seeke~ and the acute awareness of his limitations. The questfor truth has been the long-cherished ideal of human beings in all ..societies. Since time immemorial scientists, philosophers, thinkers, "

reformers, sages, rishis and even lay men have made their efforts toarrive at truth. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was one of the mostinfluential and yet-most eni-gtnatic personalities of the twentiethcentury. Various scholars have attempted to understand his views ondifferent subjects. However, his conception of "truth" has been themost elusive concept not only for the scholars but sometimes even fot -Gandhi himself.3 .

In the reading of Gandhi's primary texts we may get struck that adistinction cannot be made between his personal experiments withdietetics, celibacy, hygiene, nature cure, khadi, his faith in non-violence,satyagraha, social and political reform and his search for "Truth".4Gandhi was a great experimental scientist and throughout his life heconducted "experiments" in various fields to arrive at truth. In fact,he lived an 'experimental life' and that was why he named hisautobiography My Experiments with Truth. Gandhi's experiments wereoriented to explore various possibilities of the truth. Now the questions ,arise: What was Gandhi's idea of truth? How was it different from'scientific truth'? Is it possible to realize truth through experiments? -'

What was the method used by Gandhi to discover truth? Was hefollowing the scientific method or did he devise some alternativemethod to realize truth? Where do the Gandhian notion of truth andscientific notion of truth converge and idiverge? Of course, these areimportant questions in the contemporary world that is facing the crisis -<of global warming, pollution, depletion of resources, disparities andsocial conflicts -all supposed to be caused by blind application of

modem science and technology.In this paper an attempt has been made to compare Gandhi's notion

of "truth" with the "scientists' notion of truth" and its realizationthrough their respective methods. It is argued that scientific truth isnot contradictory to the Gandhian notion of truth; rather it iscomplementary and, in fact, it is the need of the hour to integrate theGandhian spirit of science with the modern practice of science andtechnology in order to realiz~ their full potential for the material as

well as moral progress of human beings.I .This paper is divided into four parts. The first part analyses the

_~.I nature of truth from the Gandhian perspective and also from theJ perspective of modem science. The second part deals with Gandhi's ~

'i views on science. The third part explores the divergence and1 convergence of the methodologies adopted by the scientists andi; -Gandhi for the realization of truth. The fourth -the concluding -part

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exhorted a group of science students (of Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore) to emulate the great Indian scientists who pursued sciencenot as career but as a vocation -their inner calling. He remarked: (

"J .C. Bose and P.C Ray cultivated science for the sake of it; ...theirresearches have been devoted in order to enable us to come nearer toour Maker. I feel that we are placed on this earth to adore our Makerto know ourselves, in other words, to realize ourselves' and therefore

to realize our destiny."7For Gandhi, God is nothing but the embodiment of truth which is ..

manifested in various forms of nature. So, when one explores Godone actually explores truth in the forms of nature. For Gandhi, God"is the "Ultimate Reality" or 'Supreme Reality' which is beyond thefinite capacity of human mind, yet a supreme goal for humanity to

strive for.However, Gandhi's search was for a "higher order of reality"

probably higher than the conception of reality of natural sciences. Henever claimed that he had attained or realized the highest order ofreality; he only made his life long sincere efforts to come closer tothat "supreme reality." Gandhi, like a scientist, acknowledged theexistence of an independent reality irrespective of our own sensoryperception or mental conditioning. He said: "when our eyes are open, ';we see the sun; when they are closed, it is not seen. The change herehas been in our sense of sight, not in the fact of the sun's existence."S

In this sense Gandhi is a believer in the scientific notion of objectivereality which is independent of our sense perception. In order tofurther highlight the independent nature of realities, he argued, "we ~

know that we are not in every way masters of our own life; there areconditions outside of us to which we have to adjust ourselves. Forinstance, ill a country where Himalayan cold prevails we have to puton adequate clothing, whether we like it or not, in order to keep thebody warm.,,9 The acceptance of independent existence is the bedrockof scientific reality and, therefore, of objectivity. Unlike the postmodernists Gandhi does not believe in "multiple realities" or'"constructed realities" which exit in people's minds.I0 Thus, Gandhi's -

experiments with truth seem distinctively modernist in approach withhis firm assumption that the individual is the final arbiter of action. 11

However, for Gandhi the notion of truth was much broader thancould be grasped by science or reason. He believed that there was a lreality beyond what is being perceived by the senses. It is this '..

"transcendental reality" that gi\.Tes meaning and value to our life andaction. However, unlike modem day scientists' pursuit of knowledgefor wealth, Gandhi's search for truth was not 'to make it a. source of .income, a happy facility or a gainful input in the commerce between

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Science, Truth and Gandhi: Divergence and Convergence. 61

nations'. Although he conceded that higher wages increased happiness,material progress are all urgently needed necessi~ies yet he argued

r that man's true welfare lies in the pursuit of truth for self realization.i This pursuit 'is simultaneously an ob.ligation and a prayer. Similarly

all discoveries of science and breakthrough of technology should! become, above all and for all, the noble and solemn liturgy of truth.

For Gandhi, truth is permanent, it always exists. But thispermanency was not ultimate as he adopted "a dynamic, open ended,relative and experimentative approach towards truth."12 On relative

., perception of truth he explains, "what may appear truth to one person

will often appear untruth to another person. But that need not worrythe truth seeker."13 However, it doesn't mean that Gandhi was inpursuit of "relative truth." In fact, his relativism has an ultimate aim,that is, to achieve "Absolute Truth." He himself underlined this point:"For me, truth is the sovereign principle, which includes numerousother principles. This truth is not only truthfulness in word, but truthfullness in thought also, and not only the "relative truth" of ourconception, but the "Absolute Truth", the Eternal Principle, that is,God.,,14 Gandhi's ultimate reality is nothing but the law of the

I universe. He wrote: "there is an unalterable law governing every~ thing that exists or lives. It is not a blind law; for no blind law canI govern the conduct of living beings. That law, then, which governs! all life, is God. Law and the law- giver are one."I However, Gandhi acknowledged that though the ultimate reality.is the Absolute Truth, relative truths are not unrealities. They are in! fact, "temporal truths" as against the "Absol4te Truth." They are "the~ fleeting glimpse of Truth." They are not useless. They are true in

their own kind and true only as far as they go and for all practicalpurposes.IS Gandhi accepted the limitation of the human mind andbelieved that "through the instrumentality of this body we can notsee face to face Truth which is Eternal." To a question: 'how, then torealize Absolute Truth', Gandhi said, ''as long as I have not realizedthis Absolute Truth, so long must I hold by the relative truth as lhaveconceived it. That relative truth must meanwhile, be my beacon, myshield and buckler" ,16

Thus, for Gandhi "relativ"e"'truth" is a means to achieve the endthat is Absolute Truth. Like a scientist, Gandhi was in pursuit of

" I progressive knowledge. Commenting on the nature of Gandhian

science Visvanathan observed: "Gandhi's was a fluid science: integral,yet full of shifts and transformation; a sense of tremendous consistencyand adaptability. The model allows tremendous free play for

i transformations, twists and ambiguities.,,17~

Although Gandhi believed that there was a Universal Truth that

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he ~quated with God, he never claimed that he or any other human.could ever comprehend this Absolute in .an adequate way. David

Hardiman argued that for Gandhi "truths" were contingent and ~ I

contextual, being searched through experience, praxis, debate and .\.dialogue. His notion of "truth" w,as thus evolving and changing r

constantly; being in fact a series of "tiuths" with a lower case 't' rather !"the Truth."IS In this respect, his approach to knowledge was not in j' practice so different from that of the scientists. He abhorred certainties,

preferred debates and honest disagreements to unthinking assent.Moreover, Gandhi's notion of "truth" was combined with humility,

unlike the 'scientific truth' which was based on arrogance of exclusion.His method to realise truth was based on non-violence while searchof truth in science is based on torturing of nature (in the name of

scientific experiment) to reveal its truthsl9. Gandhi's critiques ofscience and technology were basically concerned with this arrogantand inhuman tendency of subjugation and surrender of human beingsto its instrumental rationality. Therefore, Gandhi advocated for

inculcating "human spirit" in the ontological premises of modernSCIence.

Gandhi's ideas of knowledge have been echoed in the thinking ofmany natural scientists. The pursuit of knowledge and its applicationare always claimed to be guided by humanism. But the question iswhat kind of humanism? Humanism could be 'anthropocentric' or

'Theo-centric.' According to Catherine Roberts (1980) the pursuit of

knowledge should be oriented not towards 'anthropocentrichumanism' but 'Theo centric humanism'. If we accept Theo- centric

humanism, argued Catherine, as the guiding world view, thishumanism being inspired by 'Theo' of the divine God, the striving Itowards that spiritual reality by acquiring spiritual experience becomes I

,1 the overatching goal of life and thereby, of life sciences.20 She forcefullyI" advocated for the spiritualization or humanization of biological

; sciences. Her thoughts echo the thinking of Gandhi about the purpose I

of knowledge and science. Many scientists have acknowledged that ;man once evolved never remain static; rather he is in the process of -making a spiritual ascent, and finally he can not remain just man; heis leading to his own "deification"-rais,ing to the level God.

:: Charles Darwin in his evolutionary theory of species, espeGially,Ii 'the Descent of Man' (1871) has also pointed towards the possibility .\!~ of spiritual and cognitive evolution along the morphological and f

11 phy~.io~ogica! ev.olution:. The famo~s physi~ist and philosoph~r1 Schrodmger, 111 hIS reflections on. phYSICS and bIology as expressed ill I'i' his book My View of the World, professed his faith, "in the process of :}' spiritual ascent of man leading to deification".21 Although the word

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Science, Truth and Gandhi: Divergence and Convergence 8 63

'deification' is considered as blasphemy in the scientific community,many scientists do believe and forcefully argue for the merger of

~ divine with 'deification' as'this only can bring back the much needed

humility in man and put an end to the arrogance prevalent today inthe pursuit of knowledge and its application. Gandhi was not an 'ivorytower thinker' involved in discovering 'truth for its own sake' ratherhis ideas and theories were firmly grounded in his personal experiencesand observation of suffering of people.

Truth for its own sake?

Gandhi's quest for truth was not for its own sake, but for someimmediate or near future applications. For him an idea or theory whichcould not be put into practice had no value or worth. The validity ofa theory is tested when it is put into practice. Although practical successis no guarantee of its truthfulness, its successfulness provides someevidence for its relevance and validity. As George Sarton observedGandhi always believed that "no matter what your convictions are,they are worthless if you do not implement them with deeds or ratherthey are worse than worthless. Not to practice what one believes isuntruth; I would say dishonesty."22

However, Gandhi argued that real progress in our knowledgeand techniques will come through our dispassionate dedication toour vocation and for inculcating this spirit he exhorted people to spinfor sacrifice not as a wage earner:

1f you will yourself spin, the quality of spinning will improve.'Those who spin for wages must naturally be impatient. They willcontinue to spin the count that they are accustom~d to. The task ofimproving the count of yarn essentially belongs to the research worker,the lover of spinning. This has been proved by experience. If therehad not been a class of spinners including both men and wome:n, whospin purely out of a spirit of service, the amazing progress that hasbeen achieved in the quality of yarn would not have been possible.All the improvements that have been made in the mechanism, of the

spinning-wheel and the speed of spinning up till now are solely dueto the efforts of those devoted workers who spin for sacrifice."23

This position of Gandhi is very much in congruence with themotives of an academic scientist. Max Weber in his famous essay,"Science as a Vocation" has also described similar attributes -"aI passion ~or knowledge,. ideal curios.it~, a.nd ~ltruistic conce:n withthe benefIt to the humamty"- for creativIty. In sclence24. GandhI always '.

I tried to harmonize his thoughts, words and deeds and as a result heI moved closer to truth: .1 We find a strong symmetrical conviction in Gandhian thought to

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prove that himsa or violence could be conquered only through ahimsaor non- violence. Truth is self- evident in the sense that it does notrequire to be proclaimed forcefully. As stated by Gandhi, the championof truth or the seeker of truth must have strong faith in the power oftruth and he must show patience and calm in realizing the truth. LikeGandhi, many scientists, Faraday for instance, also believed that "thereal truth never fails ultimately to appear: and opposing parties, ifwrong, are sooner convinced when replied to forbearingly than whenoverwhelmed."25 Gandhi made continuous experiments to arrive atthe truth and succeeded in proving that eternal peace could beachieved only through non-violent pursuit of truth (Satyagraha). .

Thus, although Gandhi~s notion of truth transcended the narrowconception of truth articulated by mainstream science, he saw greatpossibilities in science to realize 'the Ultimate Truth.' Therefore, itbecomes pertinent to examine Gandhi's personal views on sciencebefore going into details of his methods to realize the truth andcomparing it with the methods of science. In the ensuing paragraphs",;,e would focus on these issues.

II. Gandhi's Views on Science

Gandhi has been often portrayed as 'anti -science' and 'anti -

technology'26 and there is abundant literature on Gandhi's criticalviews on technology but very little efforts to understand his viewson science. In recent years some scholars have taken his writings onmachinery, khadi, health and modern civilization to construct his views 1on science and they have shown that there are numerous direct ~

references to science in Gandhi's discussions with his co-workers andwith fellow countrymen.27 They have gleaned references from hisvarious.writings to show his frequent invoking of the terminology ofscience to prove his support for science and technology28. There hasbeen little attempt to study how Gandhi's notion of experiment torealize truth was different from the method adopted by the modernscientists and how he applied his methodology in dealing with thesocial, economic and political issues of his time.-Although science as such was not the primary concern of Gandhi, hefrequently invoked scientific terminology in his writings andcorrespondence with people. Once invited to an open ceremony atthe Tata Laboratory he exclaimed: "I am wondering where I come in.There is no place here for a r~stic like me who has to stand speechless ;in awe and wonderment"29. ;,

~ Ho,;,e,:,~r, in h~s lif~, and./teachings there is an em?ed~~d passion ~for the spmt of SCience WhIch could be called 'the scientIfIc culture.' , i

This passion for the spirit of science has inbuilt critiques 'of use and I!

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abuse of science. Nonetheless, Gandhi had a real appreciation forsci.eptific education and he made distinction between 'education inscience' and other branches of learning in the following words:

"Education of man in science is the opposite of literacy training,which, he kept repeating, does not add one inch to one's moral stature.By its learning and research, ::icience is real education. It applies themind to the reality around us. It promotes objectivity and groundedin the rigorous and disinterested pursuit of truth, forcing out allprejudice and illusion. Education under such conditions is schoolingin austerity and courage. ...But science, which can be used to serveman, can also be used against Man. Science is not good or evil but itsuse and users are."30 (emphasis added)

According to Mathai, Gandhi not only advocated science andte~hnical education but also disapproved imparting of higher education

.in arts subjects on a mass scale. Gandhi believed that, "the vast amountof the so called education in arts given in our colleges is sheer wasteand has resulted in unemployment among the educated classes."3.1

However, Gandhi wanted to promote and nurture science andresearch culture in the country. During his stay in South Africa whenthe members of the British Association for the Advancement of Sciencevisited him in 1904 Gandhi lauded the role of the association inpopularizing science and in bringing Britain and the colonies closer toeach other. He urged the members of the association to organize itsmeeting in India and change its name as the British Empire Associationfor the Advancement of Science. This clearly shows that Gandhiunderstood the role of science and its need for all colonial countries,of course first to meet the requirements of day to day life of commonpeople. In fact, he strongly urged the scientists to interact with peopleto understand their problems and requirements while conducting theirresearch. He emphasised on direct intervention of scientific communityin the village development programme and chided them for beingignorant and unresponsive towards the day to day life problems ofordinary people. He remarked: .

"I sent a questionnaire to seve~al of our well -known doctors andchemists, asking them to enlighten me on the chemical analysis anddifferent food values of polished and unpolished rice, jaggery andsugar, and so on. Many friends have responded only to confess thatthere has been no research in some of the directions I had inquiredabout. Is it not a tragedy that no scientist should be able to give methe chemical analysis of such a simple article as gur? The reason is '

that we have not thought of the villager What kinds of laboratoryresearch ~hall we have to go in for?"32

It is clear, thus, that Gandhi was not opposed to modem science;

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rather he wanted scientifically informed knowledge to formulate policy..decisions. In his Khadi movement he extensively used the term science,

and argued for the organization of the Khadi movement on scientificprinciple. He urged the Khadi workers to acquire thorough knowledgeof Khadi as it was critical for the success of the movement. Heprescribed very rigorous technical criteria for the Khadi workers toimbibe the true spirit of science. He wanted the Khadi workers to bewell- versed in all aspects of cloth -making, and "he should knowhow to gin and understand about the many varieties of hand-ginsused in Indian villages". The Khadi workers should also be able "totest the strength, evenness and counts of yam, know a good charkafrom a bad one, be able to put dilapidated charka under repair andbe a~le to 'straighten an incorrect spindle."33

Gandhi :,strongly believed that- a thorough understanding of thescience of rural'. crafts and pl"actices was ne~qed to improve the life ofthe rural people. Gandhi wanted scientists for the every crafts practisedby the villagers. This was the reason why he insisted that there wasneed for' a number of scientists and chemists prepared to lay notonly their expert knowledge at our disposal, but to sit down in ourlaboratories and to devote hours of time, free of charge, to .

experiments in the direction people required.'Thus it appears that Gandhi was fully aware of the significance of

the scientific knowledge and its role in improv~ng the materialconditions of human life. He criticised the scientific community forusing science as an 'improved means' to achieve 'unimproved goals'.It was not only the blind application of science that disturbed Gandhibut also the method it resorted to for acquiring knowledge which,according to him, was questionable. In order to explicate his critiqueof science it is important to examine the method adopted by scienceand to compare it with Gandhi's method of acquiring knowledge andarriving at truth. Gandhi provided some innovative methods foracquiring knowledge. In the following paragraphs we would discussGandhi's methods of acquiring or realizing truth and compare themwith the methods ot modem science.

III. Methods of acquiring or realizing truth

The method used by Gandhi in his quest for truth was based on thespirit of science. In his autobiography The Story of My Experiments withTruth he underlined the fact that the method he used to realize thetruth \-\7as characterized by its "accuracy, fore-thought, andminuteness." .He had no finality about his conclusions which werealways open- ended. At every step, he subjected the next step to aprocess of acceptance or rejection and on that basis he acted.

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Thus, his method for the search of the reality was very muchscientific. He never believed that truth could be revealed or attainedthrough mere meditation or some other mystic practices. He suggestedthat: "Scientific knowledge requires constant probing into the wayand wherefore of every little process that you perform. Mereaffirmation that in charka there is swaraj and peace is not enough. Ascientific mind will not be satisfied with having things scientific juston faith. He will insist on finding a basis in reason. Faith becomeslame when it ventures into matters pertaining to reasons. Its fieldI begins where reason's ends. Conclusions based on faith are unshak~ble

whereas those based on reason are liable to be unstabl~ and vulnerableto superior logic' .34

Gandhi made his personal experiments with diet, celibacy, hygienearld nature cure in his quest for truth and communicated these personalexperiments to the public for their comments and criticism. Gandhiwanted to make his understanding inter-personal which is one of themain characteristics of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge isnot personal but interpersonal or what Ziman called "publicknowledge."35 By this Ziman meant that the results of science areopen to inspection to anyone who is interested in testing its validity.Scientific facts and theories must survive a period of critical scrutinyby other competent and disinterested individuals.

However, Gandhi was interested in the success of his ownexperiments primarily to the extent that others might learn from themand subscribe to a regimen of self- discipline. Gandhi always linkedknowledge to morality and he wanted to bring about basic butextensive moral changes in society. His criticism of modern science isbased on the fact that it does not contribute in enhancing the moralstature of man.

However, he never sought to provide a grand theory. He workedout his theory -his truth -as praxis, and understood that it had toevolve constantly in relation to his and other people's experiences.His methotI was essentially dialogical, one in which knowledge'isseen to arise from discussion rather than from a unified philosophicalsystem which is provided in the form of a ,treatise from which theinternal contradictions have, ideally, been removed. Gandhi was awarethat the result of this kind of dialogfcal meth<;>d may appear to haveinconsistencies, as, hie observed: "I must admit my many'inconsistencies. BrIt since lam cailed "Man.at~a!' I might well endorseEmersol), s saying that: 'fbolish consistency is the hobgoblin of littleminds.' There is, I fancy, a method in my inconsistency".36 Manyscholars have despaired of Gandhi's inconsistencies and haveconcluded that Gandhi was either confused or unwilling to reconcile

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68 .GANDHI MARGthe various strands of his worldview. However, Gandhi' s ecl~cticismcould be also seen as "a manifestation of Gandhi's experiments withtruth, in which he was willing to give up even his own views if they

did not test out in experience.,,37 ~Gandhi believed that any true understanding is dialogic in nature

because through such dialogues, systems of. kI;\owledge are bothchallenged and enriched. Ronald Terchek argued that he adopted theEnlightenment position' of valorizing rational debate over coercionto solve problems.' However, whereas it was a confident belief of the ..

enlightenment philosophers that rationality was indivisible. and

universal, Gandhi understood that different peoples have their own.definitions of what is 'rationa!' and to insist on the universality of

one form of rationality over another and to thereby justify theimposition of one's will on others, represents no more than coercionby another name. In the process, alternative rationalities are silenced.38

For Gandhi, in order to realize truth one must be a satyagrahi andone must also have absolute faith in the power of truth, and devotionto this truth should be accepted as the sole justification for ourexistence. Ignorance is the root cause of all evils. Truth is by natureself-evident. "As soon as you remove the cobweb of ignorance thatsurrounds it, it shines clear", he argued39. It. is to be realized as "thevoice within, call it conscience, call it prompting of my inner basicnature.,,40 "For me", Gandhi wrote, "the voice of God or conscienceof Truth or the inner voice or the still small voice mean one and the

same thing.,,41 But the inner voice could be interpreted differently bydifferent people. Gandhi was aware of this pitfall and, therefore, heput certain conditions without strictly observing which one cannotclaim to have his or her voice of conscience or the voice of God ortruth. Arvind Sharma42 noted that in order to solve this problemGandhi drew an analogy with scientific experiments to elaborate his

solution. He wrote:"Well, seeing that the human mind works through innumerable

-media and that the evolution of the human mind is not the saine forall, it follows that what may be truth for one may be untruth foranother, and hence those who have made these experiments havecome to the conclusion that there are certain conditions to be observedin making those experiments. Just as for'.conducting scientificexperiments there is an indispensable scientific course of instruction,in the same way strict preliminary discipline is necessary to qualify aperson to make experiments in spiritual realm. Everyone should,therefore, realiz.e his limitations before he speaks of his inner voice.Therefore, we have the belief, based upon experience, that those who

would make individual search after truth as God, must go through

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several vows, as for instance, the vow of truth, the vow of brahmacharya(purity) -for you cannot possibly divide your lov.e for Truth and Godwith anything else-, the vow of nonviolence, of poverty and non-possession. Unless you impose on yourselves the five vows you maynot embark on the experiment at all. There are s~veral other conditionsprescribed, but I must not take you through all of th~m. Suffice it tosay that those who have made the~e experiments know that it is notproper for everyone to claim to hear the voice of conscience.,'43

Gandhi further qualified that mere observance of these conditionsdoes not guarantee complete success. The truth of 'voice of conscience'like the scientific experiments is validated by its outcome. It is a .wellknown fact that science tells different 'truths' at different points oftime. Yet, this diversity' of results produced by science leaves boththe scientists and the lay person unfazed and they do not lose theirfaith in science. According to Sharma44 this is because lay -men aswell as scientists both intuitively distinguish between the scientificmethod and the products of this method. Therefore, the same methodthat produces different results at different times does not shake theirfaith or confidence in the method itself which has turned out to be atrusted and tried one, which has led to, if not linear, then at leaststeady progress in the form of increasingly reliable and usefulknowledge about the universe. The inconsistencies in Gandhianmethod of arriving at truth could be seen in the same manner asGandhi also suggested that his later opinion on a subject should beconsidered more acceptable.

The only way for the realization of Truth is through Ahimsa, thelaw which is already immanent in all of us and the world and for thisGandhi was ready to sacrifice his life. In his autobiography he wrote:"I am prepared to sacrifice the things dearest to me in pursuit of thisquest: Even if the sacrifice demanded my very life, I hope I may beprepared to give it.,'45

Thus, Gandhi's method of realizing truth was "self sufferingwithout causing any hurt to others." He resorted to the practic.e ofself- suffering (fast, penance, fast unto death, silence etc) time andagain for the cause of truth, which he defined in his own way. Somescholars, termed it the 'highly irrational practice' of Gandhi to realizethe truth46 while others termed it as 'ascetic-phenomenological'47analysis of one's own consciousnes.s to be the criteria for truth andjustice. Gandhi wanted a seeker of truth, a scientist, to become anintrinsic part of the experiment itself. For this, he conducted hisexperiments on himself first before putting them before others, as hehad realized that his experiments on himself could provide valuableinsights for other people. "A seeker of truth is better trained to amplify

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his consciousness. His forays into the body can provide new i~ightsand medicines more delicately attuned to it." .

; It is this process of self-testing that Gandhi had applied, argued 'Visvanathan, where "the initiate rather than an innocent guinea pig ;

becomes the source of insight.,,48 With this idea in mind Gandhisuggested the science students to work with their hands, as sciencerequired regular interaction between theoretical construct at mentallevel and empirical testing at physical level. Gandhi observed: "scienceis essentially one of those things in which theory alone is of no valuewhatsoever. unless our hands go hand in hand with our heads we

..would be able to do nothing whatsoever."49i Gandhi was not comfortable with the Baconian and Newtonian,i science which is based on reductionist principles. In a letter to a

group of college students, while explaining the meaning of mix(inter-caste) marriages, he observed: "You should understand fromthis that I never reject a scientific truth that has been established.But you should also note that in (the realm of) science what hascome to be accepted as truth today is not unlikely to be proved asuntruth tomorrow. Sciences founded on deduction are alwaysbound to suffer from this basic imperfection. We cannot, therefore,regard it as an absolute truth.,,50

Therefore, Gandhi advocated a method that is based onsystemic and holistic perspective. For instance, his idea ofnaturopathy is based on harmony. As pointed by Visvanathan, thebody, for Gandhi, is a microcosm of the universe and he visualizedtwo kinds of harmony: first, the harmony of the body and itsconstituent parts and, second between the body and its physicalenvironment, particularly with earth, water, light and air. Alldisease is a violation of harmony. In naturopathy one strengthensthe Dody to resist disease and a true healer is one who recognizesthe wisdom of the body rather than relying on the all sorts ofconquering drugs. 51 Gandhi had a systemic and holisticunderstanding of human body and that was why he wrote.: 'I A

happy working of the human machine depends upon theharmonious activity of the various component parts. If all thesework in an orderly manner, the machine runs smoothly. If evenone of the essential parts is out of order, it comes to a stop. Forinstance, if the digestion is out of order, the whole body becomes ,slack."52 ~

I ~~ndhi rejec.ted the d~alitJ:' of body ~nd mind bet-:ause he b~lieved I~

.I that a body which contams diseased mmd can never be anythmg butI disease~.". He wrote: "the present scie.nce ~f medicine is .divorce~ I~ from religion. A man who attends to his dally Namaz or his Gayatn I" ', "'

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mantras in the proper spirit need never get ill. A clean spirit must! build a clean body. I am convinced that the main rules of religious

conduct conserve both the spirit and the body."53 The coPLte~porarythinking in modern health science has acknowledged this holistic.perspective to tackle the complex health issues.

The other attribute of Gandhian method is that he never triedto impose consensus on what is truth, rather he persevered, evenat the peril of his life, for what he perceived as truth. He believedin the democratic participation of scientists as well as lay peoplein the construction of knowledge. He had his own notion of truthwhich he wanted others to realize for themselves. He firmlybelieved that others could not be convinced by his points of viewthrough force but only by non-violent means which required selfsuffering. But the question arises: why did Gandhi believe thatself suffering will change the hearts and minds of others(opponents) to accept his notion of truth?

Gandhi's early socialization in religious plurality and his exposureto Christian beliefs and values in forgiveness and self-sacrifice sowedthe seeds in Gandhi of his faith in suffering. The religious traditionsabout the austerity of Hindu seers and rishis, meditation and sufferingof the Buddha, Mahaveera and the ultimate sacrifice made by Jesusthoroughly convinced Gandhi that ultimate truth could be realizedonly through suffering and self- sacrifice. Then question arises: wasGandhi tt'uly rational in his approach?

Rationalism in Gandhi

Gandhi's rationalism was not limited only to "instrumental" or"technical rationality" rather, it was much broader in scope, meaningand application. His understanding of rationality comes closer to whatRoger Garaudy54 called "pragmatic rationality." Roger Garaudy usedthe term rationality to refer to an extra and added ingredient thathuman beings have and brutes do not. For him rationality is roug.hlysynonymous with tolerance, with the ability not to be overtly discon-certed by differences from oneself, not to respond aggressively tosuch differences. It also goes along with reliance on persuasion ratherthan on force, an inclination to talk things over rather than to fightburn, or banish. It is a virtue which enables individuals and communi-ties to coexist peacefully with other individuals and communities, tolive and to let live, and to put together new syncretic, compromisedways of life.

.Rationalism in Gand_hi could be found in his commitment to thepurity of means and end relationship. He always believed thatachievement of ends through any means is not justifiable for ends

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achieved through impure mea.ns could be retained only through impuremeans. Anything which is acquired through force could be retained ..

only through force. It means perpetual expenditure of energy whichcannot be called rational. A decision is rational which ensures theminimum loss of energy not only in ~ttaining the goal but also in

.retaining it over a period of time. This was the reason that Gandhialways advocated that freedom, peace, harmony and justice attainedthrough non-violent means will ensure continuous perpetuation of

our achievements.Gandhi always justified the rationality of his action in terms \'

of means -end relationship. For instance, dt1ring the Boer warwhen Gandhi volunteered for providing medical help to thewounded soldiers., he was bitterly criticized for going against hisown principle of non-violence. In order to explain his action Gandhi

wrote:"Those who confine themselves to attending to the wounded

in battle cannot be absolved from the guilt of war. It is quite clearto me that participation in war could never be consistent withahimsa. But it is not given to one to be equally clear about one'sduty. A votary of truth is often obliged to grope in the dark. Hemay not do anything in deference to convention. He must alwayshold himself open to correction, and whenever he discovers .

himself to be wrong he must confess it at all costs and atone for

it".55For Gandhi, India was a big laboratory to test some of his'

ideas (hypotheses) which he had formulated on the basis of hispersonal experiences in South Africa and also his exposure to '

powerful ideas of Western thinkers. After coming back from theSouth Africa Gandhi established an Ashram and named it SatyagrahaAshram which reflected his desire to acquaint India with themethods to test and vindicate truth he had tried in South Africaand to test them again in India to tryout to see the extent towhich their application might be possible.56 .

Like a scientist Gandhi never took a blind path. Before takingany course of action he "tested the mood of people and theirreadiness to accept his authority". Gandhi wanted unconditional

-support from his followers as he was aware that dissent even fromone man (even one contrary evidence, in Popperian sense) couldmar the means of his realization of the ends. Like scientists hewas aware that deviant cases (anomaly in the empirical data) needto be accounted for by theoretical propositions. He never allowedhis emotions or outside pressure to overtake him and lose his senseof reason and logic. As Nehru wrote about his temperament:

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i "Gandhi was least perturbed by the turmoil and disturbancestaking place" in the country. He had a very strong sense of gaugingthe mood of people and he never acted or spelled out his actionbefore making the proper assessment of the situation."S7

There are some instances where it might seem that Gandhi wasguided by blind faith in showing respect to elders irrespective oftheir faults as a matter of religious injunction. His confession ill hisAutobiography abol1t his teacher who prompted him to cheat in the

',- examination indicates his blind faith. "I had thought the teacher was\ there to supervise against copying... yet the incident did not in the

least diminish my respect for my teacher. I was by nature, blind to

the faults of elders."S8! However, in another context, Gandhi refused to overlook the

elders' fault when he felt that truth was compromised. The instanceis related to his elder brother Laxmandas' critical letter to Gandhicasting aspersions on his family obligation. Gandhi in his rejoinderto his brother did not address Laxamandas as "respected brother",as he used to do earlier; instead he addressed impersonally,"dearsir I revere you as my elder brother. Our religion bids us totreat our elders with veneration. I implicitly believe in that

I, injunction. But I have greater regard for truth. This too is taught

by our religion."S9However, Gandhi was bitter critique of instrumental rationality

of science dictating the entire aspect of human life. Gandhiconsidered instrumental rationality argued Bigrami, as "an illicit

~ extrapolation to link the ideals of scientific rationality and modernform of democratic politics with that broader cultural phenomenonof materialism, uncontrolled technology, the alienating and sinfulcity,,60. Gandhi insisted and argued at length that the notion ofrationality, which was first formulated in the name of science inthe 17th century and developed and modified to practical andpublic domains by the philosophers of the Enlightenment, hadwithin it the predisposition to give rise to the horrors of modernindustrial life, to destructive technological frames of mind, to rankcommercialism, to the surrender of spiritual casts of mind, and tothe destruction of the genuine pluralism of traditional life.Therefore, he advocated the incorporation of human values into

the body of science and technical practices.It should be noted that Gandhi was not a Luddite or dismissive

of the achievements of modern science. What he opposed was adevelopment in "outlook" that emerged in the philosophicalsurrounding of scientific achievements. In other words, Gandhiwas opposed to what Bilgrami called, "thick rationality"61 or what

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Heredia called "truncated rationality"62, rationality truncated by.materialism. Gandhi pleaded not for the suppression of reason,

but for a due recognition of that in us which sanctifies reason 'itself. He was against the unbounded dictation of reason and,therefore, insisted on putting limitation on its application. Gandhi" would test his faith with his reason but he would not allow his

1; reason to destroy his faith. Gandhi strived for the higher order of

t reality which could encompass the entire humanity. He argued\' that his law of non-violence was a general law of the entire

it mankind. It has greater scope and ~pp:ications.than.scientific laws 1f so-called. On the nature and applIcation of thIS umversallaw, he! wrote in Young India: "We have to make truth and non-violence

not matters for mere individual practice, but for practice by groups,communities and nations. Non-violence is the law of the humanrace and is infinitely greater than and superior to brute force. Therishis (seers) who discovered the law of non-violence were greatergeniuses than Newton. They were themselves greater warriorsthan Willington. Having themselves known the use of arms, theyrealized their uselessness and taught a weary world that itssalvation lay not through violence, but through non-violence".63

Thus, we can say that Gandhi's notion truth is much more "comprehensive and beyond the scope of method of science but !

much more relevant to understand the contemporary problems.The modern scientists need to integrate Gandhian perspective intheir practice of science. However, there are some ambiguities andcontradictions in Gandhian notion of truth and its methods to \realize them. In the following paragraphs we would deal with :

this issue.

Ambiguities in Gandhian truth and its methods

For Gandhi the concept of truth is not static but, like the scientificnotion of truth, ever-dynamic. He wrote: "truth becomes my ,soleobjective. It began to gro\,,: in magnitude everyday, and my definition ~of it also has been ever widening."64 However, at another place he -

describes himself as "a humble seeker after truth", showing one ofthe most noble personality trait of modern scientists. But when he iasserts that his goal to find truth is "to realize himself or his destiny"65 the becomes a seeker of "spiritual truth" instead of scientific truth. He ~

equates this truth with the "voice of conscience,'f This definitionconfounded his concept of truth. The conscience cannot be inter-subjectively communicated -a precondition for existence or evenconstruction of a reality. His notion of truth becomes "transcendentalor in other words mysterious.

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His notion of the ultimate truth becomes more problematic whenhe acknowledges that he has not been able to realize it. Yet, he makes

, an attempt to describe it's (the Ultimate Truth) features. He describesthe features of the Ultimate Truth as follows: "The little fleetingglimpses that I have been able to have of truth can hardly conveyan idea of the indescribable lustre of Truth, a million times moreintense that that of the Sun". The question is: how Gandhi knew that'ithe Truth is a million times more intense, brighter than that of the.Sun"? It seems Gandhi's search is based on speculation, imagination

, or simply traditional myth.George Sarton (1954) also criticized Gandhi for propounding

and holding confusing meanings of truth. He remarked, iiGandhiwho spoke so much of the truth, did not know what it was. Hisuse of the word "truth" was always ambiguous and dangerous."

! To Sarton, the main danger in Gandhi's thinking was his confusion, of truth with religion. He wanted to solve political problems in

the name of truth, reason, though he admitted that i'faith transcendsreason." Truth must be investigated 'ifor its own sake", arguedSarton. "As soon as its discovery is subordinated to a political,national, religious purpose or to any other outside purpose, the

\ investigators are sorely tempted to publish only that part of the\ truth which favours their argument and to suppress the part which

is unfavourable to it. On that basis truth is not simply mutilatedbut destroyed".66 Moreover, truth should not be confused withfaith as they are not interchangeable phenomena. The reason forkeeping faith in our own religion may be entirely different from

: the reason of not keeping faith in other religions.Gandhi realized that truth can be reached through a complex

dialogue in which reason alone is not sufficient; therefore, hesuggested that the arguments need to be reinforced withi, emotional and political pressure." In order to exercise emotional

pressure, Gandhi adopted the techniques of self-suffering, fasting,J penance and silence etc. His political pressures included massr demonstration, non-cooperation, tax refusal, hartal, and the like.\ Gandhi also suggested that during these protests, the satyagrahi\ should always be open to the other side, seeking out alternativeI that could satisfy both. This demanded a spirit of give and take..on both sides as Gandhi observed: i'all my life the very insistence

on truth has taught me to appreciate t!te beauty of compromise. Isaw ~n later life that this spirit was an essential part ofsatyagraha."67 In this sense Gandhi's method diverges from themethod of science, which is not based on compromise or give andtake relationship. However, recent studies in the sociology of

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i

I science have shown that scientific knowledge is not an outcome of

,I the impartial and objective experimentation of nature. It is, rather,I! the outcome of the rational consensus evolved among the scientific; i community through the process of negotiation.68

i Although Gandhi advocated "dialogical method" for theI

i realization of truth, he himself violated this methodological principlei, ' when he closed himself off to dialogues on several occasions. In his:.1;': own family he acted as a high-handed patriarch, coercing his wife

..

and sons into following the path he decreed as "true." He often ranhis Ashram in an autocratic manner, disciplining those who did notaccept his dictates.

Gandhi wanted to realize the " absolute truth" not only individually

but also collectively. But the kind of truth he was advocating becameutopian in practice. Can we achieve something which is permanent?asks George Sarton. Will not the notion of freedom, peace, harmony

, and justice change over a period of time? Gandhi had paired his 'means

and ends' methods in transcendental forms making it unattainable in" , its true sprits. While scientific truth is always progressive, it is an

" ,'~ unending process making it compatible with the emergingrequirements and challenges of the each generation.

~ IV. Conclusion: Relevance of Gandhian Approach to Truth

Ii' Gandhi was not orily concerned with the political, economic and social: freedom of the colonial people but also with the moral and spirituali progress of the entire humanity. Therefore, when he advocated "self-

realization of truth" he desired to evolve a consensus on the perceptionof the truth. Gandhi was aware that there cannot be a homogenous

! and universal method for the realization of truth as there are contextual: and temporal variations. However, he believed that once truth is self-

experienced by all people the common understanding among themwill increase and they would feel bonded with one another throughtheir interpersonal "experiential knowledge." Gandhi wanted toachieve "experiential knowledge" which is "inclusive" instead of"scientific knowledge" based on objective and mechanical experimentswhich remains "exclusive."

Gandhi's notion of truth and his method of realizing it have shownthe unique quality of combining "reason" with "faith". He wouldnever accept anything uriless brought to the touchstone of reason andsubjected to scientific inquiry. '~My life is largely governed by reason,"said Gandhi, and "when it fails, it is governed by a superpower forcethat is faith."69 He was against the "instrumental rationality" as the .sole principle governing our life. Rather he emphasized more on the ~,.'..~j,"purity of means and ends." For him the means were as important as 'J

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the ends. It is easier to evolve consensus on the goal but very difficult\ to arrive at consensus on the means to realize it. If there is no consensus

: on the method of inquiry there would be no unanimity on the findingsof inquiry and then people would keep questioning each other'sfindings (truth). Then, truth will keep on changing sides as per itsconvenience which would be dangerous. It is because this variant oftruth would require to be backed by force to assert it. In this situationit is not the truth but the force would be asserted in the name of

\ truth.

r In this sense Gandhi's notion of non-violent truth becomesI .relevant. Truth cannot be violent and it does not need force for itsI manifestation; it is omnipresent and omni felt. Gandhi equated these

features or attributes of truth with God not in any religious sensel which is generally understood in the common parlance. Truth is, embodiment of morality. Truth backed by force can win only the body

of the human beings while non-violent truth ensures winning ofpeople's hearts. Gandhi wanted to realize this truth and he believed

" that once the status of truth is self realized it would be whole heartedlyadopted and practiced by the people without any external force.Gandhi always endeavoured to achieve or realize the higher order of

\ truth and not get stuck in the "relative truths" or "subjective truths"

as some postmodemist scholars argue and he strongly believed thatany kind of relativising and subjectivising of truth may underminethe scope for justice. There can hardly be any mutually acceptedlegitimacy to arbitrate conflicting claims, when consensus irrevocably

\ breaks down, and in that case, might becomes right and power it's, legitimizer.

Gandhi's ideas of combining head and hand, in the practice ofscience and a concern for the welfare of rural people on the partof scientific community is very much relevant for the scientistswho are insulated from the suffering of people in theirsurroundings. Gandhi believed that fruitful and substantive

~ knowledge would be produced only when scientists collaborate, not only with other scientists and researchers but also with the

rural people or lay-men whose life would be directly affected. byt such knowledge. Gandhi preferred improvement of traditional! crafts and skills by using advances in modern science and~ technology.7o This view is reflected when he writes: "1 would prize

every invention of science made for the benefit of all."71 ForGandhi science that eliminates employment without guaranteeingsubstitute work is bad but "the technique that alleviates drudgerylike inventing the sewing machine, would be of first rate".

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It is the era of globalization and economic liberalization and there.is a shift in the cognitive orientation of the scientific community from !

"knowing for its own sake" to "knowing with an eye on patent",72 or '.what Krishna has described as replacement of "science as public good"by "science as market good".73 As a consequence of this trend even

i essential commodities such as life-saving drugs are becoming out of

reach of common people in many countries. In this context Gandhi'sI call for the democratization of science to bring people's knowledge

and techniques in dialogue with the modem science to produce the t

"public science" for the welfare of the entire society requires immed~ate ft

attention of our policy-makers.i

i.if

[.., .Notes and References I

i1. M;K. Gandhi, An Autobiography or The Story of my experiment withtruth,( Ahmadabad: Navjivan Publishing House,1928(2008), pp. xii-xiii.

2. Faraday, Michael Quoted in George Sarton, "Experiments with Truthby Faraday, Darwin and Gandhi", OSIRIS, II, (1954), p. 101.

3. M.K. Gandhi while on his way back to India after attending theRoundTable Conference in 1931 attended a meeting in Switzerland. !At this meeting he was asked a question: What is Truth? In reply to !this question Gandhi admitted that it was "a difficult question."See, M.K. Gandhi, Hindu Dharma, (Ahmedabad: Navjivan PublishingHouse, 1958).

4. Joseph S. Alter, " Gandhi's Body, Gandhi's Truth: Nonviolence and

the Bio moral Imperative of Public Health", The Journal of AsianStudies, 55(2), (1996), pp. 301-322.

5. Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of Science Theoretical and EmpiricalInvestigation, ( Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1973), pp. 232-35.

6. -Richard Rorty, "Solidarity or Objectivity", in J. Rachman and C.West (eds.), Post-Analytic Philosophy, (Columbia: Columbia UniversityPress, 1984).

7. M. K. Gandhi, "Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, (New Delhi: ~Publication Division, Mi!listry of Information and Broadcasting, !Government of India), (1959), Vol. 29, pp. 326-327. Here after referredto as CWMG.

8. Gandhi, M. Ko, The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, (Ahmadabad:

Navjivan Publishing House, 1968), Vol. 4, p. 17. Hereafter referred toas SWMG.

9. Ibid., p. 25.10. E:G. Guba, "The Paradigm Dialogue", in E.G Guba (ed), The Paradigm

Dialogue, (Thousand Oaks CA: Sage, 1990), pp. 17-27.11. .Nick Cier, "Gandhi Philosophy: Pre modern, Modern, or

Postmodern?" Gandhi Marg, 17(3), (1996), pp. 261-268.

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! 12. Upasana Pandey, "Problem with Post Modern Gandhi",

MAINSTREAM. 45(41), (2007), p. 16.

..13. M. K.Gandhi,. An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with

\ Truth, op.cit., p. xiii.

r 14. Ibid., p. xiii.

i 15. Surendra Verma, Metaphysical Foundation of Mahatma Gandhi's

: Thought, (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1970), P. 16.I .16. M.K.Gandhi,. Autobiography, op.cit., P. xi

17. Shiv Visvanathan, "Reinventing Gandhi", in A. Raghuramaraju,

I (ed) Debating Gandhi, (New Delhi: Oxford Universiry Press,2006),

i p. 205.

18. David Hardiman, Gandhi in His Time and Ours, (Delhi: Permanent

Black, 2003), p. 9.

19. Goethe called positive science as "the empirico-mechanico-dogmatic

torture chamber of nature" quoted in.J .S. Uberoi, Scie1:lce and Culture,

(Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 69; Scientists promote

. I the ideology of using science for the domination of nature, and the

use of nature for man's use. Francis Bacon asserted: "Nature has to

be hounded in her wondering bound into service Made a slave I Put in constraint and moulded by mechanical arts." The aim of the

! scientists, Bacon pointed out, "is to torture nature's secrets fromI.

I her.1I Quoted in Kamla Chaudhary, IIGandhi's Truth: Survival in the

l Twenty-first Centaury", Gandhi Marg, 19(1), (1997), p. 392.

\ 20. Roberts Catherine quoted in J. Ananthu, "Some Radical Reflection! on Biologyll, Gandhi Marg, 7(6), (1985), pp. 313.

21. Ibid., p. 315.

22: M. K. Gandh, Quoted in Sarton, George "Experiments with Truth

by Faraday, Darwin and Gandhill. Osiris. Vol. 11(1954), p. 94.

23. M.K. Gandhi, Quoted in Shambhu Prasad, 'Towards an

Understanding of Gandhi's Views on Science' Economic and Political

Weekly, 36(36), (2001), p. 3727.

24. Max Weber, f.'Science as a Vocationll, in H.H. Gerth & C Wright

-Mills,(eds) From Max Weber: Essay In Sociology,(New York: Oxford

University Press,1946), pr. 129-156

25. George Sartonf. "Experiments with Truth by Faraday, Darwin and

Gandhi",. Osiris, Vol. 11, (1954), p. 102.

t 26. The Science and Culture group formed in 1934 by Professor'M.N.

Saha and- J.N. Mukerjee, J.C. Ghosh, S.K. Mitra etc strongly opposed

the Gandhian thinking on science, Technology and industrialization.

This Group also published a journal called by the same name, Science

and Culture and in its editorial columns regularly criticized Gandhian

approach.. However, the group appreciated the genuine concer~s

of Gandhians, but stressed that, IIwe do not for a moment believe

that better and happier conditions of life can be created by discarding .

modern scientific techniques and reverting back to the spinning ..,1wheel, the loin-clothe and the bullock cart. II See, M. N. Saha, "Science ;:

and Culture", Science and Culture, 1(1), (1934), p. 2. ,~

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,.Sctence, Truth and Gandhi: Divergence and Convergence 8 79

i 12. Upasana Pandey, "Problem with Post Modern Gandhi",

MAINSTREAM. 45(41), (2007), p. 16.

..13. M. K.Gandhi,. An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with

\ Truth, op.cit., p. xiii.

r 14. Ibid., p. xiii.

I 15. Surendra Verma, Metaphysical Foundation of Mahatma Gandhi's

: Thought, (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1970), P. 16.I .16. M.K.Gandhi,. Autobiography, op.cit., P. xi

17. Shiv Visvanathan, "Reinventing Gandhi", in A. Raghuramaraju,

(ed) Debating Gandhi, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press,2006),

i p. 205.

18. David Hardiman, Gandhi in His Time and Ours, (Delhi: Permanent

Black, 2003), p. 9.

19. Goethe called positive science as "the empirico-mechanico-dogmatic

torture chamber of nature" quoted in.J .S. Uberoi, Scie':lce and Culture,

(Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 69; Scientists promote

. ' the ideology of using science for the domination of nature, and the

use of nature for man's use. Francis Bacon asserted: "Nature has to

be hounded in her wondering bound into service Made a slave I Put in constraint and moulded by mechanical arts." The aim of the

! scientists, Bacon pointed out, "is to torture nature's secrets from

i her." Quoted in Kamla Chaudhary, "Gandhi's Truth: Survival in the

I Twenty-first Centaury", Gandhi Marg, 19(1), (1997), p. 392.

\ 20. Roberts Catherine quoted in J. Ananthu, "Some Radical Reflection

, on Biology", Gandhi Marg, 7(6), (1985), pp. 313.

21. Ibid., p. 315.

22. M. K. Gandh, Quoted in Sarton, George" Experiments with Truth

by Faraday, Darwin and Gandhi". Osiris. Vol. 11(1954), p. 94.

23. M.K. Gandhi, Quoted in Shambhu Prasad, 'Towards an

Understanding of Gandhi's Views on Science' Economic and Political

Weekly, 36(36), (2001), p. 3727.

24. Max Webe4 "Science as aVocation", in H.H. Gerth & C Wright

-Mills,(eds) From Max Weber: Essay In Sociology,(New York: Oxford

University Press,1946), pf>. 129-156

25. George Sarton, "Experiments with Truth by Faraday, Darwin and

Gandhi",. Osiris, Vol. II, (1954), p. 102.

i 26. The Science and Culture group formed in 1934 by Professor'M.N.

Saha and J.N. Mukerjee, J .C. Ghosh, S.K. Mitra etc strongly opposed

the Gandhian thinking on science, Technology and industrialization.

This Group also published a journal called by the same name, Science

and Culture and in its editorial columns regularly criticized Gandhian

approach.. However, the group appreciated the genuine concerns

of Gandhians, but stressed that, "we do not for a moment believe

that better and happier conditions of life can be created by discarding 4

, modern scientific technjques and reverting back to the spinning .',;'1

wheel, the loin-clothe and the bullock cart." See, M. N. Saha, "Science

and Culture", Science and Culture, 1(1), (1934), p. 2. ;,;~

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27. Shambhu Prasad, "Towards an Understanding of Gandhi's Viewson Science", Economic and Political Weekly, 36(36), (2001), pp. 3721-3731. :

28. JosephS. Alter, "Gandhi's Body, Gandhi's Truth: Nonviolence andBiomoral Imperative of Public Health", The Journal of Asian Studies; !

55{2), (1996),pp. 301-322.29. Quoted in M.S.Adiseshia\:l, "Science and the New Culture",

Leonardo, 1.-3, (1970), p. 449. .:"-.30; Ibid., p. 452. ..

31. M.P. Mathai, "Revisiting Mahatma Gandhi's Nayee Talim or NewBasic Education", Man & Development, 22(4), (2000), p. 141.

32. M.K. Gandhi, quoted in Shambhu C.Prasad. "Science and Technologyin Civil Society Innovation Trajectory of Spirulina Algal Technology",Economic and Political Weekly, October-l, (2005), pp. 4365.

33. CWMG, Vol. 33, p. 401.34.. CWMG, Vol. 82, p.. 368.35. Ziman, J .M. , Public Knowledge: An Essay Concerning the Social

Dimension ofScien.cei (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968),

p.8.36. CWMG, Vol. 48, p. 314.37. Richard G. Fox, Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture, (Boston:

Beacon Press, 1989).38. Ronald J. Terchek, Gandhi Struggling for Autonomy, {Maryland:

Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), p. 7.39. Young India, {May 27, 1926), p. 201.40. Ibid.41. Harijan, Guly 8, 1933), P. 4.42. Arvind Sharma, "What is Truth?", Gandhi Marg, 25(1), (2003),

p.123.43. Ibid., p. 124. [44. Ibid. '

45. Gandhi, M. K. The Story of My Experiment with Truth, op.cit., p. xi., 46. George Sarton, "Experiments with Truth by Faraday, Darwin and

Gandhi", Osiris, 11,(1954), p. 97.47. Unto Tahtinen, "Gandhi on Natural Law", in B.R. Nanda (ed),

Mahatma Gandhi 125 Years Remembering Gandhi, Understanding-Gandhi, Relevance of Gandhi, (New Delhi: ICCR, 1995), pp. 198~205. I48. Shiv Visvanathan, "Reinventing Gandhi", in A. Rahuramaraju (ed), ,

Debating Gandhi A Reader, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006),

p.213.49. CWMG,Vol. 29, pp. 326-327.50. CWMG, Vol. 53, p. 77.

i 51. Shiv Visvanathan, "Reinventing Gandhi", op. cit. p. 213.I 52. M.K. Gandhi, The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi( Ahmedabad;

, Navajivan Publishing House,1968), Vol. 4, p. 401.

53. Young India, (February 28, 1921)54. Roger Garaudy, "Foreword," in Ashis Nandy, Traditions, Tyranny

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and Utopias (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. x.55. M.K.Gandhi, Quoted in. Chadha, Yogesh. 1997. Rediscovering

Gandhi, (London: Centaury Books, 1997), pp. 194-195.56. Ibid., p. 209.57. J. L Nehru, The Discovery of India, (Delhi: Oxford University Press,

1995), p. 476.,; 58. M.K.Gandhi, Autobiography or The story of my experiments with truth,

i op.cit., Part. I, P. 6.: 59. Gandhi, M. K. quoted in Yogesh Chadha, 1997, op.cit., p. 122.i 60. Akeel Bilgrami, " Occidental ism, the Very Idea An Essay on the

i Enlightenment and Enchantment", Economic and Political Weekly,41, (34), (2006), p. 3595.

: 61. Bilgrami made a distinction between a 'thin' and 'thick' notion of, scientific rationality. The thin rationality viewed the nature as 'shot

! through with an inner source of dynamism, which is itself divine.';, , while the notion of 'thick rationality' viewed nature in essentiallyJ predatory terms as something that is to be conquered with nothing

but material gain as its ends. For more details see, Akeel Bilgrami,"Gandhi, Newton and Enlightenment", Social Scientist, October,

l (2006).;f 62. Rudolf C. Heredia, " Interpreting Gandhi's Hind Swaraj", Economic

and Political Weekly, 34 (24), (1999), p. 1497 .63. Young India, (February 14, 1940)64. M. K.Gandhi, Autobiography, or The Story of My Experiments with

Truth, op.cit., Part I , X P. 52.65. Young India, (November 17, 1921), p. 377.66. George Sarton, op.cit., pp. 106-107.67. CWMG, Vol. 44, p. 201.68. Science and Technology studies have shown that science and

technology do not provide a direct route from nature to ideas aboutnature, that the products of science and technology are notthemselves natural rather socially constructed( for detail analysisSee, Karin D. Knorr Cetina , "The Ethnographic Study of ScientificWork: Towards a Constructivist Interpretation of Science", in KarinD Knorr-Cetina and M. Mulkay (eds.), Science Observed: Perspectiveon the Social Study of Science ( London: Sage, 1983), pp. 115-140.,:Steven Yearly, Making Sense of Science Understanding the Social. Studyof Science, (London: Sage Publication, 2005).

69. CWMG, Vol. 52, p. 114.70. Science and Technology Policy document of the Government of India

has indirectly acknowledged the concern of the Gandhi regardingthe cultivation of science for the ,welfare of people. However, theyhave not been translated into any substantive action. For instancethe Technology Policy Statement, 1983 says, 'traditional skills andcapabilities will need to be upgraded and enhanced, using knowledgeand techniques generated by advances in science and technology.'See, Technology Policy Statement,1983,(New Delhi: Department of

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Science and Technology, Gove~nment of India, 1983), p. 8.71. A.T. Hingorani, (ed.), Man vs. Machin~, writings of M. K. Gandhi,

(Bombay: Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1966), p, 73.72. Haribabu, E., "Scientific Knowledge in India: From Public Resources

to Intellectual Property", Sociological Bulletin, 48(182), (1999),pp. 217-233.

73. V. V. Krishna, "Policy Cultures: Changing Policy Cultures, phasesand trends in Science and Technology in India", Science and PublicPolicy, 28(3), (2001), pp. 170-194.

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iMADHA V GOVIND is Assistant Professor, Centre for Studies inScience Policy, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi-ll0067, Mobile: 09868732956,Email: m~ovind [email protected], m~ovind @mail.jnu.ac.in

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