SANREMInnovationLab - USAID

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Feed the Future

SSAANNRREEMM IInnnnoovvaattiioonn LLaabb Annual Report 2013

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Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Collaborative Research on Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management

RReeppoorrtt ccoooorrddiinnaattoorrss:: Adrian Ares, Director Keith M. Moore, Associate Director Jennifer Himmelstein, Assistant Director

This publication was made possible through the United States Agency for International Development and the generous support of the American people under terms of Cooperative Agreement EPP-A-00-04-00013-00.

Feed the Future SANREM Innovation Lab FY2013 2

SANREM Management Entity Michael Bertelsen, Administrative Principal Investigator, Director of Office of International Research, Education, and Development (OIRED) Adrian Ares, Director Keith M. Moore, Associate Director Jennifer Himmelstein, Assistant Director Maria Elisa Christie, Director, Women and Gender in International Development Julia Katz, Editor/Communications Officer Christina Brannan, Administrative and Financial Services Associate

Board of Directors Anne Alexander, Chair, Director of International Programs, University of Wyoming Maria Gallo, Dean of the College of Tropical Agriculture & Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa Guru Ghosh, Vice President for International Affairs, Virginia Tech Gary Piersynski, Interim Dean and Director of the College of Agriculture, Kansas State University William Randle, Dean of the School of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University John Stier, Assistant Dean of the College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, University of Tennessee-Knoxville


Table of Contents SANREM Management Entity ............................................................................... 2

Board of Directors .................................................................................................... 2

List of Figures ........................................................................................................... 6

List of Tables ............................................................................................................ 9

Executive Summary ............................................................................................... 12

Program objectives and strategy ............................................................................................... 12

Phase IV Long-term research award activities (LTRAs) .......................................................... 13 LTRA-6: A Conservation Agriculture Production System Program for the Central Plateau of Haiti ................ 13 LTRA-7: Conservation Agriculture as a Potential Pathway to Better Resource Management, Higher Productivity, and Improved Socioeconomic Conditions in the Andean Region ................................................ 13 LTRA-8: Improving Soil Quality and Crop Productivity through Farmers’ Tested and Recommended Conservation Agricultural Practices in Cropping Systems of West Africa ........................................................ 15 LTRA-9: Developing Sustainable Conservation Agricultural Production Systems for Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa .................................................................................................................................................. 16 LTRA-10: Development and transfer of conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) for smallholder farms in eastern Uganda and western Kenya ..................................................................................................... 18 LTRA-11: Sustainable Management of Agroecological Resources for Tribal Societies (SMARTS) ............... 20 LTRA-12: Conservation Agriculture for Food Security in Cambodia and the Philippines ............................... 21

Phase IV cross-cutting research activities (CCRAs) ................................................................ 25 CCRA-6: Economic Analysis and Impact.......................................................................................................... 25 CCRA-7: Gendered Perspectives for Conservation Agriculture: Local soil knowledge and crop-livestock interaction .......................................................................................................................................................... 26 CCRA-8: Technology Networks Cross-Cutting Research Activity ................................................................... 27 CCRA-9: Soil Carbon and Soil Quality ............................................................................................................. 28

Management Entity activities ................................................................................................... 29 Noteworthy ........................................................................................................................................................ 29 Publications and publicity .................................................................................................................................. 31 SANREM Innovation Lab Knowledgebase ....................................................................................................... 31 Training and institutional development .............................................................................................................. 31

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 32

SANREM Management Entity activities .................................................................................. 32 Communications program .................................................................................................................................. 33 Information products .......................................................................................................................................... 33 SANREM Innovation Lab publicity .................................................................................................................. 34


Phase IV Long-Term Research Award (LTRA) program ................................. 35

LTRA-6: A Conservation Agriculture Production System Program for the Central Plateau of Haiti........................................................................................................................................... 35

Research progress by objective: ..................................................................................................................... 35 Degree and nondegree training activities ........................................................................................................... 40 Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products ................................................................................ 40 Networking activities ......................................................................................................................................... 40 Project highlights ............................................................................................................................................... 41

LTRA-7: Conservation Agriculture as a Potential Pathway to Better Resource Management, Higher Productivity, and Improved Socioeconomic Conditions in the Andean Region .......... 42

Research progress by objective .......................................................................................................................... 42

LTRA-8: Improving Soil Quality and Crop Productivity through Farmers’ Tested and Recommended Conservation Agricultural Practices in Cropping Systems of West Africa ..... 86

Research progress by objective .......................................................................................................................... 86 Degree and nondegree training activities ........................................................................................................... 97 Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products ................................................................................ 97 Networking activities ......................................................................................................................................... 98 Highlights ........................................................................................................................................................... 98

LTRA-9: Developing Sustainable Conservation Agricultural Production Systems for Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa .................................................................................. 99

Research progress by objective .......................................................................................................................... 99 Degree and nondegree training activities ......................................................................................................... 104 Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products .............................................................................. 104 Networking activities ....................................................................................................................................... 104 Highlights ......................................................................................................................................................... 104

LTRA-10: Development and transfer of conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) for smallholder farms in eastern Uganda and western Kenya ................................................ 116

Degree and nondegree training activities ......................................................................................................... 127 Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products .............................................................................. 127 Networking activities ....................................................................................................................................... 127 Gender Equity .................................................................................................................................................. 128 Highlights ......................................................................................................................................................... 128

LTRA-11: CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal .................................................. 139 Research progress by objectives ...................................................................................................................... 139

LTRA-12 Conservation Agriculture for Food Security in Cambodia and the Philippines ..... 163 Research progress by objective ........................................................................................................................ 163 Degree and nondegree training activities ......................................................................................................... 182 Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products .............................................................................. 182


Networking Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 182 Highlights ......................................................................................................................................................... 183

Cross-cutting Research Activities (CCRA) program .......................................184

Economic Analysis and Impact CCRA ................................................................................... 184 Research progress by objective ........................................................................................................................ 184 Degree and nondegree training activitiesnondegree training activities ............................................................ 185 Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products .............................................................................. 186 Networking activities ....................................................................................................................................... 186 Highlights ......................................................................................................................................................... 187

Gendered Perspectives for Conservation Agriculture: Local soil knowledge and crop-livestock rotation .................................................................................................................................... 188

Research progress by objective ........................................................................................................................ 188 Degree and nondegree training activities ......................................................................................................... 196 Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products .............................................................................. 196 Networking activities ....................................................................................................................................... 196 Highlights ......................................................................................................................................................... 197

Technology Networks ............................................................................................................. 198 Research progress by objective ........................................................................................................................ 198 Degree and Nondegree training activities ........................................................................................................ 213 Publications, presentations and other SANREM products ............................................................................... 213 Networking activities ....................................................................................................................................... 213 Highlights ......................................................................................................................................................... 214

Soil Carbon and Soil Quality CCRA ...................................................................................... 215 Research progress by objective ........................................................................................................................ 215 Degree and nondegree training activities ......................................................................................................... 218 Publication, presentations, and other SANREM products ............................................................................... 218 Networking activities ....................................................................................................................................... 218 Highlights ......................................................................................................................................................... 219

Appendixes ............................................................................................................220

Training participants ............................................................................................................... 220

SANREM publications, presentations and other products ..................................................... 242

USAID Common Indicators for SANREM ............................................................................ 259


List of Figures Figure 1. Maize yield in CAPS experiments, 2010-2012 ..................................................................... 37 Figure 2. Design of CAPS Experiments at three sites in the Central Plateau of Haiti. Code: 1,5 = Sesbania; 2, 6 = Sunn hemp; 3,7 = Sorghum-sudan, 4,8 = no cover ................................................... 37 Figure 3. Weed populations within growing cover crops, Feb. 2013 ............................................... 37 Figure 4. Trial (old SANREM) in maize-bean system. Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012. ............................ 47 Figure 5. Nitrogen extracted from bean grain, plant residues and entire plant by treatment (old trial). Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012. ............................................................................................................... 51 Figure 6. New trial, maize-beans system with oats vetch cover. Alumbre-Ecuador, 2013. ........... 51 Figure 7. Total nitrogen in kg/ha. Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012-2013. ..................................................... 53 Figure 8. Total organic carbon in kg/ha. Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012-2013. .......................................... 53 Figure 9. Potentially mineralizable nitrogen (kg/ha). Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012-2013. .................... 54 Figure 10. Old trial, potato-pasture system, including barley, Illangama-Ecuador, 2013. ............ 55 Figure 11. New trial with oats-vetch, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012. ...................................................... 59 Figure 12. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on above ground barley biomass (dry weight per pot) production. ................................................................................................................................. 62 Figure 13. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on total barley P update (P per pot). ............. 62 Figure 14. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on soil pH. ........................................................ 63 Figure 15. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on Mehlich-3 extractable soil P. ..................... 63 Figure 16. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on desorption of soil P. ................................... 64 Figure 17. Potato crop nitrogen uptake estimated by the Nitrogen Index versus observed total nitrogen uptake at harvest (Bolivia potato systems). .......................................................................... 68 Figure 18. Maize crop nitrogen uptake estimated by the Nitrogen Index versus observed total nitrogen uptake at harvest in Ecuador .................................................................................................. 69 Figure 19. Impact of various cropping systems and tillage practices on grain yield of maize harvested in 2012 in Nyoli. ..................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 20. Impact of various tillage systems, fertilizer application and previous crop on grain yield of maize harvested in 2012 in Busa. ............................................................................................. 88 Figure 21. Impact of various water conservation methods on stover and grain yield of maize harvested in 2011 in Nandom. ............................................................................................................... 89 Figure 22. Total biomass, accumulation of carbon and nitrogen in various cover crops at two locations in Manhattan, Kansas. ............................................................................................................ 90 Figure 23. Performance of conservation agricuture cropping system in relation to conventional farmer practices. Note: At Nhamatiquite the second treatment is ripline seeding instead of basins ....................................................................................................................................................... 107 Figure 24. Effect of cropping systems on different legumes planted in rotation with maize. Beans were planted in Gimu to Ulongwe; Soybean at Mussinharo; and Cowpea at Lamego through Malome. .................................................................................................................................... 108 Figure 25. Maize yields on black Vertic Mollisols and red Ultisols. ............................................... 108 Figure 26. Adoption of conservation agriculture and participation in maize markets; Tete and Angonia, Mozambique, 2012. ............................................................................................................... 109


Figure 27. Area-wide adoption curves of individuals using and hectares managed by conservation agriculture in the survey region. .................................................................................. 110 Figure 28. Interaction between access to credit and loans, use of fertilizer and herbicides, and the gender of the primary decision maker and the probability of using conservation agriculture continuously from 2008 – 2011. ............................................................................................................ 110 Figure 29. Partial budget analysis of field trials in Mozambique, 2008 – 2011. ............................. 111 Figure 30. Percent soil organic carbon content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the beginning of the study in Year 1. Results have not yet been subjected to statistical analysis. .................................................................................................................................................................. 124 Figure 31. Percent total nitrogen content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the beginning of the study in Year 1. Results have not yet been subjected to statistical analysis. ... 124 Figure 32. Percent soil organic carbon content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the beginning of the study in Year 2. Results have not yet been subjected to statistical analysis. .................................................................................................................................................................. 125 Figure 33. Percent total nitrogen content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the beginning of the study in Year 2. Results have not yet been subjected to statistical analysis. ... 125 Figure 34. Comparison of maize yield by treatment and year ........................................................ 139 Figure 35. Comparison of mustard yield by treatment and year .................................................... 140 Figure 36. Interaction effect of tillage and intercropping on maize yield over two years ........... 140 Figure 37. Effect of different CAPS on Maize Equivalent Yield (q/ha). Treatments with same lower case letter were not significant at P ≤0.05 ................................................................................ 141 Figure 38. Effect of different CAPS on water stable-macro aggregates ( >0.250 mm) (%) over two years ......................................................................................................................................................... 142 Figure 39. Effect of different CAPS on water stable- micro aggregates (0.053-0.250 mm) (%) over two years. ................................................................................................................................................ 143 Figure 40. Water stable aggregates by village and treatment. ......................................................... 145 Figure 41. Soil Organic matter content for each village by treatment. ........................................... 156 Figure 42. Nitrogen content for each village by treatment. ............................................................. 157 Figure 43. Soil extractable Pc for each village by treatment. ............................................................ 158 Figure 44. Gross profit margin of maize with and without CA (Here referred as DMC) in 2012 .................................................................................................................................................................. 166 Figure 45. Households and surface area in conservation agriculture 2009 to 2013. ..................... 168 Figure 46. Responses of farmers in Rattanak Mundol on why they adopted, abandoned or are not interested in CA. .............................................................................................................................. 168 Figure 47. Prototype no-till seeder built in Thailand. ....................................................................... 169 Figure 48. Maize yields for the Maize + Arachis Pintoi treatment in three farms ........................ 177 Figure 49. Maize yields for the Maize + Stylosanthes guianensis treatment in four farms ......... 177 Figure 50. Maize yield in four pilot villages in 2012 ......................................................................... 178 Figure 51. Evolution of maize yield from 2009 to 2012 ..................................................................... 178 Figure 52. Comparison of CA yield between the CA demonstration plots 1 and 2 and the CA farmer network and plowed plots in 2012 ......................................................................................... 179 Figure 53. Performance of Adlai as a first crop and as a ratooned crop. ....................................... 181


Figure 54. Graph of technology network in Tororo, Uganda. Nodes are scaled and colored according to in-degree measurement. Darker color and larger nodes indicate larger in-degree. .................................................................................................................................................................. 206 Figure 55. Graph of technology network in Tororo, Uganda. Nodes are scaled and colored according to eigenvector centrality measurement. Darker color and larger nodes indicate higher eigenvector centrality value.................................................................................................................. 207 Figure 56. Botha Bothe Agricultural Production Networks and Beliefs about “Tillage Causes Erosion” ................................................................................................................................................... 210

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List of Tables Table 1. Description of CAPS in two cultivation systems, Ecuador ................................................. 43 Table 2. Effects of tillage, crop residue and nitrogen fertilizer on yields of potato and barley treatments in rotational experiments conducted in the Illangama sub-watershed. ....................... 45 Table 3. Effects of tillage, crop residue and nitrogen fertilizer treatments on yields of potato and barley in rotational experiments conducted in the Alumbre sub-watershed, 2012-3. ................... 46 Table 4. Yield response for second maize cycle, vetch/oats bean second and third cycles. Alumbre Ecuador, 2012-2013. ................................................................................................................. 47 Table 5. Means and Tukey test at 5% for yields of corn, oats/vetch and beans (old trial), Alumbre, Ecuador, 2012-2013. ................................................................................................................ 48 Table 6. Dominance analysis for second cycle maize, oats/vetch and beans, Alumbre, Ecuador, 2012-2013. .................................................................................................................................................. 49 Table 7. Means and Tukey test (5%) for soil chemical variables in the bush bean cycle (old trial). Alumbre-Ecuador, 2011. ......................................................................................................................... 50 Table 8. Mean values and Duncan test (at 5%) for maize, biomass (grass and/or oats-vetch), yields of beans (new trial), Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012 - 2013. ............................................................... 52 Table 9. Dominance analysis, new trial, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012 - 2013. ........................................ 54 Table 10. Marginal rate of return, various treatments, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012. ........................... 55 Table 11. Analysis of variance for barley yield, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012 - 2013. .......................... 56 Table 12. Means and Tukey test (α =5%) for barley yield, old trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013. ........................................................................................................................................................... 57 Table 13. Means of physical soil characteristics, old potato-pasture trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012. ........................................................................................................................................................... 58 Table 14. Dominance analysis, old trial, barley, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013. ........................... 59 Table 15. Means and results of Tukey test (@ 5%) for yield, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013. ........................................................................................................................................................... 60 Table 16. Dominance analysis, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013. ...................................... 60 Table 17. Mean values of soil chemistry indicators, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012. ............ 60 Table 18. Physical soil properties, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012. .......................................... 61 Table 19. Location of CA/IPM plots, Illangama, Ecuador, 2013 ........................................................ 70 Table 20. Treatments under study—CA/IPM plots, Illangama, Ecuador, 2013. ............................. 70 Table 21. Means and significance of potato yields in CA-IPM treatments compared to farmer practices, Illangama-Ecuador, 2013. ...................................................................................................... 71 Table 22. Costs of production CA-IPM, Illangama-Ecuador, 2013. .................................................. 72 Table 23. Treatments CA-IPM trials, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2013. ......................................................... 73 Table 24. Costs of production CA-IPM (maize-bean system), Alumbre-Ecuador, 2013. ............... 73 Table 25. Knowledge of soil conservation practices, Alumbre and Illangama-Ecuador, 2012. .... 77 Table 26. Adoption of soil conservation practices, Alumbre and Illangama-Ecuador, 2012. ....... 77 Table 27. Gender and adoption/performance of CA practices, Chimbo-Ecuador, 2012. ............... 78 Table 28. Gender and adoption/performance of CA practices, Chimbo-Ecuador, 2012. ............... 79 Table 29. Effects of different nitrogen rates and covers crop treatments on maize yield and components of maize yield at Ashland Bottoms, Manhattan, Kansas, 2013. .................................. 91


Table 30. Effects of different nitrogen rates and covers crop treatments on maize yield and components of maize yield at North Farm, Manhattan, Kansas, 2013. ............................................ 91 Table 31. Effects of tillage systems and previous crop on maize stover and grain yields in Nyoli (n=15) harvested in 2012. Statistical significance limit was P≤0.05. Means within a column followed by similar upper case or rows followed by lower case letters are not significant ......... 92 Table 32. Effect of tillage, crop rotation and fertilizer application on grain yield of soybean in baby trials at Busa-Tanzu (n=12) harvested in 2012. Statistical significance limit was P≤0.05...... 92 Table 33. Effects of soil and water conservation practices on maize grain and stover yields in baby-trials in Nandom (n=15), harvested in 2012. ............................................................................... 93 Table 34. Partial budget of conventional tillage and minimum tillage practices with fertilizer management at Nyoli. ............................................................................................................................. 95 Table 35. Partial budget of CT and NT practices with fertilizer management at Nyoli. ............... 95 Table 36. Partial budget of CT and NT practices with fertilizer management at Nyoli. ............... 96 Table 37. Means comparison of conservation agriculture adopters and non-adopters, Angonia and Tete, Mozambique, 2012. ............................................................................................................... 105 Table 38. Univariate comparison of household wellbeing indices among adopters and non-adopters of conservation agriculture technologies, Angonia and Buare, Mozambique, 2012. ... 106 Table 39. Logistical regression on conservation agriculture adoption on household demographic factors and farm characteristics, Lesotho. .......................................................................................... 106 Table 40. Regression esimates for input demand and market prices, Lesotho. ............................ 107 Table 41. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Kitale and Kapchorwa on-station trials .......................................................................................... 121 Table 42. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Kitale and Kapchorwa on-farm trials. ............................................................................................ 121 Table 43. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Bungoma on-station trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing). .................................. 122 Table 44. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Bungoma on-farm trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing). ...................................... 122 Table 45. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Tororo on-station trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing). ....................................... 122 Table 46. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Tororo on-farm trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing). ........................................... 123 Table 47. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of cropping practices in Bungoma on-station trials; ............................................................................................... 123 Table 48. Revised on-farm research design to include cover crops (Among 8 farmers, we will do this with 4 farmers in each village) ...................................................................................................... 144 Table 49. Farmers involved in the on-farm workshops to implement selected and preferred CAPS in the study sites ......................................................................................................................... 149 Table 50. Yield of maize, millet and legumes and maize equivalent yield (t/ha) in 2011, 2012 and 2013 in on-farm CAPS experimental trials in the central mid-hills of Nepal. ............................... 151 Table 51. Profitability analysis of different CAPS systems in three villages in central mid-hills of Nepal ........................................................................................................................................................ 158 Table 52. Grain yield and other agronomic performance of maize ................................................ 170


Table 53. Yield in kg/ha of CA based crops succession implemented on the 1st demonstration plot (2009 to 2012). ................................................................................................................................. 173 Table 54. Yield in kg/ha CA based crops succession implemented on the second demonstration plot (2011 to 2012). ................................................................................................................................. 174 Table 55: Mean scores for level of agreement on farming mindset factors for Botha Bothe service sector/community agents and farmers in different agro-ecologies ................................................ 200 Table 56. Information and resource network degree by agro-ecology ........................................... 202 Table 57. Percentage of farmers reporting resource contacts by agro-ecology ............................. 202 Table 58. Percentage of farmers reporting information contacts by agro-ecology ....................... 203 Table 59. In-degree scores for service sector and community-based actors .................................. 205 Table 60. Eigenvector centrality scores for service sector and community-based actors ............ 207 Table 61. Long-term degree trainees ................................................................................................... 220 Table 62. Nondegree training activities .............................................................................................. 226 Table 63. USAID Common Indicators ................................................................................................. 259


Executive Summary The Feed the Future SANREM Innovation Lab promotes stakeholder empowerment and improved livelihoods through the discovery, organization, and dissemination of sustainable agriculture (SA) and natural resource management (NRM) knowledge. The approach is participatory, engaging stakeholders at all levels in research problem formulation within priority areas of inquiry, focusing on multiple countries and/or regions to facilitate scaling research findings up and out. Program efforts are competitively driven and organized through a nested landscape systems approach. Gender sensitivity is integral to the SANREM approach and reinforced by gender-sensitive participant training programs that include degree and non-degree plans. All activities link sustainable NRM with the economic concerns of local populations and the promotion of good governance. Program objectives and strategy The objectives of the SANREM program are to:

• increase scientific knowledge and technical innovations in SA and NRM • improve knowledge management, education, and communication leading to behavioral

changes in adaptation and adoption of new SA and NRM technologies and practices • reform and strengthen SA and NRM governance, policies, and local institutions • promote the functioning of sustainable resource-based local enterprises in national,

regional, and global markets

The majority of SANREM research is conducted through its Long-term Research Award (LTRA) programs. The SANREM Phase IV LTRA activities were initiated in 2010 and this annual report describes their accomplishments from October 1, 2012 to September 30, 2013. Each of the projects has established a set of field trials testing their ‘best bet’ CAPS practices and initial findings are emerging. On-farm and on-station research trials were established nearly simultaneously in most sites. The annual report also reports on progress of the four cross-cutting research activities (CCRAs) dealing with economic impact analysis, gendered knowledge, soil quality and carbon sequestration, and technology networks, and describes the accomplishments of the management entity (ME) during FY 2013.


Phase IV Long-term research award activities (LTRAs) LTRA-6: A Conservation Agriculture Production System Program for the Central Plateau of Haiti Principal investigator: Thomas Thompson, professor and department head, Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech

Project partners: Virginia Tech (lead), Caritas/Hinche, Zanmi Agrikol The goal of this LTRA project is to understand the socioeconomic and biophysical constraints to CAPS (Conservation Agriculture Production Systems) adaptation and adoption in the Central Plateau of Haiti, to design and test strategies to work around those barriers in ways that increase agricultural productivity, and to work with smallholders to discover pathways to adoption. We are focusing on CAPS systems that include crop rotation, reduced tillage, and cover crops. Four team members traveled to the Central Plateau on five trips during FY 2013. Meetings carried out in Haiti have strengthened ties with our in-country partners. One Ph.D. student involved with the project continues to make progress, and a new M.S. student joined the project during 2012. During November 2012, the second season of CAPS experiments were initiated at three sites in the Central Plateau. During May-June 2013, a local maize cultivar was planted into the CAPS plots. Maize was harvested in Sep.-Oct. 2013, and cover crops will be re-planted into the CAPS plots, to initiate the third season of CAPS experiments. Train-the-trainer workshops featuring CAPS techniques and advanced maize cultivars were attended by more than 75 individuals (agronomists, technicians, students) at Corporant, Lachateau, and Maissade during January 2013. Significant success has been achieved during the past year in the following: 1) a second successful season of replicated CAPS experiments carried out by our Haitian partners, 2) new contacts with NGOs and other groups interested in conservation agriculture in Haiti, and 3) successful and well-attended train-the-trainer CAPS workshops. LTRA-7: Conservation Agriculture as a Potential Pathway to Better Resource Management, Higher Productivity, and Improved Socioeconomic Conditions in the Andean Region Principal investigator: Jeffrey Alwang, professor, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, Virginia Tech Project Partners: Virginia Tech (lead), Penn State University, University of Denver, U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Plant Nutrient Research Unit, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), International Plant Nutrition Institute, Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (SENACYT), Universidad Estatal de Bolívar (UEB), Escuela Superior Politécnica del Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Secretaría Nacional del Agua (SENAGUA), Gobierno de la Provincia de Bolívar (GBP), Alcaldía de Guaranda y Chillanes Sistema de


Información Geográfica Agropecuaria (SIGAGRO-MAG), Fundación para la Promoción e Investigación de Productos Andinos (PROINPA), Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Centro Regional Avaroa, Sindicato Agrario Tiraque, and Alcaldía de Tiraque This project is testing the concept of conservation agriculture (CA) for smallholder farmers in high-altitude, fragile areas of the Andean Region (Ecuador and Bolivia1). As the concept is being tested and successful conservation agricultural production systems (CAPS) are identified, the project will diffuse CAPS in project areas and other sites. The research is evaluating CAPS based on impacts on: soil health and productivity, farm incomes and their variability, food security, gender relations and other social considerations. CA trials were established, and results show the promise of CA. In most cases CA treatments have equal or higher yields, lower costs, and positive impacts on soil health, compared to farmer practices. While measures of soil chemistry as yet show only insignificant differences among treatments, some significant differences in physical characteristics are emerging. In the upper (Illangama) watershed in Ecuador, potatoes are the main staple, and agricultural productivity is constrained by poor soil conditions and erratic rainfall. The lower Ecuador watershed (Alumbre) is characterized by warmer temperatures, a predominance of maize and beans, very poor soil quality, low and declining productivity, low incomes and high poverty. SANREM researchers have built a strong base of collaboration with local stakeholders and identified a number of agricultural technologies with potential for incorporation in the CAPS. We now are: (i) using established research designs for on-farm CA experiments; (ii) continuing baseline evaluations of soils and socioeconomic conditions; (iii) collecting cost and economic information from our experiments—some evaluation is presented below; (iv) working collaboratively with partners at INIAP who now have a functioning soils laboratory; (v) using a nitrogen index tool calibrated for conditions in the Andes-- farmers and technicians are able to better evaluate and manage soil fertility; and (vi) solidifying networks between researchers and other stakeholders to facilitate research and generate local buy-in. Our field research is ongoing as research plots are established on farmer fields and we are entering the new agricultural cycle. In both sites, the principal planting periods occur in September-November. Plots have also been established for erosion trials. During the prior SANREM phase, we examined the relationship between management practices and erosion on small-scale erosion trials. We have altered these trials to reflect our most-likely CAPS and we are using them to measure erosion under different CAPS alternatives. Along with the CA work, we have field trials and laboratory experiments to examine cost-of-production-reducing biological agents for pest and disease control and to stimulate plant growth. We have published numerous refereed journal articles including papers: on market access and gendered decision making, on impacts of access to cellular telephones on potato market choice, 1 Due to political issues, USAID no longer supports the Bolivian research and only partial-year results are being presented.


on biological control of plant diseases, and on diversification over space as a means of mitigating agricultural risks. Two book chapters have been published in the last year. A special edition of the research journal Revista de Agricultura (Bolivia) included ten articles on different dimensions of our research. We have additional articles published in other journals and have publications under review. We have identified a publication plan for our current research. Our training program has proceeded according to plans. We have three female students and one male long-term graduate student, who have started their programs at US universities. We have worked with our partner institutions to identify long-term training needs. A highly successful MS student at Penn State finished and has moved on to doctoral studies at Ohio State. We are involving Virginia Tech undergraduate honors students in the research in Ecuador. These young professionals are being trained in soil evaluation and other laboratory techniques, field experiment design, project administration, and collaboration with multiple stakeholders. This capacity strengthening represents a major output of the project. We have completed a number of important short-term training exercises. This year we had a successful Virginia Tech-SANREM undergraduate research internship program. Six outstanding (female) undergraduates took a semester long internship seminar, and then spent six weeks in Ecuador collecting data on farmer preferences for conservation agriculture. We have established important networks between participating scientists, our research team and local stakeholders. All participating U.S. scientists have established primary contact points with host-country researchers and are now engaged in collaborative research. Our USDA-ERS scientist (Jorge Delgado) visited Ecuador and continues his long-term engagement with local scientists. In Ecuador, a partnership has emerged between the research team, the Bolivar Provincial government, the Guaranda city government, the local University (where Carlos Monar, former SANREM researcher is now an academic dean) and local government and farmer groups. We have established seven model farms where ongoing research is being conducted. Neighboring farmers visit these farms for informational purposes or to participate in research activities. LTRA-8: Improving Soil Quality and Crop Productivity through Farmers’ Tested and Recommended Conservation Agricultural Practices in Cropping Systems of West Africa Principal investigator: P.V. Vara Prasad, associate professor, Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University Project Partners: Kansas State University (lead), Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), Wa Polytechnic, Institut d’Economie Rurale du Mali (IER)

Soils in northern Ghana generally have low soil fertility and low soil organic carbon. Similarly, productivity of food grain crops in this region is low due to biophysical and socioeconomic conditions. Therefore, there is a need for development of improved and efficient crop management practices included in sustainable and intensive conservation agricultural


production systems (CAPS). We evaluated several crop, soil and water management practices in farmer’s fields (both long term mother tests with multiple treatments; and short term baby tests with selected components of CAPS by farmers). Our research has shown that with improved fertilizer and water management practices, minimum tillage produced yields similar to those of conventional tillage, in most tests. The results of cropping systems were variable, in some years sole crops of maize or soybean produced greater yields, while in others intercropping produced similar or higher yields, in both conventional tillage or minimum tillage treatments. For maize, conventional tillage produced higher grain yield in several locations, this was mainly due to ineffective weed control. This suggests a need for optimization and development of efficient weed management practices in conjunction with CAPS. Among various nutrient management practices, application of compound fertilizer (NPK, 37:16:31 kg/ha, respectively) or application of inorganic P fertilizer only (26 kg P/ha) produced similar and significantly higher yields of maize and soybean compared to the no fertilizer control, under all tillage practices. Soil and water management practices also significantly influenced grain yield of maize. Planting crops on tied ridges produced significantly higher grain yield than planting on flat beds, either with or without strips of grass or Gliricidia, in all locations. Results of preliminary economic analysis showed CAPS entail savings in labor and costs that are associated with cultivation compared to conventional tillage practices. These conclusions are supported by the research results derived this last-year, from these locations. Overall, these results suggest opportunities exist for developing location appropriate tillage, weed, fertilizer and soil and water conservation practices which optimize and enhance CAPS, furthering it as a superior alternative to conventional tillage systems. LTRA-9: Developing Sustainable Conservation Agricultural Production Systems for Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa Principal investigator: Neal Eash, associate professor and soil scientist, Department of Biosystems Engineering and Soil Science, University of Tennessee (UT)

Project partners: University of Tennessee (lead), National University of Lesotho, Global Conservation Agriculture Program, Centro Internacional Para el Mejoramiento del Maíz y el Trigo (CIMMYT), Growing Nations

In the fourth year of the project, our implementation schedule for completing objectives 1, 2, 3, 4a, and 4b were on track for completion in both Lesotho and Mozambique. At the project outset our CAPS goals were to: measure carbon sequestration rates in real—time (Objective 1), integrate cover crops into CAPS and determine their carbon and nitrogen contributions (Objective 3), determine best agronomic practices for maize which is the main cereal crop (fertilizer rates, planting date, and weed and pest control as outlined in Objective 2), and determine how CAPS impacts gender, household food security, and labor allocations (Objectives 4a and 4b). For Objective 1, at the outset we began monitoring soil carbon dioxide (CO2) flux using a Bowen’s Ratio Energy Balance (BREB) system in both conventionally tilled (CT) and no-till (NT)


managed systems. After three years of monitoring the CT—NT comparison, a new experiment was designed (2013) to measure the effects of cover crops and tillage (four BREB units; two tillage treatments, and two cover crops with maize during the main growing season). A manuscript on the BREB data from two student theses.was submitted for publication. Since October 2011, we have upscaled our efforts in Lesotho and Mozambique with an increased emphasis in Mozambique due to its inclusion in the Feed the Future initiative. In Mozambique, we are upscaling research and demonstrations in both the Manica and Sofala provinces. Ox-drawn planters and planting hoes were purchased for both the Mozambique and Lesotho projects. In Lesotho, our work with Objective 1 is almost complete, with the exception of the submission of journal publications and the analysis of Year 5 soil samples. Through leveraged funding, our partners are collaboratively evaluating rolling NT planters that can be operated by only human power, as well as animal draft. Although the field calibration and correlation for the major N-P-K needs in maize is completed in Lesotho we plan to work this last year on adapting this research to farmer yield expectations and economic and fertilizer resource availability. This N-P-K work will continue in Mozambique. At both sites research has been and continues to be conducted using both no-till and basin treatments although in Lesotho the need for high planting populations in the fertilizer trial research mandated that these plots be machine planted. In Lesotho, we have initiated a grazing study with horses to assess how much grazing can occur on the cover crops during the winter season. This grazing study is important because it incorporates livestock into the farming system and evaluates removal intensity on overall nutrient and soil sustainability. This study was initiated in July 2013 and results should be available for the final report in 2014. Concurrent with initiating this research for Objective 1, we completed baseline surveys (2010) to provide feedback for Objective 2 and allow the data analysis of Objective 4 to begin. A paper from this work was submitted to the Journal of Sustainable Agriculture in August, 2013. Univariate analyses suggest that households practicing CA are relatively more endowed with farm assets and livestock than conventional farmers, and have access to better building materials for their homes. Households that had adopted CA were the largest group in the market. In Lesotho, factors influencing the CAS adoption decision included agricultural training, field size, education of the household head, the percent of household members between age 15 to 55, walking distance to fields and income from livestock. The stability of CAPS developed during this project stood the test of extreme weather events as record yields in maize were obtained in both on-station and on-farm trials and demonstrations alike. During our visit in July 2013, we found that in the same period and regions of project operations, yield averages ranged from 6 to 7 tons per hectare against the backdrop of nationally reported disastrous crop failures. During the July 2013 visit, PI’s met with project collaborators, discussed project progression with actors in the local supply chain, and developed a list of priorities for further upscaling via on-farm demonstrations. In Lesotho, our


collaborator has developed a plan for upscaling farm level activities in the 2013-2014 seasons that includes leveraging collaborative links with the Lesotho Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security and NGOs. A number of field days and workshops were held at Maphutseng, Lesotho by project cooperators to highlight the work that is being conducted on CA. In Mozambique our cooperators hosted many field days, numerous workshops (details on Form 17), and meetings that were well attended by extension personnel and local farmers. The field days were attended by representatives from various UN organizations including the FAO and UNDP, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, and other NGOs. Overall more than 10,000 farmers participated in trainings hosted by this project, for a per farmer training cost of less than $100 per farmer-all costs included. Our collaborator in Lesotho, Makoala Marake, has incorporated results from this work into both secondary and post-secondary school curricula and has provided input on CA research at the national level. In Lesotho, considerable dialogue occurred with the U.S. Ambassador to Lesotho regarding results and implications of this project. For example, in Lesotho, no-till maize with fertilizer is projected to generate $7.5 million per year in economic surplus, assuming a 5% adoption rate among current maize producers. Over a twelve year planning horizon, the economic surplus model projects a net present value of $38 million. Four students completed theses as of 2013 with five more on schedule to complete their graduate studies in spring 2014. The success of this project has resulted in leveraged funding from the Feed the Future Africa RISING project in Ethiopia ($278,885 funded; $64,155 UT share) and a $100,000 seed grant for planter development for Growing Nations from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. If the seed grant demonstrates success, $1,000,000 will be awarded to continue the work. LTRA-10: Development and transfer of conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) for smallholder farms in eastern Uganda and western Kenya Principal investigator: Jay Norton, assistant professor of soil fertility, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Wyoming Project partners: University of Wyoming (lead), Makerere University, SACRED Africa, AT Uganda, Eldoret University (formerly Moi University), Manor House Agricultural Center (MHAC) During year 4 we remained on schedule in implementing objectives 1, 2, and 3 of our Conservation Agriculture Production Systems (CAPS) development and implementation project in Kenya and Uganda. For objective 1, compilation and analysis of the baseline survey data was completed and published in the M.S. thesis of Moses Obbo at the University of Wyoming. The survey revealed several factors that encouraged and/or discouraged participation and/or adoption of CA technologies including land ownership, use of off-farm inputs, wealth, and exposure to experimentation with new technologies. Marketing research


survey training and data collection were also undertaken. The marketing survey was used when interviewing input suppliers, farmer groups, bulking agents, millers, mobile banking agents and institutional buyers to determine the challenges that individuals at different points in the farm produce marketing channel face. The survey revealed that poor infrastructure, lack of continuity of funded projects, mistrust among stakeholders, access to agricultural inputs, high bank interest rates, and limited mobile banking facilities constrained efficient marketing channels in the study area. For objective 2, Reflection and Training Workshops were led by field research personnel as an on-going tool to discuss and reflect upon the performance of trials in previous seasons, and to gauge farmers’ evolving understanding and acceptance of CA options. One recent M.S. graduate and one M.S. student, both Agricultural Economic majors, facilitated economic impact survey interviews with farmers in each of the project sites, including observations on the performance of CAPS compared to conventional practices. The multifunction farm implement (MFI) was crucial in establishing two up-scaled strip intercropping projects with two host farmers in Kenya and will be used in subsequent minimum tillage operations, including weeding. For objective 3, we collected agronomic data and successfully prepared for planting in each of the nine treatments at each of the 20 study areas for the third phase of implementation of the study. However, planting in Kenya was postponed because of a delay in the onset of rains. Preliminary first and second year agronomic data, suggesting that traditional/conventional tillage practices in most of the study sites may not be as critical as generally believed, were shared among stakeholders at reflection workshops. These results were also shared among farmers and other stakeholders during a successful field day carried out at Manor House on September 12, 2013, in response to farmers’ request to participate in farmer-to-farmer exchange visits with their counter-parts at other sites, to learn from each other, and familiarize themselves with what others were involved in. The field day attracted 160 participants, 24 of whom were host farmers and members of farmer groups from Uganda, 16 from Kenya, and a host of stakeholder representatives from, among others, Eldoret University, the Kenya Government Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya Seed Company limited, Syngenta and other Agrovet dealers, Twiga Chemicals, various other farmers’ groups, two local community radio service representatives, and members of the Trans-Nzoia County Stakeholders Forum. Other preliminary results highlighted during the field day included a general trend at most sites showing no differences between CA and conventional tillage practices, enhanced maize yields in strip intercropping rotation that included a Mucuna cover crop, as well as an improvement in soil properties. Poor establishment of Mucuna in Kapchorwa continued to pose a serious challenge and efforts to identify alternative cover crops intensified. The six Kenyan and Ugandan graduate students involved in the project have all taken active roles in each stage and visit all sites and participating farmers frequently.


LTRA-11: Sustainable Management of Agroecological Resources for Tribal Societies (SMARTS) Principal investigator: Catherine Chan-Halbrendt, professor and chair of the Department of Natural Resource and Environmental Management, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa Project partners: University of Hawaii at Manoa (lead), Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research, and Development (LI-BIRD), Orissa University of Agricultural Technology, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) of Tribhuvan University In India, minimum tillage along with maize plus cowpea intercropping continues as promising CAPS among tribal farmers due to improved yield and increased income. An Analytic Hierarchy Process workshop, conducted after farm trials, revealed demonstration trials resulted in increased farmer comprehension of CAPS contributions to improving soil quality. The scaling up of CAPS is displayed by the increase in the number of participating farmers in our trials for both Tentuli and Talachampei, and also the addition of a new village to our on farm trials. The number of farmers participating in the Tentuli village has increased from 20 (during 2011-12) to 30 (as of August 2013) and in Talachmpei, from 10 (2012-13) to 26 (as of August 2013). Another village, Bayakumutia has 20 additional farmers practicing CAPS in their fields since August 2013. Thus, for the 2012-13 periods, trial participation was enlarged by 56 farmers, with an increase of 58,620 m2 of experimental plot area. Also, the Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) of Mayurbhanj district (Government of Odisha Agency) has sanctioned a plan for adopting maize-based CAPS with maize + cowpea intercropping in 1,000 ha in other tribal villages of the North Central Plateau zone of Odisha. Data has been collected and is being analyzed in regards to the effect of CAPS on different soil properties. The results will be helpful in assessing whether there are any changes in soil properties or not and if there is, then by how much and where they are occurring in the soil. The data trends will also be helpful is seeing the impact of continuously implementing CAPS over the years. In Nepal, on-farm CAPS evaluation trial include four treatments i.e. i) maize followed by sole millet with conventional tillage (CT), ii) maize followed by sole legume with CT, iii) maize followed by millet and legume intercropping with CT, and iv) maize followed by millet and legume intercrop with strip tillage (ST). The results of on-farm CAPS trials showed that there was a noteworthy trend of lower maize yields in strip tillage (ST) plots as compared to conventional tillage (CT) plots, but it was statistically not significant. Both millet and black gram yield in intercropping plots was significantly lower than in sole crop plots. This was because the plant density of a single crop was higher in the sole crop fields as compared to the intercropped fields where, two crops were grown together, at a lower planting density. However, yields of millet and black gram, when they were intercropped were not significantly


different between conventional and strip tillage treatments. Thus, it was concluded that ST did not reduce the yield of any of the crops. Economic analyses found that the maize-legume system is the most profitable system. Taking traditional maize-millet under CT as a benchmark, every other CAPS option under evaluation generated higher profitability in 2011 and 2012. The results of analysis of soil samples taken at three different sampling times including baseline soil samples collected in 2011, the 2nd set of soil samples collected after 6 months (following two crop cycle), and soil samples taken after 2 years, indicated that CAPS treatments are not yet manifested in the measured soil parameters. Moreover, water stable aggregates analysis conducted in 2013 also did not show any significant differences among CAPS treatments though mean WSA percentages were slightly greater for ST compared to CT. The results of the gender survey showed that women’s share in agricultural labor in Nepal increases by 2.17% and 0.91% with intercropping and intercropping with minimum tillage treatments, respectively. CAPS have been taken as a strategy to build resilience of agro-ecosystem in the context of climate change by integrating it into at least 16 community adaptation plans for action (LAPAs). There are currently three Ph.D. students at the University of Hawaii (2 female, 1 male) working with LTRA-11. Additionally, there are two project fellows in India (1 female, 1 male) and three project fellows in Nepal (1 female, 2 male). Over the past year, 8 graduate students have completed their studies with the project. This includes students from the University of Hawaii (1 male), Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology (3 female, 1 male), and the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (1 female, 2 male). Three researchers from host countries (1 from India and 2 from Nepal) visited Hawaii to observe sustainable agricultural practices, engage in project activities such as the review of project accomplishments, planning of future activities and discussions on the further strengthening of CA with agroforestry/plantation crop activities. The F-CASA conference, sponsored by LIBIRD and the SANREM Innovation Lab, engaged the participation of 16 project supported students (5 UH, 2 OUAT, 8 IAAS, 1 Institute of Forestry (IOF)). The conference helped build the capacity of the students by giving them the opportunity to present their research at a professional level. One student from UH attended the ACS conference held in Cincinnati, Ohio during October 21-24, 2013. The SANREM project also supported two UHM students in attending the International Food and Agribusiness Management Association (IFAMA) Academic Symposium on June 17-18, 2013 in Atlanta, Georgia, where they presented papers and competed in a student business case competition, with the team winning 2nd place. LTRA-12: Conservation Agriculture for Food Security in Cambodia and the Philippines Principal investigator: Manuel R. Reyes, professor, biological engineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University (NCA&T)


Project partners: North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University (lead), U.S. Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service East National Tech Support Center, Royal University of Agriculture of Cambodia, Centre de Cooperation International en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), University of the Philippines-Los Baños, Landcare Foundation of the Philippines Year 4 progress demonstrated the promising potential of conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) for food security in Cambodia and the Philippines. In Cambodia, 2012 results showed lower yields of maize in CAPS compared with maize grown in plow-based systems, yet most CA participating farmers continued practicing CAPS in 2013. Although an unexpected drought in July caused CAPS treatment plots to have lower yields, participant farmers are convinced that CAPS work. CAPS pilot extension participation increased and due to lack of resources we needed to turn down requests from other villages to apply CAPS on their farms. In Cambodia, we started a women farmer managed research project on applying CAPS for vegetable production in homes at Siem Reap, Cambodia. Initial results were promising, with the women immediately benefiting from reductions in labor due to no hoeing. Vegetable yield was not different from hoed and CAPS treated plots. In the Philippines, Year 5 maize grain yields with CAPS treatments were generally higher than that in plow-based system. Maize + Arachis pintoi showed highest total biomass among the five treatments, with maize as the main crop. Stylosanthes guanensis and Arachis pintoi were found to be promising legume cover crops. However, difficulty in reestablishing Stylo and lack of seeds makes its prospect for adoption less likely than for Arachis. We measured increasing maize yield in Arachis treatments and took into consideration the additional benefits of Arachis as permanent living mulch, including biomass cut and then fed to pigs, chickens, cattle and goats. Gross profit margin for CAPS were much higher than in plow based treatments, especially for maize-rice-cowpea CAPS and Arachis pintoi CAPS. Arachis as a component of CAPS has promise because cost is reduced since it is already permanently established. Furthermore, it was observed that Arachis pintoi does not detrimentally decrease maize yield. Like results from year 3, a general comparison of five CAPS treatments with a plow-based treatment indicated possible signs of soil quality improvement under CAPS. Results that support this included: a) soil organic matter at the top 5 cm was higher in CAPS plots than in plow-based system; b) soil pH at the top 5 cm of soil was higher in CAPS than in plow-based, with pH from CAPS increasing and pH from plow-based system decreasing, and c) CAPS residual soil moisture contents were significantly higher than that of plow-based systems. Different varieties of “Adlai” (Coix lacryma-jobi L.) were evaluated for production after first rattooning. Adlai, which belongs to the family of grasses, the same as wheat, maize, and rice, is a very promising crop because of its potential as a food and feed source and possibly also because of its medicinal properties. Adlai can be a ‘fallow’ crop and will be good to integrate into CAPS. We found out that after the first rattoon, the Ginampay variety yielded the best at 3.90 t/ha but this was not statistically different from yield of the Kiboa and Tapol varieties.


In 2012, CA gross profit margin in Cambodia was lower than in the plowed system. Most farmers in Cambodia, despite the lower GPM of CA, relayed that they will still continue to practice CA because of lower input costs and because of extension services provided by SANREM. Gross profit margin for CA practices in the Philippines was higher than that of plow based systems. Minimal and no-till corn production systems are increasingly being adopted in Northern Mindanao. Less labor was the main factor that motivated farmers in adopting no-till technology. A gender literature review indicated that CA benefits women and men due to a decreased labor burden and also lower production costs. As CA is developed for agronomic crops, it is essential that for nutritional security, micronutrient needs of households are met through vegetable and fruit production, a task usually done by women. Hence, CA for vegetable and fruit production should also be developed. Therefore, we started a project specifically focused on CA for vegetable production with women farmers in 2013. With funding from SANREM and several other international agencies and partnership from several Philippine institutions, a Conservation Agriculture with Trees (CAT) center was established at SANREM’s researcher-managed site located in Claveria, Mindanao. The CAT Center was visited by Philippine and international scientists and may emerge as a CAT Center for Southeast Asia (SEA). We studied reasons for why farmers continued, abandoned or got disinterested in CA. We found that smaller farms have difficulty adopting CAPS due to capital and land constraints, making CA seemingly unprofitable and too risky. SANREM team researched and tested no tillage machinery and tools to recommend for 2014. An affordable machine, manufactured in Thailand, will be used in Cambodia, while a simple modified machete will be recommended in the Philippines. CA has very good prospects in both countries. We must follow up on what we have already done, with consistent support for education, research, and extension to farmers. We need to integrate CA into curricula at universities in both countries; move funds and redirect scientist to do applied CA research, and provide extension and subsidies to farmers who will adopt CA. Providing training and assistance in retooling farm machinery and tools for CA adoption is urgently needed. We are connecting with key universities in both countries to increase CA capacity in their curricula. Three Ph.D. students supported by SANREM: a U.S., a Cambodian and a Filipino are studying at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University (NCA&T). In addition, SANREM is supporting another Ph.D. student studying in the Philippines and is supporting three Cambodian undergraduate students interning at our sites that are working on their thesis. Our team is organizing the Fourth International Conservation Agriculture Conference in Southeast Asia to be held at the University of Battambang, Battambang, Cambodia in December of 2013 and SANREM is the major sponsor. Numerous opportunities for networking will take place,


including a meeting with key government officials in Cambodia, who may push for the spread of CA in the country; and establish in Cambodia a Center for CA in Southeast Asia. We published a book on the proceedings of the second international CA conference in SEA. In addition, the third Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) international conference for SEA was held in Bogor, Indonesia June 2013. SANREM phase III was instrumental in extending SWAT in Southeast Asia and SANREM IV is still a partner as well. As a spin-off, CAPS experimental studies for urban home vegetable production, funded by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency, has been set-up and continued at the campus of North Carolina Agricultural & Technical State and in campuses of eight high schools, a middle school and an elementary school. We are providing experiential training to K-12, especially high school students; undergraduate and graduate students and have began integrating SANREM concepts related to CA like biomass, crop yield, and soil quality into the curriculum. A soil quality scientist from the USDA conducted soil quality training with high school students and the PI has been visiting two high schools to present an introduction to CA in their science courses. Lastly, a proposal got funded by the USDA on vegetable production with and without CA and with and without high tunnels for small farmers in North Carolina; and a concept note got approved by the HORT Innovation Lab for CA as a tool to harvest rain for vegetable production in Honduras and Guatemala.


Phase IV cross-cutting research activities (CCRAs) CCRA-6: Economic Analysis and Impact The focus of the Economic Impact CCRA during the past year was (1) collaboration with the regional LTRAs to continue compiling data that permit overall economic impact analyses of SANREM Phase IV, (2) research to address factors affecting adoption of conservation agriculture, and (3) work with LTRAs to assess optimal Conservation Agriculture (CA) practices in certain sites. The first activity fills the need to assess the profitability of the CA Production Systems (CAPS), as that will likely affect their adoption and spread in the study regions. Budgets were constructed for several sites to assess short run profitability of CA practices. CAPS budget data collected from the regional programs were combined with a range of CA adoption projections and supply and demand elasticities to project aggregate benefits of CAPS. Annual economic benefits of $1.5 to $7.7 million per year were projected for CA in Nepal if there were only 1% to 5 % adoption by farmers. No-till maize in Lesotho is projected to generate similar benefits. Trials in Ecuador found that specific cover crops, crop rotations, and reduced tillage designed to reduce soil erosion and increase soil organic matter should lead to increased incomes for farm households in a time period as short as two years. Benefits for maize under various CA practices in Ecuador ranged from $15 to $100 million annually. However, in Ecuador direct economic benefits for beans were small and there were no benefits for potatoes. In West Africa, data were collected by economists at Kansas State University to assess profitability of reduced tillage, cover crops, and rotations for maize, beans, sorghum and millet in the northwestern region of Ghana. In Southern Africa, costs and yield data for maize, cover crops and no-till were collected in Lesotho and Mozambique by economists at the University of Tennessee. Baseline survey data were analyzed for Mozambique. In Ecuador, cost and yield data continue to be collected on potatoes, maize, faba bean, barley, beans with cover crops, rotations, and reduced tillage practices. In Bolivia, costs and yield data were gathered for experiments on quinoa, faba beans, and potatoes with direct seeding, cover crops, and rotations, but the SANREM project was then canceled after the government of Bolivia expelled USAID. In the Philippines, cost and yield data were collected for farmer-managed trials with an emphasis on maize, cowpeas, rice and beans. Practices include cover crops, reduced tillage, and rotations. Economic barriers to CAPS adoption include genuine and perceived risks associated with transitioning to a new cropping system as well as increases in short-term input costs. These economic costs, combined with eventual yield gains and other potential benefits of adoption, will determine the success or failure of the CAPS being developed and implemented through SANREM. Two Virginia Tech M. S. students collaborated with LTRA-10 on conducting a survey of 400 farmers in Uganda and are using the data in models to assess factors influencing CAPS adoption.


The impact assessment findings in the thesis by Abigail Nguema were published in the journal: Experimental Agriculture. The model in the article was also designed as a template for use in other sites to identify optimal CAPS elements and cropping systems to be assessed. In Nepal, budget data were collected for rotations and intercropping by economists at the University of Hawaii and included in a linear programming (LP) model to assess optimal CA practices. Results were presented at the American Agricultural Economics Association annual meeting in Washington D.C. in August. CCRA-7: Gendered Perspectives for Conservation Agriculture: Local soil knowledge and crop-livestock interaction The Gender CCRA carries out qualitative, case-study-based research in collaboration with individual LTRAs and CCRAs. Its objectives regard 1) local, gendered knowledge, beliefs and perceptions of soils, 2) linking crop-livestock interaction with gendered access to assets, and 3) the gendered nature of tillage including division of labor, access to assets, and knowledge. The goal is to identify gender-based constraints and opportunities for CAPS adoption. The CCRA continued its collaboration with LTRA-12 in Cambodia on the potential for gender-based power relations to promote or constrain the dissemination of CAPS in Cambodia. The CCRA-7 PI made two visits to LTRA-12 sites (Siem Reap, Pitchangva, Boribo). Field work in Cambodia sought to document the impact of the introduction of CAPS on the allocation of labor in agricultural production, investigate potential gender-based differences in access to agricultural inputs and information, and explore the role of gendered power relations in intra-household decision-making. In June and July, SANREM graduate student, Daniel Sumner from Virginia Tech carried out his fieldwork in the village of Pichangva, Battambang Province. He is now analyzing data for his thesis and plans on graduating in May of 2014. Initial analysis of data from Cambodia shows that CAPS has the potential to decrease women’s labor burden associated with upland cash crop production but can increase women’s overall labor burden with an elevation in participation in domestic and community activities. Women’s lack of access to assets such as machinery could undermine the benefits of CAPS in the area. However, women’s control of income and expenses and their participation in SANREM classroom training suggest that women play an important role in soil conservation investments. A farmer restitution event was held in January 2013 in the Philippines. The Gender CCRA and the team from ICRAF invited the farmers who were interviewed from the previous summer to learn of and discuss research findings, clarify analyses, obtain soil analysis results and fertilizer recommendations, receive seeds for experimentation, and learn about CAPS. Men and women from seventeen households attended. Researchers from ICRAF reported this event was successful due to the new relationships established between them and the farmers. The ICRAF team also stated it was the first time SANREM researchers have come back to Claveria to disseminate findings to them and the farmers.


Fieldwork and data analysis from the Philippines are complete. Mary Harman graduated in May of 2013 from Virginia Tech with a Master’s of Science in geography. In June of 2013, a manuscript was submitted to the peer-reviewed journal, GeoJournal based on her and the PIs work in the Philippines. The manuscript is currently under review and is titled, “Gender and Conservation Agriculture Productions Systems: Constraints and Opportunities in the Philippines”. Findings from this article can be found in FY3 annual report. From the same fieldwork, and in collaboration with the CCRA-9, another manuscript is being drafted that discusses the correlation between results from lab analysis of soil samples with men’s and women’s soil descriptions in the Philippines. It is titled “Gender and Local Soil Knowledge: Linking farmers’ perceptions of soils with fertility analysis in the Philippines” and will be submitted to the peer-reviewed journal, Geoderma. Analysis of the data from Bolivia is on hold until the analysis of the data from Cambodia is complete. Development impacts include a raised awareness of SANREM and conservation agriculture for farmers at our site in the Philippines and a raised awareness of gender concepts in agriculture and increased skills in qualitative methods at host-institutions. Recommendations based on the Philippines research have been disseminated to the LTRA-12 PI and host-country partners, and sites where extension activities will take place to help increase gender equity. That team has already followed up with farmers previously brought into contact with SANREM and provided technical assistance with seed experiments. Recommendations include the application of Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) for gender in agriculture research. The research in Cambodia implemented this tool to measure the empowerment, agency, and inclusion of women in agriculture. The tool was useful for tracking progress and gender-sensitive indicators, although it required adjustments to local conditions. We also recommend incorporating geospatial tools and restitution events into SANREM’s research framework. CCRA-8: Technology Networks Cross-Cutting Research Activity The Technology Networks CCRA has completed the first phase of its research program. Findings were presented at the ASA/CSA/SSA Symposium on Conservation Agriculture in October 2012 and are being submitted for publication. One article has been accepted in the Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension. In January 2013, we brought on board another master’s degree student, Jessie Gunter, who is working in collaboration with the Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory (NDSSL) of the Virginia Bioinformatics Institute (VBI) at Virginia Tech, and she will be expanding our capacity to analyze social network data. Applying more advanced methods of social network analysis is already helping us prepare for the second phase of data collection in the coming year. With data at two time points (at the introduction of Conservation Agriculture Production Systems (CAPS) and at 3 and a half years later), our capacity to identify critical network pathways for building CAPS will greatly


improve. The Technology Networks CCRA is gaining greater attention across Africa. During March, Moore and Gunter conducted a week-long short-course on an Introduction to Social Network Analysis at Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro, Tanzania. The technology networks research is interested in two key areas: 1) knowledge and beliefs about agricultural production and 2) size, composition, and structure of farmer and agricultural service sector networks. This requires two different types of statistical analyses. This report highlights key findings, using these two types of analysis for the LTRA-9 Lesotho communities. These findings have been presented in a working paper on the social network analyses of these communities. In addition, more in-depth analysis of pathways for dissemination of CA knowledge and practices has been explored through social network simulation modeling. CCRA-9: Soil Carbon and Soil Quality Leadership of CCRA-9 was passed to Tom Thompson and Wade Thomason, PI and co-PI of SANREM LTRA-. Dr. Catherine Fleming was hired as postdoctoral Research Associate to work on the CCRA. Organized training and installation of greenhouse gas analyzers – [automated soil CO2 exchange station (ACE)] in SANREM CAPS study at Manor House Agricultural Center, Kitale, Kenya was conducted in July, 2013. Additionally, discussion of soil and agronomic investigations among all 13 developing countries in the Phase IV LTRA projects [conservation agricultural production systems (CAPS)] has begun for collection of “Time X” soil samples intended to measure soil C and C fractions in comparable soils with and without CAPS implementation at multiple SANREM sites.

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Management Entity activities The SANREM Management Entity (ME) provided administrative support and technical back-up for the Phase IV program of Long-Term Research Awards (LTRAs) and Cross-Cutting Research Activities (CCRAs). Sustainable agricultural and natural resource management innovations, policies, and practices continue to be tested and the results disseminated through professional publications, extension documents, and various reports to partner organizations. Noteworthy During FY 2013, the SANREM ME continued to support special initiatives in addition to its specific administrative responsibilities. Two important new partnerships were forged with the Feed the Future Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Horticulture (HORT) Innovation Labs for joint projects in Ecuador (led by LTRA-7) and Cambodia (led by LTRA-12), respectively. Initial results from Ecuador indicated that potato yield increased and tuber damage decreased when CA and IPM practices are used conjunctly. Compared with conventional practices, production costs are higher when CA and IPM are implemented together, but profits are much higher in the combined approach both in potato and maize/beans systems. The SANREM-HORT project in Cambodia successfully promoted CA and low-cost drip irrigation for vegetable production by women farmers in Siem Reap. Collaborations were also established with the Feed the Future Nutrition Asia Lab and the Partnering for Innovation program. Two units of the third version of the Multi Functioning Implement (MFI) designed by LTRA-10 researchers were built in the U.S. and are being tested in Mozambique and Ghana. The MFI can be used for ripping, subsoiling and weed sweeper with oxen- or donkey-traction. Four units of previous MFI versions are already in use in Kenya and Uganda. The next step will be to ship MFI parts to Africa and have the implemented assembled by local technicians. The SANREM ME organized a Symposium on Conservation Agriculture and Sustainable Intensification for Improving Resilience of Smallholder Farming Systems in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean (https://scisoc.confex.com/crops/2013am/webprogram/FUNDS.html) during the ASA/CSSA/SSSA meeting in Tampa, and collaborated in the organization of the 4th Conservation Agriculture International Conference on Conservation Agriculture (http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/partners/meetings/4th-international-conservation-agriculture-southeast-asia-conference-ca-sea-4/) in Battambang, Cambodia. Both meetings were celebrated in FY 2014 with great success. The SANREM ME also co-sponsored the Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond in Katmandu, Nepal in March, 2013, and the 6th Soil Society of East Africa and the 27th African Soil Science Society Conference in Nakuru, Kenya, in October 2013. A book including selected articles for the conference en Nepal will be published by CABI in early 2014. Strong emphasis was given to improve the SANREM communication outputs. Country briefs targeted to USAID Missions were prepared for Mozambique, Kenya and Uganda, Also, Julia

https://scisoc.confex.com/crops/2013am/webprogram/FUNDS.html

http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/partners/meetings/4th-international-conservation-agriculture-southeast-asia-conference-ca-sea-4/

http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/partners/meetings/4th-international-conservation-agriculture-southeast-asia-conference-ca-sea-4/


Katz, SANREM communications coordinator and Randy Stith, Director of Visual and Broadcasting Communications at Virginia Tech produced an excellent video on CA (http://vimeo.com/81141150). The functionality and appearance of the SANREM Knowledge Base (SKB) was improved in collaboration with the Software Technology Lab at Virginia Tech. In addition, the SANREM web page was converted to WordPress to make it more interactive and efficient.

http://vimeo.com/81141150

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Publications and publicity The Feed the Future SANREM Innovation Lab seeks to publish research findings as much as possible. To this end, during this fiscal year program researchers have published or presented 13 articles in refereed publications, seven books or book chapters, 11 theses and dissertations, two extension publications or learning tools, two working papers, three web articles, 14 papers/seminars, 43 electronic presentations, 24 posters, one fact sheet, two videotapes, one magazine article, three reports, and eight abstracts. SANREM Innovation Lab Knowledgebase The SANREM Innovation Lab Knowledgebase is an online and open access repository of books, reports, journal articles, videos, abstracts, and presentations produced or identified, classified, and summarized by SANREM researchers. Currently, there are 3866 resources in this database. Of these, 638 of these resources are products of Phase III research while 248 entries are from Phase IV projects. In the FY 2013, 156 items were added to the SKB. Since July 2011, the SKB has been listed on the “Related Databases” of the USDA’s National Agricultural Library Alternative Farming Systems Information Center. It joined 30 other databases in this listing, among them the Agriculture Network Information Center (AgNIC) and the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA). Its inclusion this listing will improve access to and awareness of the SKB’s extensive resources relating to Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management. This repository provides easy access of resources concerning sustainable agriculture and natural resource management to the general public and has a growing number of resources pertaining to Conservation Agriculture. It can be searched by author, language, title, location, entry date, research activity, keywords, creation date, and resource type. The SKB can be accessed from the SANREM website at: http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/professionals/knowledgebase/. Training and institutional development Feed the Future SANREM Innovation Lab supported 73 students for long-term training as Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Ph.D. candidates in the previous fiscal year. Of these, 29 were women and 44 were men. In short-term training excercises, there were a total of 5648 trainees in the last fiscal year. Of these, 3,245 were men and 2,403 were women.

http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/professionals/knowledgebase/

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Introduction The Feed the Future SANREM Innovation Lab promotes stakeholder empowerment and improved livelihoods through the discovery, organization, and dissemination of sustainable agriculture (SA) and natural resource management (NRM) knowledge. Program efforts are competitively driven and focused on the development of Conservation Agriculture Production Systems (CAPS). The approach is participatory, engaging stakeholders at all levels in research problem formulation within priority areas of inquiry, focusing on multiple countries and/or regions to facilitate scaling research findings. Gender sensitivity is integral to the SANREM approach and reinforced by gender-sensitive participant training programs that include degree and non-degree plans. All activities link sustainable NRM with the economic concerns of local populations and the promotion of good governance. The objectives of the SANREM program are to:

• Increase scientific knowledge and technical innovations in SA and NRM; • Improve knowledge management, education, and communication leading to

behavioral changes in adaptation and adoption of new SA and NRM technologies and practices;

• Reform and strengthen SA and NRM governance, policies, and local institutions; and • Promote the functioning of sustainable resource-based local enterprises in national,

regional, and global markets.

This annual report documents the research and technology dissemination of SANREM for the period October 1, 2012 – September 30, 2013. The majority of SANREM research is conducted through its Long-term Research Award (LTRA) activities. Progress has been made in developing conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) during the third year of Phase IV (2009-2014). This includes progress in the four cross-cutting research activities (CCRAs) dealing with economic impact analysis, gendered knowledge, soil quality and carbon sequestration, and technology networks. SANREM Management Entity activities The Virginia Tech Management Entity (ME) provides overall administrative and intellectual leadership of SANREM activities. This leadership is most clearly demonstrated in the financial management and program coordination of the Long-Term Research Awards (LTRAs) and Cross-Cutting Research Activities (CCRAs), networking with information providers and users, promoting sustainable agriculture (SA) and natural resource management (NRM), supporting SANREM researchers, and disseminating SANREM-generated knowledge to potential users. The ME also keeps abreast of innovations and new approaches in SA and NRM inquiry areas, nurtures innovative research and outreach activities, and circulates SA and NRM knowledge and information among partners and the public through the SANREM website, newsletters, working papers, and research briefs.


Communications program The SANREM communications program disseminates pertinent information in multiple forms for various purposes. In FY 2013, a new Editor/Communications Coordinator, Julia Katz, was brought on to replace Amy Loeffler. This program consists of the SANREM website, newsletters, working papers, research and policy briefs, press releases, and other publications. The communications coordinator also maintains an editorial file of articles submitted to newspapers, magazines, and other websites that highlight SANREM activities or researchers. Social media SANREM’s Facebook page (www.facebook.com/pages/SANREMCRSP/) had 132 new likes this year, up to 327 likes, an increase of 67.6% over the past year. SANREM’s Twitter account (www.twitter.com/SANREMCRSP) has 311 followers, with 138 new followers and an increase of 179.7% from the previous year. SANREM website SANREM partners, development practitioners, policymakers, other stakeholders, and the public are informed of SANREM activities and announcements through the website, http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp. This last fiscal year, the SANREM Innovation Lab website underwent a major design change, going to a Wordpress-enabled design. This is easier to update and can be changed online, as well as having an easier interface for users to find information. This also makes the SANREM website easier to use as a blog platform. Information products SANREM News is published as an e-mail bulletin and online at http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/public/news/newsletters/. It provides a concise update of SANREM activities, accomplishments, and future events. This year, the newsletter underwent major design and content changes, with an 8-page magazine-like spread as the final product. This design is more eye-catching and includes far more content than previous newsletters. One of these new newsletter formats was distributed in FY 2013, with another planned for FY 2014. SANREM research briefs promote and disseminate relevant sustainable agriculture and natural resource management messages and information. These concise summaries are meant to make scientific knowledge easier to access and manage for SA and NRM professionals. In FY 2013, a new series of briefs was launched that summarizes Feed the Future SANREM Innovation Lab work by nation, rather than using any other metric. This is designed to appeal to stakeholders and organizations in specific countries, as well as USAID Missions that have a country focus.

http://www.facebook.com/pages/SANREMCRSP/

http://www.twitter.com/SANREMCRSP

http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp

http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/public/news/newsletters/


SANREM Innovation Lab publicity Part of the SANREM mission is to establish the program as a respected authority on sustainable agriculture and natural resource management, raise the profile of the program, and to disseminate SANREM generated knowledge around the world. The ME achieves this in part by publishing print stories in newspapers, industry and other popular press publications, as well multimedia stories online. This fiscal year we have created original content for the website as well as published articles on a myriad of platforms including print and online articles, in addition to videos and slideshows. To that end we have published articles covering a broad range of topics. Some examples of recent media are included below. The SANREM YouTube page was launched and immediately began receiving major hits. For example, we produced a 10 minute documentary called “SANREM in Cambodia”, which highlights conservation agriculture efforts in the country. This is available here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bx6jJjNI45M SANREM Associate Director, Keith Moore, wrote a guest blog for AgriLinks: http://agrilinks.org/blog/multi-functional-implement-tool-jump-start-development Virginia Tech and Feed the Future SANREM Innovation Lab Principal Investigator Jeff Alwang hosted a Peace Corps Feed the Future Campus Food Security Tour event: http://www.peacecorps.gov/media/forpress/press/2294/ SANREM and IPM Innovation Labs collaborated on a piece for the Feed the Future newsletter: http://feedthefuture.gov/article/drought-tolerant-disease-resistant-fruit-helps-farmers-and-forests-ecuador?utm_source=Food%20Security%20%26%20Climate%20Change%3A%20Feed%20the%20Future%20Newsletter%20-%20November%202013&utm_campaign=October%202013&utm_medium=archive

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bx6jJjNI45M

http://agrilinks.org/blog/multi-functional-implement-tool-jump-start-development

http://www.peacecorps.gov/media/forpress/press/2294/

http://feedthefuture.gov/article/drought-tolerant-disease-resistant-fruit-helps-farmers-and-forests-ecuador?utm_source=Food%20Security%20%26%20Climate%20Change%3A%20Feed%20the%20Future%20Newsletter%20-%20November%202013&utm_campaign=October%202013&utm_medium=archive





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Phase IV Long-Term Research Award (LTRA) program LTRA-6: A Conservation Agriculture Production System Program for the Central Plateau of Haiti Principal Investigator: Thomas L. Thompson, department head, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Tech Host Country: Haiti Research Team:

• Virginia Tech: Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences: Wade Thomason; Department of Forestry: Gregory S. Amacher

• Haiti Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources: Robert J. Badio • Caritas/Hinche: Jacques Volcius, Augustin Guedry • Zamni Agrikol: Gillaine Warne, Larose Deus, Stenio Louis-Jeune, Fereste Sonneus

Research progress by objective: Objective 1: Assess the adaptability of existing agricultural production and livelihood systems for transformation to CAPS. Critical Research Accomplishments High rates of soil erosion are a serious problem in Haiti, and they have strong links with rural poverty. For many years NGOs have promoted a variety of soil and water conservation (SWC) practices throughout the country to mitigate environmental degradation and alleviate poverty. This study examines the determinants of the adoption and, the intensity of use, and the marginal value of common SWC practices on the Lower Central Plateau. It is based on a 2011 household survey that captured a wide range of data from 600 households and 1,367 agricultural plots. The results from a multinomial model provide evidence that plot and household characteristics have differential effects on adoption across different classes of SWC practices. Land tenure, perceived soil quality, and household health status all significantly influence adoption. The use of soil conservation practices is positively correlated with the diversity of production. Both practices increase household resilience. The use of soil conservation practices is positively correlated with the distance from market. Households that are further from markets (fewer job opportunities, higher transport costs, etc.) have to rely more in agricultural production. Results from a production function estimation showed positive value marginal products for the use of SWC practices. Specifically, households with land managed with hedgerows planted along the contour produced on average $21.89 more than those without, ceteris paribus. Households with rock barriers established along the contour produced on $44.83 more than those without. These are significant results considering that the average daily wage for manual labor is around $1 and that the value of agricultural production


is $353.67 per household. Together the results show that SWC practices can yield economic benefits on highly degraded soils in Haiti. They also inform the design and targeting of new programs related to soil and water conservation, such as CAPS. Development Impact Data collection for the baseline survey is complete. Analysis of the data will help us investigate factors influencing the adoption of agricultural conservation practices, both with respect to the decision to adopt, and the scale of adoption for households in the Central Plateau of Haiti. This information will contribute to tailor our research and outreach efforts to best meet the needs of households for information and technical support. The relevant timelines have been met and many challenges were overcome. Results will soon be published. Objective 2: Increase agricultural production through development of CAPS. Critical Research Accomplishments Maize from the first season of CAPS experiments was harvested in September 2012, and the results are shown in Figure 1 below. There was no harvestable maize at the Maissade site. There was no significant effect of tillage or cover crops on maize yield. At each of the three experimental sites (Corporant, Lachateau, Maissade) sunn hemp, sorghum-sudan and sesbania were planted in Nov. 2012 in a split plot experimental design, for a second season of CAPS experiments. The plot layout is shown in Figure 2. These were the same locations that were used during the 2011-2012 cropping season. In preparation for maize planting (during March-April 2013), half of the plots were plowed, and half were not (no-tillage). Maize was planted in the CAPS experiments during March-April 2013. During the team member visit in Jan. 2013, successful initiation of these experimental designs, for the second consecutive year, was confirmed, thus indicating progress toward the following tasks (Tasks 2.1, 2.3, and 2.5 from our 2011-12 work plan): building research capacity to conduct agronomic trials, introduction and evaluation of cover crops (on-station); and integration of cover crops, planting practices, and rotations into the on-station testing protocols. The cover crops were much more successful than earlier cover crops (e.g. oats, mucuna, lablab), especially the sunn hemp. Though we did not measure the biomass production of the cover crops, we measured weed populations (numbers of weeds per m2) within growing cover crops in Feb. 2013, and the results are shown in Fig. 3 below. Weed populations were not significantly affected by tillage system except at Maissade, where weed populations were lower with no-tillage. Weed populations in plots with cover crops were significantly reduced at all three sites, compared to no cover treatments. In general, sunn hemp and sorghum-sudan were more effective at suppressing weeds than was sesbania.


Figure 1. Maize yield in CAPS experiments, 2010-2012

Figure 2. Design of CAPS Experiments at three sites in the Central Plateau of Haiti. Code: 1,5 = Sesbania; 2, 6 = Sunn hemp; 3,7 = Sorghum-sudan, 4,8 = no cover

Figure 3. Weed populations within growing cover crops, Feb. 2013


A new experiment was initiated at Corporant during May 2013. This is part of the M.S. research of Ms. Madalyn Lynch, a new graduate student at Virginia Tech. Wade Thomason and Madalyn Lynch, with the help of ZA personnel, installed an experiment to evaluate residue decomposition and nutrient cycling in CAPS systems at the Corporant site. Residue from maize, black bean, sunn hemp, and sorghum-sudan were inserted in sealed mesh bags and placed both on the soil surface and buried at 15 cm. Residue bags will be removed regularly with the last bags removed after one year. At each collection, 16 bags will be removed from the system. When the litterbags are collected, their contents are dried using solar driers, weighed and sent back to Virginia Tech for analysis. Carbon to nitrogen ratio will be determined using dry combustion analysis. Development Impact The successful layout, planting, and harvesting of the replicated CAPS field experiments by our Haitian partners was very encouraging. This is progress toward their ability to independently initiate and complete experiments. Furthermore, these experiments gave our partner agronomists the opportunity to evaluate cover crops. The cover crops used during 2012-2013 were much more successful than the previous cover crops at suppressing weed populations. See above under ‘Critical Research Accomplishments’. Automated weather stations have been deployed at each of the three research sites. Partner agronomists have been trained in downloading data. Challenges and Responses 1. It is clear that the normal approach to hand cultivation results in excessive soil disturbance.

During ‘train-the-trainer’ workshops held in January 2013, we introduced different implements (e.g., smaller hoes) for cultivation, as well as seeding methods adapted for no-till planting.

2. Crop yields at Maïssade have been far lower than at the other two locations. This location is drier, and based on field observation and soil testing, soil fertility is much more limiting to crop growth. We have asked our partner agronomists at Caritas to apply fertilizer or manure/compost before planting maize in spring 2014.

Objective 3: Increase the capacity of smallholders to adapt and improve CAPS. Development Impact During January 2013 our team was able to conduct train-the-trainer workshops at Corporant and Maissade involving more than 75 agronomists, technicians, field agriculture agents, and agriculture students at the Centre Formacion Fritz Lafontant Technical School. Topics of discussion included the major barriers to crop production and conservation practices currently in use. We discussed and demonstrated key elements of conservation agriculture (crop rotation, reduced tillage, cover crops), and explained the basic features of SANREM. We also presented the same workshop to 15 agronomy students at the Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine at the State University of Haiti in Port-au-Prince.


These workshops will result in a cohort of professionals aware of the principles and practices of conservation agriculture. During May 2013, the SANREM LTRA-6 Haiti team accompanied the USAID-appointed review team (Drs. Rattan Lal, Anita Spring, Ross Welch) to visits with all of our partner agronomists to all of our field sites in Haiti. During these visits we were able to visit with more than 45 farmers, agronomists, and technicians to discuss conservation agriculture methods, farmer adoption, and gender roles. During August 2013, the SANREM Haiti team visited with 20 agronomists, technicians, and field agents with Zanmi Agrikol and Caritas to discuss CAPS outcomes and methods to increase farmer participation. During FY 2013, we were able to present and demonstrate CAPS principles to more than 190 individuals (150 male, 40 female) overall, including farmers, agronomists, technicians, field agents, and technical school students. During FY 2014, we will initiate on-farm trials that will directly involve more than 30 farm families in the Central Plateau. This will give smallholders first-hand experience with adopting CAPS on their own farms. Objective 4: Strengthen human and institutional research and extension capacity for CAPS Critical Research Accomplishments The research farm sites provide a model for testing a private/NGO system for national agricultural outreach/extension. With research trials now entering their third year, progress has been made toward capacity building for research and demonstration in CAPS. Each farm center (Corporant, Lachateau, Maïssade) offers a focal point for locally adapted CAPS technological innovation and outreach, as well as for future research. Development Impact Agronomists with our partner organizations (Zanmi Agrikol and Caritas) have twice demonstrated that they can use a plot map to set up replicated field experiments independently. This will enhance their ability to conduct independent research in the future. Partner agronomists took an active role in planning and execution of the train-the-trainer CAPS workshops. Challenges and Responses

1. Our interactions with the Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine (FAMV) partners have not recovered from the devastation caused by the 2010 earthquake. During early 2014, a concerted effort will be made to re-connect with these partners and encourage their participation in our CAPS projects.


Degree and nondegree training activities A total of 13 workshops, short courses, and trainings were conducted by the SANREM team and our partner agronomists. A total of 190 individuals (150 male, 40 female) attended. Two graduate students were trained. Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products 1. The following presentations were made to audiences at three locations in the Central

Plateau during January 2013: a. Introduction to SANREM Thompson/Prospere b. Principles of Conservation Agriculture Thomason/Prospere c. Conservation Agriculture Practices Thomason/Prospere d. Field demonstrations All

Kennedy, N. and Amacher, G. 2012. The Utilization of Soil Conservation Practices in Central Haiti. Presented at the ASA, CSSA, and SSSA Annual Meetings, Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012. Thompson, T.L., Kennedy, N., Amacher, G., Thomason, W.E., and Hodges, S.C., 2013. Building Resilience in Cropping Systems of the Central Plateau of Haiti. Agronomy Abstracts. American Society of Agronomy International Annual Meetings, Tampa FL. Thompson, T.L. and Thomason, W.E. 2013. A Conservation Agriculture Production System Program for the Central Plateau of Haiti. Agronomy Abstracts. American Society of Agronomy International Annual Meetings, Tampa FL. Networking activities

1. In December 2012, Thompson and project coordinator Robert Badio met with James Woolley, Senior USAID agronomist at the U.S. Embassy in Port au Prince. We updated him on the results of our July 2012 workshops and invited him to attend the 30 January CAPS workshop in Corporant.

2. In February 2013, Thompson and Thomason met with Gabriella Salazar of MFK (Meds and Foods for Kids) in Cap Haitien. We toured their peanut processing plant and discussed their research and collaboration in peanut agronomy.

3. In February 2013, Thompson and Thomason met with Ivonig Caillard of Agrisud, a French NGO conducting CA research. They have conducted research on CA in Africa, and are interested in starting a project in 2-3 months with hoped-for financial support from the Ministry of Agriculture. The research will be located near Limbe (Plane du Nord).

4. In February 2013, Thompson, Thomason, and Prospere met with Jean Robert Estime (Chief of Party) and Mario Kerby (Directeur Adjoint) of USAID-


WINNER in Peguy-vill. We discussed the scope, objectives, and activities of WINNER, and possibilities for collaboration.

5. In February 2013, Thompson, Thomason, and Prospere met with Vincent Potier and others from Concern Worldwide, an Irish NGO that will soon initiate conservation agriculture projects near Sodo and Isla de Gonave. We discussed SANREM activities and opportunities for collaboration.

Project highlights

• Completion of the second full year of CAPS experiments (cover crop planting followed by maize planting) at three locations in the central Plateau of Haiti.

• In the past year, training and education in CAPS was given to more than 190 individuals at three locations in the Central Plateau of Haiti.

• On-farm CAPS trials will be initiated in FY 2014. • We recently completed a baseline socioeconomic survey of more than 600 households in

the Central Plateau of Haiti, comprising 3,200 individuals, 1,400 agricultural plots farmed by households, 1,200 fuel wood and water collection sites, and over 3,300 crop plantings. Results are ready to be submitted for publication.


LTRA-7: Conservation Agriculture as a Potential Pathway to Better Resource Management, Higher Productivity, and Improved Socioeconomic Conditions in the Andean Region Principal Investigator: Jeffrey Alwang, professor, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, Virginia Tech Host Countries: Ecuador, Bolivia Research Team:

• Virginia Tech: Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics: George W. Norton, Darrell Bosch

• Penn State University: Department of Plant Pathology: Paul Backman; Department of Crop and Soil Sciences: Robert Sean Gallagher, Richard Stehouwer

• University of Denver: International Development: Sarah Hamilton • U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Plant Nutrient Research Unit: Jorge A. Delgado

Research progress by objective Objective 1: Identify and evaluate production practices and farming components that can be assembled into CA production systems for Bolivar, Ecuador and Tiraque, Bolivia. Critical Research Accomplishments Task 1.1: Establish field research design and identify locations for crop and cover crop research. This has been completed and we now have farmer field trials. This design was established by using vulnerability maps produced as a part of the prior SANREM CRSP, through consultations with farmers and other stakeholders, and between the host-country and U.S. research teams. Ecuador: The experimental design has been established and treatments are being tested (see below). We have experiments on farmer fields in the upper (Illangama) and lower (Alumbre) watersheds. Bolivia: We have four sites located in the Tiraque watershed, with CA plots in their third and fourth year. These are near communities named San Kayani (the highest altitude), Cebada Jincana, Wayla Puyru, and 15 de Octubre (the lowest altitude). Altitudes range from almost 14,000 ft to 11,000 ft. CAPS experiments include 1) vetch cover crop and inclusion in a potato – quinoa – faba bean rotation 2) supplemental fertility management for the potato phase of the potato – quinoa – fava bean rotation, 3) reduced tillage potato trials, and 4) alternative forage options to precede the potato-based systems. We also had partial results from trials of CA in quinoa in Anzaldo: the McKnight Foundation continues to support the research in Bolivia.


In Bolivia, the CAPS experiments were in quite good order during our last visit in January/February 2013, with very strong oat/vetch cover crops established in the previous year. This base creates the opportunity for productive potato and quinoa production in the subsequent growing seasons. The original experimental design of three treatments was modified by the PROINPA researchers, creating an experimental design with six treatments (see prior reports for details). Due to drought at the Bolivia sites, we are supplementing natural rainfall with aspersion irrigation. This added moisture will compensate for below average rainfall by bringing total water availability up to average levels. As irrigation is available at most research sites, we are including the costs of irrigation as a part of the economic evaluation of the CAPS. We have established several satellite experiments in our main experimental fields to investigate cost-reducing and yield enhancing practices, many of which involve biological agents. Task 1.2: Assess potential CA components for each farming system. We have conducted an assessment of feasible components. The research designs have been adjusted following scientist visits to the area throughout the first two years of the project.

Table 1. Description of CAPS in two cultivation systems, Ecuador

Illangama sub-watershed (Upper watershed)—Potato-pasture system

Alumbre sub-watershed (Lower watershed)-Maize-beans system

Soil conservation practices: with and without deviation ditches.

Soil conservation practices: with and without deviation ditches.

Tillage: conventional and reduced. Tillage: conventional, reduced and no-till.

Rotation 1: potato, barley, faba, and forage mix. Note: improved forage mix was identified during prior research.

Rotation 1: hard maize, bush beans, hard maize, peas and hard maize.

Rotation 2: potato, barley, oats-vetch and forage mix.

Rotation 2: hard maize, bush beans, hard maize, oats-vetch and hard maize.

Management: Soil use (fallow, grass with residuals removed, grass with residuals retained), fertilization with N and cover crops (faba and quinoa).

Management: tillage options (conventional and reduced), cover crops (peas, oats-vetch, maralfalfa - Pennisetum sp. and native trees)

Intensive pasture management (improved forages) with overseeding of clover.

Use of maralfalfa and fruit trees in contours to form live barriers.

Bolivia: Our experiments and likely CAPS for Bolivia were presented in prior reports elsewhere.


Objective 2: Validate candidate CAPS in terms of impacts on: soil health, soil retention, carbon and nutrient balances; sustained productivity; profitability; risk bearing; the environment; compatibility with household livelihood strategies; and social conditions including gender considerations. Critical Research Accomplishments

Task 2.1: Create a protocol for evaluating soil and crop sustainability in experiments: physical, chemical and biological changes over time and due to differences in practices. A suite of soil chemical and physical property measurements have been implemented. These have been shown in other studies to be relatively parsimonious indicators of soil health, and are feasibly implemented given the technological capabilities available in PROINPA and INIAP. The soil chemical and physical measurements were presented in prior annual reports. Task 2.1.0: Continue methods development for soil and plant protocols The project has trained the laboratory personel at INIAP and PROINPA in the methodologies described in Task 2.1. In addition to the soil processing protocols, training was conducted on use of the Chromate Microplate reader and associated equipment. A microplate reader, when configured with the appropriate filters, permits the rapid colorimetric determination of inorganic N and available phosphorus with the generation of a minimum of chemical waste. For example, 96 samples can be analyzed in less than 5 seconds and produces about 25 ml of chemical waste. This microplate technology will greatly improve the cost effectiveness of many of the soil chemical protocols for our project. A key problem in Ecuador was the lack of availability of the necessary reagents to do the microplate determination of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorous. These reagents have been purchased and were used in the current year. Task 2.1.1: Process baseline soil and plant samples from CAPS system experiments Partners in Bolivia and Ecuador have the know-how and the necessary reagents to do the soil extractions and prepare the soils for the protocols outlined in Task 2.1. Significant progress has been made in processing these data. Task 2.1.2: Analyze baseline soil and plant data from systems experiments. Good progress has been made toward analyzing crop biomass and yield data as it becomes available (see below for more details). Since most of the soil analyses have not yet been completed, we are behind in this area (see below for further discussion).


Task 2.2: Establish experiments for CA components, component combinations and full CAPS

We now have basic data from our trials. The Ecuador trials are divided into old (established during the prior phase of SANREM) and new (begun following the start of the new phase in 2009).

Multi-year crop rotation CAPS experiments conducted in the upper (Illangama) and lower (Alumbre) sub-watersheds of our study region have completed one rotation cycle. The experiments include treatment variables of tillage (conventional, reduced, none), removal or non-removal of pasture or oats/vetch cover crop residues between the grain, bean or potato crops, and varying levels of fertilization. Yields In the Illangama experiments (termed “old” and “new”) complex effects of the treatments have been observed on potato tuber production and barley grain production. In these experiments the rotation was from pasture to potato to oats/vetch cover crop to barley. Yields of potato tubers and barley grain as of the second cropping cycle are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Effects of tillage, crop residue and nitrogen fertilizer on yields of potato and barley treatments in rotational experiments conducted in the Illangama sub-watershed.

Treatment (pasture residue) Potato tuber yield (dry kg/ha)

Treatment (oats/vetch residue) Barley grain yield (dry kg/ha)

Illangama Old Experiment Conv. Tillage, no residue 3159 Conv. Till, no residue, +N 1578 Conv. Tillage, with residue 3943 Conv. Till, no residue, -N 1306 Reduced Till, no residue 2187 Conv. Till, with residue, +N 1702 Reduced Till, with residue 2999 Conv. Till, with residue, -N 1056 Red. Till, no residue, +N 2063 Red. Till, no residue, -N 1816 Red. Till, with residue, +N 2242 Red. Till, with residue, -N 1710 Illangama New Experiment Conv. Tillage, no residue, +N 3976 Conv. Tillage, no residue, +N 1253 Reduced Till, no residue, +N 3877 Reduced Till, no residue, +N 787 Reduced Till, with residue,+N 4083 Reduced Till, with residue,+N 1122 Reduced Till, with residue, -N 1479 Reduced Till, with residue, -N 558

In the Old experiment decreasing the amount of tillage decreased potato yield, but increased barley yield. In this experiment leaving crop residue in the field increased both potato and barley yield. With potatoes, however, the added residue did not compensate for the tillage effect. With barley there was a clear yield response to added N fertilizer. While there was some indication of a residue benefit on yield, the residue did not compensate for N fertilizer. In the New experiment, there was no potato yield reduction associated with reduced tillage, nor was there an increase in yield associated with leaving pasture residue in the field. There was, however, a substantial yield


reduction without N fertilizer. Barley yield response to tillage and oats/vetch residue was similar to that of potato. Maintaining the oats/vetch cover compensated for an apparent yield decrease from reduced tillage. Again, however, lack of N fertilizer application caused a substantial barley yield decrease. The changes in soil chemical and physical properties that have resulted from the tillage, rotation, residue and fertility treatments are still more complex than the yield responses discussed above. Two crop rotation experiments in the Alumbre sub-watershed (also termed “Old” and “New”) have also completed one cycle. In these experiments, the rotation was oats/vetch or pasture to beans to oats/vetch to maize. Grain yields of beans and maize are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Effects of tillage, crop residue and nitrogen fertilizer treatments on yields of potato and barley in rotational experiments conducted in the Alumbre sub-watershed, 2012-3.

Treatment (oats vetch residue, pasture residue in New exp.)

Bean grain yield (dry kg/ha)

Treatment (oats/vetch residue) Maize grain yield (dry kg/ha)

Alumbre Old Experiment Reduced Till, no residue 1249 Red. Till, no residue, -N 2973 Reduced Till, with residue 1338 Red. Till, with residue, +N 2604 No Till, no residue 1030 No Till, no residue, -N 3341 No Till, with residue 1013 No Till, with residue, +N 3258 Red. Till, no residue, -N 3051 Red. Till, with residue, +N 3139 No Till, no residue, -N 2987 No Till, with residue, +N 2821 Alumbre New Experiment Red. Till., no residue, +fert 1189 Red. Till, no residue, low N 4109 No Till, pasture residue, +fert 1133 No Till, pasture res, split N 3393 No Till, no residue, -fert 852 No Till, no residue, split N 3775 No Till, oat/vetch resid, -fert 921 No Till, oat/vetch res, split N 3433

In the Alumbre Old experiment switching from reduced to no tillage reduced bean yield, but leaving or removing the oats/vetch cover crop residue did not affect yield. Maize yields in this experiment were highly variable with no clear treatment effects. In the New experiment, bean yields were lower without the fertilizer addition, and leaving oat/vetch cover crop residue on the field did not compensate for lack of fertilizer. In this experiment, however, going from reduced to no tillage did not decrease bean yield. Maize yield was lower with no tillage and split N application than it was with reduced tillage and one time N application. However, within the no tillage treatments maize yield was not significantly changed by the residue treatments. As in the Illangama experiments, soil chemical and physical properties in the Alumbre experiments also showed some changes in response to the tillage, rotation, residue and fertilizer treatments. However, the short-term crop rotation, residue and tillage effects were very complex and do not appear to be directly correlated with the yield responses. In the final year of the project we will be


analyzing these effects as well and the longer term effects of the complete cropping cycle on soil properties and overall soil quality.

Evaluation of cropping systems, tillage and rotation in hard maize (Zea mays L.) in Alumbre, Ecuador

Figure 4. Trial (old SANREM) in maize-bean system. Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012.

Yields of oats-vetch and beans following the second cycle were significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) and highly significant (P ≤ 0.01), respectively (Table 1) among treatments, meaning that the conservation tillage treatments had different behavior in relation to the control treatment and each other. There were no significant treatment differences (P ≤ 0.05) in hard corn yield. The analysis of variance for tillage, cover treatment and fertilization, and their interactions shows differential responses depending on the cash crop (Table 4). For corn yield, second cycle yields show statistically significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) for cover and fertilization, while for vetch/oats there were statistically significant differences ( P ≤ 0.05) for tillage and cover. For beans, there were highly significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) for fertilization. Importantly, no differences were reported for any of the interactions that show there is no relationship between the factors. Each factor acts independently when producing its effect.

Table 4. Yield response for second maize cycle, vetch/oats bean second and third cycles, Alumbre Ecuador, 2012-2013.

Source of Variation DF Yields Maíz 2nd cycle t/ha

Vetch/oats 3rd cycle t/ha

Beans 2nd cycle t/ha

Total Repetitions Treatments Tillage (T) Cover (C) TxC Fertilization (F) TxF CxF TxCxF Experimental error

47 5 (7) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 35

0.704 ** 0.141 ns 0.085 ns 0.492 * 0.043 ns 0.354 * 0.011 ns 0.000 ns 0.003 ns 0.077

250.84** 11.87 * 29.61 * 36.93 * 0.06 ns 16.45 ns 0.017 ns 0.035 ns 0.000 ns 5.20

0.380 ** 0.540 ** 0.061 ns 0.044 ns 0.021 ns 3.548 ** 0.004 ns 0.109 ns 0.000 ns 0.079

CV (%) 6.93 11.36 15.72

48

The Tukey test for vetch/oat yield for the third cycle (Table 5) shows two ranges of statistical significance for T7 treatment (zero tillage, without removal and fertilization), with an average of 22.40 t/ha; this performance is likely due to the residual effects provided by the incorporation of the vetch/oat crop residues during the two previous cycles. At the other extreme, in the range b is T2 treatment (minimum tillage with removal without fertilization), with an average yield of 17.90 t/ha. For bean yield in the second cycle (Table 2), the Tukey test shows three ranges, with no-till (T5) among the top two yielding treatments.

Table 5. Means and Tukey test at 5% for yields of corn, oats/vetch and beans (old trial), Alumbre, Ecuador, 2012-2013.

Treatments Maize t/ha 2do cycle

Oats/vetch t/ha MV 3er cycle

Beans t/ha 2do cycle

T1= Minimum tillage, with residue removal and fertilization 4.03 18.98 ab 2.16 a T2= Minimum tillage, residue removal, w/o fertilization 3.82 17.90 b 1.50 c T3= Minimum tillage, w/o residue removal and fertilization 4.29 20.72 ab 2.04 ab T4= Minimum tillage, w/o residue removal, w/o fertilization 4.09 19.53 ab 1.58 bc T5= No tillage, with residue removal and fertilization 3.96 20.52 ab 2.11 a T6= No tillage, residue removal, w/o fertilization 3.84 19.37 ab 1.49 c T7= No tillage, w/o residue removal and fertilization 4.13 22.40 a 1.92 abc T8= No tillage, w/o residue removal, w/o fertilization 3.96 21.13 ab 1.48 c

In conclusion, the practices of leaving residues in the field and fertilizing corn according to recommended doses increased maize yields. Conservation tillage and soil cover raised yields of oats/vetch. No-till practices also increase yields of beans. Partial budget analysis Partial budget analyses of these results are shown in Table 6. Highest gross benefits occurred in treatments T5 and T1, and mainly due to differences in bean yields of 2.11 t/ha and 2.16 t/ha (Table 6). Once costs are included, however, T5 (zero tillage with removal and fertilization) and T8 (till, without removal without fertilization), are not dominated (they have higher net benefits and cost of production that is less than or equal to the other treatments).


Table 6. Dominance analysis for second cycle maize, oats/vetch and beans, Alumbre, Ecuador, 2012-2013.

Treatments Gross benefit ($/ha)

Variable costs ($/ha)

Net benefit ($/ha)

Dominance*

T5 8911 1875 7036 Not dominated T1 8910 2162 6748 Dominated T3 8888 1967 6921 Dominated T7 8692 1744 6948 Dominated T4 7539 1942 5597 Dominated T8 7397 1652 5745 Not dominated T6 7198 1843 5355 Dominated T2 7068 2119 4949 Dominated

A marginal rate of return was computed for the two treatments that were not dominated and it indicated that T5 (zero tillage with removal and fertilization) shows the highest return. These results, however, do not reflect off-farm and longer-term benefits from the different treatments. Soil chemistry The soil chemistry tests (Table 7) showed a significant impact of vegetative cover and tillage on certain variables such as N-NO3- and N-NH4+. This effect was strongest during the first 30 days after bean planting at a depth between 0 and 5 cm for N-NH4+ and 5 to 10 cm for N-NO3-. At 30 days and at a depth of 5 to 10 cm, the concentration of N-NH4+ was lowest in T2 and greatest in T4, demonstrating the effect of tillage and ground cover (P ≤0.05). The concentration of N-NH4+

was greater with no-till and slightly lower with reduced tillage; this effect is likely due to the oxidation of N-NH4+, even with minimum tillage. With respect to N-NO3- at 30 days and at 0-5 cm, the concentration was greatest in T2 and lowest in T4, indicating a different tendency. The highest concentrations of N and C were found at the superficial level (0-5 cm), independent of the treatments, demonstrating the effect of accumulation of vegetative residues and a stratification of biological activity.


Table 7. Means and Tukey test (5%) for soil chemical variables in thebush bean cycle (old trial), Alumbre-Ecuador, 2011.

Treatment Time TN TOC N-NO3- N-NH4+ PMN PMNISNT POM

Dap ppm %COT

T1 30 0.59 6.7 47.9 a 20.9 a 20.9 b 469.0 c 0.73 60 0.59 6.5 9.2 b 15.4 b 35.1 a 584.1 b 0.73 90 0.60 6.5 14.7 b 22.9 a 26.1 ab 665.6 a 0.71

T2. 30 0.60 7.0 65.4 a 20.4 ab 23.7 499.8 b 0.83 60 0.61 6.9 9.3 b 17.1 b 36.7 601.2 a 0.86 90 0.60 6.8 20.7 b 24.3 a 27.3 652.7 a 0.94

T3 30 0.60 6.6 48.4 a 20.7 ab 19.9 b 486.7 b 0.74 60 0.59 6.5 5.4 c 14.8 b 37.0 a 584.4 a 0.75 90 0.57 6.5 16.3 b 24.3 a 19.1 b 644.4 a 0.76

T4 30 0.58 6.6 44.0 a 24.2 a 22.1 b 491.3 b 0.79 60 0.60 6.6 8.0 b 17.6 b 38.2 a 575.8 a 0.79 90 0.60 6.7 13.7 b 23.6 a 22.3 b 622.7 a 0.74

TN: total nitrogen, TOC: total organic carbon; PMN: potentially mineralizable nitrogen by aerobic incubation; PMNINST: potentially mineralizable nitrogen by Illinois soil nitrogen test; POM: particulate organic matter; Dap: days after planting, ppm: parts per million. With removal = cut residue and use as animal feed or sell. Bean plant is completely removed. W/o removal = cut residue and leave on surface. Results for nitrogen from the grain, plant residues, and total plant (for beans) show only minor differences by treatment (Figure 5). However, extraction of nitrogen from the bean grain showed a positive impact of minimum tillage (P<0.05); this effect reflects the higher bio-availability of N-NO3-, and is also reflected in the higher yield. Nitrogen levels in plant residues and total plant (bean) are higher in treatments with incorporation of the oats-vetch, reflecting increased availability of potentially mineralizable N.


Figure 5. Nitrogen extracted from bean grain, plant residues and entire plant by treatment (old trial),

Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012.

Physical soil measures Results from the soil physical analysis indicate no statistically significant differences across treatments. Bulk density (ΡB), gravimetric soil moisture content (Θg) and compaction were not significantly different across tillage (minimum and zero tillage) type and both are suitable for the conditions in the watershed. Soil compaction was also not statistically significantly different across treatments.

Figure 6. New trial, maize-beans system with oats vetch cover, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2013.


Agronomic variables The analysis of variance for bean and maize yields in the new experiments showed highly significant differences (P ≤ 0.01), while for biomass in the oat/vetch third cycle there were statistically significant differences (P ≤ 0.05). The Tukey test for yield of maize in the first cycle showedtwo ranges of significance, with T1 and T4 showing the highest yields and significance (Table 8).

Table 8. Mean values and Duncan test for maize, biomass (grass and/or oats-vetch), yields of beans (new trial). Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012 - 2013.

Treatments Hard maize 1st cycle (t/ha)

3rd cycle biomass (t/ha)

2nd cycle bean yield (t/ha)

T1= Minimum tillage, natural grass with removal, bush beans with removal and fertilizer, and natural grass with removal (control).

4.71 a 19.47 b 1.81 b

T2= No-till, natural grass w/o removal, bush beans with removal and with fertilization, natural grass without removal.

3.99 b 25.13 ab 2.13 a

T3= No till, oats-vetch with removal and fertilization, bush beans with removal and w/o fertilization, and oats-vetch w/ removal and w/o fertilization.

4.04 b 24.00 ab 1.23 c

T4= No-till, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/ fertilization, bush beans w/o removal and w/o fertilization, and oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization.

4.69 a 28.33 a 1.45 c

With removal = Cut residue and use as animal feed or sell. Bean plant is completely removed. W/o removal = Cut residue and leave on surface. Soil chemistry As seen in Figure 7, there was a trend of decreased total nitrogen (TN) in relation to the time of sampling.The observed effect reflects the aggregation of the soil cover crop due to decomposition of plant residues from the previous cycle. At the end of the growing season a lower content of TN was found.


Figure 7. Total nitrogen in kg/ha. Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012-2013.

The highest concentration of total organic carbon (TOC) was in treatment T4 and the lowest in T1. Figure 8 shows an increase in TOC in relation to time of sampling. The observed effect on potentially mineralizable nitrogen (PMN) is explained by the accumulation of organic compounds from microbial flora accumulation effect of fertilization and symbiotic fixation in the crop, which are deposited primarily in the surface layer (Figure 9).

Figure 8. Total organic carbon in kg/ha, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012-2013.


Figure 9. Potentially mineralizable nitrogen (kg/ha), Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012-2013.

Physical indicators For the physical indicators measured in the new trials, no statistically significant differences were found across the treatments. Economic analysis The two no-till treatments (T4 and T2) had the highest gross and net returns and dominated the other treatments (Table 9). The no-till system had slightly lower variable costs and the differences in net returns are striking. These differences carry over to the marginal budget analysis, where the net marginal benefits (of over 130%) show that T4, as of this stage in the trial, is far superior to the control (T1), and other treatments (Table 10). The source of this superiority is the very high yields of the cover crops and subsequently higher maize yields. No-till also saves labor costs.

Table 9. Dominance analysis, new trial, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012 - 2013.



Net benefit ($/ha) Dominance

T4 8334 1426 6908 Not dominated T2 8178 1359 6819 Not dominated T1 7383 1752 5631 Dominated T3 7091 1509 5582 Dominated

* A treatment dominates another when it has higher net benefits and lower variable costs than another.


Table 10. Marginal rate of return, various treatments, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2012.



Marginal net benefit ($/ha)

Marginal variable costs ($/ha)

Marginal net return (%)

T4 6908 1426 89 67 133 T2 6819 1359 0 0

Evaluation of cropping systems, tillage, and rotations in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Illangama,

Ecuador (old trial)

Figure 10. Old trial, potato-pasture system, including barley, Illangama-Ecuador, 2013.

Agronomic variables The analysis of variance for barley yield showed highly significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) among treatments. The analysis of variance for soil conservation factors (w & w/o water deviation ditches), tillage (conventional and reduced), cover (w/ & w/o removal) and fertilization (w/ & w/o fertilization), and their interactions showed different behavior in the crop yield of barley (Table 11). For tillage and fertilization factors, highly significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) were observed, whereas for the soil conservation factor, the difference was significant at a lower level ( P ≤ 0.05). Importantly, no difference was reported for any of the interactions, which means that there is no degree of relationship between the factors under study, and each acts independently when producing its effect on barley yields.


Table 11. Analysis of variance for barley yield, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012 - 2013. Source of variation DF Yield t/ha Total Repetition Treatments Conservation (Cn) Tillage (T) CnxT Cover (Co) CnxCo TxCo CnxTxCo Fertilization (F) CnxF TxF CnxTxF CoxF CnxCoxF TxCoxF CnxTxCoxF Experimental error

47 2 15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 30

4.253 ** 0.712 ** 0.773 * 4.619 ** 0.065 ns 0.001 ns 0.405 ns 0.037 ns 0.245 ns 2.916 ** 0.186 ns 0.028 ns 0.566 ns 0.394 ns 0.428 ns 0.013 ns 0.002 ns 0.184

CV (%) 22.39 * and ** Statistically significant at (P≤0.01) and (P≤0.05), respectively

ns No statistically significant An analysis of variance revealed differences across the treatments. The Duncan tests (α =5%) showed that T6, with conventional tillage, had the significantly highest yield of potatoes. The treatment with the most reduced yield was T4. All treatments where groundcover was maintained had greater potato yields compared to the same treatments with removal (except T7 and T8, both of which had lower yields than the other treatments). Thus CA, which implies less labor, was equal to or better than the conventional alternatives. No significant differences in yield of the cover crop were observed. The Tukey test (α = 5%) for barley yield (Table 12) showed two ranges of significance, with T5 and T15 having the highest yields. These differences were likely due to the residual effects provided by fertilization in the cultivation of potatoes and the addition of fertilizer in the cultivation of barley.


Table 12. Means and Tukey test (α =5%) for barley yield, old trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013. Treatment Yield t/ha

T1= With deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization.

1.71 ab

T2= With deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/ removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization. 1.28 b

T3= With deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization. 1.62 ab

T4= With deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization.

1.16 b

T5= W/ deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization.

2.68 a

T6= W/ deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/ removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization. 1.87 ab

T7= W/ deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization. 2.38 ab

T8= W/ deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization.

1.62 ab

T9= W/o deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization. 1.89 ab

T10= W/o deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/ removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization. 1.67 ab

T11= W/o deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization.

2.28 ab

T12= W/o deviation ditches, conventional tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization.. 1.23 b

T13= W/o deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization. 2.02 ab

T14= W/o deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/ removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization.

2.24 ab

T15= W/o deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/oremoval and w/o fertilization and barley w/ fertilization.

2.72 a

T16= W/o deviation ditches, reduced tillage, potato w/ fertilizer, oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization and barley w/o fertilization. 2.29 ab

Physical soil variables We conducted the same analysis of physical characteristics of the soil and differences were not statistically significant (Table 13). In general, the CA practices led to minimal measured improvement in soil characteristics. Over time, more significant differences may emerge.


Table 13. Means of physical soil characteristics, old potato-pasture trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012.

Treatments

ΡB g/cc Θg % Soil Compaction kgF/cm2

High Low Mean T1 0.85 49.2 89 83 86 T2 0.83 48.3 86 83 85 T3 0.85 50.4 91 91 91 T4 0.84 50.3 94 74 84 T5 0.92 47.9 87 85 86 T6 0.83 47.0 113 91 102 T7 0.84 50.3 98 72 85 T8 0.90 49.8 81 97 89 Mean 0.86 49.2 92 85 88 Factors Deviation ditches W/ 0.84 49.6 90 83 86 W/o 0.87 48.8 94 86 90 Tillage Conventional 0.86 48.1 94 86 90 Reduced 0.86 50.2 91 84 87 Cover With removal 0.87 49.5 91 83 87 W/o removal 0.85 48.9 93 86 90 Depth (cm) 0-10 26 16 21 10-20 68 54 61 20-30 121 116 119 30-40 154 153 154

Economic analysis The treatments with reduced tillage were generally superior in economic terms than those with conventional tillage (Table 14). In fact, the best-performing conventional tillage treatment (T11) had net returns of about 60% of that of the best performing reduced tillage option (T5). T15 involves non-removal of the cover crop and, although its costs are higher than T5, over the long term, this is likely to be the best option. There is evidence of the benefits of continuous ground cover. As we do not include the cost of establishing the deviation ditches in these budgets, we question their economic rationale. Any economic benefit from the use of deviation ditches will only emerge over time as soil depth is enhanced and fertility grows compared to no ditches (a result of lower erosion).


Table 14. Dominance analysis, old trial, barley Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013.



Net benefit ($/ha)

Dominance

T5 2064 802 1262 Not dominated T15 2094 899 1195 Dominated T14 1725 656 1069 Not dominated T16 1763 689 1074 Dominated T7 1833 849 984 Dominated T6 1440 601 839 Not dominated T13 1555 776 779 Dominated T8 1247 585 662 Not dominated T11 1756 1001 755 Dominated T10 1286 687 599 Dominated T9 1455 880 575 Dominated T1 1317 885 432 Dominated T2 986 660 326 Dominated T3 1247 894 353 Dominated T12 947 660 287 Dominated T4 893 663 230 Dominated

Evaluation of systems of tillage, soil use, fertilization and rotations in potato-pasture system (new

trials), Illangama Ecuador

Figure 11. New trial with oats-vetch, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012.


Agronomic variables Barley and faba yields varied by treatment in the new trials with T3 being on net the best option, while T1 had the best barley yield and T4 had the best faba yield (Table 15).

Table 15. Means and results of Tukey test (5%) for yield, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013. Treatment Barley yield t/ha Faba yield t/ha T1= Conventional tillage, pasture with removal, potato with fertilization, and oats-vetch with removal and w/o fertilization, barley with fertilizer and faba without fertilizer (control)

1.56 a 1.85 c

T2= Reduced tillage, pasture with removal, potato with fertilization, and oats-vetch with removal and w/o fertilization, barley with fertilizer and faba without fertilizer

0.98 bc 2.64 b

T3= Reduced tillage, pasture with w/o removal, potato with fertiziation, and oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization, barley with fertilizer and faba without fertilizer

1.41 ab 2.77 ab

T4= Reduced tillage, pasture with w/o removal, potato with fertiziation (no added N), and oats-vetch w/o removal and w/o fertilization, barley w/o fertilizer and faba without fertilizer

0.67 c 2.81 a

As expected, T3, one of the CAPS treatments, dominates the other options (Table 16). The reduced tillage options without removal are superior, but T3 shows a marginal return of 92% over that of T4.

Table 16. Dominance analysis, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012-2013.



Net benefit ($/ha)

Dominance

T3 2183 1522 661 Not dominated T1 1934 1607 326 Dominated T2 1800 1457 343 Dominated T4 1629 1234 395 Not dominated

Soil chemistry and physical measures No statistically significant difference was observed across treatments (Table 17). Similarly, no statistically significant differences in physical properties of the soil were observed (Table 18).

Table 17. Mean values of soil chemistry indicators, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012.

Treatment NH4+ ppm P ppm K meq/100 ml pH MO %

T1 100.00 16.00 0.26 6.48 10.03 T2 97.33 16.33 0.22 6.54 9.76 T3 97.33 15.33 0.21 6.45 9.56 T4 95.00 16.33 0.19 6.45 9.56


Table 18. Physical soil properties, new trial, Illangama-Ecuador, 2012.

Treatment

ΡB

g/cc Θg % Compaction kgF/cm2

High Medium Low Mean T1 0.85 52.0 74 72 80 75 T2 0.88 52.3 94 98 103 98 T3 0.92 51.2 86 97 95 93 T4 0.85 52.3 94 110 79 94 Depth (cm) 0-10 26 25 27 26 10-20 54 55 56 55 20-30 112 134 120 122 30-40 156 163 153 158 Mean 0.87 52.0 87 94 89 90 Task 2.2.2: Micro-liming as a method to improve phosphorus fertilizer availability in Andean soils (conducted in Ecuador) Andisol (volcanic ash derived) soils, and particularly those with limited weathering as in the Illangama sub-watershed, have strong phosphorus adsorption capacity. This characteristic is associated with their high concentrations of amorphous clay minerals and organic matter, and acidic nature. The strong adsorption of added P fertilizer decreases the plant availability and thus plant growth and yield response to P fertilizer. The poor P fertilizer use efficiency is a problem for farmers in the Illangama region and in many similar areas in the Andean highlands. There is some evidence in the literature that P adsorption in Andisols may be reduced by liming. We investigated this possibility using a short-term greenhouse experiment with varying P and lime levels added to a soil from Illangama and planted to barley. The soil used in the greenhouse and laboratory studies is an Andisol located 19 kilometers west of the base of Chimborazo in the town of Guanujo, north of Guaranda, in Bolívar Province, near the SANREM project sites in the Illangama sub-watershed. The coordinates of the project site are 1°30'26.50"S, 79°3'5.69"W. Annual precipitation is 500-1300 mm and the site is located 3168 meters above sea level. The soil was characterized through fertility testing as a low P, low pH soil. The initial pH (1:2.5 H2O) was 5.57 and soil test P was 7.4 mg/kg. Other notable results of initial sampling include an organic matter content of 13.2% and a rating of ‘slightly toxic’ aluminum concentrations and acidity. A mineralogy study with powder-XRD analysis showed that the soil is made up of 47% of the plagioclase feldspar andesine, 39% amorphous minerals, 11% clinopyroxene, a mineral product of volcanic glass, and 3% quartz minerals. Field soil was excavated to a depth of ~20 cm and brought to the INIAP Santa Catalina experiment station for use in the greenhouse experiment. Nine lime and P treatments were applied using a factorial experiment design with 3 levels each of lime and P fertilizer (0, 1, and 2 times the recommended agronomic rates). Soil samples were taken at 21 and 32 days after


incubation with lime and P fertilizer, at which point the pots were seeded with barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Additional soil samples were taken at 46 and 83 days after the initiation of the experiment, which correlates with 14 and 53 days after planting. Soil samples were tested for pH, acidity, and soil nutrient contents in Mehlich-3 and Olsen. Plant height biomass and nutrient content data were collected. We observed a large plant biomass and P uptake response to those treatments with added P fertilizer (Figs. 9 and 10). There was also a small interaction effect with lime; biomass and P uptake at each P level were further increased with lime addition. Lime addition also resulted in substantial increases in soil pH (Fig. 11). Because of the short-term nature of this experiment, we could not measure grain yield. However, the lime and P treatments also significantly increased tillering, thus there was a clear increase in yield potential. These results indicate that there could be a small P uptake and fertilizer use efficiency benefit from combined application of P fertilizer and lime. Further testing with longer-term field experiments would be needed to verify this indication.

Figure 12. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on above ground barley biomass (dry weight per pot)

production.

Figure 13. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on total barley P update (P per pot).


Figure 14. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on soil pH.

Another interesting finding from this study is the lack of correlation between available soil P and both plant biomass and uptake response. While lime and P addition substantially increased barley growth and P uptake there was no effect on either Mehlich-3 extractable P (Fig. 12) or Olsen extractable P (data not shown). These results suggest that these two extractants lack sensitivity to detect plant available P in Andisols. If that is the case, then P fertilizer recommendations based on these soil tests would also lack sensitivity. This finding also should be further investigated in field P fertility experiments.

Figure 15. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on Mehlich-3 extractable soil P.

Dried soil samples from the greenhouse study were used in a desorption isotherm experiment carried out in University Park, PA. The four samples that received the most extreme levels of treatment from the greenhouse project were shaken for 24 hours with 25 mL of a 400 mgP/L solutionand then sequentially extracted five times with a weak salt solution containing no P.


Each extract was analyzed for orthophosphate. This test was conducted to determine if the lime additions had increased the amount of added fertilizer P that would desorb from the soil. We observed that the sample treated with the highest rates of lime and phosphorus released the most P, while the control released the least P (Fig. 13). This result also suggests that addition of lime may increase the plant availability of added fertilizer P.

Figure 16. Effect of lime and phosphorus fertilizer on desorption of soil P.

These results will be presented at the Soil Science Society of America annual meetings in November, 2013. This investigation is the M.S. thesis work of Kathleen Webber. She will complete her thesis in November 2013 and will also submit a manuscript reporting this work for publication in a refereed journal. Task 2.2.3: Complementary experiments: Soil fertility enhancements and biological control of pests in CA. Developing sustainable methods of enhancing crop nutrition is essential for achieving high yields with low environmental impacts. Use of microbial biofertilizers is one such method. Microbial biofertilizers can either synthesize a needed plant nutrient, such as nitrogen fixation by Rhizobia, or microbial biofertilizers can alter soil conditions to make plant nutrients more available; e.g. phosphate solubilizing bacteria provide phosphate to plants. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria make soil phosphorus more available to plants through the production of organic acids, phosphatases, or acidification via proton efflux. The most commonly studied genera of soil bacteria that are able to solubilize phosphate are Pseudomonas, Rhizobia, and Bacillus. Penn State research for the SANREM Innovation Lab focused on Bacillus species able to solubilize phosphate (see description of field experiments in Bolivia, above). We focus on Bacillus because it is able to form environmentally stable endospores, which have a long shelf


life when used in biological products. Also, our collaborators at Foundation PROINPA have the fermentation capacity and experience to produce Bacillus for commercial use. To better understand the potential of Bacillus species to promote growth and reduce disease in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), a survey of three Bacillus populations found in Bolivian and Ecuadorean quinoa and domestic Chenopodium album was performed. Four Bacillus species groups common to all populations were tested, including the B. subtilis, B. megaterium, B. simplex, and B. cereus species groups. Nearly 500 isolates were assayed for tricalcium phosphate solubilization, phytase production, IAA production, chitinase production and fungal antagonism. Whereas IAA production was only observed in the B. simplex and B. megaterium species groups, chitinase production was detected in the B. cereus species group and rarely in other species groups, whereas phytase production was common to all species groups in the study. A subset of plant growth promoting bacteria, the phosphate solubilizing bacteria, were examined to determine if the phosphate solubilizing phenotype was specific to certain Bacillus species. Since there is a fast developing worldwide shortage of phosphate fertilizers, ways to access non-available forms of phosphorus need to be developed. Bacillus populations isolated from Pennsylvanian Chenopodium album, and Ecuadorean and Bolivian quinoa were screened for the ability to solubilize phosphate and their phenotypes were paired with 16S sequence data to determine if there were species based patterns of phosphate solubilization. Allisolates of Bacillus megaterium and 99% of Bacillus subtilis groups were capable of phosphate solubilization, whereas members of the B. simplex (51%) and B. cereus (39%) groups varied greatly in their ability to solubilize phosphate. This indicates the phosphate solubilizing phenotype is more common in certain Bacillus species and these species could be targeted in screens for plant growth promoting bacteria. However, in preliminary assays in which the effects of a phosphate-solubilizing B. megaterium were compared to non-solubilizing B. simplex isolates, no significant differences were observed in plant growth or plant phosphorus content; therefore, the ecological role of the phosphate solubilizing phenotype still needs a more targeted evaluation. If plant growth promoting bacteria could booster quinoa growth, this would be inconsequential if sustainable methods to control quinoa diseases were unavailable. Results of all these studies, along with protocols, were prepared for Andean collaborators, so that this research can be applied in key quinoa producing areas of South America. Additional research is presently directed to evaluating plant associated microbes on common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and broad bean (Vicia faba). Short term goals will be to confirm the nutrient status of plants receiving individual plant associated bacteria, and also to assess combinations that include two plant associated bacteria, and/or Rhizobium bacteria, arbuscular mycorrhizae or no additional microbes. In an effort to multiply the impacts of SANREM in Bolivia, we obtained outside funding for a side trip to evaluate the sustainable cropping systems along the shores of Lake Titicaca. We have developed a relationship with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute at Yale University


(through Dr. Jo Handelsman) to examine the metagenomics of soils from raised bed cropping systems(called sukagallos or waru-waru) that were established in pre-Incan times, compared to modern constructs developed in the past several decades, and lastly compared to non-constructed dryland agriculture in adjacent areas. With the key assistance of Dr. Alejandro Bonefacio of PROINPA, replicated soil samples representing each of these comparisons were removed, and carried to the laboratory of PROINPA in Cochabamba. In total, there were 48 samples representing two distinct zones. These raised bed systems were sampled, but it was obvious that they were suffering from the impacts of climate change. The lake level had receded 1.5-2.4 m over the past several years leaving most of the lakeside systems high and dry. Regardless, samples were taken from locations with comparable hosts and environments. DNA was removed using the MoBio power soil system, and frozen for later analysis. Before this was completed, a family emergency pulled our team leader back to the U.S., leaving the final stages of extraction to a technical support person in Bolivia who was not able to extract the non-bedded, dryland control soils in a timely manner. Very soon after our team returned, USAID was expelled from Bolivia and these samples could not be recovered or resampled. However, during the trip, they did repatriate the Bolivian Bacillus isolates that had been indexed for biological control and nutritional benefits (about 300 isolates). In Ecuador, training on plant beneficial microbes was held with technical and research staff at the Santa Catalina station of INIAP. This involved methods to screen bacteria for beneficial attributes such as antibiotic production, phytohormone production, hydrolytic enzyme production, and also for phosphate mobilization attributes. This training was held in March 2013. We returned Ecuadorian isolates of plant associated microbes with information on their beneficial attributes to the INIAP collaborators. Field Trials 2013 Trials conducted at Penn State, included three Bacillus species applied as seed treatments to seeds. Plant species used were Vicia faba (cv. Windsor) and Phaseolus vulgaris (cv. Midnight Black Turtle Soup, bush, dry). The objective was to compare growth promotion and disease suppressive effects of B. amyloliqeufaciens (GB99), as well as B. pumilus (GB34) and B. subtilis (GB122) and their interactions when applied as 2- and 3-member combinations. This trial compares these seed treatments to Thiram 42-S seed treatment fungicide and evaluates potential interactions with the fungicide. Characteristics measured included: emergence, plant nutrient content, colonization, disease incidence, plant height and weight. In addition, measurements of rhizobium nodule number, vigor and yield were recorded throughout the growing season. The pellet re-suspension method was used for Bacillus species and 107 CFU/seed was applied. Half and 1/3 rates were used for mixtures. The field trial layout was a randomized complete block design. Results from 2013 field trials indicate that the seed treatment B. amyloliquefaciens GB99 with Rhizobium could replace Thiram fungicide and N fertilization. Seed treatments GB99+Rhizobium had increases in plant height, shoot vigor and weight compared to the untreated control. In


addition, GB99+R had higher N levels and yields that were comparable to the Thiram fungicide treatment. Finally, root necrosis was decreased in plants treated with GB99+R. These data provide evidence that GB99 with Rhizobium can effectively replace a fungicide treatment. Results for Vicia faba Rhizobium nodulation was significantly increased by treatment with GB34+T and GB99+GB34 when compared to other treatments. Root fresh weight was also significantly greater in GB34+Thiram treatment compared to other treatments, but not compared to the untreated control. The untreated control had the greatest number of nodes, and treatments of GB99+GB122 and GB34+GB122 decreased the number of nodes significantly. Shoot fresh weight was also the greatest in the untreated control, which was significantly greater than treatments with Thiram, GB99+T, GB99, GB99+GB122, GB34+GB122, GB99+GB34 and GB99+GB34+GB122. Results for Phaseolus vulgaris Significant differences in emergence rate were observed seven days a after planting, where treatments of GB99 had increased emergence compared to GB99+T and GB99+GB122. At 8 days, untreated controls, Thiram, GB99+GB34+T, GB34, GB34+GB122 and GB99+GB34+GB122 all had increased emergence compared to GB99+T, GB122 and GB99+GB122. At 11 days untreated controls, GB99, Thiram, GB34, GB99+GB34, GB34+GB122 and GB99+GB34+GB122 all had increased emergence compared to GB99+T and GB99+GB122. Finally, at 19 days GB34+GB122 and GB99+GB34+GB122 had increased emergence compared to GB99+GB122. This indicates GB34 as an inducer of emergence rate in P. vuglaris. Nodule numbers were significantly greater in root systems treated with GB99+GB34+T and GB34 compared to GB99+T, GB99+GB34, GB122 and GB34+GB122. Further laboratory and greenhouse studies will be performed to confirm these observations. Task 2.3: Create and follow protocol for measuring economic dimensions of CAPS. These dimensions include fixed and variable costs of practices, productivity and profitability (including rotation effects and incorporation of new products), labor and time requirements, impacts on risk and variability, and gender roles. As noted in the description of achievements in Ecuador under task 2.2, we are collecting cost data and already have some interesting results across the practices (see some of the results reported above). In the current year, we collected data for a choice experiment designed to measure the values associated with different CA attributes such as labor savings, increased weeding, and erosion reduction). The SANREM undergraduate research internship program (May-June, 2013) assisted in the fieldwork. Six undergraduate students (all women) traveled to Ecuador and spent 6 weeks collecting the data. Michael Barrowclough (US) a Ph.D. student in AAEC at Virginia Tech accompanied them (as did Alwang, Norton and Bosch at different times). Barrowclough is currently analyzing the data.


Task 2.4: Adapt the Mexican nitrogen index tool to conditions in Ecuador and Bolivia. Drs. Delgado and Gallagher visited Bolivia and Ecuador to establish protocols for collecting the data needed to calibrate the nitrogen index model (NIM). A version of this model is available in the programming language Java. Farmers and extension agents in the U.S. and Mexico use it to estimate plant uptake and losses of nitrogen in different cropping systems and thus develop nitrogen application recommendations. Data from experimental trials conducted during the prior phase of SANREM were used to calibrate the model to represent conditions in the Bolivia and Ecuador sites. The soil analyses from our experimental trials are being incorporated into the prototype NIM. The index is continuously updated based on data from the field. An activity conducted this year was used to validate the nitrogen index in Ecuador. Rosa Arévalo, a SANREM agricultural engineer, used data from the maize trials in Alumbre, Ecuador, and compared actual measurements with predictions from the NI. Arevalo discovered that the NIM is a relatively accurate predictor for nitrogen needs, plant uptake and leaching. Total nitrogen in the system was 162 kg/ha/year; of this, the crop took up 54 kg and 44 kg were leached. The economic analysis from this experiment showed that the value of leached and residual nitrogen was $24 and $31, respectively. These results were compared to the NIM and the correspondence was high.

Figure 17. Potato crop nitrogen uptake estimated by the Nitrogen Index versus observed total nitrogen

uptake at harvest (Bolivia potato systems).

The Nitrogen Index assessment suggested that split applications of nitrogen fertilizer at planting, V6, and V9 contribute to higher nitrogen use efficiency and lower nitrate leaching (Escudero et al. In Review). This Ecuador Nitrogen Index can potentially be used to help farmers in nitrogen management.


Figure 18. Maizecrop nitrogen uptake estimated by the Nitrogen Index versus observed total nitrogen uptake

at harvest in Ecuador

In order to promote more widespread use of the NIM, SANREM in Ecuador has created a number of linkages, principally with the Universidad Estatal de Bolívar. These linkages allow us to use University resources to promote soil conservation and more efficient use of nitrogen in production units in Bolivar. Challenges and Responses In Ecuador, as previously indicated, progress on processing the soil samples has been hampered by 1) availability of knowledgeable laboratory personnel to process the soil samples, and 2) the lack of the necessary reagents needed to use the most efficient soil analysis protocols. Arnulfo Portilla, under the supervision of Soraya Alvarado, has made considerable progress on the SANREM samples associated with his thesis project, and we are reducing the backlog on the remaining samples. Task 2.5: Validation of CAPs and IPM programs in potato-pasture (Illangama) and maize-beans systems (Alumbre), 2012-2013 (joint activity with IPM IL). The farmer field research on CA and integrated pest management (IPM) in potato production systems in the potato-pasture Illangama River and maize-beans in the Alumbre River watershed showed that a mixture of CA and IPM can lead to important improvements. These include better soil health, yields, decreased costs, and reduced use of pesticides compared to conventional practices. This year, we expanded the validation trials to a larger number of farmers. The ultimate purpose is to improve the productivity of small-scale production systems on a small scale.


Illangama trials These trials were established on five farmer fields (Table 16) with the practices shown in Table 17.

Table 19. Location of CA/IPM plots, Illangama, Ecuador, 2013

Name Community Altitude (masl)

Latitude Longitude Average slope (%)

María Palag Mulanga 3588 0731523 9830140 38 Aurelio Coles Mulanga 3686 0731785 9829935 38 José Coles Marcopamba 3546 0732195 9830319 62 Luis Toapanta Mulanga 3613 0731631 9829717 42 Cecilio Manobanda Pucarapamba 3452 0730336 9831631 29

Table 20. Treatments under study—CA/IPM plots, Illangama, Ecuador, 2013.

Treatments First cycle Jan.-June 2013

Second Cycle July-Dec. 2013

T1= Deviation ditches, covered with native species and milin grass, reduced tillage, contour plowing; IPM package for white worm (Premnotrypes vorax), Andean potato weevil (Tecia solanivora), late blight (Phytophthora infestans) and Rhizoctonia.

Potato Oats/vetch w/o removal

T2= Conventional tillage, conventional pest management (control).

Potato Oats/vetch w/ removal

Establishment of drainage ditches and native species In each 500 m2 with CA-IPM practices, diversion ditches were established, located in the upper, middle and lower slope. Each trench has a length of 20 m, with a width of 0.50 m and a height of 0.50 m, giving a total of 5 m3 per diversion ditch. At the top of each trench, cuttings of Millin grass and shrub species as yagual (Buddleja incana), were planted at 1.5 m between plants. Soil samples from the two treatments and five repetitions were taken and subjected to nutrient analysis. Planting and crop management practices potato with CA- IPM Potatoes were planted using the local reduced tillage method, similar to the system of "Huacho Rozado". This tillage system reduces soil erosion and costs, and can be shown to increase production and improve pest control. The hoe was crossed to a depth of 20 inches, with contour and row spacing of 1 m. Soil samples were taken at the start of the experiment at a depth of 25 cm. At seeding, fertilizer was applied to the bottom of the groove in a continuous stream (40% of N and 100% of P2O5, K2O and S, with 18-46-0 fertilizer, potassium chloride). The other 60% N was applied at hilling as 8-20-20 fertilizer and urea sideband and covered with soil at field capacity. A 180 kg of certified potato seeds were used per replication per treatment. Sowing was done by hand and the seed was covered with a thin layer of soil about twice the diameter of the seed. Mechanical weed control and soil aeration were conducted by hand hoe at about 70 days.


Hilling was performed at 80 days after sowing, leading to the lowest possible ground disturbance. IPM controls consisted of the following. For white worm: (i) 5 traps to monitor pest populations; (ii) bait plants with acephate insecticide; (iii) pronofos or acephate spraying at bottom of plants (these are low-toxicity pesticides and the amount used ws far below standard practice). In addition, spraying at the bottom of the plant reduces pesticide exposure. For Guatemalan tuber moth: (i) application of baculovirus to seeds at 250 g per 45 kg of seed in green silos (technology validated by the IPM Innovation Lab). For late blight: (i) use of seeds of the INIAP-Nativity variety with horizontal resistance; (ii) limited use of low-toxicity fungicides (Cymoxanil and Mancozeb) and Acrobat and Sulphur. For Rhizoctonia: application of Trichoderma to seed upon planting. Potato yields The analysis of variance for variable potato yield shows statistically significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) among treatments, indicating that the average T1 treatment (CA-IPM) was different than the T2 treatment (control) as shown in Table 21.

Table 21. Means and significance of potato yields CA-IPM treatments compared to farmer practices, Illangama-Ecuador, 2013.

Treatments Yields t/ha Significance DMS P≤0.05

T1= Deviation ditches, covered with native species and milin grass, reduced tillage, contour plowing; IPM package for White worm (Premnotrypes vorax), Andean potato weevil (Tecia solanivora), late blight (Phytophthora infestans) and Rhizoctonia.

18.2 a

T2= Conventional tillage, conventional pest management (control). 16.5 b In relation to the percentage of incidence and severity of white grub damage, there were 3 to 9% of tubers with damage in T1, whereas the level of damage ranged from from 12% to 46% in T2. In the five localities, on average, the CA-IPM plots had 6% of damaged tubers, whereas in the control plots the mean level of damaged tuberswas 23%. Potato yields on the CA-IPM plots were 10.4% higher. Economic analysis The economic analysis showed a 4.5% increase in overall costs in T1. This higher cost was mostly due to higher costs of fertilizer and cultivation. The conventional practice implied more than a 50% increase in tillage costs and more expensive chemical controls (Table 22).


Table 22. Costs of production CA-IPM, Illangama-Ecuador, 2013.

Description Treatments ($/ha) T1 T2= Contional

Direct costs: Deviation ditches 88 0 Tillage 153 335 Planting 874 814 Fertilization 643 420 Cultivation 202 186 Chemical controls 138 180 Harvest 298 269 Land rental 100 100 Total Direct Costs 2,496 2,303 Indirect Costs: Interest 9% (6 months) 150 138 Administration 5% 125 115 Total Indirect: 275 253 Total Costs 2,771 2,557 Yield (kg/ha) 18,180 16,470 Average price ($/kg) 0.30 0.25 Gross benefit ($/ha) 5,454 4,118 Net benefit ($/ha) 2,683 1,561 Cost/benefit 1.96 1.60 Profitability (%) 96 60

The average costs of production for the full T1 are 8% higher than the control. Cost of deviation ditches, however, will only be borne once). Higher yields and better market prices for the T1 plots were associated with the overall economic advantage of this practice. While all financial indicators are positive, the use of CA-IPM is the best investment option. Long-term improvements are likely to be observed, and this analysis does not include the value of health and environmental benefits from IPM and CA. Maize-bean system CA-IPM trials An additional set of validation trials was held in the Alumbre watershed, this time using IPM and CA in the beans-maize system predominate in this area (Table 23). IPM treatments consisted of limited use of low-toxicity pesticides for the maize pests. The analysis of yields showed an insignificant yield difference for hard maize (T1 produced 11% more biomass in the oat/vetch cycle), but the economic analysis showed a clear advantage for T1 (Table 24).


Table 23. Treatments CA-IPM trials, Alumbre-Ecuador, 2013.

Treatments First cycle Dec.-Feb. 2013

Second cycle Mar.-Sept. 2013

T1= Deviation ditches, with fruit species and maralfalfa grass; reduced tillage, contour planting, IPM.

Oat/vetch, without removal

Hard maize without residue removal

T2= Conventional tillage, no contours, conventional pest managment (control).

Natural grass with removal

Hard maize

Table 24. Costs of production CA-IPM (maize-bean system). Alumbre-Ecuador, 2013.

Description Treatments ($/ha) T1 T2= Conventional

Direct costs: Deviation ditches 96 Tillage 75 120 Planting 144 146 Fertilization 99 50 Cultivation 54 191 Chemical controls 75 74 Harvest 159 163 Land rental 100 100 Total Direct Costs 802 843 Indirect Costs: Interest 9% (6 months) 96 101 Administration 5% 40 42 Total Indirect: 136 143 Total Costs 938 986 Yield (kg/ha) 3,306 3,055 Average price ($/kg) 0.40 0.40 Gross benefit ($/ha) 1,322 1,222 Net benefit ($/ha) 385 236 Cost/benefit 1.41 1.24 Profitability (%) 41 24

As can be observed, costs savings come primarily from lower costs of tillage and cultivation. These are offset somewhat by higher costs of fertilization. Recall that our regular CA results show yield advantages for CA increasing over time, so it is likely that in addition to health and environmental benefits (not captured here), the CA-IPM practices will over time show increasing (relative to the controls) profitability.


Objective 3: Promote adoption of the most appropriate CAPS by identifying mechanisms to increase their profitability Critical Research Accomplishments/Development Impacts Task 3.1: Explore the potential for increased local input production. Ecuador: In Ecuador, farmers have stricken a delicate balance between land use for farming and other alternatives. Over the years, there have been significant efforts in the project areas to introduce plans for reforestation of the more degraded areas. The analysis of vulnerability (to erosion and soil degradation) conducted in the prior phase of SANREM identified areas where reforestation was possible and areas where small-scale agroforestry systems could assist in retaining soils and provide inputs for fuel wood and stakes for perennial crops. These efforts will raise local incomes and make CA more likely to be profitable and environmentally sustainable. In the current year, we had an ongoing woodland-related output: continued operation of a nursery in Mulanga (also the upper watershed). This nursery, funded with a $5,000 grant from the USAID Quito mission, is providing species for native tree and bush species to aid in reforestation in the more vulnerable areas of the upper watershed.

In addition to this, three native hardwood species were planted in the past as part of a silvo-pastoral experiment by the SANREM team in the Illangama Watershed. Growth and survival of this plantation was poor, and the community was not encouraged by these results. The poor performance was due in part to lack of care following planting, grazing by livestock, and possible damage from wind. Seven native hardwood tree and shrub species have been identified as appropriate candidates for future reforestation projects. Local stakeholders expressed a strong desire to work with native species, as their experience with pine has been uniformly bad. All species have been planted at various sites, and there are mixed results on their performance. Opportunities for producing saw log-grade hardwoods from planted native species in the Illangama watershed is limited, based on observations of growth rates and stem form quality in existing trees. Opportunities for native tree establishment for firewood production, creating windbreaks, protection of fragile sites, and to improve biodiversity are numerous. Bolivia: The main focus of work to improve agricultural productivity and profitability within our CA system in Bolivia has been to further refine biological controls and biological inputs for improved productivity within a CAPS. PROINPA (Bolivia) has a well-developed capacity (e.g., a bio-control production facility) to produce biological organisms, but work is needed to refine the particular isolates. We examined steps to use Bacilli from quinoa to control quinoa diseases. At Penn State, several experiments were performed to isolate endospore-forming Bacilli from Chenopodium quinoa seeds. Another component of our research is to lower production costs through more efficient use of irrigation. In Ecuador, we are experimenting with sprinkler irrigation, which makes for more efficient use of scarce water resources when compared to the flooding systems that are currently being used. We are evaluating the amortized cost of this investment.


Challenges and Responses In both countries, labor availability is growing in importance as a constraint to profitable farming. Prices for a daily agricultural worker have nearly doubled since SANREM began its work in Ecuador and Bolivia in 2006. Growing labor costs are primarily due to out migration of youth. In Bolivia, we are seeking labor-saving practices, such as the direct seeder of quinoa described above. These technologies will clearly improve the economic viability of CA. In Ecuador, our lower-till options are becoming increasingly viable as labor costs increase. Objective 4: Design and evaluate mechanisms for disseminating results to similar areas. Critical Research Accomplishments/Development Impacts We are in the process of evaluating alternative means of dissemination of CA practices and CAPS. We will continue to do so in the upcoming period. The primary mechanisms are: participatory research, field days, and short workshops aimed at farmers. We consciously identified local leaders to participate in the research, and as participants adopt the practices, neighbors and others may adopt as well. We also conduct regular field days and participation in them generally exceeds 100 people. We are engaged in mass media outreach in both countries. In Ecuador, SANREM has sponsored a number of radio and television programs focusing on CA and watershed management. In Bolivia, we have contracted with local radio and television in Tiraque and are broadcasting messages. In the current year, we will begin to collect data on the effectiveness of these practices. We plan to institute randomized control trials to measure how the different outreach measures contribute to farmer knowledge and diffusion of the technologies. We will also undertake choice experiments to gauge willingness to receive compensation for adoption of otherwise costly practices. We will take advantage of the entry of SANREM into the Anzaldo region of Bolivia to experiment with alternative outreach methods. Objective 5: Evaluate overall impacts of the CRSP research program along several dimensions including soil health, productivity, economic, social and environmental. Critical Research Accomplishments/Development Impacts Soil health and productivity:

• Baseline soil samples have been taken in the farmer fields. Some of the analysis results are presented above; we will continue to conduct analysislocally, at Penn State, and at Virginia Tech in collaboration with CCRA-9.

• Protocol for measuring erosion loss under different CA management practices has been established in Ecuador. We are evaluating data from the prior SANREM cycle and have improved our methods for erosion measurement for the current cycle.


• Training in use of nitrogen index has been undertaken. This tool will be used by research teams to evaluate nitrogen needs in our research sites and to adjust nutrient application recommendations to changing conditions.

Economic and social:

• We are collecting data on costs for all field experiments (in conjunction with the CCRA-9. We will calculate fixed (equipment) and variable costs, including family labor use in cultivation and harvest. Abigail Nguema (M.S., Virginia Tech) completed an impact assessment linear programming model. This year’s report contains a wealth of information on the economic viability of our CAPS (see details above).

• Researchers in the project are collecting market data on input and product prices. Regular market surveys are being undertaken in both countries. These data will be used in the current year to assess how market risk affects profitability of different products and marketing decisions. Findings from our published work confirm that risks are endemic in the study areas, that farmers adopt “costly” practices to manage risks, and that a key determinant of adoption of CA will be its impact on risk. The Amaya studies show clearly that access to information affects farmer marketing decisions, and, while traditional methods of obtaining this information persist, they are being supplanted by cellular information technologies.

• Regular participatory assessments are being conducted in areas where field experiments are being undertaken. For example, in the current year, our Bolivian partners, together with CIF, the forage research center at UMSS, undertook a participatory assessment of preferences for different forage types. The purpose of this assessment was to identify culturally acceptable forages to include in the CAPS trials. Results (reported above) indicated major differences in forage preferences between males and females. These differences were reported in the projects’s semi-annual report.

• The SANREM undergraduate research internship program included six undergraduate students and a graduate student from Virginia Tech who collected data to be used for a choice experiment. Statistical techniques will be used to understand how farmers trade off different attributes of CA (profitability, labor, soil loss, off-farm impacts, equipment needs, weeding considerations) when making decisions about whether to adopt or not adopt CAPS. This information will be part of a doctoral dissertation, and will be used to design extension programs to diffuse the CAPS in Chimbo and other areas of Ecuador.

Analysis of conservation agriculture knowledge and practices inEcuador We are in the process of analyzing a second set of baseline data for the Bolivar province in Ecuador. This household data set (419 total observations with about ¾ coming from Alumbre; see Table 21) were collected by the IPM Innovation Lab, but contains information on soil conservation and other CA practices. The preliminary analysis shows that women and men jointly make decisions about conservation practices, but substantial differences were observed in the responses of women compared to those of men. Farmers in Illangama have more complete information on conservation practices compared to farmers in Alumbre. The analysis of gendered differences in responses to farm management, market participation, and


knowledge of conservation agricultural practices is currently being undertaken by an M.S. student at Virginia Tech. Producers in Illangama are more likely to use conservation practices (Table 22). These differences are likely due to the longer presence of SANREM and, more generally, INIAP in the upper watershed. INIAP only began to work with producers in the lower watershed in 2006 (during the previous phase of the SANREM project) and has been working in Illangama for more than 10 years.

Table 25. Knowledge of soil conservation practices, Alumbre and Illangama-Ecuador, 2012.

Práctice Alumbre Illangama Total Know. (%) S.E. Know. (%) S.E. Know. (%) E.E. P

Strip cultivation 8.8 1.6 27.3 4.7 13.6 1.7 0.0001 Deviation ditches 10.4 1.7 37.3 4.6 17.5 1.9 0.0000 Contour planting 8.8 1.6 30.9 4.4 14.6 1.7 0.0000 Crop rotation 64.6 2.7 92.7 2.9 72.0 2.2 0.0000 Live barriers 34.1 2.7 68.2 4.5 43.1 2.4 0.0000 Reduced tillage 32.8 2.7 72.7 4.3 43.3 2.4 0.0000 Green manure 12.3 1.9 13.6 3.3 12.7 1.6 0.7319 Number of observations 308 110 418

*Significant difference at P ≤ 0.01.

Table 26. Adoption of soil conservation practices, Alumbre and Illangama-Ecuador, 2012.

Práctice* Alumbre Illangama Total Adopt. (%) S.E. Adopt. (%) S.E. Adopt. (%) E.E. P

Strip cultivation 3.8 1.2 21.2 4.6 8.1 1.5 0.0004 Deviation ditches 5.0 1.4 31.2 5.2 11.6 1.8 0.0000 Contour planting 6.3 1.6 22.5 4.7 10.3 1.7 0.0015 Crop rotation 59.4 3.2 92.5 3.0 67.7 2.6 0.0000 Live barriers 24.7 2.8 63.7 5.4 34.5 2.7 0.0000 Reduced tillage 26.7 2.9 76.2 4.8 38.9 2.7 0.0000 Green manure 7.1 1.7 6.2 2.7 6.9 1.4 0.7873 No. obs 239 80 319

*Significant difference at P ≤0.01. Women participate in farming decisions. However, men were most likely to be responsible for the implementation of soil conservation practices (Table 23). Differences by gender were not statistically significant for the strip cultivations, use of live barriers, and adoption of reduced tillage and use of green manures. Deviation ditches and plowing on the contour require physical strength and are usually tasks performed by men (men almost always plow fields in Ecuador).


Table 27. Gender and adoption/performance of CA practices, Chimbo-Ecuador, 2012. Practice* Man Woman Total

Use practice (%) S.E.

Use practice (%) S.E.

Use practice (%) E.E. P

Strip cultivation 10.1 2.2 5.3 2.0 8.1 1.5 0.1083 Deviation ditches 15.4 2.6 6.1 2.1 11.6 1.8 0.0061 Contour planting 15.4 2.6 3.0 1.5 10.3 1.7 0.0001 Crop rotation 75.0 3.2 57.2 4.3 67.7 2.6 0.0011 Live barriers 37.2 3.5 30.5 4.0 34.5 2.7 0.2130 Reduced tillage 39.4 3.6 38.2 4.3 38.9 2.7 0.8302 Green manure 7.4 1.9 6.1 2.1 6.90 1.4 0.6381 No. obs 188 131 319

*Significant difference at P ≤ 0.01. Environmental: Dr. Flowers discussed his efforts during the previous SANREM phase to monitor water quality using counts of macro-invertebrates. He explained that such measurement would be relatively inexpensive to continue and could be used to engage local stakeholders (particularly young people) in the project. The team agreed and Dr. Flowers worked to reinstitute the water quality monitoring program. Objective 6: Strengthen the capacity of government and non-government institutions to develop and disseminate CAPS in the Andean regions of target countries The project made strides to improve understanding of farmer preferences for CAPS attributes (discussed above). This information will be invaluable for subsequent outreach. Task 6.1: Conduct gender sensitivity training for all project staff. Collect data on participation rates by gender and by disadvantaged groups. Gender sensitivity training was conducted during a workshop held in 2010. Recommendations from participants in this workshop were subsequently adopted by the research team. One clear problem is the imbalance between men and women on the research team (67% male, 33% female in Ecuador, see Table 28). We are continuing to address this problem, but are constrained by conditions in local institutions. In Ecuador, we have hired an additional two female researchers and the team has continued to stress participation of females in meetings. The team has also entered into dialogue with the University in Bolívar to promote increased female participation in biological and agricultural sciences. The teams in both countries have already taken concrete steps to improve female participation in training events and this representation has grown in recent years. In Illangama, the women’s inability to speak Spanish was identified as a problem and we have hired two bilingual assistants to address this problem.


Table 28. Gender and adoption/performance of CA practices, Chimbo-Ecuador, 2012. Indicators Number 1 Number of female scientists in research team 5 2 Males in research team 12 3 Women participating in short-term training 348 4 Men participating in short-term training 623 5 Female extension agents working directly with farmers 4 6 Gender-focused activities, current year 1

Task 6.2: Degree training We are conducting degree training in two ways: (i) graduate training at U.S. universities and (ii) undergraduate (honor’s) theses for the degree of agricultural engineer. One female graduate student (M.S.) completed degree work in Plant Pathology at Penn State. One female graduate student (M.S., U.S. citizen) is in a degree program in Soil Science at Penn State. Two female graduate students (1 M.S., 1 Ph.D., both U.S. citizens) are in a degree program in Soil Sciences and Plant Pathology at Penn State. One (male) Ph.D. student is in a degree program at Virginia Tech. In the current year, we have engaged five undergraduate students in Ecuador: three from the Universidad Estatal de Bolívar for the degree of “Ingeniero Agrónomo” (Juan Carlos Arévalo) and of “IngenieroForestal” (Maricruz Suárez y Ruth Suárez); and two from the Universidad Central del Ecuador for the degree “Químicos” (Arnulfo Portilla and Danny Farías). They received training in CA practices and participated in field and laboratory work, depending on the assignment or thesis topic. In Bolivia, four undergraduate “tesistas” have participated in the project this year. Task 6.3: Non-degree training We hosted several workshops and presentations for non-local audiences in Ecuador and Bolivia. See below: Degree and nondegree training activities Short-term training was provided to 598 men and 258 women through six field days, six workshops, five short courses, and three seminars. Six women and nine men were provided with degree training: ten Bachelors, three Masters and two Ph.D’s. Some of these students also received important awards for their research: A.L.Testen (M.S. student)

•Northeastern Division APS Graduate Student Presentation Award (first place), and $1,000 for travel to the othe 2013 American Phytopathological Society 2013 meeting


•National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program Honorable Mention, 2012 •Gaspari Scholarship, 2012, PSU Department of Plant Pathology •Gamma Sigma Delta Ag Research Expo, 2012, First Place Poster, Biological Sciences •Penn State Graduate Exhibition, 2012, Third Place Poster, Health and Life Sciences Division -Travel Grant ($1000) to attend the 2012 World Food Prize Borlaug Dialogue (PSU College of Agricultural Sciences Office of International Programs)

H. Cheesman (Ph.D. student) $3000 INTAD competitive travel grant to undtravel to Bolivia during 2013, to sampling sustainable sukagallos (waru waru), raised bed farming systems near Lake Titicaca.

SANREM Undergraduate Interns (Virginia Tech)

• $3500 award to support research from CALS, Virginia Tech • $2000 award to support research from Virginia Tech honors program • $1000 award from Agricultural and Applied Economics awards committee

Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products Refereed and Accepted Journal Publications:

1. Testen A. L., Jimenez-Gasco, M., Ochoa, J. B., and Backman, P. A. 2013. Molecular detection of Peronospora variabilis in quinoa seeds and phylogeny of the quinoa downy mildew pathogen in South America and the United States. Phytopathology 103 (In Press)

2. Testen, A. L., McKemy, J. M., and Backman, P .A. 2013. First Report of Ascochyta Leaf Spot of Quinoa Caused by Ascochyta sp. in the United States. Plant Disease 97:844 http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/abs/10.1094/PDIS-11-12-1008-PDN

3. Testen, A. L., McKemy, J. M., and Backman, P. A. 2013. First report of Passalora leafspot of quinoa caused by Passalora dubia in the United States. Plant Disease 97:139.

4. Monar, C., Saavedra, A. K., Escudero, L., Delgado, J.A., Alwang, J., Barrera, V., and Botello, R. 2013. Positive impacts in soil and water conservation in an Andean region of South America: Case scenarios from a US Agency for International Development multidisciplinary cooperative project. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 68:25A-30A.

5. Nguema, A., Norton, G. W., Alwang, J., Taylor, D. B., Barrera, V. and Bertelsen. M. 2013. Farm-level economic impacts of conservation agriculture in Ecuador. Experimental Agriculture (In press).

6. Escudero, L., Delgado, J.A., Monar, C., Valverde, F., Barrera, V. and Alwang, J. 2013. A new Nitrogen Index for assessment of nitrogen management practices of Andean mountain cropping systems of Ecuador. Mt. Res. Dev. (In Review).

http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/abs/10.1094/PDIS-11-12-1008-PDN


7. Saavedra, A. K., Delgado, J. A., Botello, R., Mamani, P., and Alwang, J. 2013. A new

Nitrogen Index to assess nitrogen dynamics in potato systems of Bolivia. Agrociencia (In Review).

Book Chapters:

Melnick, R. L., Bailey, B. A., and Backman, P. A. 2013. Bacterial endophytes of perennial crops for management of plant disease. In: D.K. Maheshwari (Ed.). Bacteria in agrobiology: Disease management. Springer Books, Berlin Heidelberg, p. 49-76. Alwang, J., Norton, G. W., Barrera, V. and Botello, R. 2013. Conservation agriculture in the Andean Highlands: Promise and precautions. In S. Mann (ed.), The Future of Mountain Agriculture, Chapter 3. Springer Geography, Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.

Presentations and interviews: 1. Alwang, J. and Barrera, V. 2013. Conservation agriculture in the Andean Region. Presented at Special session on Conservation Agriculture. ASA/CSSA/SSSA meeting, Cincinnati, OH.

2. Delgado, J. A. 2013. Interview for Channel 5 Program, TV Cultural Municipal Guaranda, with TV reporter Lcdo. Angel García about "The potential to use conservation practices to adapt to climate change for agricultural sustainability in Ecuador". July 3, 2013, Guaranda, Ecuador.

3. Delgado, J. A. 2013. Interview with Dr. Jorge Delgado by TV reporter Patricio Chiribogo Galano from Universidad Estatal de Bolìvar about the "Importance of conservation agriculture for soil and water quality across agricultural systems in Ecuador and other countries with respect to climate change”. July 3, Guaranda, Ecuador.

4. Delgado, J. A. 2013. Interview with Dr. Jorge Delgado for Local Radio Stations Program. “Climate change and food security challenges, and the importance of soil and water conservation”, July 3, Guaranda, Ecuador.

5. Delgado, J. A. 2013. Conservation practices are essential land management strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation. 17th World Congress of the International Soil Conservation Organization (ISCO), Medellin, Colombia.

6. Alwang, J. 2013. Conservation agriculture as a potential pathway to better resource management, higher productivity, and improved socio-economic conditions in the Andean Region. Presented to SANREM external evaluation panel. Blacksburg, VA.


7. Delgado, J. A., Alwang, J., Escudero, L., Saavedra, A., K., Monar, C., Barrera, V. and Botello, R. 2013. Assessment of nitrogen dynamics and cropping system sustainability in the Andean region of South America with a new tool available for computers and smartphones devices (App). 17th World Congress of the International Soil Conservation Organization, Medellin, Colombia.

8. Monar, C., Silva, D., Delgado, J., Villafuerte, O. and Villafuerte, L. 2013. Indice de Nitrógeno Versión 4.4.1 Aplicado para la producción de quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Will) en Ecuador. IV Congreso Mundial de la Quinua. Ibarra, Ecuador 8 - 12 Julio 2013. 9. Webber, K., Alvarado, S. P., Stehouwer, R. C. and Farías, D. 2013. Soil Science Society of America meetings, November, 2013.

10. Escudero, L. 2013. Costs of production, conservation agriculture. Workshop on Evaluation of impacts of agricultural research, Estación Experimental Santa Catalina, INIAP, Ecuador.

11. Testen, A. and Backman, P. 2013. Plant growth promoting characteristics of Bacillus species associated with Chenopodium quinoa. Poster Presentation at American Phytopathological Society Annual Meeting, Austin TX.

Theses:

Arévalo, J. 2013. Evaluación de sistemas de labranza, uso de suelo y fertilización en el cultivo de papa (Solanum tuberosum L.) en la microcuenca del río Illangama, Provincia de Bolívar. Tesis de Grado de Ingeniero Agroforestal. Universidad Estatal de Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente. Guaranda, Ecuador, 105 p. Montúfar, C. 2013. Caracterización y modelamiento de las microcuencas de los ríos Illangama y Del Alumbre con la utilización del Modelo Hidrológico Generalizado Wathershed Loading Function (GWLF). Provincia de Bolívar 2012. Tesis de Grado de Maestría en Ciencias Ambientales. Universidad Internacional SEK. Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales. Quito, Ecuador, 129 p. Testen, A. L. 2012. Microbial approaches to support Andean quinoa production. The Pennsylvania State University. 119 p. Webber, K. 2013. Evaluation of the effect of liming on the phosphorus availability in Andisols. In preparation.


Degrees Granted: Testen, A. L. May 2013, Masters degree in Plant Pathology and Microbiology with a dual degree granted in International Agricultural Development. Ms. Testen in now pursuing a Ph.D. degree under Dr. Sally Miller at Ohio State (Wooster), and continues her involvement with SANREM . Networking activities We have established important networks between SANREM scientists and local stakeholders. All participating U.S. scientists have established primary contact points with host-country researchers and are now engaged in collaborative research. An example of such collaboration is the training exchange that recently occurred between Dr. Delgado and the Ecuador and Bolivia research teams. In addition to scientific networks, the host-country teams have taken steps to build networks with local stakeholders. In Ecuador, a partnership has emerged between the research team, the Bolivar Provincial government, the Guaranda city government, the local University (where Carlos Monar, former SANREM researcher is now an academic dean) and local governments and farmer groups. We have established seven model farms where ongoing research is conducted. Neighboring farmers visit these farms for informational purposes or to participate in research activities. Dr. Jorge A. Delgado developed a prototype of the Ecuador and Bolivia Nitrogen Index 4.5 program that includes a subroutine to assess N2O emissions from Andean cropping systems. The new Ecuador Nitrogen Index 4.5 prototype was transferred to the personnel at INIAP and to professors and students at the Universidad Estatal de Bolívar in July of 2013. Dr. Delgado conducted a half-day workshop on July 3rd, 2013 on the use of the Nitrogen Index 4.5 Prototype at the SANREM/INIAP office in Guaranda, Ecuador. Network activities during the 2013 Fiscal Year also included presentations related to climate change adaptation, the Nitrogen Index, and conservation agriculture. At the Universidad Estatal de Bolívar, Guaranda, Dr. Delgado presented a plenary seminar for professors, students and the general public on the topic of using conservation agriculture practices to adapt to climate change. The plenary seminar was well received by the 175 attendees; of approximately 50% were women. Dr. Delgado was also able to reach a larger audience by conducting local radio and TV station interviews on the topic of conservation agriculture, climate change adaptation, and the use of the Nitrogen Index while he was in in Guaranda, Ecuador. Networking activities were further expanded during the 17th World Congress Conference of the International Soil Conservation Organization (ISCO) which was held in Medellin Columbia during the week of July 7-13, 2013. During this international conference, Dr. Delgado was invited to be a keynote speaker on the topic of climate change and the use of conservation practices for adaptation. He discussed the principles for climate change adaptation which are currently being utilized in the USAID-SANREM project in South America. Dr. Delgado also presented an oral seminar about the potential use of the Nitrogen Index for the Andean region of Ecuador and Bolivia in order to improve nitrogen management and increase crop yields. This


seminar also covered the collaborative work being conducted in South America by USAID SANREM, INIAP (Ecuador), PROINPA (Bolivia), and USDA-ARS. The new Ecuador Nitrogen Index was also presented at the 4th World Congress on Quinoa and at the 1st International Symposium on Small Grains in the Andean Region, which were held in Ibarra, Ecuador during the week of July 8th -12th, 2013. Professors from the Universidad Estatal de Bolívar at Guaranda, Ecuador presented an oral seminar about the use of the Nitrogen Index for quinoa and a poster about the use of the Nitrogen Index for amaranthus, respectively, at these international meetings. Alwang and Norton coordinated a Track Session at the 2013 American Applied Economics Association Annual Meeting, in Washington, DC. The session was entitled: Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change: The potential role of conservation agriculture. Presenters included SANREM partners representing the Haiti project (Nathan Kennedy), the West Africa project (Iddrisu Yahaya), the India/Nepal project (presented by George Norton), and the Southern Africa project (Neal Eash). Other networking activities: • Víctor Barrera INIAP submitted a proposal for USD 350,00 to the Secretaría Nacional de

Educación Superior, Ciencia y Tecnología SENESCYT to extend SANREM research under the name “Generación de alternativas tecnológicas para el manejo integrado de recursos naturales en las áreas de mayor vulnerabilidad y riesgo de la subcuenca del río Chimbo.”

• Víctor Barrera and Jeffrey Alwang presented to the McKnight Foundation a proposal for USD 300,000 entitled “Agricultura de conservación como una potencial vía para promover el manejo de recursos, incrementar la productividad y mejorar las condiciones socio-económicas en la Región Andina del Ecuador.”

• The team in Ecuador continues to use SANREM-produced knowledge to evaluate natural resource management activities in the Project “Manejo y conservación del capital natural que disponen las comunidades de Saraguro como mecanismo de adaptación al cambio climático”. This Project is being conducted in Saraguro, Ecuador, with funding from the Ministry of Agriculture and UNDP.

• Víctor Barrera and Luis Escudero are conducting the project “Asociación de Desarrollo Comunitario San Francisco de la Bola de Oro”, within the broader effort “Conservación del ambiente a través de la elaboración de fertilizantes orgánicos para la producción de cultivos en agricultura de pequeña escala”. This project is being funded by USAID.

• Soraya Alvarado and Franklin Valverde submitted a proposal to the Secretaría Nacional de Educación Superior, Ciencia y Tecnología (SENESCYT). This project, entitled “Manejo adecuado de abonos verdes y microorganismos fijadores de nitrógeno dentro de sistemas de producción agroecológicos” was approved for an amount of USD 300,000.

• Soraya Alvarado submitted a proposal to the McKnight Foundation for a project on “Integrated management of hillside soils in Chimborazo and Cañar.” This proposal for USD 300,000 was approved in the first phase of the competition.


Highlights

• We are advancing our knowledge relative to the feasibility and practicality of conservation agriculture in two sub-regions of the Ecuador highlands and in the Tiraque area of Bolivia.

• In Ecuador, the project has received substantial publicity and various organizations are looking to replicate the experience elsewhere. A field day in July was attended by three national news organizations.

• Our data indicate that conservation agriculture practices are at least as profitable in the short run as conventional alternatives, and improvements over time in soil health and reduced erosion will only increase their value in the future.

• Conservation agriculture is an effective means of reducing labor costs; these costs are increasing rapidly in Andean areas, and smallholders are desperate for technologies as a substitute for scarce labor. Direct seeding of quinoa is now possible given SANREM-developed implements which save labor and allow more precise planting at appropriate depths, even in mulched parcels.

• Both the Ecuador and Bolivia projects have successfully obtainedgrants from outside organizations.

86

LTRA-8: Improving Soil Quality and Crop Productivity through Farmers’ Tested and Recommended Conservation Agricultural Practices in Cropping Systems of West Africa Principal investigator: P.V. Vara Prasad, associate professor, Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University Host Countries: Ghana, Mali Research progress by objective Objective 1: Evaluate local CAPS This objective has been accomplished. In Ghana, a total of 358 farmers (201 male and 157 female) were randomly sampled in 12 communities of three districts (Wa West, Wa Municipal and Lawra). Results indicate that:

o Majority of the household heads (60%) had no education. o Average total household wealth ranged from $900 – $1250. o Sole or mono-cropping with peanut, maize, millet, rice, soybean and yam was practiced

by most households (42%). Mixed cropping was followed by 31% with cereal and legume.

o About 97% of agriculture was rainfed without irrigation. o Average farm size was 4 ha per household, most of the land (87%) was owned

(inheritance or purchase). o Most seed was retained from previous crop. Value of purchased inputs (means: $150 for

seed; $55 for fertilizer with subsidy; and $5 for other inputs). o Soybean, peanut and cowpea are predominantly (90-100%) marketed and sold. Value of

all crops sold highly varied (mean = $1860; median = $300). o Majority of households (77%) were involved in sale of their produce. Overall,

households were net sellers of products. Transactions occurred at local markets (45%), town market (26%) and own farm (9%).

o Most household heads (60%) belonged to a club or local farmer group, and about 55% report receiving some form of information from NGOs and government institutions.

o Most farmers understood basic agronomic practices and intended benefits of conservation agricultural practices. Exceptions include no-tillage and direct sowing.

o Perceptions about CAPS were similar among male and female respondents. o Farmers were aware of importance of soil organic matter, manures, crop rotations, cover

crops and water harvesting. o Farmers showed strong interest in learning about benefits and use of tillage, residue

management, improved genotypes, weed control and integrated nutrient and pest management. In Mali, baseline surveys of local CAPS were conducted at the sites in Fansirakoro and Konobougou. Critical findings from the two sites were (i) permanent


ground cover with either cover crop or crop residues strongly conflicts with a key component of the farming systems, livestock management, and (ii) rotation with a legume will be most convenient with peanut which is the crop often grown by women on lands (usually degraded) allocated to them.

Objective 2: Develop cropping systems

Critical research accomplishments

Three on‐farm mother tests were harvested and data were analyzed and results summarized for crops harvested in 2012. These three on‐farm mother trials were also planted in the 2013 season. At Nyoli:

o There was no significant influence of cropping system (continuous maize, soybean‐maize rotation and soybean/maize intercropping) on either stover or grain yield of maize (Figure 19).

o Maize intercropped with soybean produced significantly higher stover than continuous maize (data not shown).

o There was significant influence of tillage system on both stover and grain yield of maize. Conventional tillage (tractor) produced significantly greater maize grain yields (>30%) than minimum tillage (pre‐emergence herbicide and one hand weeding) or manual weeding (Figure 19).

o In contrast, soybean biomass or grain yield was not influenced by cropping system, tillage system, or their interactions.

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Figure 19. Impact of various cropping systems and tillage practices on grain yield of maize harvested

in 2012 in Nyoli.

At Busa – Tanzu:

o Averaged over various fertilizer treatments, grain yield of maize was similar in conventional tillage (1833 kg/ha) and minimum tillage (1,767 kg/ha) treatments (data not shown).


o Grain yield of soybean was similar in conventional tillage (1,517 kg/ha) and minimum tillage (1,403 kg/ha) (Figure 20).

o There were significant differences among various fertilizer treatments. For soybean, application of only P fertilizer (26 kg/P/ha) or compound fertilizer with complete nutrition (N, P and K; 37, 16, and 31 kg/ha, respectively) produced similar yield (1,642 and 1,728 kg/ha, respectively). Compared to no fertilizer control, application of either only P fertilizer or compound fertilizer significantly increased soybean yield by 71% and 63%, respectively.

o The interaction between tillage systems and fertilizer did not significantly influence soybean grain yields.

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Figure 20. Impact of various tillage systems, fertilizer application and previous crop on grain yield of

maize harvested in 2012 in Busa.

At Nandom,

o There were no significant differences in stover yield of maize under various water conservation methods (Figure 21).

o However, the response of grain yield of maize varied significantly under different water conservation methods. Maize planted on tied ridges with or without vegetative barriers (either with grass or Gliricidia strips) produced significantly higher yield compared to plantings on flat beds (Figure 21). There were no significant differences of strips (control, grass or Gliricidia) within the flat beds or tied ridges.


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Figure 21. Impact of various water conservation methods on stover and grain yield of maize harvested

in 2011 in Nandom.

Development Impacts

Water conservation methods showed promise over multiple years (2010 and 2011). Application of complete fertilizer or P fertilizer in all cropping systems and tillage systems improved grain yields of both soybean and maize. For multiple years, the soybean yields under conventional tillage and minimum tillage were similar overall. Whereas, the maize yield response to tillage was variable, in dry years yields were similar in conventional and minimum tillage systems, while in normal or wet years (in term of distribution of rainfall) conventional tillage produced significantly greater grain yield. This shows opportunities for enhancing use of these practices in the region. Challenges and Responses

Farmers need to be trained in the use of spraying equipment, including the calibration, timing and rates of herbicide application for improved control of weeds. This issues is being addressed during field visits and training sessions. In the United States: The graduate student from Ghana who is doing his doctoral research has conducted several research experiments in Manhattan, Kansas. The objective of his research is to evaluate (a) total biomass production, nitrogen and carbon accumulation of various cover crops; and (b) the performance of maize after various crops and varying nitrogen rates.

o The results of these experiments showed that there were significant differences for above ground biomass, N and C accumulation among various crops (Figure 22). Pigeon pea produced the highest above ground biomass, N and C accumulation. Pigeon pea and sunhemp had the lowest carbon: nitrogen ratio compared to other crops, while sorghum had the highest carbon: nitrogen ratio.


Results of the nitrogen response indicated that above ground biomass, grain and yield components of maize increased with increasing nitrogen application levels. Maximum values were reached at a nitrogen application rate of 135 kg/ha. Further increases to 180 kg/ha did not significantly enhance biomass or grain yield at either location in Kansas (Tables 29 and 30). In response to various cover crops, maximum maize yield was obtained following cowpea or pigeon pea when compared to all other cover crop treatments utilized at both locations. The lowest grain yield was observed when maize followed the grain sorghum.

Figure 22. Total biomass, accumulation of carbon and nitrogen in various cover crops at two locations in Manhattan, Kansas.


Table 29. Effects of different nitrogen rates and covers crop treatments on maize yield and components of maize yield at Ashland Bottoms, Manhattan, Kansas, 2013.

Treatment Biomass (kg/ha) Grain (kg/ha) 100-grain weight (g) Nitrogen rates (kg/ha) 0 7645 8302 27.14 45 13473 8910 32.59 90 14113 10004 34.54 135 17707 11432 36.99 180 18937 12044 37.03 Cropping systems Cowpea 12260 9643 34.00 Pigeon pea 13685 9952 34.50 Sorghum 12166 6905 33.87 Soybean 12393 8702 33.37 Sunn hemp 13166 8609 31.24 LSD 4317 1701 3.72 CV (%) 15.3 12.6 7.68

Table 30. Effects of different nitrogen rates and covers crop treatments on maize yield and components

of maize yield at North Farm, Manhattan, Kansas, 2013. Treatment Biomass (kg/ha) Grain (kg/ha) 100-grain weight (g) Nitrogen rates (kg/ha) 0 9798 3673 25.17 45 14106 5911 29.65 90 16859 6195 30.07 135 17176 8065 33.28 180 17010 8601 31.92 Cropping systems Cowpea 15552 6100 28.20 Pigeon pea 14664 6916 30.30 Sorghum 10511 3505 25.80 Soybean 12379 5662 26.98 Sunn hemp 10665 5382 29.80 LSD 3717 1343 5.05 CV (%) 13.8 11.6 10.10


Objective 3: Foster and advance rapid adoption of local CAPS and integrated practices Critical Research Accomplishments Fourty-nine (49) farmers implemented sub-sets of mother trails during the 2012 cropping season. All experiments were successfully harvested. These trials were also continued and planted in 2013. At Nyoli: o Baby tests were conducted by 15 farmers using different tillage methods in different crop

rotations. Tillage systems significantly influenced grain yield of maize (Table 31). Conventional tillage resulted in significantly higher grain yield when averaged across all locations.

o Similarly, soybean grain yield was significantly higher under conventional tillage compared to minimum tillage.

Table 31. Effects of tillage systems and previous crop on maize stover and grain yields in Nyoli (n=15)

harvested in 2012. Statistical significance limit was P≤0.05. Means within a column followed by similar upper case or rows followed by lower case letters are not significant

Previous crop Yield (kg/ha) Tillage system Maize stover Maize grain Soybean grain Conventional Maize 1895a 2118a 1524a No-till Maize 1481b 1330b 1148b

At Busa-Tanzu:

o Baby tests were evaluated by 12 farmers on components of tillage, cropping system and fertilizer application. All experiments were successfully harvested. These were also continued and planted in 2013.

Table 32. Effect of tillage, crop rotation and fertilizer application on grain yield of soybean in baby trials at Busa-Tanzu (n=12) harvested in 2012. Statistical significance limit was P≤0.05.

Tillage Previous crop

Fertilizer applied

Grain yield (kg/ha) Range Mean

Conventional Maize NPK 331 – 2696 1698b Minimum Maize None 135 – 2725 932a Maize NPK 630 – 3110 1779b Maize P 481 – 2797 1481b

Averaged across all farms, soybean grain yield in conventional and minimum tillage systems

with complete fertilizer (NPK) or only P fertilizer were not significantly different. Soybean grain yield with fertilizer treatments NPK or P alone, were higher than no fertilizer control (Table 32).


At Nandom: A total of 15 baby tests were implemented on farmers’ fields. Baby tests mainly included use of flat bed or tied ridges or tied ridges with grass strips, all in a continuous maize cropping system. All experiments were successfully harvested. These were also continued and planted in 2013. There were significant influences of various water conservation methods in most farmers’ fields. There was large variability in yield ranging from as low as 219 to up to 5,511 kg/ha (Table 33). These differences could be due to variations in soil type and soil fertility status. Maize yield was greater on tied ridges or tied ridges with grass strips compared to planting on flat beds. Yield benefits of tied ridges were observed in all farms.

Table 33. Effects of soil and water conservation practices on maize grain and stover yields in baby-trials in Nandom (n=15), harvested in 2012.

Treatment Maize grain yield (kg/ha) Range Mean

Flat 219 – 2875 1254a Tied ridges 555 – 5511 2390b Tied ridges + grass strips 350 – 3909 1938b LSD (P ≤ 0.05) 786

Development Impact Use of crop management practices such as application of fertilizer (NPK or P alone), and water conservation methodologies showed promise in mother tests and several baby tests in multi-locations. Several new farmers also tried components of these practices during 2012 and are continuing into 2013. Interviews with farmers during field visits indicated about >75% of farmers adopted components of CAPS in their own fields (in addition to SANREM experiments). These also included several non-SANREM farmers. Challenges and Responses Large scale training on effective weed control, particularly timing of application, type of equipment (type of sprayer, volume of sprayer and size of spraying nozzle) and application of herbicide (rate and quantity) is needed. In addition, the quality of herbicide and use of protective equipment and training of its use is needed. Another limitation of use of minimum tillage is the lack of animal drawn equipment for efficient planting. One animal drawn planter developed by SANREM was shipped and will be evaluated the next cropping season. Objective 4: Assess long-term effects of CAPS Critical Research Accomplishments Soil samples were taken again during the 2012 cropping season from both mother and baby trials to assess if there have been changes in soil carbon content due to adoption of CAPS. These data are currently being analyzed and reported later. In addition, new measurements on CO2


and N2O emissions were measured in 10 farmer’s fields in 2011. These data are being summarized and will be reported later. Development Impact We are not yet ready to report any development impact as data are still be analyzed and will be reported later. Results from individual experiments are given in previous sections (Objectives 2 and 3). Challenges and Responses Initial main soil characters were analyzed and reported. In addition, samples are currently being analyzed. It is a time-consuming task as there is only one functioning soil laboratory in Mali and in the Wa region of Ghana. There is a lot of backlog of samples in these laboratories from other experiments. However, the samples are being processed. Objective 5: Modeling to predict impactspredict impacts of CAPS Appropriate crop management protocol and soil files necessary for calibrating and running the crop simulation model Decision Support System for Agro-technology Transfer (DSSAT) were prepared. These files include crop management files that include all crop management practices (including planting dates, planting depth, planting density, tillage methods, time of fertilizer application, quantity of fertilizer, type of fertilizer, and method of fertilizer application). Similarly, the genetic file includes name of the genotypes, duration of genotypes, typical flowering time and maturity). The soil files include the basic information about the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The weather files include the data on climate parameters (temperature and rainfall). Objective 6: Assess the cost and benefits of activities Critical Research Accomplishments Short run analyses for partial budgets of various conservation agricultural practices from the first two years (from 40 farmers in five communities) were completed. These results indicated that farmers saved about half of the cost of land preparation due to switching to minimum tillage. Minimum tillage had lower labor costs when compared to conventional tillage plots in both maize and soybean. At Nyoli: o Comparison of conventional tillage (CT) and no or minimum tillage (NT) indicates farmers

saved about half the cost of land preparation in NT. By comparison, NT had lower labor costs when compared to CT plots in both the soybeans and the maize based plots (Table 34).

o However, the mean yield differences between CT and NT in the maize plots were statistically significant and lower in NT, while those of soybeans were not statistically different in the 2010 cropping season. Yields in no-till plots were lower in both years. Net returns were similar when comparing the no-till and tillage plots in 2010 but lower in 2011.


Table 34. Partial budget of conventional tillage and minimum tillage practices with fertilizer management at Nyoli.

Crop type Maize Soybeans Season 2010 season 2011 season 2010 season 2011 season Income per acre CT+NPK NT+NPK CT+NPK NT+NP

K CT NT CT NT

a. Yield(kg)/acre 108.92 80.32 1278.99 795.68 447.47

404.89 1075.11

783.43

b. Price/kg 0.3 0.3 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.63 0.63 c. Returns($)/acre 32.68 24.1 486.02 302.36 170.0 153.86 547.32 433.31 Costs per acre($) 1. Herbicides 0 7.5 0 8.79 0 7.5 0 8.79 2. Tractor use 15.62 0 25 0 15.62 0 25 0 3. Labor cost 22.22 19.19 104.49 52.1 41.36 39.39 105.49 51.46 4. Fertilizer cost 31.37 31.37 32.19 32.19 0 0 0 0 d. Total costs 69.21 58.06 161.68 93.08 56.98 46.89 130.49 60.25 e Total cost/kg (d/a) 0.64 0.73 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.08 f. Net returns (c-d) -36.53 -33.96 324.34 209.28 113.06 106.97 416.83 373.06 At Busa and Tanzu: o Partial budget of comparison of conventional tillage (CT) and no or minimum tillage (NT)

with fertilizer management in soybean-maize rotation is shown in Table 35.

Table 35. Partial budget of CT and NT practices with fertilizer management at Nyoli. Crop type Soybeans Maize Season 2010 season 2011 season Income per acre CT+NPK NT-NPK NT+NPK NT+P CT+NPK NT-NPK NT+NPK NT+0.5NPK a. Yield(kg)/acre 383.64 248.14 343.48 328.53 1003.6 191.5 686.19 540.08 b. Price/kg 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 c. Returns($)/acre 145.78 94.29 130.52 124.84 381.36 72.77 260.75 205.23 Costs per acre($) 1. Herbicides 0 6.06 6.06 6.06 0 8.79 8.79 8.79 2. Tractor use 22.73 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 3. Labor cost 46.56 44.44 43.43 43.43 100.49 46.1 51.49 50.46 4. Fertilizer cost 31.56 0 31.56 42.98 32.19 0 32.19 16.1 d. Total costs 100.85 50.5 81.05 92.47 157.68 54.89 92.47 75.35 e Total cost/kg (d/a) 0.262 0.203 0.235 0.281 0.157 0.286 0.134 0.139 f. Net returns (c-d) 44.93 43.79 49.47 32.37 223.69 17.88 168.28 129.88

o The cost of production was lowered by switching from CT to NT even when herbicides were used due to a decrease in labor. In the second year, significant differences were


observed in the mean yield of all the treatments. Even though the cost of herbicides increased that year, land preparation costs were reduced by more than half that of hired tractor use in CT. All the treatments gave positive net returns in both the first and second years, in the soybeans and maize plots. Conventional tillage produced the highest net returns for maize while the net returns for soybean were similar across tillage treatments.

At Nandom: o Partial budget of comparing various water management practices on maize yield is shown

in Table 36.

Table 36. Partial budget of CT and NT practices with fertilizer management at Nyoli. Crop type Maize Season 2010 season 2011 season Income per acre Flat Tied ridges Tied ridges+

grass Flat Tied

ridges Tied ridges+ grass

a. Yield(kg)/acre 1105.5 916.5 1228.5 734.82 785.78 782.22 b. Price/kg 0.3 0.3 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 c. Returns($)/acre 331.65 274.95 368.55

279.23 298.59 297.24

Costs per acre($) 1. Animal traction 10 10 10 12 12 12 2. Labor cost 62.8 64.4 65.4 64 66 68 3. Fertilizer cost 31.56 31.56 31.56 32.19 32.19 32.19 d. Total costs 104.36 105.96 106.96 108.19 110.19 112.19 e Total cost/kg (d/a)

0.26 0.203 0.2359 0.28 0.1571 0.286

f. Net returns (c-d) 227.29 168.99 261.59 171.04 188.41 185.05

o The results indicate no significant differences in the mean yields between treatments in the

two seasons (2010 and 2011). However, the yields during the second season are reduced by about 30% on average, which is attributed to hot and dry climatic conditions in the 2011 season. The higher production cost under tied ridges with grass strips is a result of the extra labor required to plant the grasses. The results show positive net returns on all the treatments. Even tied ridges with grass strips had a higher positive net return despite a slightly higher cost of production in 2010. There was no difference between tied ridges alone or with grass in 2011.


Degree and nondegree training activities Degree Training Activities: Two students from Ghana started their Ph.D. programs (one each in Agronomy and Agricultural Economics). The results of the study by the first student published in Agricultural Economics were included in Objective 6. The agronomy student focused on understanding the influence of cover crops and varying nitrogen levels on the yield of maize. These results are presented above under Objective 2, sub-section United States. Non-Degree Training: Annual meeting, workshop, field day and farmer exchange visits were organized at various locations for training and capacity building of farmers. These meetings were attended by a total of about 141 participants (88 male and 52 female) o Annual meetings: This meeting was attended by about 60 farmers. Brief results of various

experiments were presented to the farmers and discussed. CAPS benefits that were identified included lower cost of cultivation, increased income, soil erosion control and capture of soil water.

o Workshop: A one-day workshop on farmer participatory monitoring indicators of CAPS was conducted. The main indicators identified were cost of production, yield, income, labor use and acreage under cultivation.

Farmer exchange and field days: Field days and meetings were organized during the cropping season. Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products Dalton, T., Yahaya, I., and Naab, J. B. 2013. Perceptions and performance on conservation

agricultural practices in northwestern Ghana. Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment (In press).

Mahama, G. Y., Roozeboom, K., Mengel, D. B., and Prasad, P. V. V. 2013. Effect of double

cropping on yield and biomass accumulation of cover crops in Kansas. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Abstracts, 3-6 November, Tampa, FL, USA.

Mahama, G. Y., Prasad, P. V. V., Mengel, D. B., and Tesso, T. T. 2013. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer

on growth, yield and N use among grain sorghum genotypes. Soil Science Society of America - Nitrogen Use Efficiency Conference, Abstracts, 13-15 August. Kansas City Marriott Country Club Plaza, Kansas City, MO, USA.

Prasad, P. V. V., Naab, J. B., and Kanton, R. L. 2013. Sustainable intensification and resilient

dryland cropping systems for sub-saharan Africa: case study of Ghana. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Abstracts, 3-6 November, Tampa, FL, USA.

Prasad, P. V. V., Dalton, T. D., and Ares, A. 2013. Sustainable intensification and resilient

dryland cropping systems: opportunities in sub-saharan Africa. USAID, Innovation Lab Meeting, 08 July, Accra, Ghana.


Mahama, G.Y., Prasad, P. V. V., Mengel, D. B., and Tesso, T. T. 2013. Genetic difference in yield and nitrogen use efficiency traits in grain sorghum. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Abstracts, 21-24 October, Cincinnati, OH.

Adedayo, A., Mahama, G. Y., Little, C., and Tesso, T. 2012. Response of sorghum genotypes to

charcoal rot and Fusarium infection under three nitrogen fertilization regimes. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Abstracts, 21-24 October, Cincinnati, OH.

Networking activities Collaboration/integration of activities was initiated with the following projects/programs: o Integrated activities of the project funded by INTSORMIL in both Ghana and Mali o Continued project with USAID’s Africa RISING Program in the Upper East Region of

Ghana, to complement our studies. These studies are focused on efficient nutrient management and water management techniques.

o Linkages were continued with the University of Ghana, AGRA, FARA, IITA and ICRISAT in anticipation of opportunities for future collaboration and the extension of our research and training activities.

o Visited USAID – Ghana Mission and presented our objectives, project details and potential future opportunities.

o Dr. Roger Kanton from Ghana visited Kansas State University to interact with other faculty members at KSU and also attended the special session on CA organized by SANREM at the ASA/CSSA/SSSA annual meeting.

Highlights In Ghana, farmers from all project regions, Busa-Tangzu (Wa Central), Nyoli (Wa West) and Nandom (Lowra-Nandom) showed interest in adopting components of CAPS including minimum or reduced tillage, crop rotation with a legume crop (groundnut, soybean or cowpea), improved soil fertility (application of N, or P) and water management practices (tied ridges). Preliminary economic analysis of results indicated cost saving on labor and cost of cultivation with similar net return with the use of CAPS. Several participating farmers and non-participating farmers were consulted during the visits of the review team in the region. Total participation of the farmers during these events was close to 150. Most of the farmers adopted some component of the technologies that were being tested in mother trials on their own farms. Total expanded area under these improved technologies was projected to be about 50 ha.


LTRA-9: Developing Sustainable Conservation Agricultural Production Systems for Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa Principal investigator: Neal Eash, associate professor and soil scientist, Department of Biosystems Engineering and Soil Science, University of Tennessee Host Countries: Lesotho, Mozambique Research team:

• University of Tennessee: Department of Biosystems Engineering and Soil Science: Forbes Walker; Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics: Dayton Lambert, Michael Wilcox

• National University of Lesotho: Department of Soil Science: Makoala Marake • International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT): Global

Conservation Agriculture Program: Patrick Wall • Growing Nations: August Basson

Research progress by objective Objective 1: Integrate cover crops into CAS to protect soil from erosion, provide weed suppression or control, include crop rotations that provide forages for livestock, improve soil quality as measured by soil carbon (C), decrease risk and vulnerability to drought. Critical Research Accomplishments Again this past year, we conducted several studies evaluating the effect of cover crops in reducing weed pressure as well as the effect of cover crops on the yield of subsequent crops. At our research site in Maphutseng, Lesotho, we found that where a mixture of wheat and vetch (Vicia villosa) grown in the winter preceded maize seeding, maize yields were approximately 1 Mg/ha greater. In Mozambique, research continues to evaluate cover crops, inter-cropping, and crop rotations. In 2013 1,584 research plots were established to provide data on the effects of CAPS in 11 target communities with five participating farmers per community (Figures 23 and 24). Since the onset of this project more than 264 site years of data have been collected and studies are being prepared for publication. Practices evaluated included basins, farmers practices commonly used, jab planting or planting stick as well as evaluation of improved hybrids/varieties and a legume (cowpeas or common bean; at one site soya bean). In Mozambique, the PI’s are providing technical support to the on-station research at Sussendenga that evaluates maize population and N rates, residue cover, and sixteen different varieties of maize (hybrid and OPV). In addition, the PI’s will work with CIMMYT to initiate


relay/cover crops for weed suppression and consider how to best manage a high termite population site, possibly by incorporating more Tephrosia treatment methods into the ongoing research in the future. This past year several plow/ripper/strip till conversion for ox-drawn plows and ox-drawn planters were purchased as part of upscaling CA in the region. Development Impacts During the final year of this project we will build upon this in-country experience by providing economic and agronomic support and analysis of their CA work and by incorporating the early successes from Lesotho. Ongoing farmer field trials will be used to assess the riskiness of CA conventional agronomic practices. In 2014, a team will evaluate the networks and actors in the CAPS supply chain which should elucidate some avenues to facilitate CAPS adoption throughout the region. Challenges and Responses We continue to evaluate the nutrient-supplying and weed suppression effects of cover crops as a means to overcome the high cost and/or availability of fertilizers and herbicides in Mozambique. While we have had spontaneous adoption of CAPS in Lesotho a major constraint has been livestock density and its demand for feed biomass. We addressed this constraint by initiating a winter cover crop grazing intensity trial with horses, a study that will effectively help us evaluate the impact of livestock on CAPS. Although Lesotho CA adoption rates are increasing due to the strong research-based recommendations developed through this program, during this last year we will work to adapt these recommendations to farmer economic and yield expectations. Objective 2: Determine the agronomic and economic fertilizer rate for maize in both the basin and machine no-till methods. Critical Research Accomplishments A total of 400 research plots evaluating fertilizer rate studies were assessed in both Roma and Maphutseng in Lesotho in 2013. The Roma site was again used to train students under the supervision of Dr. Marake. Results thus far indicate that a maize target population of approximately 45,000 plants per hectare with 100-, 60-60- kg/ha of N, P2 O5, and K2O will achieve maximum yields of greater than 7 ton maize per hectare (Figure 25). This past year we included more soil types in the calibration to strengthen inferential power for more accurate fertilizer recommendations (Figure 25). A MSc. academic thesis was completed on this work at the University of Tennessee in the academic year December 2012. Maize yields were recorded up to 8 tons per hectare (Figure 25) and no-till had slightly higher yields than the plowed treatments on similar soils (Figure 26). In Mozambique, cropping system’s yield results ranged between 1,212 in Gondola and 5,903 kg/ha in Ulongue with all other target communities in between (Figure 24). Most sites had a


notably positive trend towards CA with significant yield increases in almost all cases on the direct seeded treatment where the jab-planter or dibble stick was used. Development Impacts Fertilizer recommendations generated by our Lesotho research are the basis for the stable yields found with CA over the past four years, where our farmers and our trials had excellent yields but resulted in three of the four years resulting in widespread crop failure. It is imperative that in year 5, we adapt this research into recommendations that fit farmer practices and economic expectations. In Mozambique, some spontaneous adoption is occurring but it will likely be limited by the price/availability of fertilizer. Challenges and Responses We will build upon our solid four years in Lesotho and adapt our research to farmer practice and economic expectations. In Mozambique, we will continue our research work and evaluate ways and means to overcome the limitations due to availability of needed inputs (seed and fertilizer). Objective 3: Characterize the composition and contribution of N and C from legume/grass cover crops and determine the best species for maintaining soil residue cover until after maize crop harvest. Critical Research Accomplishments Different cover crop species continue to be evaluated in Lesotho. Specific grass legume combinations have been prioritized for up-scaling in the upcoming growing season. Carbon flux measurements were collected at the Lesotho site, starting in November 2010 under both conventional and CA management systems. One of the MSc. theses completed in 2012 at the University of Tennessee analyzed this carbon-conservation agriculture. In Mozambique cover crop selection and evaluation continues. Development Impacts Cover crops will be important to successful CA adoption in both Lesotho and Mozambique. Fertilizer N fixed by winter cover crops provide approximately 1-1.5 t/ha maize yield increase in Lesotho (which is 2-3 times the average maize yield) and have shown great promise in suppressing weeds (up to 90% of some species). Work is ongoing to determine the impact of other cover crops to suppress termite infestation so that soil residue covers remain in place until crop canopy occurs. Maintaining crop cover is important for crop production in areas of low rainfall and high temperatures due to their ability to reduce soil temperature and evaporative losses. In Lesotho, we initiated a winter cover crop grazing intensity study with horses to determine how much grazing can occur while maintaining residue cover for erosion control as well as weed suppression.


Challenges and Responses The key to successful CA adoption is assisting farmers with adapting CA locally. In Mozambique, we will continue to support scaling up and other outreach efforts as well as continued efforts on best cover crop mixes for the various ecological zones. In Lesotho, we will continue our cover crop evaluation for N contribution and continue assessing grazing intensity for livestock. Objective 4a: Determine the short- and long-term impacts of CAPS on gender equity especially in terms of household income and economic impact and to involve women in decisions that impact their welfare. Critical Research Accomplishments

In Lesotho, the household survey data (~430 households) was used in a Master’s thesis project by Mr. Eric Bisangwa to examine the drivers of CAS adoption, including gender’s role in this household technology adoption decision. Specifically, the thesis examined the factors influencing adoption of CAS technology in the Butha Buthe district of Lesotho. Factors influencing the CAS adoption decision included agricultural training, field size, education of the household head, the percent of household members between age 15 to 55, walking distance to fields, and income from livestock sales (Table 37—40). Some other factors assumed to influence CAS adoption decision were not significantly associated with CAS adoption, including access to credit, input prices, off-farm income, sex of the household head, age of the household head, and years of making farm decisions. Some follow up surveys have been conducted by Dr. Keith Moore at Virginia Tech and analysis of that data will be forthcoming. The baseline survey for Mozambique was completed in early 2012 (535 households) and one paper has been submitted for publication. Results suggest that households practicing CA are relatively more endowed with farm assets and livestock than conventional farmers, and have access to better building materials for their homes (Tables 37 and 38). Households that had adopted CA were the largest group of market participants (in terms of volume, accounting for about 43% of the maize sold in the surveyed area in 2012) and households that adopted CA were about 14% more likely to participate in maize markets as vendors. Another thesis based on this survey data compares the technical efficiency between CA adopters and non-adopters in terms of agricultural input use. Changes in allocative efficiency are challenging for this research since input prices were difficult to discern from the survey. Analyzing technical efficiency, however, does provide some indication about the impact conservation agriculture has on input use, and indirectly about production costs. A second part of this thesis analyzes the Mozambique survey data (specifically, production practices including conservation agriculture) with the carbon sequestration simulation model, Daycent. The adoption curves estimated by Lambert (Figures 26 – 28) will be linked to the Daycent simulations to examine the aggregate impact of CAadoption on carbon uptake, and the extent to which payments for environmental services (e.g., linking the adoption of conservation


agriculture to carbon markets) could be linked to the costs of implementing programs encouraging the adoption of CA technologies. Partial budget analysis of the Mozambique maize trial data (n = 631 farmers), using information from trials conducted from 2008 – 2012 by CIMMYT indicates that profits from CA are superior to plots managed using conventional agronomic practices (Figure 29). In addition, based on stochastic dominance analysis, risk-averse farmers will always prefer using the CA technologies (basins and jab planters) over the conventional systems. Details of the partial budget analysis and risk profiles of adopters are currently under development.

Development Impacts Profits from CA are superior to plots managed using conventional practices (Figure 29). Our results show that farmers who are risk averse prefer CA technologies. These results suggest that if CAPS are adapted at the farm level CAPS could be successful in Southern Africa. Challenges and Responses The major challenge facing this aspect of the project is the ability to examine the effects of CAPS. We will continue data analysis and generating publications from this data. We will work to adapt the results into recommendations that will facilitate CAPS adoption in the region. Objective 4b: Evaluate ways and means to improve fertilizer adoption rates among smallholder farmers, the degree to which market structure influences fertilizer use, and determine welfare implications based on price margins. Critical Research Accomplishments Additional analysis of the Mozambique survey data recently focused on the interaction between access to farmer credit and loans, use of fertilizers and herbicide, and the gender of the primary household decision maker on the probability of using CA for three years or longer (Figure 25). For example, we found that the impact input use and access to loans and credit on the probability of continuously using CA for three or more years is greater for women than men. These results are being prepared for an external peer reviewed publication, and were presented at the American Agricultural Economics Association meeting. Survey data from Lesotho is yielding interesting results with respect to input use, productivity, and household well-being. A MSc. Student is currently working on comparing the profitability and input use demand of households who adopted CA in Lesotho. Development Impacts The baseline surveys conducted in Lesotho and Mozambique allow for some analysis of market-oriented issues that farmers are facing with respect to inputs and outputs. Both weigh heavily on the farmer’s ability to successfully adopt CAPS. From a socio-economic perspective, successful farmers will have access to important inputs (fertilizer, herbicide, seeds, labor, etc.),


use them efficiently and be able to meet the needs of the household through the enhanced productivity of their fields and the ability to market surplus output. Challenges and Responses Integration of our research outcomes into sensible recommendations is mandatory so that our host county partners can provide assistance with CAPS adoption strategies for the region. Degree and nondegree training activities Four M.S. students have defended their theses; five more will defend by June 2014. The students presented their work at the ASA meetings in Cincinnati, Ohio (October 2012). A number of field days and workshops were held at Maphutseng, Lesotho by project cooperators to highlight the work that is being conducted on CA. In Mozambique, our cooperators hosted numerous field days, workshops, study tours, and planning meetings (details on Form 17) that were well attended by extension personnel and local farmers. Overall more than 2,000 farmers participated in training hosted by this project. The field days were attended by representatives from various UN organizations including the FAO and UNDP, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, and other NGOs. Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products From this work, four journal articles have been published, one more has been submitted, and three articles are currently in review. Four theses have been completedand twenty-two professional presentations were presented from this work. Networking activities We have maintained close contact with the U.S. Embassy in Lesotho. Dr. Marake has also provided briefs on the role of CA on climate change adaptation to members of a team developing a climate change strategy for engagement in Lesotho through U.S. embassy resources. The Mozambique research team collaborates with the IRMA project (Maize Resistance to Stem Borer and Storage Pests for Eastern and Southern Africa), WEMA (Water Efficient Maize for Africa), DTMA (Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa), and SIMLESA (Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Cropping Systems for Eastern and Southern Africa). Highlights In spite of the extreme weather conditions in Lesotho, the stability of the CA systems developed during this project stood the test of extreme weather events as record yields in maize were obtained in both on-station and on-farm trials and demonstrations alike. We found during our visit in July 2012 that yield averages ranged from 6 to 7 tons per hectare against the backdrop of reported disastrous nationsl crop failuresfor the same period and regions of project operations. We have made significant progress in Lesotho on both the agronomic objectives and the understanding of issues around plant population and fertility aspects as a basis for


recommendations to farmers. The work thus far with cover crops has resulted in solid leads to explore these aspects for both legume effects and weed suppression potential. The most prolific of the cover crops, grazing vetch, has the potential to respond to the livestock-crop interaction challenge in which farmers find it difficult to sacrifice crop residues given the opportunity cost of livestock feed. A research paper on greenhouse gas emissions from CA has been submitted.

Table 37. Means comparison of conservation agriculture adopters and non-adopters, Angonia and Tete, Mozambique, 2012.


Table 38. Univariate comparison of household wellbeing indices among adopters and non-adopters of conservation agriculture technologies, Angonia and Buare, Mozambique, 2012.

Table 39. Logistical regression on conservation agriculture adoption on household demographic factors and farm characteristics, Lesotho.


Table 40. Regression esimates for input demand and market prices, Lesotho.

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Figure 23. Performance of conservation agricuture cropping system in relation to conventional farmer practices. Note: At Nhamatiquite the second treatment is ripline seeding instead of basins


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Figure 24. Effect of cropping systems on different legumes planted in rotation with maize. Beans were planted in Gimu to Ulongwe; soybean at Mussinharo; and cowpea at Lamego through Malome.

Figure 25. Maize yields on black Vertic Mollisols and red Ultisols.


Figure 26. Adoption of conservation agriculture and participation in maize markets; Tete and Angonia, Mozambique, 2012.


Figure 27. Area-wide adoption curves of individuals using and hectares managed by conservation agriculture in the survey region.

Figure 28. Interaction between access to credit and loans, use of fertilizer and herbicides, and the gender of the primary decision maker and the probability of using conservation agriculture

continuously from 2008 – 2011.


Figure 29. Partial budget analysis of field trials in Mozambique, 2008 – 2011.

Appendix

Supporting documentation for LTRA-9 Objectives:

Objective 1. Integrate cover crops into CAPS to protect the soil from erosion, provide weed suppression or control, include crop rotations that provide forages for livestock, improve soil quality as measured by soil carbon, decrease risk and vulnerability to drought.

Journal articles

O’Dell, D., Bruns, W., Lambert, D., Walker, F., Eash, N. S. Comparing carbon dioxide flux between no-till and conventional tillage systems in Lesotho, Africa. Submitted to: International Scholarly Research Network Soil Science (online, open access) on 11 October.

Ngwira, A. R., Thierfelder, C., Eash, N. and Lambert, D. M. 2013. Risk and maize-based cropping systems for smallholder Malawi farmers using conservation agriculture technologies. Expl. Agri. (In press)

Thierfelder, C., Chisui, J. L., Gama, M., Cheesman, S., Jere, Z., Bunderson, W. T., Eash, N. S. and Rusinamhodzi, L. 2013. Maize-based conservation agriculture systems in Malawi: Long-term trends in productivity. Field Crops. Res. 142:47-57.

Presentations

Eash, N. S., Lambert, D., Walker, F. R.., Wall, P., Wilcox, M. and Marake, M. 2010. Developing sustainable subsistence smallholder conservation agriculture production systems in Southern Africa. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Meetings, Long Beach, CA. 2 November 2010.


Bruns, W. A., Lambert, D., Walker, F. R., Marake, M., Sauer, T. J., Wilcox, M., West, T. and Eash, N. S. 2011. Carbon sequestration in a tilled and untilled maize field in Lesotho, Southern Africa. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Meeting, San Antonio, TX. 19 October 2011.

Eash, N. S., Lambert, D. C., Thierfelder, C., Basson, A., Marake, M., Wilcox, M., and Walker, F. R. 2012. Developing sustainable conservation agriculture for smallholder farmers in Southern Africa. ASA/CSSA/SSSA Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH. 22 October 2012.

O’Dell, D., Mbuthia, L., Cuvaca, I., O’Dell, D., Mpheshea, M., Walker, F., and Eash, N. S. 2013. Comparing carbon dioxide (CO2) flux between no-till and conventional tillage agriculture in Lesotho, Africa. ASA/CSSSA/SSSA Annual Meeting, Abstract, Tampa, FL.

Eash, N. S., Bruns, W., Sauer, T., Walker, F., West, T., Marake, M., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M., and Bruns, M. 2011. Carbon sequestration in a tilled and untilled maize field in Lesotho, Southern Africa. Presentation at the Second International Conservation Agriculture Workshop and Conference in Southeast Asia, Phnom Penh. July 4-8. Invited.

Eash, N. S., Bruns, W., Sauer, T., Walker, F., West, T., Marake, M., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M., and Bruns, M. 2011. Carbon sequestration in a tilled and untilled maize field in Lesotho, Southern Africa. Presentation at the Regional Workshop on Soil Carbon. University of Guam. U.S.A.

Theses

Jones, 2012. Energy balance and carbon dioxide flux in conventional and no-till maize fields in Lesotho. M.S. Thesis, University of Tennessee at Knoxville.

Objective 2. Determine the agronomic and economic fertilizer rate for maize in both the basin and machine no-till methods.

Journal articles

Bruns, M., Lambert, D., Marake, M., Wilcox, M., and Eash, N. S. A simple short sampling method for determining maize yields on small plots in very rural areas. In review.

Bruns, M., Lambert, D., Marake, M., Wilcox, M., and Eash, N. S. Maize yield response to N, P, K fertilization in Lesotho. In review.

Presentations

Bruns, M., Eash, N. S., Stobbe, E., Jones, W., Walker, F. R., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M. and Marake, M. 2011. Maize yield response to N, P, K, population, and planting date in Lesotho, Southern Africa. ASA/CSSA/SSSA Annual Meeting San Antonio, TX. 19 October 2011.

Walker, F. R., and Eash, N. S. 2012. Collaborative research and experiential learning for Tennessee faculty and students in the development of conservation agriculture in Lesotho. USDA NIFA, Washington, D.C. 16 May.


Eash, N. S., Bruns, M., Walker, F., Bruns, W., Marake, M., Wilcox, M., Lambert, D., and Stobbe, E. 2011. Maize yield response to N, P, K, population, and planting date in Lesotho, Southern Africa. Second International Conservation Agriculture Workshop and Conference in Southeast Asia, Phnom Penh. July 4-8. Invited.

Eash, N. S., Walker, F., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M., Marake, M., and Wall, P. 2011. Sustainable conservation agriculture production systems in southern Africa. Second International Conservation Agriculture Workshop and Conference in Southeast Asia, Phnom Penh. July 4-8.

Eash, N. S., and Walker, F., 2011. Real-time carbon sequestration measurements in the mountain highlands of Lesotho. Seminar at Sokoine University, Tanzania. 16 September.

Walker, F., and Eash, N .S. 2011. Conservation farming in Mozambique and Lesotho. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 15 September.

Eash, N. S., and West, T. O. 2010. Spatially explicit full carbon and greenhouse gas accounting for the midwestern and continental US: Modelling and decision support for management. Harbin, China.

Cheesman, S., Thierfelder, C. and Eash, N. S. 2012. Can residual effects of green manure cover crops (GMCC) solve N fertilizer challenges in conservation agriculture (CA) systems of Southern Africa? ASA/CSSA/SSSA Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH. 22 October 2012.

Thierfelder, C., Walker, F. R., Eash, N. S., and Setimela, P. 2012. Mitigating effects of climate change through conservation agriculture and drought-tolerant open-pollenated maize varieties in Mozambique. ASA/CSSA/SSSA Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH. 23 October 2012.

Lambert, D. M., McNair, W., O’Dell, D., Bisangwa, E., Simone, T., Eash, N. S., Wilcox, M., Walker, F., Marake, M. and Thierfelder, C. 2013. Smallholder adoption of conservation agriculture and GHG reduction potential in Mozambique and Lesotho. Presentation for the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association Annual Meetings Track Session, “Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Change: The Potential Role of Conservation Agriculture in Developing Countries”, August 4-6, 2013, Washington, DC.

Walker, F. R., Marake, M., Rustrick, W., Thierfelder, C., Basson, A., and Eash, N. S. 2012. Building international partnerships and funding for climate change work in Guatemala, Lesotho, and Mozambique. ASA/CSSA/SSSA Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH. 23 October 2012.

Theses

Bruns, M. 2012. Optimizing maize planting date, plant population, and fertilizer application rates for Lesotho subsistence farmers. M.S. Thesis, University of Tennessee at Knoxville.

Objective 3. Characterize the composition and contribution of N and C from legume/grass cover crops and determine the best species for maintaining soil residue cover until after maize crop harvest.


Presentations

Eash, N. S., Walker, F. R., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M., Marake, M. and Thierfelder, C. 2013. Using conservation agriculture to intensify and stabilize agricultural production in Southern Africa. ASA/CSSA/SSSA Annual Meeting, Tampa, FL. November 3-6, 2013.

Eash, N. S., Walker, F., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M., Marake, M. and Wall, P. 2011. Developing sustainable subsistence smallholder conservation agriculture systems in Lesotho. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Conservation Agriculture Symposium, Johannesburg, RSA. 8-10 February 2011.

Eash, N. S., Walker, F., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M., Marake, M., Bruns, W., and Sauer, T.J. 2011. SANREM-CRSP development of conservation agriculture systems for smallholder farmers in Southern Africa. CIMMYT and SIMLESA Planning Workshop. Chimoio, Mozambique. 5-8 September.

Objective 4a: Determine the short- and long-term impacts of CAS on gender equity especially in terms of household income and economic impact and to involve women in decisions that impact their welfare.

Objective 4b: Evaluate ways and means to improve fertilizer adoption rates among smallholder farmers, the degree to which market structure influences fertilizer use, and determine welfare implications based on price margins.

Journal articles

Lambert, D., McNair, W., Eash, N. S., De La Torre Ugarte, M., Wilcox, M. and Thierfelder, C. 2013. Conservation agriculture and household welling: a non-casual comparison among smallholder farmers in Mozambique. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. In Review.

Ngwira, A., Thierfelder, C., Eash, N. S. and Lambert, D. M. 2013. Risk and maize-based cropping systems for smallholder Malawi farmers using conservation agriculture technologies. Experimental Agriculture 49: 483 – 503.

Presentations

Lambert, D. M., McNair, W., Bisangwa, E., Simone, T., Eash, N. S., Thierfelder, C. and Walker, F. Socio-economic analysis of conservation agriculture production systems in Southern Africa, SANREM-CRSP Africa Meeting, February 26, 27, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Lambert, D. M., McNair, W., O’Dell, D., Bisangwa, E., Simone, T., Eash, N., Wilcox, M. D., Walker, F., Marake, M., and Thierfelder, C. 2013. Smallholder adoption of conservation agriculture and GHG reduction potential in Mozambique and Lesotho. Presentation for the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association Annual Meetings Track Session Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change: The potential role of conservation agriculture in developing countries”, August 4-6, 2013, Washington, DC.


Theses

Bisangwa, E. 2013. The Influence of Conservation Agriculture Adoption on Input Demand and Maize Production in Butha Buthe, Lesotho. Master’s Thesis, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

McNair, W. 2013. Assessing the influence of conservation agriculture on household wellbeing and maize marketing in Tete and Manica, Mozambique.” Master’s Thesis, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

116

LTRA-10: Development and transfer of conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) for smallholder farms in eastern Uganda and western Kenya Objective 1: Compile information for prototype CAPS development. Assemble stakeholder advisory groups for each area. Critical Research Accomplishments Analysis of the baseline survey data was completed and published in the M.S. thesis by Moses Obbo at the University of Wyoming (UW). The survey revealed that farmers were more receptive to CA if they owned land, had greater experience in farming (spent more years doing so), and used improved seed. On the other hand, farmers were less receptive to the technology if they frequently used inorganic fertilizers and hired labor for their farming operations. In addition, households with more access to off-farm employment and more exposure to experimentation with new technologies were more likely to participate in CA than those that relied on their farms for their livelihoods and had more contact with government/public extension service providers. The study revealed that farmers who could afford inorganic fertilizers and hired labor tended to be relatively wealthy, producing relatively high yields, and were, therefore, less incentivized to adopt CA. Most public extension providers in East Africa are not familiar with CA and are, consequently, more likely to promote farming practices that encourage tillage. Paradoxically, poorer farmers that had very small land sizes, could not afford recommended rates of inorganic fertilizers or herbicides, and needed crop residues for fuel and livestock feed, were generally risk averse and thus, also, less likely to adopt new technologies such as CA. Farmers living in hilly or mountainous environments with greater risk of soil erosion, that were aware of this problem, were more incentivized to adopt CA. Overall, experimentation with CA encouraged more participation as they say, “seeing is believing”. During the early part of the fiscal year (October – November, 2012), marketing research survey training and data collection continued in an effort to identify bottlenecks in the marketing channels with the ultimate goal of making policy recommendations and proposing ideas for additional projects and research. The survey interviewed input suppliers (seed, fertilizer and herbicide dealers), organized farmer groups, bulking agents, millers, mobile banking agents, and institutional buyers to determine the challenges that individuals at different points in the marketing channel face. A total of 30 interviews were conducted by the end of the exercise. Review of secondary literature and primary data related to marketing and marketing channels were also completed. The survey analysis revealed that NGOs’ (including East African host organizations’) dependency on donor support and donors’ often unrealistic expectations of results within short time periods impacted negatively on organizational self-sufficiency and ability to build stability into the fragile local marketing systems. The survey also revealed that self-interest and lack of trust among market actors such as farmer groups, middlemen, NGO personnel, input dealers, local political authorities, and millers impede economic growth and wellbeing as defined by Singh et al. (2005). In addition, the survey revealed that most


middlemen are relatively small-scale operators who are often forced to transfer their product to other middlemen in most marketing channels before the product reaches processors or end consumers. This challenge becomes even greater due to poor infrastructure, limited storage capacity, restricted market information, and intensive competition. Furthermore, it was revealed that middle men often preyed on small farmers’ economic vulnerabilities such as lack of adequate storage facilities and urgent need for money for school fees for their children. Evolution of banking facilities such as cellphone banking was cited as a great improvement in increasing efficiency of transactions, decreasing delays, and reducing costs. Other bottlenecks to supply and marketing chains identified during the survey included high interest rates on bank loans/credit balances and inadequate produce storage facilities. A very successful farmers’ field day was carried out at Manor House on the 12th of September 2013 whose theme was “Attaining Economically and Environmentally Sustainable Maize Production through CAPs”. The event attracted 160 participants, including 24 farmers and staff from ATU, 12 from Trans-Nzoia (Manor House) and six from Bungoma (SACRED). The event also brought together other regional SANREM partners from Eldoret University and various agricultural stakeholders from Trans-Nzoia and Bungoma Counties including the Kenya Government Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya Seed Company limited, Syngenta and other Agrovet dealers, Twiga Chemicals, various other farmers’ groups, two local community radio service representatives, and members of the Trans-Nzoia County Stakeholders Forum. The event show-cased our ongoing on-station CAPs research project at Manor House and also provided an opportunity to test the MFI and appraise its performance. The event was preceded by a plenary session attended by over 100 people, in which extension type presentations were given by SANREM-LTRA-10 field research staff and students, including Research Associate Sikuku (SEATEC), Dennis Ashilenje (MHAC), Patrick Oluko (Eldoret), Phanice Ogonga (Eldoret), and Ketty Nambonzo (ATU). Presentations covered an overview and progress of LTRA 10 research to date, preliminary agronomic (crop yield) and soils data analysis results from the first two years of the study, as well as an overview of a similar/parallel CAPs project being undertaken by ATU (separately funded by a European donor group) that excludes the use of chemicals entirely. Participants to the event were roundly impressed by LTRA 10’s accomplishments, exemplified by the demonstrations at Manor House, suggesting that CA was already improving crop yields and soil quality only two years after implementation. Preliminary results highlighted a trend indicating a general absence of differences between CA and traditional/conventional tillage practices, evidence supporting the promise of strip intercropping rotations that include mucuna cover crops, as well as positive treatment effects of CA on soil pH, available P, total N, and organic C under CA treatments. Farmers, especially those from Uganda, were very happy for the opportunity to, at last, visit their Kenyan counterparts to share experiences and compare notes; their only regret being that it was not possible for more of them to come. The field day was popularized by two radio presentations on local FM stations; Kalya and West FM, which normally cover the western region of Kenya. Field day activities were also captured on video. A conservation agriculture fact sheet was produced and issued to field day participants and will be revised and published as a SANREM/University of Wyoming extension publication.


Development Impact Reflection Workshops facilitated by Research Associates Omondi and Sikuku, along with ATU, MHAC and SACRED field staff Ketty Nambozo, Dennis Shibonje, and Johnstone Odera, respectively, were held in April 2013. These workshops continue to play a crucial role in sharing and/or exchanging ideas between scientists, field staff, farmers, and opinion leaders of each community that constituted the core of our advisory groups. Various stakeholders were made aware of potentials that exist in the maize value chain if farmers convert to CA. Challenges and Responses The major challenges to an efficient marketing channel in the study area were cited as poor infrastructure, especially road networks, lack of continuity of funded projects, lack of recourse to punishment for self-interested behavior within farmer groups, tenuous access to agricultural inputs of assured quality, high bank interest rates, and limited extension of mobile banking into the agricultural and social sectors. We continued to improve on identified opportunities to address inadequate tools for carrying out CAPs and limited participation of host farmers in monitoring trials. Ongoing testing of the MFI, especially in up-scaling trials, as well as more concerted efforts to involve farmers in every aspect of trials establishment, management, monitoring, and data collection continued to provide practical avenues to address these challenges. The need for farmers to participate in exchange visits with their counter-parts in other sites, to learn from each other, and familiarize themselves with what others were involved in was revisited during the Reflection and Training workshops. In November 2012, an exchange visit was organized for 16 farmers from Kapchorwa on-farm sites to CA sites in Tororo and also to sites in Pallisa under another CA project implemented by an organization called REDS. In furtherance of such efforts, it was proposed that additional funding be sought to organize field days at each site and invite farmer representatives from other sites to participate. The first such field day was successfully carried out at Manor House and attracted 160 participants including 24 farmers from Uganda and 16 from Kenya. Raising sufficient funds to involve more host farmers in such events in the future is still a challenge that will need to be addressed.

Objective 2: Define the traditional system and develop prototype CAPS for each area that build upon local knowledge, traditional practices, and address agronomic and socio-economiconstraints. Critical Research Accomplishments Reflection and training workshops, which have been adopted and facilitated by LTRA 10 field research and extension personnel as a regular exercise, continued to provide a means to discuss and reflect upon the performance of trials in previous seasons, and to gauge farmers’ evolving understanding and acceptance of CA options available. These meetings bring together host


farmers and their group members. The meetings also provide an opportunity for farmers to pool resources to purchase inputs such as herbicides, fertilizers, and seed. As part of his supplemental research project funded by the Borlaug Leadership Enhancement in Agriculture Program (LEAP) grant, UW M.S. graduate Obbo, with assistance from Makerere University M.S. student Judith Asiimwe, carried out economic impact survey interviews with farmers in each of the project sites regarding their observations on the performance of CA compared to current tillage and cropping practices. Data were collected on farming costs, yields and revenue estimates from various treatments. Costs involved in land preparation, fertilizers, herbicide use, weeding, pest control, harvesting and post-harvest handling were recorded from each site and will form the basis for assessing economic impact of our research. Development Impact Through informal discussion with farmers, challenges facing adoption of CA were highlighted. Based on their evaluation, it was possible to identify practices that can easily be practiced in conversion from conventional tillage to conservation tillage while sustaining crop yields. For example, five farmers in Kapchorwa, Uganda, have adopted minimum tillage with the use of herbicides for growing maize. These farmers reported large reductions in soil erosion, which they attribute to retention of residues, and concluded that, with continued use of minimum tillage, they will be able to rebuild and conserve their soil for future generations. The MFI, designed by a U.S. engineer, continued to play a crucial role in the implementation of CAPS. Using the equipment, two up-scaling strip intercropping projects were established in the farms of two host farmers in Trans Nzoia county in Kenya; Michael Cheboit and Shadrack Tuwei, both in the Kibomet Location. Strip intercrops included recurring 4 rows of maize, 8 rows of beans, and 6 rows of mucuna, utilizing a combination of herbicides and minimum tillage. The MFI will be utilized, not only in weeding minimally tilled crops in these up-scaled plots, but also in our main on-station and on-farm research fields. Challenges and Responses One challenge cited for economic impact assessment data collection was inconsistent record keeping by farmers. As part of his supplemental research project funded by the Borlaug LEAP grant whose objective was to assist farmers to accurately keep economic farm records, UW M.S. graduate student Moses Obbo provided farmers with structured forms outlining the costing of each activity and ways to estimate potential revenue for maize and bean crops in subsequent seasons. For various reasons, oxen were not as available in Uganda for testing of the MFI by farmers trained in its use in Tororo. Strategies to ensure availability of animals for training and continued testing and/or utilizing the MFI are being sought. The recommendation to use small hoes to limit soil disturbance, has been found to be replete with problems, especially for when planting under no-till. Among other things, it is difficult to


make seed holes using these hoes, particularly for farms with residues as this forces farmers to move residues aside to facilitate planting, which considerably slows down the whole process. In addition, soil dug out using these tools is often inadequate to cover seeds. Accordingly, farmers have expressed a need for guidance on what constitutes acceptable disturbance of soil in CA operations. Objective 3: Evaluate agronomic, ecological and economic sustainability of CAPS compared to traditional practices. Critical Research Accomplishments Maize and bean yield data for the second year of research implementation were collected and processed between October and December 2012. Maize samples were taken from the guard rows of rotation 2 plots (strip intercropping) to be analyzed for border effects. Farmers also measured economic yields of maize. Weed population, diversity, and biomass were collected in November 2012. Although land preparation and procurement of all inputs was accomplished in February 2013, once again planting in all study sites in Kenya was postponed to mid-April due to a delay in the onset of long rains. However, planting and establishment of third year research experiments was accomplished between March 25 and March 29, 2013, at all sites in Uganda. Ph.D. candidate Jeremiah Okeyo evaluated soil bulk density in August 2013. Trace gas sampling, along with crop residue data collection, was done in November 2012 after harvest and again in March 2013 before planting in Trans Nzoia and Bungoma on-station plots. The process of greenhouse gas analysis was augmented by installation of six Automated CO2 Exchange (ACE) stations by Dr’s. Wade Thomason and Catherine Fleming, both from Virginia Tech University, on the 22nd to 26th of July 2013. Due to the great value of these instruments, their security was given high priority. Accordingly, each unit was securely fastened by chains to T-bars secured on the ground by concrete, while the batteries powering them were locked in modified metal cages. In addition, a night and day guard were hired to provide 24-hour surveillance of the equipment. Manor House LTRA 10 field research staff Dennis Ashilenje and Joshua Ouko are responsible for regularly monitoring the units and downloading and sending data to VA Tech on a fortnightly basis. Farmers in each project site were generally satisfied with implementation of the first two years of research work. During Reflection and Training Workshops held at all sites in April, and attended by 13 women and 30 men, preliminary (Year 1 and 2) agronomic results of the on-farm and on-station experiments were shared with host farmers (Appendix I and II). Notable in those results was better crop yield performance on-farm compared with on-station sites attesting to better, more intimate management of on-farm sites compared to on-station sites, as well as farmers’ vastly improved understanding of the management and various other aspects of ongoing research. This was quite encouraging to the farmers and injected new momentum in the continuing implementation and adoption of CA practices.


A general consensus began to emerge, based on preliminary observations and results, that intensive tillage may not be as critical in growing maize and beans as originally assumed. First and second year on-station preliminary results for maize yields in Kapchorwa revealed that traditional/conservation tillage (ox or donkey drawn mold board plowing or hand hoeing) performed better compared to both minimum and no-till practices (Table 41). However, on-station results in Trans Nzoia and both on-station and on-farm results in the two higher potential research sites [Trans Nzoia and Kapchorwa (Table 42)] revealed that maize yields were not only comparable between traditional and conservation tillage treatments, but there was also a significant increase in maize yield between the first and second year attesting to substantial improvements in our agronomic management practices.

Table 41. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Kitale and Kapchorwa on-station trials

CT denotes conventional till; MT denotes minimum till; NT denotes no till; ND denotes no data. This preliminary analysis excluded effects of nitrogen top-dressing.

Trans Nzoia Kapchorwa Year 1 Year 2 Year 1 Year 2 Tillage Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans -------------------------------t/ha/year--------------------------------- CT 3.78a 0.52a 6.05a* 0.74a 5.87a 0.21a 5.96a ND MT 2.74b 0.42b 6.36a* 0.70a* 4.65b 0.20a 3.71b ND NT 2.82b 0.40b 5.14b* 0.68a* 4.14b 0.22a 3.77b ND Means within the column followed by the same letter are not statistically significant (LSD, α = 0.05) * Denotes a significant change (LSD, α = 0.05) compared to the previous year

Table 42. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Kitale and Kapchorwa on-farm trials.

Analysis excluded effects of nitrogen top-dressing. District by tillage interaction effects were not significant, thus data for the two districts were combined for analysis.

Trans Nzoia and Kapchorwa Year 1 Year 2 Tillage Maize Beans Maize Beans ------------t/ha/year------------ CT 5.18a 0.65a 8.93a* ND MT 4.22a 0.47a 7.67a* ND NT 4.55a 0.36a 8.00a* ND

Means within the column followed by the same letter are not statistically significant (LSD, α = 0.05) * Denotes a significant change (LSD, α = 0.05) compared to the previous year

Both preliminary on-farm and on-station results for the first two years in Bungoma and Kapchorwa revealed that there were no statistical differences between tillage practices for maize and bean yields (Tables 43, 44, 45, and 46). There were also generally no statistical differences between cropping systems during the first two years for all of the study at all sites, except for Bungoma, which reported significantly greater maize yield in the second seasons of both the


first and second year in the strip intercropping treatment (Rotation 2) compared to the other cropping treatments (Table 47). This was attributed to maize benefitting from the soil enriching effects of mucuna cover crop. Those positive effects were, however, not apparent at other sites for reasons ranging from inadequate management of the prolific nature of mucuna (resulting in the competitive effects of the cover crop overcoming other beneficial effects) to its inability to perform well in the higher altitudes where two of our research sites are located. Performance of beans at all sites was below expectation. Efforts will continue to be made to improve on our management practices to ensure that beans perform as well as can be expected.

Table 43. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Bungoma On-Station trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing).

Bungoma Year 1 Bungoma Year 2 Season 1 Season 2 Season 1 Season 2 Tillage Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans --------------------------------------t/ha------------------------------------------ CT 2.24a 0.32a 4.64a ND 2.26a 0.07a 1.12a ND MT 1.86a 0.27a 4.09a ND 1.66b* 0.18a 0.97a ND NT 1.70a 0.28a 3.09a ND 2.29a 0.14a 1.07a ND

Means within the column followed by the same letter are not statistically significant (LSD, α = 0.05) * Denotes statistical difference at LSD, α = 0.10

Table 44. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Bungoma On-Farm trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing).

Bungoma Year 1 Bungoma Year 2 Season 1 Season 2 Season 1 Season 2 Tillage Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans -------------------------------t/ha------------------------------------- CT 2.42a 0.28a 1.02b 0.21a 3.12a ND 1.37a ND MT 2.14a 0.23a 1.32a 0.23a 2.04a ND 2.06a ND NT 2.13a 0.25a 1.19a 0.25a 2.60a ND 1.84a ND

Means within the column followed by the same letter are not statistically significant (LSD, α = 0.05)

Table 45. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Tororo On-Station trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing).

Tororo Year 1 Tororo Year 2 Season 1 Season 2 Season 1 Season 2 Tillage Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans ---------------------------------------t/ha--------------------------------- CT 2.25a 0.32a 0.32a ND 2.43a 0.23a 2.57a 0.025a MT 2.42a 0.27a 0.33a ND 1.63a 0.24a 2.42a 0.032a NT 2.61a 0.28a 0.28a ND 1.77a 0.24a 2.06a 0.027a

Means within the column followed by the same letter are not statistically significant (LSD, α = 0.05)


Table 46. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of tillage practices in Tororo On-Farm trials (excluding effects of nitrogen top-dressing). Tororo Year 1 Tororo Year 2 Season 1 Season 2 Season 1 Season 2 Tillage Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans ---------------------------------------------t/ha------------------------------------- CT 4.89a 0.22a 1.44a ND 2.88a 0.24a 0.96a 0.11a MT 3.62a 0.12a 5.75a ND 2.69a 0.36a 1.20a 0.19a NT 4.83a 0.21a 9.57a ND 2.85a 0.75a 0.99a 0.12a

Means within the column followed by the same letter are not statistically significant (LSD, α = 0.05) Table 47. Comparing maize and bean yield parameters between main effects of cropping practices in

Bungoma On-Station trials; ROT 1 denotes rotation 1; ROT 2 denotes rotation 2; CP denotes conventional or farmers’ practice; ND

denotes no data. These preliminary analysis excluded effects of nitrogen top-dressing. Bungoma Year 1 Bungoma Year 2 Season 1 Season 2 Season 1 Season 2 Cropping Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans Maize Beans --------------------------------------------t/ha---------------------------------------- CP 2.20 ND 0.74c 0.24 2.59 ND 0.70b ND ROT 1 2.02 ND 1.31b 0.15 2.45 ND 2.02a ND ROT 2 2.48 ND 1.84a 0.29 2.63 ND 2.58a ND P-Value NS NA 0.0031 NS NS NA 0.0167 NA

Means within the column followed by the same letter are not statistically significant (LSD, α = 0.05) Perhaps the most notable apparent effect of our research treatments are illustrated in the preliminary soil test results revealing a trend that suggests a dramatic improvement in soil properties with time. Mean soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (N) in soils sampled during the first year of our study do not appear to have been affected by our treatments (Figure 30 and 31). However, the same soil nutrient parameters (SOC and N) tended to be substantially greater in strip intercropping (Rotation 2) and Rotation 1 (with mucuna relay) than in farmers’ maize-bean intercropping treatment, with no apparent differences between tillage treatments (Figure 32 and 33). These results have, however, not yet been subjected to statistical analysis as we are still compiling on-farm data.


Figure 30. Percent soil organic carbon content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the

beginning of the study in Year 1. Results have not yet been subjected to statistical analysis.

Figure 31. Percent total nitrogen content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the



Figure 32. Percent soil organic carbon content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the


Figure 33. Percent total nitrogen content at 0-15 cm depth at all on-station sites sampled at the

beginning of the study in Year 2. Results have not yet been subjected to statistical analysis. Development Impact Continued inclusive and participatory planning, establishment, management, monitoring, and data collection in the implementation of the second of the study strengthened the foundation for a successful long-term project. Participating farmers that received rain gauges, notepads, and pencils for recording daily rainfall and reading the Tru-Chek rain gauges continued to show enthusiasm about carrying out these tasks. Improved weed control earlier in the season led to good maize crops on both on station and farmer’s plots during the second phase of our research. Based on observed maize and bean yields, participating farmers made general observations that minimum tillage was less costly


and produced yields that were comparable to those in conventional tilled plots. Farmers in Kapchorwa generally appreciated the potential savings arising from the use of herbicides in land preparation as compared to hiring oxen. Farmers in Tororo and Bungoma however, appreciated mucuna as a cover crop and its ability to smother weeds and the benefits biomass incorporation confers to the soil. Mucuna has been taken up by many farmers who are using it on a small scale for seed multiplication, with plans to use it in the future. Challenges and Responses Mucuna continues to receive accolades as an effective cover crop, both for conserving moisture and enhancing soil properties. Maize continued to perform well when grown in rotation with mucuna in Trans Nzoia, Bungoma, and Tororo. However, its establishment in Kapchorwa continued to pose a major challenge. Efforts to identify suitable alternative cover crops that can survive the high altitude and cold conditions in the area continues. Previous observations suggested that black seeded mucuna [M. Pruriens var. utilis (Boahen 2003)] may be more resilient than white seeded mucuna [M. Pruriens var. cochinchinensis (Boahen 2003)]. Accordingly, black seeded mucuna was planted in the higher altitude of Kapchorwa in the Kwosir sub-county regions. While lupines do not provide as good a cover as mucuna, it was decided to plant lupines in rows adjacent to mucuna in an effort to ensure that a leguminous cover crop is present in case mucuna fails again. Many lupine cultivars are known to perform well in high altitudes (over 2000 meters a.s.l.) and relatively cold conditions similar to those in Kapchorwa (Yeheyis et al., 2012). The lupines survived but did not perform as well as had been hoped. Green-leaf Desmodium obtained from Kenya Seed Company Limited were also planted in trial plots on the sides of the research plots to gauge its performance and potential as an alternative cover crop in Kapchorwa. Essentially, thus far, performance of the cover crops at the high altitude sites has been disappointing. Efforts to test purple vetch (Vicia sp.) as another potential cover crop were frustrated by absence of locally available seed. Plans are underway to obtain seeds from the International Livestock Research Institute in Addis Ababa and ship them to the study sites for testing in the forthcoming season. While Mucuna’s germination and establishment in study sites which are cooler and higher in elevation is quite difficult, its prolific growth habit in the warmer, lower altitude regions of Bungoma and Tororo, where is thrives, poses an extreme but opposite challenge. Due to this growth habit in the region, the cover crop tends to overrun and smother crops grown in close proximity if not checked. In an effort to overcome this challenge, mucuna was planted two weeks after planting second season maize in Tororo and Bungoma to give maize a head start. Pests, particularly rodents (rats and squirrels), as well as crickets and guinea fowl, caused serious damage to planted maize seed in Tororo, resulting in poor germination percentages in many on-farm and on-station plots. Attempts to deter the pests, for example, by using dummy maize seeds scattered on the edges of the plots and traps for guinea fowl were not successful. Gap filling, done twice in the region, did not improve plant populations in many of the research fields. In addition to pests, excessive rains in 2013 in Uganda encouraged excessive growth of weeds that were difficult to control using any of the available methods. These weeds may have


compromised crop yields. There is a need to review the pest and weed control strategies for the remaining research phase. Research Associate Omondi spent part of the spring period on-site monitoring trace-gas emissions in Trans Nzoia and Bungoma on-station plots, as well as facilitating data analysis and Reflection Workshops in coordination with Research Associate Sikuku and MHAC Research Coordinator Dennis Shibonje. This coupled with other visits by NGO partners, students, and PIs, maintained a presence for continuing discussion of the research work. Two host farmers in Bungoma withdrew from our research for various reasons and had to be replaced by two willing farmers that were promptly identified in the region. Degree and nondegree training activities • Primary training involved graduate degree education for two Ph.D. students and one M.S.

student at the University of Wyoming, two M.S. students at Moi University, and one M.S. student at Makerere University. One M.S. student, Moses Obbo, graduated in April 2013. Farmer training on CAPS and general research implementation strategies were conducted in November 2012 during Reflection and Training Workshops and other forums adopted by field research and extension personnel. Additional Reflection and Training workshops facilitated by Research Associates Sikuku and Omondi along with MHAC Research Coordinator Shibonje, ATU and SACRED Africa field staff were conducted in April 2013.

• In November 2012, 16 farmers from the host farmer groups in Kapchorwa were trained on animal traction to enable them to effectively use the MFI for their CA farming operations.

• Sixteen enumerators participated in the adoption survey conducted by Prof. George Norton of Virginia Tech and were also introduced to CA principles. These 16 enumerators later interviewed 400 respondents on use and/or adoption of CA principles.

Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products Research Associate Omondi and Ph.D. student Judith Odhiambo presented posters at the SANREM CRSP 2012 annual meeting and the ASA, CSSA and SSSA Annual Meetings, both held in Cincinnati, Ohio on October 20-24, 2012. PI Norton gave an oral presentation on the progress of the research at the same meetings. Ph.D. student Okeyo gave an oral presentation on the progress of the SANREM research as well as his Borlaug Leap Fellowship long term reduced tillage study at the World Food Prize Symposium held in Des Moines, Iowa, on October 15-19, 2012. Ph.D. student Odhiambo wrote a University of Wyoming field day research bulletin entitled Maize-Bean Farming and Seasonal Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions in Sub-Saharan Africa that summarizes preliminary results of the seasonal GHG emissions from continuous maize/bean intercropping grown under uni-modal and bi-modal growing seasons. Networking activities • The University of Wyoming SANREM group of PIs, research associates, and graduate

students meet regularly to discuss progress and related research. PI Norton, Co-PI Norton, Co-PI Peck, Research Associate Omondi, Ph.D. student Okeyo, Ph.D. student Odhiambo, ATU Executive Director Laker-Ojok, and Makere University Professor Bashaasha


participated in the SANREM CRSP 2012 annual meeting and the ASA-CSSA-SSSA 2011 annual meetings in Cincinnati, Ohio on October 20-24, 2012.

• Dr. Keith Moore, Associate Director of SANREM at Virginia Tech, met with Research Associate Omondi, ATU Executive Director Laker-Ojok, Makere University Prof. Bashaasha, and ATU Monitoring and Evaluation Coordinator Grace Tino, to introduce his new M.S. graduate student, Jessie Gunter, who will be following up on the social network research carried out by Jennifer Lamb two years ago. Jessie will be in Kenya and Uganda for her field research during January-April of 2014 and will build on the follow-up household survey or conduct a standalone research project.

• A team from the Women in Europe for Common Future (WECF) visited the trial sites in Kapchorwa, Uganda and held meetings with the host farmers in Kwosir. The WECF is funding up-scaling of CA activities in Kapchorwa and Kween, implemented by AT Uganda.

• Two graduate students from Virginia Tech under Prof. George Norton were introduced to ATU and participated in adoption of related studies with the communities that SANREM is working with.

• The Molo Subcounty National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS), of the Uganda Government Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry, and Fisheries, organized a field day to sensitize farmers on CA at the on-farm experimental site of Mr. Adrian Oketch. This visit was facilitated by the AT Uganda staff and the host farmer and was attended by farmers’ representatives from all the parishes in Molo Subcounty. Mr Oketch was also identified by NAADs as a model farmer for CA.

Gender Equity The SANREM LTRA 10 project promotes equitable participation of men and women in every aspect of its implementation. Led by a male PI, the project leadership consists of three female co-PIs and only one male co-PI. One of the East African host organizations, AT Uganda, is almost entirely run and managed by women with only one male field researcher on staff, three female field research staff and a female Executive Director. Gender equity is also engendered among students supported by this project whereby an equal number of male and female (three each) students are receiving full scholarships. In addition, about 20% and 40%, respectively, of host farmer groups in Kenyan and Uganda are led by women. All aspects of our research work emphasize the importance of equitable participation of men and women. During the first part of the year, ATU conducted a Gender Mainstreaming workshop that brought together 15 women and 12 men to brainstorm and share ideas on ways to increase women participation in ongoing CA research. Highlights • Reflection and Training workshops continued to provide a means to discuss and reflect

upon the performance of trials in previous seasons, and to gauge farmers’ evolving


understanding and acceptance of available CA options. The workshops have now been adopted by field personnel as a regular exercise.

• Agronomic, soil, trace gas, socio-economic, and marketing research data were collected from the twenty research sites during the period under review. Analyses of these data are ongoing. The research study for the third phase was established in these same sites with help of participating farmers and local residents, who were involved in soil sampling, tillage, and planting. Clear communication of responsibility for managing and monitoring rainfall, weeds, and input activities continued to engage farmers and local workers in ways that will support a successful long-term project.

• Preliminary, non-statistical soil analysis results suggest a dramatic improvement in soil organic C, total soil N, soil pH, and other soil parameters under CA treatments including strip intercropping (Rotation 2) and Rotation 1 (with mucuna relay) compared to conventional farmers’ practices.

• The MFI continues to play a crucial role in the implementation of CAPs. Two up-scaling strip intercropping projects were established in the farms of two host farmers in Trans Nzoia county in Kenya using the MFI. The MFI will also be utilized, not only in weeding minimum tilled crops in these up-scaled plots but also in the main on-station and on-farm research fields when practical.

• Five farmers in Kapchorwa, Uganda, have adopted minimum tillage with the use of herbicides for growing maize. These farmers reported large reductions in soil erosion and attributed this to retention of residues, concluding that, with continued use of minimum tillage they will be able to rebuild and conserve their soil for future generations.

References Singh, J., Rama K. Jayanti R. K., Kilgore J. E., Agarwal K. and Gandarvakottai R. R. 2005. What

goes around comes around: understanding trust: value dilemmas of market relationships. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 24: 38-62.

Yeheyis L., Kijora C., van Santen E., and Peters K. J. 2012. Sweet Annual Lupins (Lupinus spp.);

their adaptability and productivity in different agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia. Advances in Animal Science 2: 201-215.

Boahen, P.,Loos, H., Zschekel, W.,Hanson, A. and Annan, P. 2003. Developing multiple uses for

mucuna. Experiences of the sedentary farming systems project in transitional zone of Ghana. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems 1(2-3): 261-265.


APPENDIX I: SANREM reflection and training workshop report for trial two held at DATIC Uganda on 10th April 2013 SANREM reflection and training workshop was attended by sixteen farmers, seven of whom were males and nine female. The meeting started with introductions where each farmer gave an indicator of the CA practice they are implementing. Overview of SANREM Program A brief overview of the SANREM program emanating from a report presented during USAID Conference was given by Dr. Sikuku. He informed the participants that SANREM is now called an innovation lab, throwing more emphasis on agricultural innovation. He outlined SANREM’s mandate in developing CAPs for small holder farmers in Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya various. Key objectives of SANREM LTRA 10 were outlined. Participants were taken through a summary of CAPs experimental design, treatments, cross cutting research activities and role of graduate students in the study. Challenges encountered in previous years’ implementation were revisited, including:

• Lack of adequate and/or appropriate tools needed for CAPs and the MFI was therefore developed as a solution

• Inadequate participation by host farmers in monitoring trials • Poor information on which herbicide to use

Specific non-degree training activities conducted in 2012 were mentioned including:

• CA practices • Farming as a business • Financial management • Collective planning and marketing • Soil fertility management and • Safe use of chemicals

Dr. Sikuku also outlined expected impacts of the SANREM research to include:

• Improving how farmers address issues of productivity with climate change smart farming

• Reduced tillage with optimum production • Precision farming using MFI, hence freeing labor for other activities • Enhancing farmers capacity in participatory technology development and practices • Building farmers’ own innovative capacity through collaboration with SANREM

researchers Farmers experience with CAPs Ketty facilitated this session which led to various personal views about performance of crops in different tillage and cropping pattern treatments. Maize had higher yields when coming after mucuna in rotation 2 plots. Most farmers attested to the possible improvement in soil fertility and soil structure, evident in higher soil moistures. In the same treatment, use of herbicides in


no till plots reduced labor costs involved in controlling weeds. Crop residue in minimum and no till plots and early application of herbicides encourages seed germination, which was attributed to associated treatment benefits of optimum moisture content at the time of planting and sufficient weed control. It was observed that maize and beans had higher yields in plots supplied with full fertilizers compared to controls. However, in no till plots, on one on-farm site runoff water was seen to wash fertilizers shallowly applied off to lower parts of the field. The buildup of organize matter from incorporated residues, reduced tillage and cover crops with penetrating root systems will help the percolation and retention of fertilizer inputs. More work was required to unwind mucuna from maize where the two crops were intercropped. Mucuna cover also harbored rats and other pests which eventually destroyed maize. Rotating maize with mucuna was proposed as mitigation. Poor adherence to agronomic practices such as delayed weeding and application of herbicides were thought to play a role in poor crop yields. Some weeds were notably resistant to herbicides; such as couch grass and ‘Achak’ (common name to be identified). The use of the MFI was reported to make planting much easier and faster. However, some challenges were noted in its use, for example, seed furrows were often too shallow such that farmers had to follow up with machetes or other tools to push seeds into the soil. Proposals that the implement could be upgraded to both subsoil and plant at the same time were received with great enthusiasm by the farmers. While farmers recognized shallow weeding with hands as being too labor demanding, they also expressed their observations that the MFI could not till the soil efficiently enough during weeding. Farmers also thought that using oxen, the most readily available draft animals in the area, to operate the MFI reduced its precision. There were mixed conclusions drawn by farmers in ranking the performance of various treatments. It was generally reported that traditional tillage practices gave the highest yield of maize followed by minimum till while no till gave lowest. Tillage and cropping patterns also influenced maize quality, as maize grain size was bigger when rotated with mucuna. Farmers also realized greater yields and profits from this practice than a maize mucuna intercrop. The latter was also seen to have more rotten maize grains. Challenges Challenges in trial two were identified as follows:

• When no till treatments were done without mucuna, soil surfaces tended to crust in dry conditions, adversely affecting maize yield and quality. This was attributed to poor soil aeration.

• Algae were seen growing on no till plots, indicating poor water infiltration. This condition also promoted seed rot.

• Shallow placement of maize seed in no till plots encouraged their destruction by crickets.

• There was low participation of farmers in managing trial plots. Farmers were involved in many other projects besides SANREM, which could have led to the poor participation.


• Farmers are still indecisive in choosing the best CA practices to adopt due to other factors that influence crop growth, such as rainfall. They therefore thought that research results could help them make the best choice. They were, however, advised to apply all treatments and simple crop management practices correctly after which they will chose which CA practice or combination of practices best address food security.

• Farmers have had challenges in establishing experimental crops due to delayed supply of seeds and other inputs. This was explained by a delayed release of Year 4 funds by USAID.

Preliminary yield results from data analysis Research Associate Omondi presented preliminary agronomic maize yield results. However, those results were provisional as collation of all the data had not yet been completed. Generally year one produced expected results whereby maize performance in the ‘farmers practice’ treatment was greatest compared to the two CAPs treatments. Of the two CAPs, generally, minimum till tended to perform better than no till. Way Forward Farmers expressed an interest in exchange visits with their counterparts, especially those in Kenya. Dennis and Ketty were tasked with developing draft budgets for carrying out some field days this year that can be attended by farmers from other sites. Research Associate Omondi was requested to explore avenues for raising funds to facilitate more such field days at each study site, with participation of host farmers and/or their representatives from all four study locations in Year 5. Farmers agreed to participate more effectively in monitoring experiments and following instructions in applying various CA treatments. There were hopes that PD Norton could present results of soil physical and chemical properties during his planned visit later in the year to assess project progress. Seeds and other inputs will be supplied to farmers early to avoid poor crop yields. It was reported that James Norton was working on upgrading the MFI design to enable it to serve as both a sub-soiler and planter, at the same time. Farmers were advised to prepare their land early. Farmers requested that each group be supplied with a knap sack sprayer while those that break down should be repaired. There was agreement that records be kept showing dates of various activities and crop yields.


Conclusion Ketty advised farmers to adopt CA techniques, which maintain crop cover on the surface such as rotation 2. There were opportunities for growing mucuna seeds in bulk to meet expected demand. Farmers were thanked for taking good care of the experimental plots.

Participants Name Gender Organization

1 Annamary Ojulong F AT Uganda

2 Hellen Otabong F "

3 Irene Othieno F "

4 Omella Martin F "

5 Owor Silverio M "

6 Ofwono Willy M "

7 Osuna Joakim M FFS

8 Twimu Mugisha F FFS

9 Budesita Obbo F FFS

10 Mary Oketch F FFS

11 Rose Ochieng F FFS

12 Okingok Paul M FFS

13 Oketch Adriano M FFS

14 Mugala Susan F AT Uganda

15 Owor Okongo M KFFS

15 Omondi Emmanuel

17 Dominic Sikuku

17 Josphat Kwanusu

19 Dennis Shibonje

APPENDIX II: Reflection and Training Workshop for SANREM Trial Two held at Masha Hotel, Kapchorwa on 11 April 2013 The meeting started at 11.00 am with the outlining of the workships objectives by Ketty. Participants did introductions. Dr. Sikuku made the same presentation about a brief overview of the SANREM program, emanating from a report presented during USAID Conference held in Arusha, Tanzania. The use of protective gear was reemphasized following research done at Nairobi University that reported reduced lifespan due to exposure to chemicals. Procurement of chemicals was identified as a challenge hence participants were asked to give views leading to efficient use of these herbicides.


A brief explanation was given on the importance of climate smart farming. Farming was mentioned as a source of greenhouse gases; methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. By adopting climate smart farming practices, farmers could contribute to reducing the emission of these gases and reduce their adverse effects on the environment and health. Climate smart farming could also mitigate adverse effects of climate change such as Tsunamis, melting of ice in Iceland, flooding in Kenya, among others cases. Farmers experience with CAPs Once again Ketty facilitated learning experiences by farmers. The following were some of the farmers’ observations expressed during the meeting:

Soil erosion has been greatly controlled in the CA plots (minimum and no till). • There had been improvement in all the tillage systems • Conservation agriculture reduced the cost of production. • Leaving maize and bean residue on the plots improved soil moisture conservation and

reduced soil loss by erosion during long rains.

Farmers discussed the challenge in retaining crop residues on their farms. Losses of residues were attributed to burning, use as fuel, and feeding by cattle. Some farmers have tried to mitigate this problem by fencing in their farms. Farmers also suggested that more people be educated on the benefits of CA to increase its adoption, noting that those benefits take time. Given that most farmers have retained the tradition of allowing cattle to graze their animals on harvested fields, it was proposed that farmers be encouraged to plant fodder such as Napier grass to reverse this trend. Farmers expressed their satisfaction with the previous year’s training on the safe use of herbicides (PERSUAPS), which had enabled them to correct their past mistakes and become more proficient in safe and timely use of recommended herbicides. Farmers also revealed that lessons learned on CAPs were being passed on to other farmers who are not directly associated with our research. It was revealed that three farmers have spared land for growing sorghum using CA and utilizing the MFI. Farmers observed that maize yields in all farms, except one, improved during the second year of research. Bean crops were generally devastated by poor weather conditions. Farmers also opined that postherbicide Basagran and damaged seeds played a role in the poor bean performance; although farmers were using certified seeds, seeds still had signs of Anthracnose, which may have contributed to depressed growth. There were questions about access to protective gear for use with chemicals. Farmers were directed to an agro input shop in Mbale town. Preliminary Season One Yield Results from Data Analysis Generally, preliminary on-farm results and observations, as presented by Research Associate Omondi, revealed that maize yields in CAPs plots were either greater or not different from


farmers’ traditional practices. While crop residues were praised for aiding in minimizing soil erosion, they were also blamed for harboring rats, which destroy maize. It was suggested that growing of Tephrosia can serve as a bait and rodenticide against rats. Preliminary on-station results in Kapchorwa revealed a reversal of on-farm results such that maize yields in Farmer Practice were greater than CAPs. Preliminary results did not reveal any statistical differences in bean yield between the three tillage practices. However, both maize and beans performed better in rotation 2 compared to the other treatments. Dr. Omondi re-emphasized the need to have farmers to participate in exchange visits, which could provide them with opportunities to share their farming experiences. Farmers in Kapchorwa were praised for their superior knowledge and skills in the use of herbicides and they could be counted on to share this experience with other farmers from other sites in Kenya and Tororo, Uganda. Dr. Omondi made it clear, however, that it was not the intention of SANREM to promote the use of chemicals, but rather, help farmers to improve their yields and residue cover over time such that continued use of herbicides would be minimized or eliminated altogether. Examples of case studies where CA is being practiced elsewhere without chemicals were given. For example, Dr. Sikuku described a project in Kijabe, Kenya where rice stalk residues are used to cover the soil and where maize is raised under CA without using herbicides. AT Uganda was also reported to have recently initiated a project called Women in Future where mulch and minimum till was solely being used to control weeds. Fertilizers and manure were also being used at minimum levels in this project. It was expected that farmers would be better informed on performance of CA and which practices to adopt after obtaining this year’s harvest. Conclusion Farmers were advised to make use of the MFI. They were also encouraged to train their animals with some support from Mr. Ouko, and to participate more effectively in the trials. Most development partners would like to talk to farmers; hence it was important for farmers to give true information about their experiences in applying CA. Some farmer exchange visits in Uganda had already been conducted but additional ones were encouraged. It was expected that PI Norton would help explain the observed differences in soils, and crop performance between on-farm and on-station plots, during his anticipated visit later in the year when he was expected to present results from soil analysis. Farmers were profusely praised for the much better performance of maize on on-farm plots compared to on-station ones.


APPENDIX III: SANREM Trans-Nzoia and Bungoma sites, reflection and training workshop report held at Manor House Agricultural Centre on 23rd April 2013 The SANREM reflection workshop for Trans-Nzoia and Bungoma counties was attended by eleven participants, including four farmers from Trans-Nzoia and three from Bungoma County. The meeting started at 11.00 A.M, with introductions. Overview of SANREM Program A brief overview of the SANREM program, emanating from a report presented during USAID Conference, was given by Dr. Sikuku. He informed the participants that SANREM is now called an innovation lab to emphasize agricultural innovation. He outlined SANREM’s mandate in developing CAPs for small holder farmers in Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya and partners. Key objectives of SANREM LTRA 10 were outlined. Participants were taken through a summary of CAPs experimental design, treatments, cross cutting research activities and role of graduate students in the study. Challenges encountered in previous years’ implementation were revisited, including:

• Lack of adequate and/or appropriate tools needed for CAPs, and the MFI was therefore developed as a solution

• Inadequate participation by host farmers in monitoring trials • Poor information on which herbicide to use

Specific non-degree training activities conducted in 2012 were mentioned including:

• CA practices • Farming as a business • Financial management • Collective planning and marketing • Soil fertility management and • Safe use of chemicals

Dr. Sikuku also outlined expected impacts of the SANREM research to include:

• Improving how farmers address issues of productivity with climate change smart farming

• Reduced tillage with optimum production • Precision farming using MFI hence freeing labor for other activities • Enhancing farmers capacity in participatory technology development and practices • Building farmers’ own innovative capacity through collaboration with SANREM

researchers


Farmers experience with CAPs Various farmers discussed the benefits of no till practices. No till plots are easier to manage compared to minimum till and conventional tillage. Herbicide application in no till made it possible for farmers to plant early. Through early planting, weeds could be managed more effectively, especially grasses. Furthermore, there was reduced need to wait for the high demand machinery when planting season began in no till practice plots. In one of the on-farm sites in Trans-Nzoia, it was observed that no till gave better maize yields compared to minimum and current tillage practices. Maize crop residue in CA plots harbored maize stalk borer, which attacked maize as early as the seedling stage. Generally the yield of crops in no till plots was improving gradually. Farmers took note of improved crop performance in rotation 2 treatments. Mucuna was reported to enhance soil fertility and quality as well as yields of both maize and beans. Mucuna was seen to provide a good soil cover, effectively controlled weeds, particularly grasses. Mr. Opicho from Bungoma tried mucuna as a mulch with other crops such as passion fruit and bananas and also realized improved performance. This outcome has attracted neighboring farmers to SANREM research activities. There is therefore a need to share CA knowledge with more farmers. Other benefits of mucuna were its use as animal feed and as a beverage from the black seeds. The use of the MFI made planting time short in the minimum till fields. Mr. Opicho informed the participants that he had managed to upscale minimum till using the MFI on his one acre farm. However, spare parts for this machine could not be found locally hence suggestions to have them availablee to farmers. Challenges Some plots at Mabanga have no maize germinating in the current season. Plots bordering hedges were prone to maize damage by rodents, while bean leaves were eaten by birds in on-farm plots. Planting in mucuna residue is a challenge if they are not sprayed with herbicides early on. In Bungoma, crop performance was affected by delayed planting. Herbicides were also found not to be effective against couch grass, which was addressed by doubling the herbicide rates. Delayed planting in Bungoma was attributed to delayed release of funds. Way forward There was a suggestion that more exchange visits be held among farmers in Kenya and outside Kenya. In the long run the target was to realize sufficient crop cover and therby reduce the use of herbicides. It was recommended that shallow weeding in minimum till should be clearly distinguished from deep cultivation in current tillage using a hoe with shorter blade which reaches a maximum of 5 cm depth. Farmers were also required to spread crop residues on CA plots after harvest.


Conclusion Farmers were impressed with the innovations being developed by SANREM. There was a general agreement to have joint presentation of results for all East African sites. Farmers expressed the need to get results of other factors that may have influenced crop performance such as soil properties and weather. Dr. Sikuku promised that this information will be availed in results to be presented by PI Norton when he visits Kenya later in the year. Soils will be analyzed using quick procedures in June so that results can be released rapidly.

Participants

Name Gender Organisation

1 Boaz Omondi M Common Ground

2 Billia Wekesa F Common Ground

3 Shadrack Tuwei M Naisambu

4 Michael Cheboit M Naisambu

5 Lawrence Wanyonyi M SACRED

6 Protas Opicho M SACRED

7 Richard Wanambisi M SACRED 8 Johnstone Tungani M SACRED Coordinator

9 Joyce Simiyu F SACRED Instructor

10 Dominic Sikuku M

11 Dennis Shibonje M


LTRA-11: CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal Principal investigator: Catherine Chan-Halbrendt, University of Hawaii at Manoa Host Countries: Nepal, India Research progress by objectives Objective 1: Determine the set of CAPS for sustained productivity, labor, soil impact, gender equity and profitability Critical Research Accomplishments 1.1 INDIA 1.1.1 On-farm CAPS evaluation trials in India During the cropping season of 2012-2013, thirty five households from the Tentuli village and ten from the Talachampei village participated in on-farm trials including four CAPS treatments: viz., maize followed by mustard under conventional tillage (control), maize + cowpea intercrop followed by mustard under conventional tillage, maize followed by mustard under minimum tillage, and maize + cowpea intercrop followed by mustard under minimum tillage. Increases in both maize (Fig. 34) and mustard yield (Fig. 35) were observed in the second year field trials, but these effects were non-significant. There was no significant interaction between tillage and intercropping treatments for maize yield; however, data showed that yield was higher in sole cropping treatments under conventional tillage while intercropping yield was enhanced in conjunction with minimum tillage practices (Fig. 36).

Figure 34. Comparison of maize yield by treatment and year


Figure 35. Comparison of mustard yield by treatment and year

Figure 36. Interaction effect of tillage and intercropping on maize yield over two years Maize equivalent yield (MEY) was calculated for on station research trials to estimate the effects of tillage, intercropping and cover cropping treatments on maize yield over the period of two cropping cycles. MEY was calculated by adding the yield of the maize component and the equivalent yield of other component crops taken in intercropping and cover crops (mustard and horse gram) that CT with sole maize has higher MEY (61.95 q/ha) over MT with sole maize (55.76 q/ha). MEY from both the conventional and no-till systems with maize-cowpea (M+C) intercrop were at par (Fig. 37). Inclusion of mustard and horse gram as cover crops enhanced the MEY significantly over no cover crop (NCC) treatment.Increases were 20.4 % and 11.4 %,


respectively. The maximum MEY of 103.61 q/ha was obtained from the CAPS of CT-M + C, which is at par with the CAPS of MT-M+C (102.86 q/ha).

Figure 37. Effect of different CAPS on Maize Equivalent Yield (q/ha). Treatments with same lower case letter were not significant at P ≤0.05

MEY (q/ha) = Maize yield (q/ha) + Yield of other crop produce (q/ha) * market price of that produce (Rs/q) / Market price of maize (Rs/q) (Market price of maize = 0.16 USD per kg, cowpea =0.32 USD per kg, horsegram = 0.32 USD per kg and mustard is 0.50 USD per kg). The intercropping of maize and cowpea under both MT and CT systems increased the MEY over sole maize. MEY was also elevated when mustard was utilized as a cover crop because of the higher selling price of mustard. Although, the MEY under the MT system was marginally lower than under the CT system at the end of the second cropping cycle, the positive impact of MT on yield will be reflected in the long run due to impacts on overall soil health. Additional data on nutrition and gender equity will be given in the coming year. 1.1.2 Soil water stable aggregate analysis in India Soil organic matter plays a vital role in soil aggregate formation. Assessment of water stable aggregates was measured after two years of cropping cycle. Significant changes in the percentage of water stable macro-aggregates (˃0.250 mm) were observed in the soils under different CAPS. The continuous practice of CT reduced the macro-aggregates by 2.4% over the initial status (73.7%), as the soil disturbances resulted in rapid decomposition of soil organic matter. Minimum tillage, on the other hand, enhanced the macro-aggregates by 8.7%, which was mostly due to accumulation and preservation of soil organic matter. The maize + cowpea intercrop showed significantly higher aggregates (+6.2%) over sole maize (74.2%) treatments. The soils in cover crop treatment plots did not show any pronounced changes in water stable macro-aggregates (Fig. 38).


Figure 38. Effect of different CAPS on water stable-macro aggregates ( >0.250 mm) (%) over two years The data pertaining to the changes in water stable micro-aggregates under different CAPS are depicted in Fig.39. The extensive soil disturbances in CT resulted in higher levels of micro-aggregates (+13.3%) over the initial value, which could be due to the physical turnover of macro-aggregates. The practice of MT, on the other hand, lowered the number of micro-aggregates (13.4%), mostly due to turnover of micro-aggregates into macro-aggregates in the presence of higher organic binding agents. This was reflected in the reduced status of micro-aggregates (-23.6%) in MT plots, compared to the soils under CT (14.9%). The various cropping systems under MT also significantly reduced the micro-aggregate contents (-11.4%) over the soils under CT (13.9%).


Figure 39. Effect of different CAPS on water stable- micro aggregates (0.053-0.250 mm) (%) over two years.

1.1.2 Weather data The weather elements play a very dynamic role in determining the growth and development of plants and also play a major role in the completion of their life cycle. Crops grow satisfactorily within a definite range around cardinal points of different climatological parameters. The crops sowed (maize and cowpea) during the last week of June 2012, through the first week of July 2012, received rain, which was favorable in terms of quantity and distribution for germination and early growth. The crops were harvested in September 2012. Residual soil water content, along with rainfall, helped in the germination and growth of the post rainy season cover crops viz., mustard and horse gram. The atmospheric temperature range during the cropping season was also favorable for crop growth and development. 1.2 NEPAL 1.2.1 On-farm CAPS experimental trials The project partnership meeting on June 2013, attended by represeantatives of UH, IAAS and LI-BIRD, determined that cover crops would be integrated into on-farm trials. Accordingly, the revised on-farm design as per the discussion is presented in the table below. The team also agreed to maintain half of the on-farm trials without a cover crop treatment, to maintain continuity in the research design. Either small pea or lentil will be chosen as the cover crop treatment to be integrated into the trial and this will be decided upon after consultation with farmers.


Table 48. Revised on-farm research design to include cover crops (Among 8 farmers, we will do this with 4 farmers in each village)

Treatments Tillage Crop 1 Crop 2 Cover Crop (Only 1 cover crop)

1 Conventional Maize Millet Fallow

2 Conventional Maize Millet Cover Crop

3 Conventional Maize Legume Fallow

4 Conventional Maize Legume Cover Crop

5 Conventional Maize Millet + Legume Fallow

6 Conventional Maize Millet + Legume Cover Crop

7 Strip Maize Millet + Legume Fallow

8 Strip Maize Millet + Legume Cover Crop

The on-farm research trials for 25 farmers from three villages were continued. The data on agronomic performance and labor requirements, categorized by gender, for first the season crop (March-July) (maize) have been recorded, and the data of the second season (August-October) crops (millet and black gram) are in the process of being recorded. Results for the previous yearare presented in section 3.2.1. 1.2.2 Collection of soil data Altogether, 192 soil samples were collected for analysis of soil water stable aggregates. 8-9 farmers having one set of CAPS treatment are participating in the field trials in each of three villages. Eight samples were collected from each of the four treatments in a farmer’s field. A sample was taken from two different depths-that of 0-5 cm and 5-10 cm. The initial processing of soil samples was done in the field, and then the samples were transferred to the LI-BIRD soil lab for further analysis. 1.2.3 Soil Water stable aggregate (WSA) analysis Water stable aggregates (WSA) did not show any significant differences among CAPS treatments (Figure 40). The WSA variation is higher between villages, and lower between treatments. Mean WSA percentages were slightly greater for maize followed by millet+legume under strip tillage, as compared to all other treatments. The soils of CAPS 4 (MT M-C+M) were the most resistant to dispersion, possibly owing to the implementation of strip-tillage rather than conventional tillage.


Figure 40. Water stable aggregates by village and treatment. Values in figures A and B are for 0-5 cm soil depth, while D and E are for 5-10 cm soil depth (Source –

Crow et al, under review)2. 1.2.4 Weather station A HOBO Data Logger (Onset Computer Corporation, MA, USA) Microstation system, installed at each research site, recorded air temperature, soil temperature, precipitation, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), relative humidity, and soil moisture. Weather data from the micro-stations were discontinued at various times due to station malfunctions and download failures, which occurred often due to the remote location and the logistics of replacing parts. UHM scientists have analyzed the available weather data and used it for evaluating the effects of CAPS on yield and soil characteristics. 1.2.5 Gender study Previous data collected on gender labor from Nepal were analyzed and the results were contrasted with labor data from the experimental field plots. The results of the gender survey showed that women’s agricultural labor in Nepal increases by 2.17% and 0.91% with the intercropping and intercropping with minimum tillage treatments, respectively. The main drivers for increased labor with CAPS were shown to be land preparation, sowing, and

2 Crow S.E., Tamang B.B., Schubert O., Radovich T., Paudel, B., Halbrendt, J. and Thapa K. Soil quality and sustainability in Conservation Agriculture Production Systems (CAPS) of rainfed, sloping land farming in the central mid-hills region of Nepal. Book chapter under review.


harvesting. Results showed that the majority of farmers equally shared agricultural decision-making between household heads (60.5% male, 46.2% female). However, one of the male groups that was surveyed stated that they had “a lot of control” (28.9%) or “total control” 15.8%) over decision-making, while the second and third largest groups of women surveyed claimed only “some control” (28.2%) or “no control/unsure” (23.1%)-demonstrating the persistence in unequal decision making for some groups and locations. Detailed results of this study are currently under review for publication in the Journal of Mountain Research and Development. 1.2.6 Cognitive mapping study Cognitive mapping data collected in Nepal were analyzed and the results of farmer perceptions were validated using crop yield and soil data. The results of the cognitive mapping study showed that farmers from villages with soils deficient in organic matter and with low water retention (Khola Gaun and Hyakrang) which were highly reliant on tillage to incorporate organic matter, perceived minimum tillage to have a negative effect on crop yield. Gaps between farmers and researchers in understanding of the benefits of CAPS were identified as (1) expectations at different temporal scales, (2) variations in environmental condition, and (3) variations in social-cultural conditions. Subsistence farmers must make decisions based on the short-term, while researchers may tend to focus on the long-term environmental impacts of introduced practices. Furthermore, pre-existing environmental and socio-cultural factors shape the beliefs of farmers regarding their agricultural systems. An article based on this study is currently under review for the journal of Global Environmental Change. 1.2.7 Social (technology) network analysis The data collected for technology network analysis in Nepal have been analyzed. The results show that there is a significant difference (P=<0.001) between the density [i.e., the ratio of number of ties that is actually present to the number of all possible ties] of technology networks within different villages, with the highest technology network density in Kholagaun (4.3%) followed by Hyakrang (3.4%) and Thumka-which had the lowest (2.2%). The density of ties of the farmers with external sources of information (i.e., NGOs/GOs/input suppliers/output buyers etc. was much higher in Kholagaun (6.6%), followed by Thumka (3.5%) and Hyakrang (3.4%). So, it was concluded that Kholagaun has the best flow of the information by both ‘farmers-to-farmer’ and ‘extension-to-farmer’. The average number of out-degree ties (the person with whom a farmer asks for advice) of males (4.9) and females (4.6) was comparable. But, the average number of in-degree ties for males (2.95) was significantly (P=<0.001) higher than that of females (0.65) indicating the men are approached with new information more often than females. The out-degree ties of Kholagaun (5.69) were significantly higher than that of Thumka (4.3) and Hyakrang (3.6). The analysis also indicated that NGOs and input suppliers are the major sources of information on new technologies in villages.


Development impacts India

o Minimum tillage, along with maize and cowpea intercropping, is beginning to be perceived as a promising cropping system among the tribal farmers due to increases in yield and farmer income (as cowpea has a high market price, almost double the price of maize).

Nepal o We are also confident that legume integration in finger millet based farming systems

increase profitability and hence increase the income of a household. Additionally, enhanced production of legumes in the finger millet based farming system increases the exposure of women to the market, leading to their increased access to information, knowledge and technologies.

o The integration of black gram and increased yield of finger millet contributes to increased availability of food to the Chepang households.

Challenges and response

1. In Nepal, weeds in sole maize in strip-tilled plots were prolific, especially compared to other treatments. It was difficult to carry out weeding in these treatment plots.

2. The short window of time suitable for transplating finger millet and black gram made field management difficult for farmers. It is important to plan transplanting of finger millet and black gram at the appropriate time. The 3rd and 4th week of August is the appropriate time for sowing black gram in the project sites and the 3rd week of July to 3rd week of August is the suitable time for transplanting finger millet in the project sites. In order to harmonize transplanting of finger millet and black gram, the 3rd week of August is the appropriate time in the project sites and hence the preparations need to be done accordingly. However, managing this schedule can be challenging due to weather situations in the area. If there is no rain during or prior to the 3rd week of August, transplanting of finger millet cannot be done and if it is done later, it can have a negative effect on vegetative growth and yield of finger millet.

Drought and erratic rainfall for crop production was also a big problem at the sites in Nepal. In the 2nd year, maize was planted earlier due to the early occurrence of rainfall, but later in the growing season the crop was affected by drought. In the 3rd year, maize was planted in the second source of rain; hence vegetative growth of maize was good. But during tasseling due to regular rainfall, second intercultural operations were difficult to carry out on time.


Objective 2: Explore stakeholder preferences for CAPS to promote adoption Critical Research Accomplishments 2.1 INDIA 2.1.1 AHP study A workshop entitling “AHP survey” was conducted on 31, 2013 in 2013, involving 37 farmers from Tentuli and Talachampei, which surveyed the growers on their preferences for different CAPS. Survey results showed that farmers’ perception as to what objectives most contribute to their income were different between the two villages. In Tentuli, soil quality was considered the objective that contributed the most to improving their household income, followed by crop yield. For Talachampei farmers, yield was perceived as the most important contributing factor, followed by profit with regards to the goal of improved income. The reason that Tentuli farmers might have placed more weight towards soil quality is that they are in their third year of their CAPS adoption and had observed the improved soil quality with CAPS while Talachampei farmers did not yet observe the soil quality difference as it has been only one year since CAPS adoption. We hope to see Talachampei farmers’ change their perception towards placing more importance in soil quality in their future preference for CAPS. All the respondents selected minimum tillage along with intercropping as the most preferred treatment. 2.2 NEPAL The follow-up workshop to determine the change in farmers’ preference for CAPS using AHP has been planned for 2014. 2.2.2 On-farm workshops with farmers in Nepal A discussion on farmers’ preferences for CAPS and training on implementation of selected and preferred CAPS was held at three project sites, involving action research farmers and other villagers. During the workshop, farmers indicated they preferred both maize relayed with black gram under full tillage, and maize relayed with an intercrop of finger millet and black gram. Farmer preference for maize relayed with black gram was due to the high price of black gram in the market and its role in improving soil fertility. The reason farmers favored maize relayed with intercropping finger millet and black gram was a comprehension of the contribution of black gram to improved soil fertility and crop diversification; i.e., they have two different harvests-millet and black gram from the same plot. Table 49 is a presentation of farmers participating in the on-farm workshops regarding information and implementation of selected and preferred CAPS, categorized by gender.


Table 49. Farmers involved in the on-farm workshops to implement selected and preferred CAPS in the study sites

Project sites Male Female Total persons

Thumka site, Gorkha 10 5 15

Kholagaun, Tanahun 8 6 14

Hykrang, Dhading 12 4 16

2.2.3 Sharing the results of on-farm trials with other stakeholders A sharing of on-farm experiment results was conducted with 12 representatives (including 5 females) from local stakeholders such as the Agriculture Contact Office (Krishi Samparka Sthal), NGOs such as SAHAS Nepal, FOCUS Nepal, Local Journalists, and Women Cooperatives. The sharing program was organized in joint cooperation with another project of LI-BIRD, implemented in the adjoining villages. LI-BIRD also shared the findings of the experiments through a technical paper entitled "Diversifying family nutrition of smallholder tribal farmers through different conservation agriculture crop production systems in the sloping lands of Nepal mid-hills" in the 2nd annual symposium of the Feed the future Nutrition Asia Innovation Lab: ‘Science and Policy for Health, Agriculture, Nutrition and Economic Growth’. The symposium was held on August 13-14, 2013 in Kathmandu and was attended by around 150 national and international participants. A presentation was given on the potential contribution of CAPS in Nepal for improving food and nutrition security of smallholder farmers. Development impacts India

o The AHP workshop revealed farmers acquired a better understanding of the value of sustaining soil quality through practicing CAPS. An increase in the number of participating farmers in both Tentuli and Talachampei and also the inclusion of another new village for on farm trials confirms that the ongoing CAPS research is helping to build capacity among the farmers and support the project objective by helping them realize the importance of soil improvement through CAPS.

Nepal o CAPS can be a strategy for building resilience of agro-ecosystems in the context of

climate change. In Nepal, implementation of adaptation programs have been initiated with the preparations of local adaptation plans for action and community adaptation plans of action. Livelihood improvement interventions should be considered for discussion and inclusion in all communities that integrate CAPS.

o We are also exploring the opportunity to integrate CAPS in other programs in Nepal that are also funded by USAID, such as the Hariyo Ban Program.


Challenges and response Due to budget constraints in Nepal, it became difficult to organize workshops and visit district agencies or experimental stations. However, project teams shared key findings of workshops organized by LI-BIRD in the village adjoining SMARTS sites. More interactions and dialogue can be organized for integrating CA into the plans of district agencies and the programs of local NGOs.

Objective 3: Implement preferred CAPS on-farm for validation, impact on farm household welfare leading to policy recommendation Critical Research Accomplishments 3.1 INDIA 3.1.1 Scaling up CAPS During 2011-12, the number of participating farmers in Tentuli village has gone up from 20 to 30 (as of August 2013), and in 2012-2013 in Talachmpei, from 10 to 26 (as of August 2013). Another village, Bayakumutia has an additional 20 farmers practicing CAPS in their fields since August 2013. Thus, for 2012-13, there are an additional 56 farmers and an increase of 58,620 m2 of experimental plot area. Also, the Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) of Mayurbhanj district (Government of Odisha Agency) has sanctioned a plan of adopting maize based CAPS with maize and cowpea intercropping in 1,000 ha in other tribal villages in the North Central Plateau zone of Odisha. 3.1.2 Revision and and adaptation of on-farm experiments Based on the on-station study entitled “Planting pattern and nutrient management strategy for maize + cowpea intercropping under rainfed conditions”, it was inferred that planting of maize and cowpea intercrops in a 2:2 row ratio (i.e., two rows of maize followed by two rows of cowpea) is better than planting in a 1:1 row ratio (i.e. one row of maize followed by one row of cowpea) for intercropping practices. However, another two to three years of study are needed before transferring this technology to farmer’s field. 3.1.3 Farmers’ trainings One training entitled “Harvesting, post harvest care and crop residue management” was organized on December 13, 2012 in Tentuli, Keonjhar, India. It involved farmers, the SMARTS project team, the local team project coordinator, scientists of KVK, and SMARTS student fellows. A total of 100 farmers, including 49 females and 51 males, were trained. 3.2 NEPAL 3.2.1 Results of on-farm CAPS experiments The maize yield data for 2011, 2012 and 2013 have been analyzed, but yield data for the second season crops in 2013 haveyet to be collected. There were fluctuations in maize yield between different years (Table 50). There was a noteworthy trend of lower maize yield in strip tillage plots, but yield was not statistically different from conventional tillage plots. These variations in


maize yields between years were mostly attributed to the unfavourable weather (mainly rainfall) conditions in 2012 and 2013. Millet yield in intercropping was significantly lower than millet in sole crop plots. Black gram yield in intercropping was also lower than sole crop plots due to lower plant density in intercropping treatments as compared to sole crop plots, where two crops were grown on the same area of land. Yields of millet and black gram in intercropping treatments were not different between conventional and strip tillage treatments. It was concluded that strip tillage did not reduce crop yield. Yield was converted to maize-yield-equivalent (MYE) by taking grain price as the weight. The results revealed that the maize-yield-equivalent greatly varied by village, and was affected by CAPS and year of growing. Higher MYE was observed in 2011 rather than 2012 due to favorable rainfall. The results showed MYE from the traditional production system (maize-millet under CT) was significantly lower than maize-legume under CT and maize- millet + legumes under CT. Food production from maize-millet+legume under ST was between these two latter treatments. Even if intercropping reduces individual crop yield, overall it increases village crop production

Table 50. Yield of maize, millet and legumes and maize equivalent yield (t/ha) in 2011, 2012 and 2013 in on-farm CAPS experimental trials in the central mid-hills of Nepal.

Values indicate LSM+95% confidence limits (Source- Paudel et al, under review3) Year CAPS† Maize Millet Black gram Cowpea MYE 2011 T1 2.12 ±0.34 0.86 ±0.17 1.92 ±0.79 T2 2.20 ±0.34 0.86 ±0.20 3.13 ±0.79 T3 2.19 ±0.34 0.41 ±0.17 0.64 ±0.20 2.99 ±0.79 T4 2.06 ±0.34 0.34 ±0.17 0.59 ±0.20 2.80 ±0.79 2012 T1 1.95 ±0.29 1.00 ±0.18 2.16 ±0.67 T2 2.20 ±0.29 0.35 ±0.07 2.61 ±0.67 T3 2.01 ±0.29 0.77 ±0.18 0.17 ±0.07 2.55 ±0.67 T4 1.67 ±0.29 0.73 ±0.18 0.16 ±0.07 2.23 ±0.67 2013 T1 1.80 ±0.26 T2 1.80 ±0.26 T3 1.68 ±0.26 T4 1.46 ±0.26 Sources of variation Village *** *** NS *** *** Year (Y) *** *** ** CAPS NS *** *** NS ** Y X CAPS NS NS NS R-square 0.19 0.41 0.3 0.35 0.315

3 Paudel B., Radovich, T., Crow S., Thapa K., Halbrendt, J., Chan-Halbrendt, C., and Tamang, B.B, Potential of conservation agriculture production system (CAPS) for improving sustainable food and nutritional security in hilly regions of Nepal. Book Chapter under review


In the table above, † T1=maize-millet under CT, T2 = maize-legume under CT, T3 = maize-millet+legume under CT, T4 = maize-millet+legume under ST; NS, Non-significant at P ≤ 0.05 ***, **, * Significant at P ≤ 0.001, 0.01 and 0.05, respectively. 3.2.2 Scaling up of CAPS The project team oriented 15 farmers of Bakrang VDC and 20 farmers of Taklung VDC of Gorkha districts on CAconcepts and the results of the CAPS trials during a capacity building trip to these sites. The practice of growing sole black gram or cowpea is common at the project sites. However, seeing the results of the CAPS treatments, farmersare motivated to further grow black gram in their fields. Promotion of Conservation Agricultural Production Systems is integrated into the 16 Community Adaptation Plans of Action (CAPAs) prepared in select locations of Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahun, Kaski and Syangja districts of Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) Nepal. This was done under the USAID funded Hariyo Ban Program in Nepal. LI-BIRD is the landscape level partner of WWF Nepal in preparing the 16 CAPAs in the CHAL. Key research findings were also shared with farmers and other stakeholders through the Nepali Calendar, published by LI-BIRD. An episode of CAPS was broadcasted through LI-BIRD ko Chautari radio program through 15 FM stations of Nepal covering more than 30 districts of Nepal. The program included the concept of CAPS and communicated major experimental set up, findings, and benefits of CAPS to the smallholder farmers. 3.2.3 Revise and adapt on-farm experiments During the first year of on-farm experimentation, cowpea performed well in sole cropping treatments but suppressed the growth of finger millet in intercropping plots. Cowpea was replaced by black gram in the second and third year field seasons. Farmers provided positive feedback on replacing cowpea with black gram. In Hyakrang, farmers are also interested to try soybean for intercropping treatments. In coming years, farmers will be motivated to integrate soybean in their fields. The project has planned the integration of a cover crop into the current CAPS trials at the IAAS research station. The selected cover crops for the IAAS trials will be planted in the winter season, in the on-farm trials in the villages. 3.2.4 Farmers’ training During the field visit to the SMARTS project site, 45 farmers, including 15 female farmers, were trained on CAPS implementation and its management to increase their income and livelihood. The training was organized during November 2012.


3.2.5 Summary of the research conducted by student fellows in Nepal Evaluation of suitable maize varieties for the study villages The performance of five maize varieties-Poshilo, Manakamana-3, Manakamana-4, Arun-2 and local-were tested by IAAS with each variety replicated five times in on-farm experiments at all three study villages during 2013. Results will be forthcoming. FYM X tillage study An experiment was conducted on different types of tillage (dibbling, strip tillage and conventional (multiple) tillage) and different levels of farmyard manure (FYM): 0, 5, 10 and 20 t/ha. Maize production and residual soil properties revealed that there were no significant differences in maize production between conservation and conventional tillage treatments, but we did observe increased treatment levels of FYM significantly affected production. The residual soil nutrients (NPK) were greater in conservation tillage than in conventional (multiple tillage) systems where increased levels of FYM were applied. The highest gross return (usd 994) was calculated from strip tillage of maize when applying 20 t/ha FYM, but the highest net return (usd 467) was calculated from maize treatments under conventional tillage, supplied with 10 t/ha FYM, with all farm operations performed manually. However, using animal drawn tillage for making the strips drastically reduced the cost of maize cultivation. Maize+legume intercropping trial An experiment conducted on maize intercropping with different legumes and non-legumes revealed that intercropping cowpea with maize improves both production and economic returns in maize based cropping systems on the foothills of Nepal. A field experiment evaluating different varieties of maize showed that Manakamana-4 performed best followed by Manakamana-3. Development impacts India

o Minimum tillage, along with maize plus cowpea intercropping is beginning to be perceived as a promising cropping system among the tribal farmers due to its better yield performance and increases in farmer income (as cowpea has a high market price, almost double the price of maize). As a result, the Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) of Mayurbhanj district (Government of Odisha Agency) has sanctioned a plan of adopting maize based CAPS with maize plus cowpea intercropping in 1,000 ha area in other tribal populated villages in the North Central Plateau zone of Odisha.

Nepal o Farmers and their groups in the adjoining areas of the project sites and other project sites

of LI-BIRD and partner organizations are interested in receiving training on practices that increase soil fertility and sustained crop productivity. For instance, some farmers and their cooperatives of Taklung VDC and Bakrang VDC of Gorkha (adjacent to Thumka) and Laubari VDC of Nawalparasi showed interest in learning about technologies and practices of conservation agriculture. In this context, there is an


opportunity for providing training to farmer groups and NGO and GO staff of the selected locations (in the project districts and surroundings) to scale up CA practices.

Challenges and responses Sole legume rotations are already a common practice in the villages of Nepal. Motivating them to implement finger millet and legume intercropping is challenging. The project team realized the need to organize frequent interactions and orientations for farmers to motivate them to intercrop finger millet and legumes. Objective 4: To promote reflection, evaluation, and continuous improvement of implemented CAPS. Critical Research Accomplishments 4.1 INDIA 4.1.1 Focus group meeting with farmers The workshop titled “Maize-based Conservation Agriculture” involved 80 participants, including 30 female and 50 male farmers and extension personnel, and was organized by the District Agriculture Department of Kendujhar on September 11, 2012 to share feedback from the participating farmers who have taken up CAPS trials on their farms. SMARTS scientists attended the workshop as resource persons and shared their views. Also, during the AHP survey, some of the farmers shared their personal experiences regarding profit, nutritional security and increased returns from CAPS adoption. 4.1.2 Economic impacts of CAPS using linear programming and economic surplus analysis It was worthwhile to do a normative study estimating which combination of CA practices (legume intercropping, minimum tillage, crop rotation and cover cropping) would provide optimal net benefits given farmer preference for three multi-objectives: profitability, soil quality and labor cost (savings). A MINIMAX linear programming model was built for that purpose. The model also estimated a state-level (Odisha), net economic benefit of adopting at rates of 1%, 3% and 5% for recommended farming system(s), by using economic surplus analysis. Model results indicate that a farming system using reduced tillage, maize and cowpea intercrop the first season followed by a second season of mustard cover crop on 63% of cultivated area (fallow on the remaining 37%) provides farmers with optimal benefits (profit +140%, soil quality +34% and labor cost -32%). Although a fallow treatment is typically less desirable than cover cropping in terms of soil quality and profitability, model results recommend fallow on about one third of cultivated area due to a combination of meeting farmer’s preferences for reduced labor and the first year experimental trial results, in which fallow treatments, overall, had relatively higher N and soil organic carbon (SOC) concentrations in the soil. Availability of hired labor combined with the high value of some cover crops might encourage farmers to use additional cover cropping instead of leaving plots fallow. If the optimal system was adopted by 1% of Odisha smallholder farmers, it would net the state approximately $19,812,669 per annum. At 3% adoption, net economic returns are estimated at $59,783,614 and $100,215,369 at 5%


adoption. Thus, significant incentives at the household and state levels exist for adoption of CAPS. 4.1.3 Effects of CAPS on soil physical, chemical, and organic properties in India Bulk density (BD) Tillage practices with different cropping systems (sole/intercrop) affected the soil bulk density. Practice of conventional tillage (CT) increased the BD in the tune of 0.03 units over the initial value of 1.24 t/m-3, whereas it remained unchanged under MT. Cover crops (horsegram, mustard) in the production systems, however, it did not influence the soil BD as much as compared to no cover crop (1.27 t/m-3) treatments. Soil organic carbon At the end of the 2nd cropping cycle significant changes in SOCwere observed over the initial status due to the impact of different CAPS. Minimum soil disturbance in MT elevated SOC by 17% over the initial measure of 6.62 g kg-1. The practice of CT, on the other hand, reduced SOC (-2.4%). Inclusion of cover crops in the cropping system resulted in significant increases in SOC contents (+6.8%) over NCC (6.74 g kg-1).The CAPS of MT-M+C-H recorded the maximum SOC at 8.41 g kg-1. Soil available nitrogen (N) Continuous accumulation of crop residues and preservation of organic matter had significant effects on available soil nitrogen. Practice of MT, two years in succession, increased available N by 14.3% over the initial status of 266.6 kg/ha. The soils under MT were also significantly enriched (+13.1%) with available N as compared to CT (269 kg/ha). Inclusion of horsegram (H) as a cover crop treatment significantly increased the available N (+7.5%) over NCC (277.7 kg/ha), whereas, mustard as cover crop did not influence it much. The maximum (321.8 kg/ha) and minimum (253.8 kg/ha) value of available N were recorded in the CAPS of MT-M+C-H and CT-M-NCC, respectively. Soil available phosphorus (P+) MT increased the available P by 8.4% over the initial contents of 15.7 kg/ha. Similarly, the practice of intercrop M+C resulted in higher contents (+11.2%) of available soil P over soils in sole maize treatment plots (15.8 kg/ha). The soils under horse gram showed significantly higher contents (+8.6%) of available P over NCC (16.1 kg/ha). The soils under the CAPS of MT-M+C-H recorded the maximum contents of available P (18.7 kg/ha) at the end of second cropping cycle. Soil available potassium (K) Minimum tillage elevated the available K contents by 6.7% over the initial measure of 340.9 kg/ha whereas CT reduced it by 3.2%. The treatment of MT-M+C recorded significantly higher available K (371.2 kg/ha) as compared to CT-M (320.9 kg/ha). Inclusion of cover crops in the system did not show any significant effect on K compsred to NCC (no cover crop) treatment plots.


4.2 NEPAL During the visit of each project site, open dialogue was maintained with action research farmers regarding on-farm CAPS trial. As perceived by farmers, drought is the major challenge identified at the project sites and requires planned adaptation in the research. Although farmers are yet to see the effects of strip tillage on crop production and soil fertility, they have realized the advantage of millet and legume intercropping. Hence, farmers are interested in testing new intercropping combinations, such as soybean with finger millet. 4.2.1 Evaluation of effects of CAPS on soil physical, chemical, and organic properties The soil samples were collected at three different sampling times; i.e., baseline soil samples were collected in 2011, the 2nd set of soil samples collected after 6 months (following two crop cycle), and the last set of soil samples were collected after 2 years (following onset of the experimental trials)-all of which have been analyzed. The results indicate that CAPS treatments are not yet manifested in soil parameters, because of the short-term evaluation period. There were differences regarding soil properties among the study villages. The soil in Thumka was characterized by the highest level of base saturation, followed by Hyakrang and Kholagaun soils. Concentrations of plant available P and K+ were also substantially different among the villages. Soil P and K+ were present in excess of plant requirements in Kholagaun and Hyakrang, hence, N or other micronutrients and/or available water are likely to limit yield. SOC was comparatively consistent across treatments in all locations (Fig. 41), although there were no significant differences among CAPS.

Figure 41. Soil Organic matter content for each village by treatment. Bars are means + one standard error. For reference, baseline measurements and standard errors are denoted by

horizontal solid and dashed lines, respectively. Figures A, B, and C are 0-5 cm depth while D, E, and F are 5-10 cm.


Nitrogen increased from the six month measurement to the two year measurement in most of cases (Fig. 42). Although not statistically significant, maize relayed with legume in Hyakrang showed an increase in nitrogen from the six month reading to the year two reading presumably because of nitrogen fixing of legumes.

Figure 42. Nitrogen content for each village by treatment. Bars are means + one standard error. For reference, baseline measurements and standard errors are denoted by

horizontal solid and dashed lines, respectively. Figures A, B, and C are 0-5 cm depth while D, E, and F are 5-10 cm. Overall, available soil P remained relatively constant across sampling times (Fig. 43). It appears that the intercrop with reduced tillage treatment in Hyakrang and Kholagaun had the highest P level, but these trends were not statistically different.


Figure 43. Soil extractable Pc for each village by treatment. Bars are means + one standard error. For reference, baseline measurements and standard errors are denoted by

horizontal solid and dashed lines, respectively. Figures A, B, and C are 0-5 cm depth while D, E, and F are 5-10 cm. 4.2.2 Profitability analysis of CAPS A simple enterprise budgeting was conducted on the basis of available on-farm CAPS evaluation data, and baseline data. It was found that maize-legume system is the most profitable system. If we consider maize-millet under CT as the traditional system (as about 39% of the hill maize area practiced this system in 2011), all other CAPS options under evaluation generate higher profitability. However, if we consider the maize-legume system as the baseline, CAPS treatments which have intercropping of millet+legume reduce profitability. If we compare the profitability of CAPS treatments with intercropping, strip tillage slightly increased the profitability compared to conventional tillage (Table 51).

Table 51. Profitability analysis of different CAPS systems in three villages in central mid-hills of Nepal

CAP systems

Cost of production

($/ha)

Labor (person days/ha)

Labor cost€

Revenue ($/ha) PROblc ($/ha)¥ PROalc ($/ha)£

CT M-Mi 203 516 1146 1314 1111 (base) -35 (base) CT M-CP 203 462 1025 2190 1,987 (+79%) 962 (+ve) CT M-BG 209 514 1142 2248 2,040 (+84%) 897 (+ve)

CT M-Mi+CP 207 685 1524 2040 1,833 (+65%) 309 (+ve) CT M-Mi+BG 210 633 1406 1821 1,611 (+45%) 205 (+ve) ST M-Mi+CP 207 633 1407 1934 1,727 (+55%) 318 (+ve) ST M-Mi+BG 210 608 1351 1822 1,612 (+45%) 261 (+ve) Notes: M= maize, Mi=millet, BG = black gram, CP = cowpea, + indicate intercropping, - indicate relay crop

€ The labor cost was calculated by using $2.22 per person perday,


In the table above, values in parenthesis below PROblc shows the % change compared to CAPS; £

Sign below the PROalc shows increase or decrease as compared to CAPS1 (% change could not be calculated because the base value i.e. PROalc of CAPS 1 is negative). Development impacts India

o Data regarding effect of CAPS on different soil properties will be helpful in assessing extent and nature of changes, and, ideally, trends with time

Nepal o In Nepal, scaling up of CA technologies with appropriate adaptation with respect to the

local context and physiographic region can have a significant positive impact on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. More importantly, current CAPS can be integrated in various agricultural projects and programs such as those on home gardens, community-based biodiversity management, ecosystem- and community based adaptation strategies, and conservation farming-including agroforestry.

Challenges and responses We also aided in other needs and priorities such as strengthening their marketing systems through s local cooperatives and groups, providing technical support and technology to scale up CA (in addition to knowledge), and supporting them with initiatives such as water sources protection, bee-keeping,and others. In order to encourage their participation, we organized an exposure tour for the research farmers at the research stations in Nepal and also provided some support to them. However, they are expecting more from us in cooperative strengthening, fruit and fodder promotion, and livestock keeping. Objective 5: Build capacity of farmers, local NGOs and universities to scale up CAPS development for wider dissemination. Critical Research Accomplishments 5.1 INDIA 5.1.1 Train and support farmers for adoption of CAPS Farmers involved in on-farm experimentation are regularly trained and oriented in CAPS through periodic workshops organized to support CAPS in local villages. In order to promote CAPS among farmers who are not directly involved in on-farm trials, the project also distributed mini-kits containing improved seeds of maize, legumes and vegetables to about 100 households in the project sites. 5.1.2 Workshop of “Maize-based Conservation Agriculture” The workshop entitled “Maize-based Conservation Agriculture” involved 80 participants, including 30 female and 50 male farmers and extension personnel, and was organized by the District Agriculture Department of Kendujhar on September 11, 2012 to share feedback from the


participating farmers who have taken up CAPS trials on their farms. SMARTS scientists attended the workshop as resource persons and shared their views. A formal discussion was held with the officials from PRADAN, a leading NGO who works at grass root levels in the villages of India, regarding scaling up of CA in sites within as well as other states of India, monitoring its long term effect on soil, other natural resources and farmer socio-economic conditions. 5.2 NEPAL 5.2.1 Training and exposure visit of farmers About 25 (including 10 females) farmers visited various research centers in October 2012 for enhancing their knowledge in CAPS. The visit was for four days. The main visiting research stations were HASERA, Kavre, Hill Crop Research Centre (HCRC), Dolakha and Livestock Farm, Jiri for terrace management, compost making technology, soil fertility management, FYM management with shed improvement, and intercropping with millet. Farmers gained more knowledge and convinced to conduct CAPS in sloping land. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) training was organized for the farmers to help improve the agro-ecological environment in each project site. Altogether, 28 farmers including 9 female farmers participated in the IPM training. 5.2.2 Promotion of CAPS among other NGOs in Nepal Refer to section 2.2. In addition, during a consultation meeting with farmers of Taklung and Bakrang for the climate change related field visit during the vulnerability assessment training organized with Tulsi Meher Unesco Club (TMUC) Gorkha, project teams shared CAPS research and briefly presented on CA practices. A similar orientation was carried out in Jaubari, Nawalparasi district, organized by SAHAMATI. During these events, 40 farmers participated in the discussions. During the training program, delivered by LI-BIRD to the partner NGO staffs in Gorkha and Nawalparasi, 15 participants (village technicians and 2 officers of TMUC and SAHAMATI) also presented on the principlesof CA. In addition, information was shared through [email protected] to reach wider audiences. 5.3 Training of UHM and host-country graduate students The LTRA-11 currently funds three Ph.D. students at the University of Hawaii (2 female, 1 male), two students in India (1 female, 1 male) and three students in Nepal (1 female, 2 male). Over the past year, 8 graduate students have completed their studies with the project. This includes students from the University of Hawaii (1 male), Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology (3 female, 1 male), and the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (1 female, 2 male).

mailto:[email protected]


5.4 International conference on Frontiers of Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA)’ The project organized a conference titled ‘Frontiers of Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA)’ on 26-27, March 2013 in Kathmandu, Nepal. The main purpose of the conference was to bring together the research and findings on conservation agriculture, which is relevant for the region. Altogether, 44 participants from 5 countries and various research and development institutions participated in the conference. Dr. Pashupati Chaudhary, Acting Executive Director of LI-BIRD; Dr. Adrian Ares, Director of Feed the Future [Collaborative Research on Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management Innovation Lab (SANREM); Dr. Dil P. Sherchan, Cereal System Initiatives in South Asia (CSISA); Dr. M.L. Jat, Senior Scientist, CIMMYT, and Mr. Hom Raj Bista, Senior Agriculture Officer, District Agriculture Development Office [DADO] Dharing; and Dr. Chittaranjan Ray, Professor of the University of Hawaii were the keynote speakers of the opening session. Altogether 23 papers were presented on four CA themes, namely: production technologies; economics; soil effects; and gender, food security and other issues. Students from IAAS also displayed 12 posters. Some coference participants visited ICIMOD Knowledge Park to see CA related technologies demonstrated for mountain ecosystems. 5.5 Participation of students and professionals in academic conferences The F-CASA conference engaged the participation of 16 students (5 from UH, 2 from OUAT, 8 from IAAS, and one from the Institute of Forestry). Student capacity was built via the development of paper and poster presentations and the experience of presenting research at a professional level. In total, 22 students attended the conference, gaining exposure to recent research in the field of CAas well as having the opportunity to network and discuss relevant issues. Also, one student from UH attended and presented at the ACS conference held in Cincinnati, Ohio during October 21-24, 2013. The project also supported two UHM students in attending the International Food and Agribusiness Management Association (IFAMA) Academic Symposium on June 17-18, 2013 at Atlanta, Georgia, where they presented papers and competed for student business case competition, for which they were placed 2nd. 5.6 Training and exposure to host country researchers Mr. B. B. Tamang, Project Officer at LI-BIRD, visited UHM in January 2013. During the visit, he shared the current field status of the SMARTS project in Nepal and was involved in compilation and analysis of soil and plant analysis data, agronomic data and weather station data, which were collected from on-farm trials. Furthermore, he also received training on collecting data and performing analysis for soil water stable aggregates. Ultimately, this knowledge was applied at research sites in Nepal to analyze the water stable aggregates. Dr. Satyanarayan Dash from OUAT and Dr. Keshab Raj Pande from IAAS visited the UH in September 2013. They are two active members of the SMART project in India and Nepal, respectively. They were engaged in activities such as a review of project accomplishments and planning of future activities, annual report writing, and discussion about possible strengthening


of CA with agroforestry/plantation crop activities. They also visited field sites including extensive coffee plantations where CA is being practiced. 5.7 Book titled ‘Conservation Agriculture in Subsistence Farming: Case Studies from South Asia and beyond’ The proposal for a book titled ‘Conservation Agriculture in Subsistence Farming: Case Studies from South Asia and Beyond’ has been accepted by CABI (Centre for Agriculture Bioscience International). The initial drafts of the chapters of the book have been received by the editors. The book will have 14 chapters, on four broad sections, excluding an introduction and conclusion section. Nine chapters in the book will be contributed by the SMART studies in India and Nepal. Development impacts

o More nongovernmental organizations and farmers organizations can be reached for CAPS orientation and capacity building through training and orientations in joint cooperation with organizations working in agriculture, food security, watershed management and climate change. There is an opportunity of integrating CA related topics (field works and practicum) in the vocational studies and researches of graduate studies in Nepal.

Challenges and responses Organization of capacity building activities and extension meetings with NGO and government organizations to share and train officers and village technicians on CA was challenging due to the limited scope of the project. However, the project team capitalized on the workshops and trainings organized by other projects of LI-BIRD to share the findings, concepts, and benefits of CAPS.


LTRA-12 Conservation Agriculture for Food Security in Cambodia and the Philippines Principal Investigator: Manuel Reyes, professor, biological engineering, North Carolina A &T Research team: Research progress by objective The primary goal of this LTRA is to demonstrate that CAprinciples which are defined as: practice of minimal soil disturbance, continuous mulching and diverse species rotations, constitute the best ‘tool box’ to create sustainable, permanent cropping systems for annual crop production under wet tropical conditions in Cambodia and the Philippines. Further that CA will reverse soil degradation, increase crop yield and profits and reduce the labor burden on women. Objective 1: Pinpoint gendered limitations and advantages that can promote adoption of CAPS, and determine if CAPS will decrease labor burden on women in Cambodia and the Philippines. Critical Research Accomplishments A review of literature on gendered participation in CA in Cambodia and the Philippines was conducted, which resulted in a comparative report on the farm households’ gendered division of labor and issues or concerns relating to CAPS adoption. We found that there was a paucity of published studies on CA in the Philippines and Cambodia; hence the review was expanded to cover CA literature in other parts of the world, particularly in Africa (Ghana, Kenya, Uganda and Zambia), Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Vietnam, India, Philippines) and Latin America (Brazil). Literature mainly sourced online was consulted for the nine countries. The findings showed variations in CA practices although the three CA principles of zero or minimum tillage, soil cover, and different crop species were usually observed. The reported CA benefits were often not sex-disaggregated, except in the case of two Zambia studies that detailed the gendered benefits of reduced labor from CA. The review showed that adapting CA to local sociocultural and biophysical conditions has brought about both benefits and challenges to both female and male smallholder farmers in developing countries. Among the main benefits for women are reduced labor and time owing to decreased tasks of raking/gathering vegetative debris/crop residues, weeding, fetching of irrigation water, and creation of extra time for personal leisure and non-farm chores, and the cultural acceptability of women’s use of certain CA implements. For men, benefits consisted of labor and time savings due to no plowing, minimal soil inversion and non-burning, relief from physical stress, as well asgreater time to engage in other income-generating activities.


We started studying the positive and negative impacts of CAPS on women in male-headed and female-headed households adopting CAPS in Cambodia and the Philippines. Thiswould yield a comparative report on the various impacts of CAPS on women especially their labor burden. The methodology for the study consisted initially of interviews with key informants and later with couple-cooperators (both female and male cooperators with their spouses). Data gathering for the Philippine site was completed in mid October for the Cambodia site and will be conducted again in December. During Dr. Javier’s initial visit to Cambodia, she had tentative observations following a focus group discussion. • Land preparation, plowing, marking, harrowing and herbicide spraying (twice per maize

planting season) are always done by the men; .Sowing is done only by women, whereasharvesting is undertaken by both men and women, though women reportedly harvest faster and hardly take a break.

• Women take a very active role in marketing maize produce. They usually decide on the middlemen buyer and negotiate with buyers on the maize price. Their husbands respect the wives’ marketing decisions.

• Women normally hold, manage or budget the household income from sales. They plan, sometimes in consultation with husbands; e.g., about what farm inputs or needs should be bought.Husbands purchase these. Husbands ask their wives for money for personal expenses. It is said that this is a common practice in the farm households as a preventive mechanism against the propensity of husbands to spend excessively or to squander money on unnecessary expenses.

• It is the women who usually attend meetings called as well as classroom trainings held in the area because the wives are said to be mostly available while their husbands are busy with farm work. What the wives pick up from these gatherings is then communicated to their husbands. However, husbands are always present during field demonstrations or trials as this is the men’s domain.

• In terms of leadership in community organizations, some said it is a conscious decision of both genders to have an equal number of female and male leaders as they would like women to have the same opportunity as men. Others refuted this as they believed men talk a lot and are able to explain things well thus male leaders are better than female ones.

We derived the implications of the practice of CAPS in the Philippines on nutritional security. As a sustainable technology ensuring both food and nutritional security, CA must examine and learn how experiences in vegetable and fruit production may be utilized to advance CAPS. We found that: (1) better educated women, especially those with older children, have greater knowledge about micronutrients, (2) while most women generally possess a moderate level of nutritional knowledge that enables them to name the micronutrients obtained from vegetables and fruits, they are least able to identify the health value or function associated with the micronutrients, (3) most women decide singly or jointly with spouses on the choice of vegetables for production but have a lesser say on which fruits to grow, (4) women also predominantly control decisions regarding vegetable and fruit purchase and consumption, and (5) vegetables consumed by women’s households


are largely sourced from their own production, but fruits they consumed are mainly purchased. We started our study in June of 2013 and completed one season of harvesting with quite encouraging results. The fifteen participating women were quite excited and satisfied with the decreased labor and equal yield of vegetables produced in CA compared with tilled systems. We are targeting 20 more women to participate in CA for vegetable production. Two graduate students supervised by Dr. Maria Elisa Christie conducted gender research. For the Philippines, Mary Harman completed a study entitled: “Using Qualitative GIS to Explore Gendered Dimensions for CAPS in the Philippines: A Mixed Methods Approach.” Dr. Christie also has a graduate research assistant working on Gender in Cambodia, Daniel Sumner, who completed his research and is currently writing his thesis. Development Impact The literature review indicated that CA benefits women and men due to decreases in labor burdens and also lower production cost. It is essential that for nutritional security, micronutrient needs of households are met through vegetable and fruit production, a task usually done by women. Hence, CA for vegetable and fruit production should also be developed. We started CA for vegetable production in 2013. Challenges and Responses CA technology is still in an early stage in Cambodia and the Philippines. There is evidence that both women and men benefit from CA, and, therefore,solutions on how to accelerate CA adoption in both countries should be found. Our findings highlighted the importance of integrating vegetable and fruit crop production in CAPS programs. It is necessary to pay attention to the vegetable varieties produced and consumed by households because these provide much-needed micronutrients. It is likewise necessary to pinpoint which micronutrients are lacking in the existing vegetable/fruit diets because they are least targeted for production. Concomitantly, certain micronutrients are unavailable in the diet because they are not at all produced. To continue current preferences for cereal production, can be detrimental to the nutritional security of farm households in the long run. Since CAPS trials have demonstrated that production and labor costs can be effectively lessened with cereal production under CA, it is equally possible for vegetable production costs to be reduced when it is successfully integrated under CAPS. Finally, because fruits contribute to nutritional security, fruit trees with commercial as well as nutritional value should be considered in CA with Trees (CAT) systems, in addition to the usually considered commercially viable tree species like rubber.


Objective 2: Identify field- and farm-level CAPS that will minimize smallholder costs and risks while maximizing benefits and adoption in Cambodia and the Philippines. Critical Research Accomplishments

Cambodia: Figure 44 shows the gross profit margin (GPM) of CA and plow based treatments. Direct seed Mulched based Cropping system (DMC) 1, DMC 2, DMC 3, and DMC 4 mean GPM of farmers who started practicing CA for a year (began 2012), for two years (began 2011), for three years (began 2011) and for four years (began 2009), respectively. The maize control is a plow based system. For 2012, GPM for the plow system ranged from $450 to $650 per hectare and was higher than CA system which ranged from $350 to $550 per hectare. Initially, maize in CA was growingvery well but there was a drought after maize was sown. Because of the drought, sowing of the plow system was postponed and herbicide was applied late. CA was continued and due to water stress and lack of biomass cover to suppress weeds, maize yield was low in CA and was lower than in the plow system. Philippines: For researcher-managed CAPS, maize + cowpea/upland rice + cowpea provided the highest net returns of 2,486 USD/ha due to the high price of cowpea, and maize + Arachis pintoi had a net return of 1,576 USD/ha compared with net returns of only of only 352 USD/ha in the plowed-based system. The low monetary net returns from plowed maize was due to labor involved in land preparation, such as plowing and harrowing as well as between row cultivation and weeding; and also low maize yield. For maize + Arachis pintoi planted in no till there are prospects of getting 2.5 maize harvests per year due to time saved in land preparation. Note that benefits due to soil erosion reductions are not accounted for in this analysis.

Figure 44. Gross profit margin of maize with and without CA (Here referred as DMC) in 2012


For farmer-managed CAPS, maize + cowpea /upland rice + cowpea had the highest net returns of 2,544 USD/ha due to the high market price of cowpea, followed by maize + Stylosanthes at 1,148 USD/ha, and maize + Arachis pintoi at 956 USD/ha. Maize + Stylosanthes treatments, have only one maize crop per year but both the high yield of maize after stylo and the low labor cost in land preparation and weeding make it more profitable than the maize + Arachis pintoi system. However, now that the Arachis pintoi has been established it is expected that costs will likelydecrease. Development Impact In Cambodia, GPM for CA practices was higher than for the plow-based system in 2011 (year 3) but lower in 20012. Most farmers in Cambodia, despite lower GPM of CA relayed they will still continue with CA because of the lower input costs and because of the extension services provided by SANREM. GPM for CA practices in the Philippines was higher than for the plowbased systems. In Northern Mindanao, minimal and no till maize production systems are increasingly adopted. Less labor was the main factor that motivated farmers to adopt no-till technology. Challenges and Responses Although the future of CA in these two countries looks promising, when GPM for CA practices are lower than for the plow-based system, farmers will get discouraged and postpone or abandon CA. We might need subsidies to push CA technology to buffer economic losses of CA adopting farmers. Also, we must maintain robust CA demonstration sites so farmers will ‘see and believe’ and then spontaneously adopt CA. Objective 3: To quantify the effectiveness of SANREM-supported farmer groups in training knowledge leaders, being a means of knowledge transmission, and facilitating network connections leading to widespread adoption of CAPS; and to find out whether a microcredit approach and a method to facilitate access for mechanized direct seed drilling and spraying can be successful in promoting adoption of conservation agriculture in Cambodia. Critical Research Accomplishments: Cambodia: The total on-farm area in CA reached 149 ha with 56 practicing households in 2012. Furthermore, spontaneous adoption occurred on 76 ha under the leadership of five farmers who jointly purchased a no-till planter from Brazil. In 2013, in spite of lower maize yield in 2012, the on-farm CA area increased to 165 ha in 64 households. The spontaneous extension was reduced to 35 ha as the farmer’s group broke apart due to very poor arrangement of the planter. One farmer in the team retained the planter and the othr farmers went back to plow-based system. The project received a request for no-till sowing services on 50 ha more in the pilot area; however, we could not do it because of the limited sowing capacity of only two planters.


Furthermore, we were unable to accept a request for 100 ha from a group of farmers living 40 km away since it is geographically outside the project area.

Figure 45. Households and surface area in conservation agriculture 2009 to 2013.

Small land

surface 60%

High production cost

20%

Low yield

performance 13%

Land ownership issues

7%

Abandon Reasons (15hh)

Small land

surface 85%

High production cost

9%

Low yield

performance 5%

Perennial crops

1%

Disinterest Reasons (67hh)

Improve soil

fertility 87%

Increase crop

productivity 13%

Adoption Reasons (32hh*)

Figure 46. Responses of farmers in Rattanak Mundol on why they adopted, abandoned or are not

interested CA. According to interviews (Figure 46) with farmers most decided to practice CA to improve soil fertility. Despite plow-based systems had a higher GPM than the CA systems in 2012, the majority of the farmers did not return to plowing since they are convinced of the benefits of ‘no tillage.’ They confirmed this during a meeting organized after the maizeharvest. They mentioned that CA can control soil erosion and CA gives $20 to $40/ha savings on labor and costs for land preparation and sowing. The farmers do not plow and hire services for sowing


with CA and then they save time. Women and children do not sow in CA, which they do in plow-based system. Twenty four households on 64 ha decided to abandon CA. The main reason was the limited capacity of sowing services on the requested dates. Another reason is we prohibited the use of herbicides such as Paraquat and Atrazine. We regularly inform farmers about the known detrimental consequences on human health of these herbicides. However, farmers facing high weeds pressure still insist on using Paraquat and/or Atrazine and abandon CA. Finally, farmers with low capitalization and small land area, have high rates of abandoning CA. For example, lack of funds prevented them from applying fertilizers at rates that we recommended. Many farmers are not interested in CA since we request to use a whole 1st cycle for biomass production, which generates zero income. Hence, we must find a high biomass crop that will generate income to farmer for the first cycle. Philippines: We conducted a survey on no till maize and found that: 1. No-tillage maize production is increasingly adopted in Northern Mindanao. The region

contributed 20% of the Philippine’s total maize production in 2011. This is largely attributed to the increasing number of farmers adopting this technology using glyphosate and hybrid maize varieties.

2. Farmers shared common perceptions on the effects of no-tillage maize production in making more efficient use of land and labor resources. Although the labor cost is lower in no-tillage technology, the total production cost is still slightly higher than that for the plow-based system because of its expensive inputs. Less labor was the main factor that motivated them to adopt no till technology.

3. There were mixed perceptions in regards to economic benefits. Based on the cost-and-return analysis, net income is highest for no-tillage technology and improved maize varieties and herbicides. Accordingly, farmers who cultivate large maize areas in prime flat lands benefit with higher increases in income, as compared to smallholder farmers.

4. Contour farming and integration of trees into their no-tillage production systems is minimal, particularly in sloping areas. The majority of the farmers were practicing monocropping without permanent organic soil cover, although they do leave crop residues after the harvest for composting. This poses a huge opportunity for scaling up CAwith trees (CAT).

Figure 47. Prototype no-till seeder built in Thailand.


Plenty of farmers who have seen our demonstration plots as well as those who attended our training activities are now implementing no- or minimal-tillage system as the first step of CA adoption. Many farmers are now starting to integrate other components into their cropping patterns like cowpea and rubber trees. Introducing cover crops like Stylosanthes guianensis or Arachis pintoi or Adlai require more knowledge, training and practice. Hence, after CA training, we provide farmers with seeds of Adlai and cowpea, which can be used for human consumption or as animal feed. No-Till Sowing Tool or Machinery For both countries, we concluded that finding appropriate and affordable no-till sowing tools or equipment will be essential in CA adoption. In Cambodia, we are encouraging current contractors providing plowing services to also provide services for no-till sowing. Importing no- till machines is cost prohibitive and impractical, especially due to the unavailability of spare parts. Therefore, we convinced a manufacturer from Thailand to develop a 5-row no-till row planter (Figure 47) which is cheaper than equipment from Barazil and has spare parts that can be easily shipped or locally manufactured. We organized a sowing demonstration day for key farmers, especially the private contractors in the four pilot villages. The demonstration aimed to expose all stakeholders and provide inputs to the company as they develop a second prototype. The company will improve the 5-row planter and develop a 2-row no-till planter because small farmers can afford it and already own a hand tractor that can pull it. In the Philippines, we experimented with six tools and planters for maize CA sowing. Our evaluation is shown in Table 52. We concluded that in the context of smallholder CATon steep slopes, the use of hand planting using modified a machete is affordable (T5, Table 52), relevant, and cost effective for small holder farmers.

Table 52. Grain yield and other agronomic performance of maize

Planters Grain Yield (t/ha)

Total Dry Matter Yield (t/ha)

Plant Height @ harvest

(cm)

Stem Diameter @ harvest

(cm)

Mandays Required for establishment (man/ha)

Total Plants (# of plants/ha)

T1- Handheld Planter (from China)

5.04a 10.04 187.60 11.20c 5.80c 125,533a

T2- Animal Drawn Planter (From Brazil)

4.50ab 10.33bc 179.30 11.57bc 4.53*c 105,767ab

T3- Dabbler Planter (From Brazil)

3.26c 14.54a 183.03 11.73bc 8.70b 90,733b

T4- Hand Tractor (Brazil) 3.79bc 8.73c 178.60 12.93ab 5.80c 79,067b T5- Dibble/Hand Planter (Philippines)

4.65ab 10.15bc 189.40 13.57a 11.17a 77,433b

T6- Farmer's Practice 4.81ab 10.97b 185.90 12.77ab 6.77bc 78,933b Mean 4.34 10.96 183.97 12.29 7.13 92,911 CV 15.35 11.14 4.03 6.27 17.58 12.68 LSD 1.22 2.22 13.50 13.5 2.28 21,442


Development Impact In Cambodia and the Philippines, the number of households and land area in CA or no till technology continued to increase. Farmers are requesting information from the SANREM team about CA. Machinery availability and appropriateness is a bottleneck for CA adoption. We studied some reasons for why farmers continued, abandoned or got disinterested in CA. We found that smaller farms have difficulty adopting due to capital and land constraints, making CA seemingly unprofitable and too risky. SANREM team researched and experimented with no-tillage machineries and tools to recommend for 2014. An affordable machine, manufactured in Thailand, will be recommend for Cambodia while a simple modified machete will be used in the Philippines. Challenges and Responses CA has very good prospects. However, we must follow up with what we have already done with consistent support for education, research, and extension to farmers. We need to integrate CA into curricula at universities in both countries; move funds and redirect scientist to do applied CA research, and provide extension and subsidies to farmers who are willing to adopt CA. We provided training and also assistance in retooling farm machinery and tools for CA adoption is urgently needed. Objective 4: Soil Quality, Crop Yield and Biomass - Assess soil quality and measure crop yield and biomass from conservation agriculture production systems and compare them with soil quality and crop yield and biomass from conventional plow-based systems in Cambodia and the Philippines. In describing treatments for researcher- and farmer-managed CAPS the following notations were used:

‘/’ is relayed cropping with planting dates varying, ‘+’ is planted side by side with the same planting dates

Critical Research Accomplishments Researcher-managed: Cambodia: In parallel to the SANREM-CRSP pilot extension process, PADAC is directly managing two CA plots; one (2.0 ha) was initiated in 2009 (4th cropping season under CA management) and the other (1.5 ha) in 2010 (3rd cropping season under CA management). Besides the reference maize mono-cropping on plowing, CA based systems are based built up on the following crops’ sequences: Maize mono-cropping:

o Year 1: Bio pump Millet / Maize + C. cajan (Pigeon Pea) + Stylo o Year 2: C. cajan + Stylo / Maize + C. cajan + Stylo


Bi-annual rotation with 1 main crop/ year: - Maize // Soybean

o Year 1: Bio pump Millet / Maize + C. cajan + Stylo o Year 2: C. cajan + Stylo / Soybean + Sorghum + Stylo

- Maize // Cassava o Year 1: Bio pumpMillet / Maize + C. cajan + Stylo o Year 2: Cassava + Stylo + V. radiata

- Maize // Rice o Year 1: Bio pump Millet / Maize + C. cajan + Stylo o Year 2: C. cajan + Stylo / Rice + Stylo

Bi annual rotation with 3 main crops in 2 years: - Maize / Cassava / Maize

o Year 1: Maize + Eleusine + C. juncea / Cassava + V. radiata or Sunflower o Year 2: Cassava (cont.) / Maize + C. cajan + Stylo

Bio pump Millet = 60-70 days biomass production of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum typhoides), Stylo = Stylosanthes guianensis, Eleusine = Eleusine coracana, and V. radiata = Vigna radiata (mungbean),

The first cycle of maizein Year 1 was sown early with a short duration variety.

Cropping system details and crops performance are presented in tables 53 and 54. We confirmed the stability of maize yields in CA systems despite adverse conditions in 2012. The 2nd demonstration plot even had a marked improvement in yield compared with 2011. Upland rice and soybean are strongly affected by drought. The “normal” cassava crop cycle is based on a planting in April/ May, as practiced in the 1st demonstration plot (in bi-annual rotation with maize). These plots were also deeply affected by rain deficits and produced 50% lower yield when compared to 2011. Cropping systems testing the intensification of the rotation with two maize and one cassava crops in two year rotations completely failed, showing climate vulnerability and the risk of such proposition.


Table 53. Yield in kg/ha of CA based crops succession implemented on the 1st demonstration plot (2009 to 2012).

F1 F2 F1 F2

4 065 5 070 1 325 1 335

2 045 2 200 3 240 4 760

3 575 5 565 2 645 3 855

4 060 5 350 21 580 19 350

13 020 13 290 3 185 4 650

11 750 13 525 20 995 20 755

Fertilizers levels: F1 F2 F1 F2Maize: 69-34-30 113-85-60 + S 69-34-30 113-34-60 + S

Soybean: 23-34-60 23-85-90 23-34-60 21-34-72 + SCassava: 69-34-60 90-85-90 + S 69-34-60 90-34-90 + S

2009 2010

Cassava + StyloBio p. Mil / Maize + Stylo

Bio p. Mil / Maize + Brach r. Brach r. / Soybean + Sorgho + Stylo

Stylo / Maize + Stylo

Bio p. Mil + Stylo / Maize + StyloBio p. Mil / Soybean + Stylo

Bio p. Mil / Maize + Stylo

Cassava + Stylo Bio p. Mil + Stylo / Maize + Stylo

Cassava + Stylo Cassava + Stylo

Bi-annual rotation Maize // Soybean

Bi-annual rotation Maize // Cassava

Maizemonocropping

Cassava monocropping

F1 F2 F1 F2

4445 5185

4210 4150 4130 4595

3465 4405

3845 5220

4200 4125 2295 3565

2305 2510 4635 5130

4820 5850

2075 2185

Fertilizers levels: F1 F2 F1 F2Maize: 69-34-30 116-85-60 + S 70-30-30 + S 116-64-60 + S

Soybean: 23-34-60 21-85-72 + S 24-30-30 + S 24-64-90 + S Cassava: 69-34-60 90-85-90 + S 70-30-60 + S 93-64-90 + S

Rice: 45-34-30 67-85-60 + S 70-30-30 + S 93-64-60 + S

Maizemonocropping

Bi-annual rotation Maize / Cassava // Cassava / Maize

Bio p. Mil / Soybean + Sorgho + Stylo

1770 1730

Bio p. Mil / Maize + Stylo + V. umbellata

Bio p. Mil / Maize + Stylo + V. umbellata

Bio p. Mil / Rice + Stylo / V. unguiculataBi-annual rotation

Maize // Rice

Bio p. Mil / Maize + Stylo + C. cajan

Regrowth Sorgho + Stylo / Soybean + Sorgho + Stylo

Plow x Maize

Stylo / Maize + Stylo + V. umbellata

C. cajan / Maize + Eleu. + C. och. / Cassava + V. radiata

C. cajan / Maize + Stylo + C. cajan

2010

V. umbellata + Stylo / Rice + Stylo


Regrowth Sorgho + Stylo / Maize + Eleu + C. och.

2011


3565 3570

Yield in kg/ha (14% moisture for corn and soybean grain; in peeled and sundried blocks for cassava) Bio pump Millet = 60-70 days biomass production of pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides) Brach r. = Brachiaria ruziziensis Stylo = Stylosanthes guianensis

C. och. = Crotalaria ochroleuca (not enough seeds of C. juncea) Eleu. = Eleusine coracana V. radiata = Vigna radiata (mungbean) V. unguiculata = Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) V. umbellata = Vigna umbellata (rice bean)

2011 2012


Table 54. Yield in kg/ha CA based crops succession implemented on the second demonstration plot (2011 to 2012).

F1 F2 F1 F2

4445 5185 5245 5710

4130 4595 5530 6720

3465 4405 3490 / 5580 3285 / 6330

3845 5220 595 890

2295 3565 5555 6050

4635 5130 1515 2145

4820 5850 1430 / 650 1730 / 250

2075 2185 5555 7070


Maize + Crotalaria o. + Eleusine / Cassava + Stylo

Stylo / Maize + Stylo + Cajanus c.


Regrowth Sorgho + Stylo / Soybean + Sunflo + Stylo

2012

Plow x Maize

Stylo / Maize + Stylo + Cajanus c.

Cassava (2011) / Maize + Cajanus + StyloBi-annual rotation Maize / Cassava // Cassava / Maize

Regrowth Sorgho + Stylo / Soybean + Sorgho + Stylo

Plow x Maize


C. cajan / Maize + Eleu. + C. och. / Cassava + V. radiata

C. cajan / Maize + Stylo + C. cajan




2011


F1 F2 F1 F2

3 700 4 910 1 430 1 865

1 950 2 180 3 465 5 635

2 955 5 580 3 010 5 715

3 495 5 680 8 935 8 565

16 550 16 215 3 320 5 560

4 480 5 655 2 415 4 385

Fertilizers levels: F1 F2 F1 F2Maize: 70-30-30 + S 116-64-60 + S 70-30-30 + S 116-64-60 + S

Soybean: 24-30-30 + S 24-64-90 + S 24-30-30 + S 24-64-90 + SCassava: 70-30-60 + S 93-64-90 + S 70-30-60 + S 93-64-90 + S


Maizemonocropping

Bi-annual rotation Maize // Cassava

Maize monocrop.x Plow

2011

Bio p. Mil + Stylo / Maize + Stylo + C. och.

Bio p. Mil + Stylo / Soybean + Sorghum + Sty

Bio p. Mil + Stylo / Maize + Stylo + C. och.

o p. Mil + Stylo / Maize + Stylo + Eleu. + C. o

Cassava + Stylo

Plow x Maize

Cassava + Stylo

Bio p. Mil + Stylo / Maize + Stylo

Plow x Maize

2012

Stylo / Soybean + Sunflower + Stylo

Sorghum regr. + Stylo / Maize + Stylo

Stylo / Maize + Stylo

Yield in kg/ha (14% moisture for Corn and Soybean grain; in peeled and sundried blocks for Cassava) Bio p. Mil = 60-70 days biomass production of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum typhoides) Brach r. = Brachiaria ruziziensis Stylo = Stylosanthes guianensis

C. och. = Crotalaria ochroleuca (not enough seeds of C. juncea) Eleu. = Eleusine coracana V. radiata = Vigna radiata (mungbean) V. unguiculata = Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) V. umbellata = Vigna umbellata (rice bean)

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), introduced as a cover crop to substitute Stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis), offers good biomass production and a secondary grain production. To create a market for this production, the project has initiated a small cattle fattening demonstration and purchased the pigeon pea produced by farmers at a “subsidized” price of 1 USD/kg. Philippines: Researcher-managed demonstration plots, 10 m x 20 m (0.02 ha) in size, were composed of six different cropping patterns and land management practices, including the farmer’s practice


which serves as a control in two fertility levels. The experiment is a strip-plot design with six treatments and four replications. Both undisturbed and disturbed soil samples were collected at three depths (0-5 cm, 5-10 cm and 15-30 cm) in July 2010, December 2010, April 2011, September 2011, February 2012 and August 2012 for a soil quality assessment. The soil samples were analyzed for bulk density, soil organic matter, soil nitrogen, soil phosphorus, soil pH, and infiltration characteristics. The residual soil watercontent was also measured using time domain reflectrometry during the dry period. In addition, solute transport studies and crop modeling under CAPS and conventional plow-based systems commenced. The CAPS plus control treatments are:

T1: Maize + Arachis pintoi followed by maize planted alongside established Arachis pintoi. Two weeks before planting, weeds are sprayed with glyphosate at the rate of 720 g active ingredient per hectare. The maize was dibble planted at 70 cm x 20 cm, making a density of 72,000 plants per hectare. Arachis pintoi cuttings were planted in-between rows of maize spaced 25 cm apart.

T2: Maize + Stylosanthes guianensis followed by Stylosanthes guianensis fallow. Maize is established similar to T1. Stylosanthes guianensis seeds are drilled in between rows of maize and thinned to 10-15 plants per linear meter.

T3: Maize + cowpea/upland rice + cowpea followed by maize + cowpea/upland rice/cowpea. The land is prepared similar to T1. Maize is established in double rows 30 cm apart with 20 cm between plants, followed by two rows of cowpea at 30 cm apart with 10-15 plants per linear meter.

T4: Rice beans/maize followed by rice beans/maize. Maize is established similar to T1. Rice beans are established two weeks prior to maize harvest.

T5: Cassava + Stylosanthes guianensis. Land preparation is similar to T1. Cassava cuttings are planted in furrows 100 cm apart and 50 cm between plants, making 20,000 plants per hectare.

T6: Farmers’ traditional practice Two times plowed by animal drawn moldboard plow and two times harrowed by animal drawn spike-toothed harrow after every plowing.

The following were our findings: • Maize dry matter yield (DMY) was found to be significantly influenced by the CAPS

treatments. Highest dry matter yield (DMY) was observed in Maize + Arachis pintoi while the lowest DMY was obtained in Maize + Cowpea.

• The Harvest Index (HI) and the Partitioning Coefficient (PC) were found to be influenced by the various CAPS treatments as compared to the monocropping maize systems. Highest HI was obtained in Maize + Arachis pintoi (0.43) in contrast with monocropping Maize (0.33). Similarly, among the cropping systems, Corn + S. guaniensis and Maize + Rice beans showed a peculiar trend of dry matter partitioning. When Maize was intercropped with S. guaniensis, more dry matter was partitioned to the stem at the vegetative stage at 30 DAP, and had the second highest PC to the ear at 85 DAP (active grain filling stage). On the other


hand, when Maize was intercropped with Rice and Bean, Maize plants invested more on leaves at an early stage (30 DAP), and more to ear sat 85 days after planting.

• Differences in other related parameters (e.g., leaf area index, leaf area ratio, net assimilation ratio, crop growth rate) were also noted between and among the treatments.

• Higher grain yield was recorded among the CAPS vis-à-vis the control (monocropping maize). The highest grain yields were obtained in Maize + Stylosanthes guianensis and Maize + Rice bean treatment plots.

• Changes in soil water was measured through Time-Domain Spectrometry. Among cropping systems and between cropping seasons, soil water-holding capacity was greater in most of the CAPS treatments compared to monoculture maize systems.

Soil sampling was performed for the various CAPS treatments at the researcher-managed site on September 6 to 7, 2013. As in the previous soil sampling, undisturbed and disturbed soil samples were collected at three depths (0-5 cm, 5-10 cm and 15-30 cm) in both CAPS and conventional plow-based plots. The soil samples were brought to the University of the Philippines Los Baños for physical and chemical analysis. Results are not yet available. The soil analysis for samples collected in August 2012 became available during the first half of year 4 following this project implementation. Soil health and quality is improving in CAPS plots based on the following findings: • Soil nitrogen and phosphorus were both generally greater under CAPS treatments than

under plow-based systems., and in the upper soil layers than at deeper layers for all treatments.

• The soil under all CAPS treatments was acidic. However, results showed that plow-based systems exhibited lower pH than all CAPS treatments, particularly at the upper soil layers.

• Soil organic matter for all CAPS treatments was generally greater than under plow-based practices. At the uppermost soil layer (0-5 cm), treatment 2 (Maize + stylo-stylo-fallow) exhibited the highest level of soil organic matter at 8.0%.

• Soil bulk density varied erratically for all depths under the various CAPS treatments. However, the bulk density was generally higher at the deeper layer (15-30 cm) than at the upper soil layer.

Farmer-managed trials: Cambodia: The farmer-managed treatments in Cambodia are:

T1: Pearl Millet/maize + Stylosanthes guianensis: This treatment is based on a successful CAPS developed by PADAC from experiments conducted in Kampong Cham, which commenced in 2004. After year 1, it was found that T1 may not be suited for Battambang, possibly because the basic soil derived from limestone limits growth of Stylosanthes guianensis. Adjustments were made in 2012 by using pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) sown in the inter-row, about 2-3 weeks after the corn sowing.

T2: Traditional plow-based.

The farmers’ network is now stable. At this date, only five out of fifteen plow and eight out of fifteen CA plots remain. The climatic conditions in 2012 were even harder than in 2011 with


limited rainfall (about 500 mm below the average) and again a long dry spell during the sowing period in June-July. The eight remaining plow plots had an average yield of 3,955 kg/ha and 2,760 kg/ha in 2010 and 2011 respectively, while the nine CA plots saw their yield increasing, despite weather constraints, from 3,045 kg/ha to 3,685 kg/ha. In 2012, the five plow plots had an average maize yield of 2,685 kg/ha while the eight CA plots produced an average of 3,415 kg/ha. Philippines: From the five researcher-managed CAPS, four were chosen for farmer implementation in an area of 1000 m2. They are: 1. Maize + Arachis pintoi: There was a trend to increasing maize yield from 2010 to 2012 (Figure

48). This is similar to what was observed in researcher-managed plots.

Figure 48. Maize yields for the Maize + Arachis Pintoi treatment in three farms

2. Maize + Stylosanthes guianensis Figure 49 shows maize yield from four farmers. This cropping pattern shows no evidence of increasing production due to this CAPS treatment. There were several problems in stylo management since, unlike Arachis pintoi, stylo is needed to be killed and then resown every year.

Figure 49. Maize yields for the Maize + Stylosanthes guianensis treatment in four farms


3. Corn+cowpea-upland rice+ cowpea We did not observe any trend in yield increase. There were indications that the three crops provided stable financial renumeration since when one crop is lower in price or declines in yield, there is another crop that can cover up the financial losses. However, the approach is quite complicated and can perhaps be recommended to farmers who are mature in CAPS adoption. 4. Cassava + Stylosanthes guianensis We observed an increasing yield of cassava produced from three cropping seasons except for one farmer, for which the production was lower in the second year because astray animals damaged the crops.

Farmers Network in Cambodia Figure 50 presents the yields of the CA adoption network for the cropping season 2012 and on the plow-based system plots for each village. Figure 51 shows yield repartitioned according to the number of years of CA or DMC practiced. The yields of CA are from participating farmers described in objective 3.

Figure 50. Maize yield in four pilot villages in 2012

Figure 51. Evolution of maize yield from 2009 to 2012


The severe dry spells during and after the maize cropping was the main cause of the lower yields in CA plots compared with plow-based plots in 2012. The yields measured within the CAPS network are lower than with the conventional practices in Boribo (2.9 vs 3.6 t/ha) but were similar on the other villages (3.3 t/ha in Pitchangva and 2.7 t/ha in Singha). In Boribo, the plots implemented earlywere very promising during the first month but the drought at the end of July and in August had a strong negative impact on maize development. The growth was slowed down so, a complex of weeds invaded the plots and this was a problem because the farmers did not do hand weeding. Within the plowed network, the farmers sowed their maize later (around one month after the plots conducted under CA) and widely addressed the weeds pressure with Paraquat application, prohibited by the project because of its high toxicity. When disaggregated according to number of years in CA (Figure 51), CA yields were higher in 2011 regardless of how old the CA plots were. Year-4 CA plots had comparable average yield with average yield of control plots in 2012 but average CA yields for years 1, 2 and 3 plots were lower than in the control. Maize yields from demonstration plot 1 were comparable with CA maize yields of adopting farmers (Figure 52). Maizeyield reached 5.5 t/ha on the demonstration plot 2, which shows that the soils conditions are highly variable in the village. Also, the project team controlled weeds with manual hand weeding, which provides evidence that weeds were a key factor that affected CA yield.

Figure 52. Comparison of CA yield between the CA demonstration plots 1 and 2 and the CA farmer

network and plowed plots in 2012 Conservation Agriculture Applied to Vegetable Production in Cambodia In June 2013, the team began applying CAand drip irrigation to produce vegetables in Siem Reap, Cambodia. The project was funded by the SANREM and HORT Innovation Labs in synergy with the Agricultural Development Denmark Asia (ADDA) ‘women empowerment”


project. Fifteen women farmers from three villages planted vegetables in close proximity to their homes from three villages, at five women farmers per village. Each woman farmer is a replication. Each village is located at a different elevation (low, middle, and high), with the lowest nearest the Tong Le Sap Lake and with floods during the rainy season. The highest elevation village does not have flooding problems, even during the rainy season. All of the women have a water source, even during the dry season. Results of one season of vegetables harvested in August showed no differences in treatments between CA and plowed systems. The CA had mulch. An interview with the women garnered positive responses regarding CA. By September they planted a second season of vegetables and did not hoe in the CA plots, reducing their labor burden. Component Studies: Cambodia: Several non-replicated plot studies were conducted to assess cover crop yields and seed production. Cover crops that showed promise were identified for possible use in CAPS. Philippines: Adlai performance as first and ratooned crop:

• The Adlai varietal trial was done for another year using four varieties: Ginampay, Gulian, Kiboa and Tapol. They were planted in 90-cm rows, spaced at 40-cm between hills and were fertilized at a rate of 120-45-30 kg/ha NP2OK2O. During the ratooned crop, stubbles were cut 10-15 cm from the ground, allowing multiple shoots to grow. Two weeks later fertilizer application was made at a rate similar to that above. Results are shown in Figure 53. During the first crop, Gulian produced the highest grain yield of 4.6 t/ha and a total biomass of 22 t/ha, followed by Kiboa. As a ratooned crop, Ginampay yielded the best at 3.90 t/ha, followed by Kiboa and Tapol. The results indicated that the Kiboa variety has high potential as first crop as well as for ratoon production. It is viewed that Adlai can be a ‘fallow’ crop that can be integrated well into CAPS to produce grain yield and biomass. Its root system is deep and can likely prevent soil slippage in steep slopes.


Figure 53. Performance of Adlai as a first crop and as a ratooned crop.

Development Impact: Overall, benefits of CAPS in improving soil health and crop yield was shown, despite the lower yield of maize under CAPS in Cambodia. The team is making recommendations to government officials in both countries and local and international funding institutions to start building capacity and providing incentives for farmers who are willing to attempt CAPS. Challenges and Responses: CA has good prospects. However, lower yield in Cambodia, although caused by drought, did disappoint and cause some farmers to abandon CA. Also; the SANREM project is ending in 2014. Unless we continue this research and integrate extension and education into CA capacity building, the gains from CA may not materialize. The team therefore is looking for more sources of funding from both local and international sources for CA scaling up.


Degree and nondegree training activities Three students, one from Cambodia, one from the Philippines and an African American are pursuing Ph.D. degrees in Energy and Environmental Systems at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University. In addition, a Filipino is pursuing a Ph.D. degree in Land and Water Resources at the University of the Philippines Los Baños. Thirty eight non-degree trainings were held with 404 women and 617 men in attendance. Thirty four of the non-degree trainings were mainly about CAT, conducted in the Philippines with farmers, local government officials, ecclesiastical leaders, scientists, faculty, politicians, and extension staff as audience. Conservation agriculture training was held in Cambodia with 200 farmers in attendance. As a spin-off we trained several undergraduates at NCA&T and also high school students from several campuses about CA, as they conduct their own studies on CA for home vegetable production. This is funded through a grant by the United States Department of Agriculture. One Cambodian student (Bachelor degree) completed a four months internship thesis in Battambang. Graduate students of Virginia Tech, lead by Dr. Maria Elisa Christie, conducted gender research in the Philippines and in Cambodia. Two interns from the University of Battambang are conducting their thesis research on comparing CAPS and plow-based systems. Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products The Proceedings of the Conservation Agriculture Conference in Southeast Asia and Beyond was published as well as three book chapters. As an off-shoot of SANREM phase III, the team had a peer reviewed publication on the evaluation of low-cost drip irrigation hardware. Nine oral presentations and eight poster presentations were presented at several scientific meetings. A magazine article was published about our work and we produced four videos on CAT and Animal Built Embankments Technology for rainwater harvesting. A concept proposal on CA vegetable production in Honduras and Guatemala as a tool for rainwater harvesting was also submitted to the HORT Innovation Lab. We also published an extension brochure on CAT. Networking Activities • Synergized with ADDA’s women self help groups (SHG) and integrate CAPS for vegetable

production with SHG activities • Meeting with the Claveria Landcare Association (CLCA) on integrating CA on their farms. • Meetings with the United Rubber Producers Association (URPA) on CAT using rubber

trees. • The Third International Soil and Water Assessment Tool Conference in Southeast Asia, June

2013, Bogor, Indonesia. • Organized the Fourth International Conservation Agriculture Conference in Southeast Asia • Continued the implementation of CAPS for an urban vegetable production study at the

NCA&TSU and eight high schools, one middle school and one elementary school in North Carolina.

• Linked with Seed Asia and a Thai manufacturer for fabrication of no-till machinery for Southeast Asia.


• Various meetings and discussions with EarthSoul Inc. for scaling up of CA in 10 provinces in Northern and Central Mindanao.

• Collaboration with the Misamis Oriental State College of Agriculture and Technology (MOSCAT) on various facets of CA research and extension.

• Collaboration with the Agricultural Training Institute (ATI) of Northern Mindanao (Region 10) on training farmers on conservation agriculture with trees.

• Collaboration with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Region 10) for training Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) beneficiaries on CAT.

• Collaboration with the Department of Agriculture High Value Crop Division on training and supporting farmers to adopt conservation agriculture with trees using rubber trees.

• Collaboration in the Philippines with Croplife Foundation Inc., an NGO composed of different agrochemical companies such as Syngenta, Pioneer hybrids, Monsanto, and others. Croplife will scale up conservation agriculture with trees (CAT) including cross visits and trainings at the CAT center located at Claveria and establishment of demonstrations/CAT model farms throughout the country.

Highlights • In Cambodia, Year 4 yield of maize and gross profit margins for CAPS in farmer pilot

networks was lower than plow based systems mainly due to drought that occurred after sowing of maize in CAPS fields.

• In the Philippines, gross profit margin was higher in CAPS maize-rice-cowpea and Arachis pintoi-maize systems compared with plowed-based systems for both researcher and Farmer-managed treatments.

• In the Philippines, there are trends of increasing organic carbon in the CAPS soil’s top 5 cm and of decreasing organic carbon at the same depth for plow-based treatments.

• “Adlai” (Coix lacryma-jobi L.) has excellent prospects as a perennial crop for CAPS in sloping degraded acid upland soil in the Philippines.

• CAPS studies have been implemented for urban vegetable production at the NCA&T campus and ten-K-12 campuses at North Carolina through funding provided by USDA

• The Proceedings of the Second International Conservation Agriculture Conference in SEA, Phnom Penhwere published.

• We began a new research project with promising initial results on CAfor vegetable production for the women of Siem Reap, Cambodia.

• A proposal was funded by the USDA about Conservation Agriculture for Vegetable Production inside and outside high tunnels for small farmers in North Carolina.


Cross-cutting Research Activities (CCRA) Economic Analysis and Impact CCRA Principal investigators: Michael Bertelsen, George Norton Research progress by objective Objective 1: Identify the costs and benefits of CAPS in cropping systems/practices and related animal and forestry sub-systems Critical research accomplishments Researchers from the regional programs were contacted to obtain cost and yield data and to conduct CA profitability analyses for several countries. In West Africa, data were collected by economists at Kansas State University to assess profitability of reduced tillage, cover crops, and rotations for maize, beans, sorghum, and millet in northern Ghana. In Southern Africa, costs and yield data for maize cover crops and no-till were gathered in Lesotho and Mozambique by economists at the University of Tennessee. In South Asia, yield and labor use data were collected for rotations and intercropping by economists at the University of Hawaii and a format was provided to them to construct budgets. In Ecuador, cost and yield data were obtained for potatoes, maize, faba beans, barley, beans with cover crops such as oats and vetch, rotations, and reduced tillage. In the Philippines, cost and yield data were collected on farmer managed trials with an emphasis on maize, cowpeas, rice and beans. Practices include cover crops, reduced tillage, and rotations. The project continues to interact with the regional programs on additional impact work by coordinating with economists from Kansas State University in West Africa, the University of Tennessee for Southern Africa, University of Hawaii for South Asia, North Carolina A&T for Southeast Asia, the University of Wyoming and Makerere University for Uganda, and Virginia Tech for Latin America. Direct assistance was given to researchers in Latin America and South Asia with budgetary and linear programming support. Baseline survey data were analyzed by economists at the University of Tennessee for Lesotho and Mozambique. In South Asia, yield and labor use data have been obtained for rotations and intercropping by economists at the University of Hawaii. In Haiti, baseline survey data were analyzed by the regional program economists with a dissertation in process. Development impact Budget data are an input into subsequent economic impact assessments. They are used for assessing the profitability of specific CAPS elements for specific crops and cropping systems, the optimal sequencing of CAPS elements, and the overall impacts of the CAPS in the various regions. The profitability of the CAPS helps to guide future policies with respect to conservation agriculture in the project countries and regions.


Objective 2: Identify optimal CAPS in each cropping system being researched and sequencing of CAPS elements Critical Research Accomplishments Based on the linear programming model completed for CAPS in Ecuador, a standardized model was developed and made available to other regions. A graduate student at KSU from Ghana is using the budget data from the SANREM site in northwest Ghana to conduct a similar linear programming analysis. A graduate student at the University of Hawaii has used the budget data from Nepal to conduct an LP analysis for Nepal. An article was published out of the M.S. thesis from Ecuador in the journalExperimental Agriculture. Development Impact SANREM is developing and disseminating sustainable agricultural technologies, such as water-deviation ditches, cover crops, minimal tillage, and crop rotations to improve the livelihoods of rural households in the six SANREM IV study regions. The primary objective of the economic impact study is to evaluate the effects of the practices introduced with respect to farm income, to value the carbon sequestered, and to identify the optimal mix of CA technologies for farmers in the study area. Objective 3: Identify broader economic and social impacts of wide-scale CAPS adoption Critical Research Accomplishments Two types of analyses were conducted during the year. First, ex ante economic surplus analyses were completed to project the market level economic benefits of CAPS for Lesotho, Ecuador, and Nepal with projections made on total economic benefits under various levels of adoption of CA practices. Results were summarized and presented to the external review teams for SANREM. Second, a series of analyses were conducted to assess factors influencing adoption of CA practices including the degree of risk aversion of Ugandan farmers in the SANREM districts and the value the farmers place on environmental benefits of conservation agriculture. A survey of 400 farmers was completed and the analysis is still underway. Degree and nondegree training activitiesnondegree training activities A Masters student at Virginia Tech (Barry Weixler-Landis) went to Uganda to conduct a farmer survey in the SANREM districts to assess farmers’ degree of risk aversion and whether it influences their decisions to adopt conservation agriculture practices. A second M.S. student at Virginia Tech (Kate Vaiknoras) began work on the project in January 2013 and also went to Uganda in June 2013 to conduct a farmers’ survey, together with the first M.S. student. Her research topic is to assess the value that farmers place on the various traits associated with CA such as cost, yield, soil erosion, and labor use to determine if they influence adoption of the practices. A third M.S. student (Jarrad Farris) began working in August 2013 and he will assess


impacts of CA practices in Ghana to complement the work being done by a KSU M.S. student (Iddrisu Yahaya) there. Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products Nguema, A., Abigail, Norton, G. W., Alwang, J., Taylor, D. B., Barrera,V, and Bertelsen, M. 2013. Farm level impacts of conservation agriculture in Ecuador.Experimental Agriculture 49:134-147. Organized symposium at the annual meeting of the American Agricultural Economics Association entitled: “Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change: The potential role of conservation agriculture in developing countries”, Washington, DC, August 5, 2013. The following presentations were made: (1) “Household decision-making and climatic risk in Central Haiti” presented by Nathan Kennedy, Virginia Tech, (2) “Smallholder adoption of conservation agriculture and GHG reduction potential in Mozambique and Lesotho,” presented by Dayton Lambert, University of Tennessee, (3) “Economics of transition from conventional to conservation agriculture for subsistence agriculture systems in South Asia :A case study from Nepal,” presented by George Norton for Bikash Paudel, University of Hawaii. Norton, G.W., and Nguema, A. “CCRA-6 Economic Analysis and Impact,” presented at the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, October 20, 2012, Cincinnati, Ohio. Norton, G.W. “CCRA-6 Economic Analysis and Impact,” presented to the SANREM External Evaluation Panel, April, 2013, Blacksburg, VA. Networking activities Collaboration occurred with most of the regional projects in order to ascertain and assemble available data on input costs and yields for the CAPS under investigation. In Ghana, coordination led to a study an economic impact assessment of CA in northeast Ghana conducted by a graduate student at Virginia Tech. In Nepal, coordination occurred with respect to a linear programming model being developed and applied to assess optimal CA practices. In Uganda, coordination with Wyoming and host country partners Makerere University and Appropriate Technology occurred with respect to CA adoption analyses. The regional site was visited and a farmer survey conducted to allow for a risk analysis and choice experiment to assess the value farmers place on traits associated withCA. In Ecuador, the SANREM site was visited twice and joint supervision (by Jeff Alwang, Darrell Bosch, and George Norton) occurred for six undergraduate students who completed a farmer survey associated with a choice experiment being completed by a Virginia Tech graduate student (Michael Barrowclough) on the Ecuador site.


Highlights • Collaboration with the regional programs to assemble available data on input costs and

yields for the CAPS under investigation. A simple crop budget template was circulated in order to develop the standardized data set necessary to conduct an overall economic impact analysis of SANREM Phase IV.

• The linear programming model for Ecuador indicated that the optimal rotations with CAPS can produce up to $6,000 per hectare in the upper watershed and $9,000 in the lower watershed. While most farms are not producing at the optimum, these figures indicate the potential for CAPS in the region, which is one of the poorest in Ecuador.

• Analysis of the data for Uganda is still underway, but preliminary results indicate that farmers in eastern Uganda place a significant value on erosion control and are amenable to adopting CAfor that reason in addition to profitability of the CAPS.


Gendered Perspectives for Conservation Agriculture: Local soil knowledge and crop-livestock rotation Principal Investigator: Maria Elisa Christie Research progress by objective Objective 1: Document differences in men and women’s knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions of soil quality Critical research accomplishments Philippines: The “best” and “worst” farm soil areas, indicated by the men and women interviewed in the Phillipines in June and July, were sampled in September 2012 and soils were shipped to and analyzed at the Virginia Tech Soil Laboratory. The former PI of the CCRA-9 evaluated the fertility of 52 soil samples using Mehlich-1 extraction. Next, the soil analysis results were statistically analyzed using SAS 9.3 to determine the fertility of the men’s and women’s soils and whether a correlation existed between the results and the farmers’ classification. We found that men’s and women’s assessment of the best or worst soils correlated with the lab fertility results. In other words, the “best” soils showed better soils characteristics than those for the “worst” soils. We also found that best soils defined by women were not significantly different from the best soils according to men. Moreover, men’s and women’s worst soils were not significantly different from each other in terms of fertility. Another major finding from this analysis includes an overall low available P result from all the soils sampled. The CCRA-7 team provided the data and fertilizer recommendation to the farmers. This research is reflected in manuscript that will be submitted to the peer-reviewed journal, Geoderma. Cambodia: In June and July 2012, graduate student Daniel Sumner conducted fieldwork in Cambodia adapting the Gender-7 research methodology used in the Philippines and Bolivia to the site-specific context of Battambang Province. The research in Cambodia maintained a focus on gendered soils knowledgeand soil management practices, specifically gendered differences in the perceptions of soil degradation and soil conservation. It also added a focus on farmers’ knowledge of land use and land cover change within the SANREM study area by incorporating remote sensing satellite imagery analysis to assist in contextualizing men’s and women’s perceptions of soil degradation at the village and provincial scales of interaction. A mixed methods approach integrating farmer field visits, semi-structured interviews, geospatial analysis, and satellite imagery analysis was used to better understand the patterns and process of land use and land cover change within the region and document farmers’ perceptions of such changes. Through their labeling of soils in a participatory mapping exercise with satellite imagery, and following analysis of the results with the SANREM LTRA-12 field technicians, we found that women in both Boribo and Pitchangva villages had more accurate knowledge of


community soils than men. After initial training of two University of Battambang student research assistants, the CCRA-7 conducted four focus group discussions (FGDs), sixteen farmer field visits, six key informant interviews, and 25 household interviews (with men and women interviewed separately). Development impact Philippines: The results of the soil sample analysis and fertilizer recommendations were provided to the farmers in a restitution event in January 2013. The farmers were introduced to Jun Mercado, the Research Officer for ICRAF and the LTRA-12 in the Philippines, who agreed to give advice on improving their soils using the information we provided from the fieldwork and their intimate knowledge of local soils. This has the potential to increase CAPS adoption and information dissemination, as well as improve soil and agricultural productivity at this site. The quantitative data also shows that both men and women are knowledgeable about soil fertility; thus, both should be included in soil management workshops. Cambodia: CAPS is perceived by men and women interviewed as a potential solution for improving soil fertility and decreasing soil erosion; however, the majority of research participants indicated that their primary reason for experimenting with CAPS is that it can save time and reduce production costs. However, initial findings suggest that while CAPS reduces women’s labor burden in upland production it has the potential to increase women’s overall labor burden. Women are investing their “extra” time in labor on tilled agricultural plots and perennial fruit tree production. Women are also using their “extra” time on additional domestic activities and participation in government and NGO trainings. Researchers will need to be conscious that while CAPS has the potential to reduce women’s labor in upland production, it could also increase women’s overall labor burden and decrease their control over decisions regarding upland production. Challenges and responses Philippines: While inter-disciplinary research has many advantages, there are challenges when different disciplines work together. Incorporating quantitative information into a qualitative framework created communications challenges when it came to disseminating information and writing conclusions and recommendations. The CCRA-7 responded to this issue by working closely with the CCRA-9 and host-country partners on communicating project results to stakeholders. Training of host-country teams in gender awareness and qualitative methods continues to be part of our activities. Cambodia The research template designed for CCRA-7 research in the Philippines was adapted to reflect the site-specific conditions in Cambodia and focus on documenting gendered perceptions of soil conservation and degradation. Also, building on initial findings in the FGD regarding women’s


greater knowledge of community soils, we included a participatory mapping activity in the household interviews where men and women indicated places where they exchanged information about CAPS and if they spoke with men or women (and how many) in each place. Objective 2: Document the gendered nature of crop-livestock interaction with respect to the conservation objective of maintaining the crop residue cover on the soil Critical research accomplishments Philippines: Analysis of the gendered landscape data from the Philippines is complete. We found that farmers in the site keep their animals separate from their crops. Crop-livestock interactions in this site could be considered an opportunity for CAPS adoption since they do not use the crop cover or residue for animal feed; however; as a result men are challenged with finding pastureland and some reduce cultivation space as a result. Nevertheless, men and women are aware of erosion on their farms and currently practice forms of crop rotations which may be an opportunity for CAPS adoption. These findings were incorporated into Mary Harman’s thesis as well as the manuscript under review. Cambodia: Preliminary analysis of household interview data from the Cambodia fieldwork suggests a different crop-livestock relationship than what was observed in Bolivia and the Philippines. In the Cambodia site, land preparation has become increasingly mechanized and animal traction is rare. Results from the household interviews indicate that the majority of farmers practicing upland cash crop production possess their own hand tractor. Those that do not, still have access to one via family relationship networks or through one of several service providers in the area. Farmers focused on cultivating upland cash crop production perceived cattle as a burden as they no longer have the time to take care of the animals because of these responsibilities. As such, several farmers have sold their cows and used them as a source of living capital to purchase agricultural equipment or invest in household improvements. Other households have loaned their cattle to poorer farmers who primarily cultivate rice to manage and take care of them. Men and women respondents indicated that both men and women have control over decisions regarding livestock. Women’s influence regarding livestock suggests that they have a high degree of input in the decision to invest in soil conservation. There does not appear to be direct competition between cash crop cultivation and livestock for land usage that could impact CAPS but members of the LTRA-12 research team have been exploring how cover crops can be used as cattle feed.

Development impact Philippines: During the restitution event, ICRAF researchers introduced the idea of year-round crop cover. The ICRAF team discussed the possibility of promoting a livelihood activity for women growing animal feed and grasses to address the competition and conflict over pastureland; this could also be part of the rotation or crop cover element of CAPS. It was observed that many of


the crops being used in the experimental plots were not ones that farmers planted regularly. We recommended exploring more familiar crops in the experiments, as well as introducing current cover crop such as Arachis pintoi and cowpea while providing detailed information (e.g., price, availability, place to purchase). It is particularly important to communicate this to women at this site as they are the ones responsible for purchasing inputs. ICRAF also distributed seeds (Arachis pintoi, adlai, Stylosanthes guianensis, and cowpea.) to the new farmers brought in by the CCRA-7 to experiment with crop covers on their farms. Cambodia: Although cattle and other livestock are no longer the primary tool for traction, they are viewed as an important source of living capital. Both men and women are involved in the decisions regarding the management of cattle and other livestock and how income from livestock sales is spent or invested. Challenges and responses Philippines: Challenges from the Philippines include incorporating crop-livestock interactions and crop rotations into the geospatial framework. There was not enough time to obtain area calculations of farmer’s pastureland. It was also difficult to analyze and visualize crop rotations in a GIS since men and women sometimes reported different rotations. Participatory mapping served as a useful tool for documenting the differences in perception of these aspects relative to CAPS and allowed comparisons across space and between genders. Cambodia: Challenges from Cambodia include deriving an analytical strategy for incorporating crop-livestock interactions. As in the Philippines, there was not enough time during the fieldwork period to acquire detailed information on farmer’s pastureland. Also, there were additional difficulties in acquiring relevant related spatial data from the LTRA-12 GIS data analyst from the Royal University of Agriculture. In Cambodia, questions regarding crop-livestock interactions were included in an intra-household decision-making survey to assess men’s and women’s roles and relationships to livestock and to document potential gender-based differences in decision-making regarding livestock.

Objective 3: Document the gendered nature of tillage, including the division of labor, access to assets, and knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions Critical Research Accomplishments Philippines: This objective was added to emphasize tillage in CAPS after learning of the importance of the gendered nature of tillage in CAin the Philippines and due to the unique opportunity presented by the use of Direct Seeding Mulch-based Cropping Systems (DMC) in Cambodia. The Philippines data showed that tillage is men’s responsibility since it requires upper-body strength to work the land and use large animals which are especially used on steep slopes. All of the households claimed they believed that tillage is necessary to have a successful crop and


they are accustomed to it. During the restitution event, ICRAF researchers explained the idea of minimum and no-till practices to the farmers. Cambodia: In October 2012, a short survey was conducted with all of the SANREM LTRA PI’s and co-PI’s on existing knowledge of the gendered nature of land preparation, including tillage and minimal tillage practices. The goal was to pretest survey questions for future fieldwork and acquire a broad understanding of gender’s impact on access to and control over land preparation assets and identify if there is a gendered division of labor regarding tillage practices across SANREM research sites. The survey accomplished its principal goal in identifying the broad patterns of tillage and minimal tillage practices across the SANREM research sites. Survey results indicate the importance of animal traction, with a majority of SANREM PIs and co-PIs reporting that animal traction is the dominant method utilized in land preparation; however, results also indicate increasing patterns of mechanization in some of the SANREM research sites. We found that men are typically responsible for the labor in tillage (animal traction and motorized) and that men have substantially greater access to animals and/or machinery involved in land preparation. However, the survey revealed that control over the assets related to tillage and minimal tillage, and men’s and women’s input into decisions regarding land preparations, involve complex relationships and dynamics which were beyond the scope of the brief survey and were difficult for PI’s and co-PI’s to document. For example, Dr. Chan-Halbrent from LTRA-11 noted that in SANREM’s India research sites tillage operations are typically carried out by men, although t men and women have joint ownership over livestock and women are solely responsible for tending livestock. Further field visits and survey pretesting are needed to respond to the complexities identified by the PI and co-PI survey. In January, Maria Elisa and Daniel conducted a rapid gender assessment (RGA) in two villages within the LTRA-12 study area in Battambang province, Cambodia. The RGA included Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and household interviews. FGDs were held with men and women separately from the two villages with a total of 27 farmers (15 women, 12 men). The FGDs included multiple participatory exercises. Household visits, semi-structured interview questions, participatory mapping, and a revised survey focusing on access to and control over land preparation assets were conducted with eight farmers (four in Pichangva and four in Boribo) from four households, with men and women interviewed separately. FGDs confirmed that there is a gendered division of labor regarding upland cash crop production activities with men responsible for plowing and herbicide application while woman assist with sowing and are responsible for hand weeding. Results of the FGDs also suggested that cash crop production is perceived as male-dominated and upland cash crop fields are recognized as spaces controlled by men. Men and women FGD members indicated that men spend the majority of their time involved in upland cash production and thus have limited time to assist with domestic activities or participate with organizations operating in the community. Survey results supported several of the findings from the FGDs including the gendered division of labor in agricultural


production. The results of the household survey indicated that there is a perception that women cannot operate agricultural machinery used in agricultural production. However, there was one case where the woman purchased a small no-till planter and used it by herself until she married, with her husband now providing the labor for the plowing. Survey results also suggest that land preparation assets including hand tractors, cows, and backpack sprayers are recognized as household assets with men and women having joint ownership. However, the initial survey results also suggested that women have less input than men into decisions regarding the usage of agricultural machinery and decisions involved in land preparation. Additional details regarding the activities from the RGA can be found in Christie and Sumner’s trip report from January. The January visit allowed the Gender CCRA to meet with the LTRA-12 team at a critical period before a transition in leadership in the Cambodia site and prepare the logistical details for student fieldwork in the summer. We trained members of the LTRA-12 technical team in gender analysis and participatory methods, and recruited field assistants for summer fieldwork. During the visit the Gender CCRA PI and graduate student were able meet with and present initial findings to the Cambodia co-PI and discuss how Gender CCRA research in Cambodia could be adjusted to better address LTRA-12 needs. Graduate student fieldwork was conducted over a six-week period in June and July and included household and key informant interviews, and farmer field visits. The PI was present during the first week of field work, visited the proposed research sites, and assisted in training the two selected research assistants from the University of Battambang. Development Impact Philippines: The CCRA-7 team introduced the idea of minimum or no-till and explained its benefits to 33 farmers in the villages of Rizal and Patrocenio. When we asked the farmers if reducing tillage was an option, some farmers said no; however, this created a fruitful discussion on minimizing men’s labor and other productive work men could do instead such as spraying. There was not as much resistance to the idea of reducing tillage as expected, which could be an opportunity for CAPS implementation. Cambodia: Preliminary analysis of the intra-household decision-making survey suggests that men’s and women’s differential access to and control over assets related to agricultural production and domestic activities could impact a household’s decision to begin experimenting with CAPS. Generally, men have greater input over decisions regarding cash crop production and related assets. This is not to say that women have no involvement with or control over cash crop production. Initial findings show that women have greater input than men in decisions related to how household income is invested or spent. While men and women respondents indicated that men have greater input regarding decisions in upland cash crop production, including


choice of seed type, choice of fertilizer, and choice of herbicide, men and women respondents also indicated that women have substantial input regarding how income is allocated towards purchasing the necessary inputs in agricultural production. As in the Philippines, women do not always have direct involvement in agricultural production decision-making but are indirectly linked to decisions related to upland cultivation and soil conservation practices. Understanding the relationship between productive and domestic spheres of influence and gendered power relations can assist in documenting women’s role in making the decision to experiment with CAPS. On the other hand, one development impact for women includes replacing the women’s role in sowing seed with direct seeding. This replacement reduces women’s contact with chemical- coated seeds, which tend to adversely affect women’s health. Challenges and Responses Philippines: It is important for researchers and project technicians to analyze how gender-based constraints and opportunities for one gender relate to the other, and how changes in daily lives could affect both. For example, men are responsible for planting and women are responsible for marketing and purchasing inputs. It could be interpreted that planting is not relevant to women since that is not their responsibility. However, men’s crop choice has impact on a woman’s marketing strategy as well as their access to inputs. Cambodia: The research design developed for CCRA-7 fieldwork in the Philippines was expanded to address this third objective in Cambodia. However, results indicate that the gendered power relations regarding access to and control over land preparation assets are complicated. A revised survey instrument was later tested during the January RGA and revised again before implementation in June and July. The methods used in the RGA also did not fully recognize the interaction between field and household spaces and how differences in access and control between these two spaces could impact the other. Focusing only on the activities and assets related to upland cash crop production would bias the results and prevent a meaningful understanding of the gendered power relations involved in household decision-making relevant to agriculture. To account for the above challenges, certain modules from USAID’s WEAI were selected and adapted as the best means to capture the complexity of intra-household decision-making as it relates to the dissemination of CAPS. The adapted WEAI was pretested in June during household interviews conducted with four women participants from one of the Self-Help Groups in Tra Beak village, Siem Reap province sponsored by Agricultural Development Denmark Asia (ADDA)’s Integrated Women Empowerment Project (IWEP). Pretesting was conducted in Siem Reap because LTRA-12’s recent partnership with ADDA and the household visits in Siem Reap would not only pretest the survey but also provide an initial understanding of the gender dynamics and gendered power relationships present within the new SANREM study area.


The WEAI is a powerful tool that can be used to assess the complexity of gendered power relations in intra-household decision-making and tease out questions regarding access and control. The WEAI is also being promoted as an effective bundle of gender-sensitive indicators that can be used the monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions designed to enhance gender equity and empower women. The pretesting in Siem Reap and survey implementation in Battambang confirmed that the WEAI can generate useful information on the gendered power relations involved in decision-making related to income generating activities, the use of that income, the gendered nature of access to and control over assets, and men’s and women’s access to groups and influence within group or community organization. However, the Gender CCRA work in Cambodia suggests that the data generated from the WEAI is more meaningful when coupled with qualitative information related to how men and women express themselves and describe their situation. Field-testing in Cambodia also indicated the importance of tailoring the WEAI to context-specific conditions and adjusting and operationalizing response options to be meaningful to stakeholders. Specifically, it was hard to communicate the differences between the response options of Module G2, “input into decision-making” and the options for Module G5, “extent of participation in decision-making.” These response options were difficult for farmers to understand and required more specific details to reduce inconsistencies that are accentuated by translation from Khmer to English. To account for this difficulty all of the survey questions and response options were translated from Khmer to English. These were printed out, laminated, and used in all household visits to assist the student research assistants in being consistent with their translation. Additionally, it was hard to distinguish the gradations between survey responses. For example, in Module G5, for the question “To what extent do you feel you participate in decisions regarding land preparation?” survey respondents can answer: (1) “not at all;” (2) “small extent;” (3) “medium extent;” (4) “to a high extent.” USAID does not offer substantial explanation for how to distinguish between these categories. In this case, the survey responses were operationalized so that (1) “not at all” equates to “you are not interested in the decision or you are not asked for your opinion,” (2) “small extent” equals “you can give your opinion but it is not considered in the final decision,” (3) “medium extent” equals “you can discuss and come to an agreement about a decision,” (4) “high extent” equals “you can make the decision even if the other party disagrees.” In another example, we operationalized the responses for Module G2 for the question, “How much input did you have in decisions about food crop farming?” as: (1) “no input” equals “not involved in any decisions;” (2) “input into some decisions” equals “involved in less than half of the decisions;” (3) “input into most decisions” equals “involved in more than half of the decisions;” (4) “ input into all decisions” equals “involved in all of the decisions.” The original response options for Module G2 question included an additional response “input into very few decisions”. This response option was removed after pretesting in Siem Reap as farmers had difficulty in differentiating between “input into very few decisions” and “input into some decisions” and because the above four response indicators were more meaningful for respondents.


The WEAI requires qualitative data to give context to the answers that are recorded in the close-ended response questions. In addition to the participatory mapping used during the household visits, the modified WEAI was used as a semi-structured questionnaire to probe selected themes and issues identified by farmers. Degree and nondegree training activities Mary Harman graduated with a Master’s of Science in geography in May of 2013and was hired as a research associate to analyze and compare data based on Gender CCRA data and develop research tools for upcoming fieldwork. She will co-author a manuscript based on this work. Graduate student Daniel Sumner has completed one year of coursework and fieldwork in Cambodia. He has begun his second year of coursework and data analysis. Non-degree training activities consisted of a qualitative methods workshop for Cambodia staff in January 2013, to prepare them for Gender CCRA research. A farmer restitution event introduced 17 men and 16 women farmers to CAPS and provided feedback on fieldwork findings and CAPS. The CCRA-7 hosted a student workshop in May of 2013 at OIRED. A total of 11 people attended (four males and seven females), including a SANREM graduate student from North Carolina A&T. The goal of the workshop was to raise awareness of gender issues, present a framework for gender research, provide tools for participatory, qualitative research, and share experiences in the field to help prepare students for upcoming fieldwork. Two Cambodian students were also trained in Battambang to assist in conducting the fieldwork that took place in June and July 2013. A presentation was given at University of Battambang to 250 undergraduate students on gender and CAPS. The Gender CCRA conducted team trainings on software components such as GPS devices, Google Earth, and Cmap. Publications, presentations, and other SANREM products Eight presentations and two posters were presented at professional conferences and seminars during this fiscal year, including one at the University of Battambang. One manuscript has been submitted for publication in a peer-reviewed journal and is currently under review. Another manuscript is in progress and will be submitted at the end of 2013. Two papers were accepted for presenting at the Annual Meeting of the South Eastern Division of the Association of American Geographers (SEDAAG) in November in Roanoke, VA. An Agrilinks blog featuring work from the PI and research associate was published in April 2013. It can be accessed here: http://agrilinks.org/blog/agriculture-vs-gender-culture. The CCRA-7 published eleven SKB entries during this fiscal year. Networking activities Contacts were made and SANREM was introduced at several professional conferences including the Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers (AAG) and the ASA/CSSA/and SSSA International Annual Meeting. The CCRA-7 participated in Agrilinks e-

http://agrilinks.org/blog/agriculture-vs-gender-culture


consults and webinars on gender and agriculture where resources, information, and contacts were exchanged. Highlights • Conducting the restitution event in the Philippines built relationships and trust between

farmers, researchers, and project technicians. It also increased farmer participation and allowed the project to give back to the stakeholders. These events have the potential to improve the success and adoption of CAPS.

• It is important to understand and map specific locations in scientific and social data, especially at the household and village level where the landscape can vary. Mapping specific locations that are significant to farmers could reveal gender differences and help understand the fluidity of spatial perceptions and use which is important for CAPS adoption. Geospatial tools can also provide useful data to farmers such as area and elevation profiles; and in conjunction with participatory methods, geospatial tools can be useful to researchers by visualizing the soils, crops, and other resources important to men and women farmers.

• It is important to recognize that during fieldwork in Cambodia, the CCCRA-7 was able to overcome barriers to women’s participation and employ a female undergraduate student from the University of Battambang on the research team. This student is the first woman to work with the LTRA-12 research partners in the field in Battambang province. Several obstacles had to be addressed, including identifying a safe place for the overnight student to stay—something that is a common barrier to female participation in agricultural education and training programs.

• Women have more knowledge of community soils than men in the Cambodian sites; this is likely linked to the fact that they spend time working with NGOs and attending meetings in the community, while men spend time on their farms.


Technology Networks Principal Investigator: Keith Moore Research progress by objective Objective 1: Identify the knowledge and attitudes (technological frames) concerning agricultural production practices held by actors in the network Critical research accomplishments We are concluding research which has focused on collaborative endeavors with African LTRA’s (8, 9 and 10). This work was presented at the SANREM Innovation Lab Annual Meeting and the special session on CA at the ASA/CSA/SSA Meeting in 2012. Keith Moore presented the paper, “Social networks and smallholder conservation agriculture in East Africa”, which represents the fruit of the Technology Network CCRA collaboration with the LTRA-10 team. An article, “Multiple knowledges for agricultural production: Implications for the development of conservation agriculture in Kenya and Uganda” will be published in a special issue of the Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension.. A second article has been submitted for publication. . In addition, a Working Paper has been completed for activities at the Botha Bothe site in Lesotho. With the recruitment of a new graduate research assistant, plans are being made for a follow-up survey in Kenya and Uganda. This survey will provide us with the ability to describe the extent to which attitudes, perceptions and knowledge of CA has disseminated within the population over the past three and a half years and how that is associated with changes in CA practices. Preliminary analyses of the Lesotho data indicated that there is an emergent understanding of CA among these farmers. During ethnographic interviews, many respondents identified major differences between highland and lowland farmers regarding their production practices, constraints, and attitudes toward farming (Moore et al., 2012). Correspondingly, many non-farm agricultural agents stated that they had developed different ways of working with highland and lowland farmers. Highland farmers, it was argued, were more remote and difficult to work with. More isolated highland communities have had to make use of organic fertilizer and composting methods to reduce the costs associated with bringing in artificial fertilizer from Botha Bothe or South Africa. Highland farmers were also perceived as less inclined to adopt new technologies or to experiment, while lowland farmers are often eager to adopt new technologies, especially when these technologies are accompanied by inputs (Moore et al., 2012). Farmers in lowland and foothill areas, being more accessible and open to interaction with outsiders, have more commonly been the recipients of aid through NGO and government projects. As some described, these farmers were more likely to depend on the receipt of such inputs for production. Based upon these distinctions in farming practices in the different agro-ecologies, we hypothesized that there would be demonstrable differences in composition of farmer networks, as well as the attitudes and beliefs represented by highland


and lowland areas. We also hypothesized that there were likely to be significant differences in perspective between farmers and agent/service providers.

In order to better understand these local mindsets and perspectives, respondents were read a battery of 20 statements. These statements were designed to characterize three ideal types of technological frames:CA, conventional modern agriculture (which involves market-oriented production using improved seed, mechanical implements, fertilizer and agrochemical use and often mono-cropping), and risk averse agriculture (characterized by distribution of risk between multiple methods of production, and sustaining the farm household by avoiding market dependence). Respondents were asked about the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each statement. Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale: (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) uncertain/neutral, (4) agree, and (5) strongly agree. Factor analysis (principle components with varimax rotation) was conducted on the three CAprinciples separate from an analysis of conventional and risk averse agriculture to determine the underlying patterns of co-variation among the items and to identify more robust and reliable measures Factors for risk averse and conventional agricultures were identified leading to the extraction of two underlying dimensions. These two dimensions of agricultural production norms and practices cut across the localities, and various roles in agricultural production.

The first factor can be summarized as “farm households are market driven” and is composed of levels of agreement/disagreement, with the following statements:

• Planting decisions are always based off current market prices • Crops should only be grown for sale • One should strive to grow the most on one’s fields • Earning off-farm income is more important than a large harvest

Once this variation is accounted for, a second factor emerged from the analysis: “successful farming is capital intensive”. This factor is composed of the following statements:

• Applying chemical pesticides is always necessary • Inorganic fertilizer is best to improve soil quality • Farm labor should be replaced by more efficient herbicides and machines

Preliminary analyses also indicated that there was a pattern of correlations among the responses with respect to CA. These included significant positive Pearson correlations (at the .05 level) between perceptions the importance of ‘maintaining cover crops’ and whether ‘tillage causes erosion’ (.17), and the perceptions concerning the best practices of ‘maintaining cover crops’ and ‘crop rotation’ (.12) and the perceptions about whether ‘tillage causes erosion’ and ‘crop rotation is always best practice’ (.13). Factor analysis was conducted on these three items and a nascent or emerging perspective of CAwas identified. While this factor lacks the explanatory power of the other two, it provides a measure of the developing mindset for CAproduction.


The ‘market-driven’ and ‘capital intensive farming’ factors have eigenvalues of 1.5 and 1.66 respectively, while the CAfactor has an eigenvalue of 1.2. The individual factors are more similar in their ability to account for co-variation of among the items which compose them; the market driven factor accounting for 46 percent, the capital intensive farming accounting for 49 percent, and the CAfactor accounting for 42 percent of the co-variation among the items. Further analysis examined the reliability of these factors using Cronbach’s Alpha. Although the alphas for all but one of the indicators are considered too low to be reliable indicators (market driven at .6, capital intensive farming at .49, and the conservation agriculture at .35), the face validity of the items makes them meaningful indicators of underlying patterns of beliefs about agricultural production. Using these factors, we compared the perspectives of farmers and agents in Botha Bothe District through the construction of cross tabulations to examine distributional patterns within different groups and through a comparison of means to highlight significant differences.

Table 55: Mean scores for level of agreement on farming mindset factors for Botha Bothe service sector/community agents and farmers in different agro-ecologies

Factor Lowland Foothill Highland

Service sector/ community agents

Market driven* 1.90a 1.90 a 1.90a 2.12b Capital intensive farming* 2.71a 2.73a 2.73a 2.00b Conservation agriculture* 2.76a 2.60b 2.47c 2.69ab N 96 156 163 38

Notes: Different letters indicate that the T-Tests for differences in means are statistically different at the .05 level. Rows marked by * signify that T-test scores are significantly different at p =0.05.

Higher composite scores signify greater levels of agreement with the technological frame concept indicated by the factor.

As hypothesized, agents appear to hold different beliefs than the farming populations they serve. Support for market driven agriculture is consistently low across farmers in different agro-ecologies, which aligns with the continued predominance of subsistence agriculture. Meanwhile, the greater support for market driven perspectives among service providers likely reflects the initiatives popularized by extension and NGOs to encourage production for local markets. Conversely, the capital intensive farming perspective is generally more popular among farmers, but the service sector expresses much lower support. Community agent and service providers are much less supportive of the capital intensive farming mindset which embraces the use of mineral fertilizers, chemicals for weed and pest control and the adoption of labor saving technologies. This can be attributed to the fact that agents are much more divided on the use of chemicals and artificial fertilizer, whereas farmers almost entirely support these perspectives. Contrary to the hypothesis that there would be remarkable differences between the agro-ecologies regarding their production perspectives, few differences were identified between the


market driven and capital intensive farming perspectives. Mindsets concerning agricultural production perspectives are remarkably homogeneous among all farmers. However, beliefs about CA follow a distinctively different pattern. Across agro-ecologies, there is some variation in the extent to which farmers express support for CA, with the lowland farmers being most supportive, foothill farmers significantly less supportive, and highland farmers expressing a significantly lower level of support than either of the lower agro-ecologies. Only highland farmers appear to be significantly less convinced of the validity of CA. A plausible explanation for the variation in degree to which farmers in the different agro-ecologies support CA is that overall exposure to CA production methods has not been consistent across localities, with the lowlands receiving the greatest levels of exposure and the highlands the least. A number of different factors, such as gender, farm size, agricultural production perspective, and contact with particular agents in local networks may also play a critical role in support for both CA and technology adoption. Development Impacts We have learned about how agro-ecological zones shape the knowledge and perceptions of farmers. Non-farm agents are less likely to adapt scientific knowledge to local conditions. CA knowledge needs to be adapted to each zone to be more effectively communicated with farmers. Non-farm agents should carefully listen to the priorities and concerns of farmers in each agro-ecological zone to better promote appropriate CAPS. Challenges and Responses We have only recently begun to advance our analysis of Mali data. Objective 2: Quantify and describe structure and resource flows of agricultural sector networks. A poster prepared by Jeni Lamb reflecting the collaborative efforts of the LTRA-10 team and our CCRA was presented at the SANREM Innovation Lab Annual Meeting in Cincinnati, Ohio in 2012. This poster, derived from a manuscript which has been submitted for publication, “Social network analysis for strengthening conservation agriculture participatory research: A case from the Mount Elgon Region of Kenya and Uganda” is being revised for re-submission. The manuscript highlights the application of social network analysis in participatory processes integrating the entire multidisciplinary team and all local partners and other stakeholders. These findings were reported on the last annual report. Critical research accomplishments Describing variation in local networks in Lesotho further assists us to better understand local dynamics regarding CA beliefs and adoption. Using the cross-sectional data obtained from the household survey, a basic analysis of the farmer ego (individual) networks in each site was performed. Given the geographic variation between the research localities, we were interested


in whether or not agro-ecology contributed to differences in the size and composition of farmer networks. One of the most basic network statistics calculated at the individual farmer level was individual (egocentric) network degree. Network degree is simply a count of the number of contacts a farmer reports. This was calculated for contacts through which agricultural resources (such as fertilizer, seed, agrochemicals, veterinary or tractor services) and agricultural information, advice, or consultation is accessed. Interestingly, we found that farmers across the localities had a significantly higher (at the .05 level) number of contacts for agricultural resources than agricultural information. However, the average number of contacts for both resources and agricultural information are low, at 1.12 and 1.49 respectively. Thus, it seems on average farmers are generally dependent upon only 1-2 sources of agricultural resources and information. Across agro-ecologies, the range for the number of resource and information contacts is small and varies between 0-3 and 0-4. However, some distinct patterns emerge which suggest that there are differences in the activity of resource and information networks between the lowland, foothill, and highland agro-ecologies. Table 56 demonstrates that lowland and foothill farmers have significantly more contacts for agricultural resources than highland farmers. Meanwhile, it appears that farmers in both the highlands and in the lowlands tend to have more contacts for agricultural information, although this difference is not statistically significant.

Table 56. Information and resource network degree by agro-ecology Network activity Lowland Foothill Highland Resource degree* 1.62a 1.55 a 1.34 b Information degree 1.19 a 1.01 a 1.18 a N 96 162 166

Notes: Different letters indicate that the T-Tests for differences in means are statistically different within their locality at P ≤0.05. Star indicates a row in which statistically significant differences can be identified

Table 57. Percentage of farmers reporting resource contacts by agro-ecology

Rank Lowland n=96 Foothill n=162 Highland n=166 1 Urban vendor 43 Urban vendor 51 Urban vendor 32 2 Tractor owner 23 Tractor owner 29 Tractor owner 22 3 Neighbor/Friend 22 Extension 20 Extension 20 4 Extension 21 Neighbor/Friend 15 Neighbor/Friend 17

The composition of farmer information and resource networks seems to vary only to a limited extent between localities (Tables 57 and 58). Urban vendors are by far the most important contacts for resources, particularly in the lowland and foothills. Tractor owners, extension and neighbor/friend are next in line. As for sources of information, extension and neighbor/friend become more important contacts.


Table 58. Percentage of farmers reporting information contacts by agro-ecology Rank Lowland n=96 Foothill n=162 Highland n=166 1 Extension 42 Neighbor/Friend 25 Extension 34 2 Neighbor/Friend 25 Extension 21 Neighbor/friend 22 3 NGO 20 Family member 14 Urban vendor 11 4 Religious leader 16 NGO 12 NGO 10

Next, we compared the composition of farmer networks by agro-ecology and between the two research focus communities of Ha Tabolane and Ha Sefako. A greater percentage of farmers in Ha Tabolane report resource contacts than in Ha Sefako, with 56% of Ha Tabolane farmers reporting that they acquire resources from an urban vendor. This is not surprising given the geographic proximity of Ha Tabolane to Botha Bothe. By contrast, the tractor owner is more frequently reported in the highland region of Ha Sefako. In this case, the tractor owner in this community plays a dual role as both a provider of tractor services and as one of the few community members with a vehicle for the procurement of inputs from South Africa and Botha Bothe. For acquiring information, extension agents, friends/neighbors, and NGOs are the most important contacts across localities. Network Simulation Analyses With the January recruitment of a new graduate student in collaboration with NDSSL at VBI, we are using more advanced social network analysis methods to explore the Kenya and Uganda data base. This work has begun by using an agent-based model to simulate a complex contagion within specified networks, applying a SIR contagion pattern. The SIR disease model is the most widely studied class of epidemic models and has been used to study social, technological, and biological networks (Newman, 2002). Individuals can be in one of three states in the SIR model: Susceptible (S), Infected (I), or Removed (R), represented numerically in simulations as 0, 1, or 2. For this study, we narrow the possible node states to SI (represented numerically as either “0” for “Susceptible” and “1” for “Infected”). In the context of smallholder adoption of CAPS, the two states represent individuals’ knowledge of and mindset towards the associated practices. A “susceptible” or unaffected individual would be one who has not learned about CA) or has not adopted a positive mindset towards its tenets. An “infected” or affected individual would be one who has learned about CA and has experienced a mindset change towards one or all of the three components of CA. When a node has transitioned from an unaffected state (0) to an affected state (1), it cannot revert back to an unaffected state (0). This parametric study has two dimensions, representing the variables tested: seed nodes and thresholds. A seed node is one that is affected (state 1) at the beginning of each simulation. Initially, all nodes are in an unaffected state (0), except for the specified seed node(s) (Kuhlman et al., 2012). A threshold is the probability that the agent will change its behavior based on the proportion of its contacts that have already changed their behavior (Valente, 1996).


Although the analysis is preliminary, three sets of simulations have been conducted. First, we determine which four of the service sector/community agents were likely to be the most influential, based on the data, in each of the four research locations using SNA visualization and metrics. In-degree and eigenvector centrality values provide insight into the relative influence of nodes. Network graphs are created in Gephi, a data visualization and manipulation software using the ForceAtlas2 layout algorithm. This algorithm uses a linear-linear model in which attraction and repulsion are proportional to the distance between nodes. Nodes represent farmers and service sector/community agents who participated in the technology networks survey. An edge between two nodes represents contact between two individuals, according to the survey data. Edges are weighted on a scale of 1-5, with a heavier (larger) weight indicating stronger influence of the relationship. The edges are scaled according to individual survey responses on how frequently one communicates with each of the contacts s/he identified. In the second test, we run simulations of 50 iterations each on all four networks for the four most influential nodes according to the results of the first test, varying only the seed node parameter. Using the same conditions, we also complete a run seeding only three random farmers, instead of one of the most influential service sector/community agents. Thresholds are assigned uniformly at random within a range of [1-10]. A node assigned the highest possible threshold value of 10 would need to interact with 10 affected nodes before becoming infected itself. Epidemic curves (number of nodes that changed state over time) illustrate the results of each of the 50 iterations and the mean curve. Building on these results, we will select the seed node from each research district that had the highest rates of infection during the second simulations and use it to seed the third simulations. In the third set of tests, simulations of 50 iterations each are run, varying the threshold parameter in each of the runs. A sensitivity analysis of the results may show that despite general resistance or negative attitudes towards CA practices, farmers are likely to eventually adopt if key institutions are seeded or some of their neighbors undergo a mindset change. The following graph of the findings for Tororo serves to illustrate the structure of the networks. In addition, a summary table provides the values for the in-degrees and eigenvector centralities of the service sector/community agents. The in-degree of a node is the number of individuals that identified that node as a contact. Eigenvector centrality measures of a node are based on the centrality of its contacts (Faust, 1997). Betweenness centrality, although a useful measure for determining which nodes act as bridges between the shortest paths between two other nodes, did not yield results additional insights about the relative influence of specific service sector/community agents. The nodes with the highest betweenness centralities were overwhelmingly farmers, and not service sector/community agents, due to fact that more farmers connect the shortest paths of other farmers more frequently than do institutions.


Table 59. In-degree scores for service sector and community-based actors

Service sector/community agent In-degree

Extension agent 47

Vet service provider 45

Agro-vet shop vendor 44

Weekly market vendor 33

NGO agent 31


(Nodes=106; Edges=709)

Figure 54. Graph of technology network in Tororo, Uganda. Nodes are scaled and colored according to in-degree measurement. Darker color and larger node indicates larger in-degree.


Table 60. Eigenvector centrality scores for service sector and community-based actors

Service sector/community agent Eigenvector centrality

Extension agent 1.0

Agro-vet shop vendor 0.902

NGO agent 0.874

Farmer organization leader 0.866

Urban vendor 0.830

(Nodes=106; Edges=709)

Figure 55. Graph of technology network in Tororo, Uganda. Nodes are scaled and colored according to eigenvector centrality measurement. Darker color and larger node indicates

higher eigenvector centrality value


Development impacts For Lesotho, these results have several implications for further analysis of networks and beliefs about agricultural production. There appears to be a strong consistency between the networks represented by Ha Tabolane and Ha Sefako with regard to their respective regions. This is encouraging because it verifies our initial hypothesis that using these focus communities would position the research to make more general comparisons about the differences in network composition between agro-ecologies. However, the composition of farmer information and resource networks is quite different, and these will likely need to be studied separately to understand particular network flows. With the exception of neighbors and friends and extension, farmers do not have the same key contacts for resources and for information. Nevertheless, the importance of extension across localities suggests that the views presented by extension agents have a broader audience than any of the other identified community agents or agricultural service providers, and should be a focal point for later investigations of the relationship between network contacts and mindsets. Finally, the relative equality in access to information contacts is highly relevant to the exploration of variation in beliefs about CA. Since levels of exposure to different key contacts for information are comparable across agro-ecologies, exposure alone cannot be posited as an adequate explanation for this described variation in beliefs. The relationship between network exposure, agro-ecology, and beliefs about agricultural production is more complex. Further inquiry should investigate how principles of CA are negotiated within local discourses of agricultural production. The results of the preliminary simulation experiment in Tororo indicate that the extension agent was the most efficient seed node compared to other high-ranking service sector/community agents by an order of magnitude. When the Extension agent was seeded, 105 nodes were infected within the first five time steps. In contrast, when the agro-vet shop was seeded no nodes changed throughout the entire time step series. When the NGO representative and the veterinary service provider were seeded, the cumulative number of nodes affected were close to 50% of all nodes but nodes were still affected at a lower rate than when random farmers were seeded. This could suggest that it would be just as effective to work intensively with a sample of farmers from the district on promoting adoption of CA practices as it would be to work closely with a few NGOs or veterinary service providers. Further experiments and sensitivity analyses will evaluate these findings in greater detail. Challenges and responses Research on the Mali database has been slow as no work can be conducted with our Malian partners. Nevertheless, we have prepared for an analysis of the existing database. Objective 3: Determining critical network pathways and opinion leaders facilitating technological change.among farmers and their service sector partners Critical research accomplishments Farmer data from Ha Sefako and Ha Tabolane was matched to the agricultural service sector/community agent data to generate a model of the agricultural information network for


highland and foothill/lowland communities in Botha Bothe District. Figure 56 provides a visualization of these networks. Agents are color-coded according to agreement with the statement that tillage causes erosion. The circles indicate which agents are based in Ha Sefako, Ha Tabolane, and South Africa, respectively. The remaining agents work at the district level in Botha Bothe. The network map provides an opportunity to visualize groups in the agricultural production network and how they relate to one another. To keep the map and network analysis as simple as possible, we have taken the node values for network contact from all of the Ha Sefako and Ha Tabolane farmers and used a single node to represent them. As such, this map seeks to model connections between community agents and agricultural service providers rather than individual farmers (as was the focus of the previous section). The centrally located agents are those with a regional focus and generally serve both highland and lowland/foothill communities, while agents coded in orange and yellow reflect those who live in or work exclusively with the communities of Ha Sefako and Ha Tabolane respectively. The navy nodes represent MAFS and its Resource Centers which serve all highlands and foothill/lowland communities studied during this research. In making generalizations about agricultural networks, we should thus expect that various villages are likely to vary with regard to the local actors who are active in that particular area, but that the meso-scale MAFS, NGOs, national organizations, and South African and Botha Bothe agricultural vendors would operate in similar fashion with regard to other sampled communities. This is important as the following analyses of the Botha Bothe agricultural information network will examine structural network conditions at both levels toward the goal of describing the important actors in the way this network functions. During basic analyses of network structure the objective was to identify key individuals or groups through whom information would be likely to pass to the greatest number of other individuals. These are likely to be the most important/influential individuals in the network. Measures of such power and influence in network analyses are typically described as measures of centrality. For this analysis, two measures of centrality have been used: degree and betweenness centrality (Knoke and Yang, 2008). Degree centrality is a measure of the number of connections between a given actor and other actors in the network and is measured as a count of the number of contacts for any given actor based upon their self-report and the report of others being in contact with that particular actor. Degree centrality is thus a measure of the popularity or notoriety of an individual in the network based upon their number of contacts. Betweenness centrality reflects the extent to which an individual can facilitate or limit communication between other nodes in a network. This is determined by calculating the number of times a particular actor is the link between actors who otherwise do not share a connection (Knoke and Yang, 2008). This analysis uses both undirected and directed measures of centrality calculated in Netdraw (Borgatti et al., 2002). Utilizing undirected measures means that the calculation does not discriminate based on the directionality of the tie, and therefore assumes that there is some


Figure 56. Botha Bothe Agricultural Production Networks and Beliefs about “Tillage Causes Erosion”

Agree Neutral/Undecided Disagree Not interviewed

Tillage Causes Erosion

211

degree of information and knowledge exchange regardless of who initiates the contact between parties. Utilizing the undirected measures helps to limit the potential bias introduced by the fact that not all of the identified agricultural service sector providers were interviewed. On the other hand, undirected centrality measures can be somewhat biased in the incidence of an individual who reports a lot of contacts, but no one else reports that contact and vice versa. Both communities appear to have a single especially important agent in terms of both degree and betweenness centrality. For Ha Sefako, this is the tractor owner and in Ha Tabolane a teacher who is highly involved with agriculture. Counselors also play an important role in each of the sites. This is interesting as counselors were not a highly reported contact among farmers, but appear to have a very important network role in connecting communities to other agricultural agents, as evidenced by high betweenness centrality scores. Locality specific resource centers are also highly central actors in the network. Some differences in the communities are that it appears that Ha Sefako has more highly connected local agents. For example, farmer organizations, youth organizations, and an opinion leader farmer appear across the betweenness and degree centrality measures, whereas there appears to be a bit more redundancy in the Ha Tabolane network with the important role of the women’s organization, counselor and tractor owner across centrality measures. This is consistent with the experience of interviewing agents in Ha Tabolane communities, where farmers reported that they did not typically work closely with other farmers, but rather for themselves. By contrast, in Ha Sefako long standing farmer and women’s groups and a more recently created youth group are active in organizing and supporting the farming activities of their members. Development Impacts The identification of the individuals with the greatest degree and betweenness centrality generally appears to be favorable to the development and dissemination of CA. Specifically, many of the top non-farmers, non-local agricultural agents were reported for both betweenness and degree centrality, including Rohobothe, World Vision, Red Cross, and the MAFS, which strongly support all three tenets of CA and already work together as members of the National CA task force. However, the primacy of local actors in the betweenness centrality rankings suggests that these agents are especially important in shaping local perspectives. Moreover, many of the most locally important actors disagree with or do not fully support a CA perspective, especially with regard to tillage. In Ha Sefako, the pivotal tractor owner, the farmer group leader, opinion leader farmer, village chief, and local vendor are all skeptical of whether tillage causes land degradation. Nevertheless, other important and central actors including the teacher (who uses some of the CA equipment leased from the MAFS in the lowlands), counselor, and youth leader are supportive of the belief that tillage causes erosion. During the ethnographic research, there appeared to be a generational divide with regard to beliefs about CA in Ha Sefako. The youth leader and counselor are both young and recent college or diploma graduates, whereas the tractor owner, farmer group leader, and the opinion leader farmer have all been working together for at least twenty years as part of the Falimehang Farmer Organization. As observed


by the South African pastor who works closely with Ha Sefako farmers, the younger generation have caught on and been exposed to the principles of CA, while the older group of farmers active in the community have developed systems of production which work well for them and are less inclined to support a change which would largely disrupt the production system they have organized. Nevertheless, the older generation of farmers expressed interest in experimenting with CA during their interviews, but wanted to see positive results from such a system locally before dedicating too many of their scarce resources to a new method of production. Another key point to consider is the critical role of the tractor owner in the Ha Sefako community. In addition to providing plowing services, the tractor owner also regularly travels to South Africa to purchase inputs for local farmers and operates the only grain mill in the community. Consequently, he is a key leader and supporter for agriculture in the region. Efforts to introduce and scale up CA will need to find a way to work with the tractor owner to ensure that he does not feel threatened by CAas he continues to serve in an important supportive role to the local highland communities. In addition to working with the tractor owner, expanding support for CA from the periphery of the Ha Sefako network will require targeting the other members of this important older generation of well-connected farmers. If this is accomplished, the strength of this existing farming organization and current support for CA among local youth and actors connected to local youth indicate there is a strong potential for the promotion and scaling up CA in Ha Sefako, and potentially the surrounding highland areas. There are fewer allies for CA in Ha Tabolane. It was much more difficult to identify the local actors who are active in agricultural production networks in this community. Farmers reported that they did not have organized farmer groups for purchasing inputs or planning agricultural projects. Rather, there appears to be looser connections between noted farmers in the community who are frequently asked to share their opinions and offer advice. Through this process, a network of more central community agents in Ha Tabolane was identified, including a primary school teacher, an opinion leader farmer, a local pastor/farmer, and counselor. Unfortunately, these individuals all disagree with the principle that tillage causes erosion. However, there are important individuals in the community who express a commitment to CA. Leaders of women’s organizations formed through Red Cross and World Vision have been highly successful in promoting the development of a very small scale CA method, the keyhole garden. Most households in Ha Tabolane have built these small vegetable gardens located next to their homes, but there is less enthusiasm for using CA methods to produce in farmer fields. This is not because farmers disagree with the principles, but rather due to the widespread perception that CA methods are too labor intensive. Moreover, the women group leaders do not appear to be particularly well-connected with other community leaders. In addition to this diversity and overall lack of community organized agricultural groups, Ha Tabolane is also currently in a transition period for its local leadership. The chief of Ha Tabolane passed away in 2011 and at the time of the field work, farmers and community agents had only limited experience working with the new chief. Our results for the chief reflect the deceased chief’s responses to the household survey conducted in 2010. While residents did not expect that the


new Chief would be less supportive of agricultural initiatives, whether he will give the same priority to agriculture as the previous Chief remains to be seen. Given the looser structure of the network and existing perceptions of CA in the community, it may be more difficult to scale up CA in Ha Tabolane. Challenges and Responses Research on the Mali database has been slow as no work can be conducted with our Malian partners. Nevertheless, we are preparing to conduct an analysis of the existing database. Degree and Nondegree training activities A poster and a paper were presented at the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting and the ASA/CSA/SSA Conference in Cincinnati, Ohio in October 2012. This provided the opportunity to gain wider exposure to the Technology Networks research approach and its findings. A new graduate student, Jessie Gunter, has been recruited in collaboration with the Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory (NDSSL) of the Virginia Bioinformatics Institute. We are using more advanced social network analysis methods to explore the Kenya and Uganda data base. She will also be conducting follow-up social network data collection in the coming year. In preparation for that she traveled with Moore to meet with project partners in Kenya and Uganda. Moore and Gunter also conducted a week-long short course in Introducing Social Network Analysis at Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro, Tanzania during the week of 12-16 March 2013. Publications, presentations and other SANREM products One article has been accepted for publication in the Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension; a book review was published in Agricultural Systems; a book chapter in Lal and Stewart’s book on Managing Soils of Smallholder Agriculture was accepted; another article is under review for publication; one working paper was completed documenting the Technology Networks research findings for the LTRA-9 sites in Lesotho; a blog on the MFI; a video on community-driven development was disseminated; a short-course manual for Introducing Social Network Analysis; and five papers presented at various conferences and meetings. Networking activities Lamb and Moore participated in the ASA/SSA/SSSA Annual Meeting. Moore participated in the CRSP Council meeting in Morogoro, interacted with USAID officers from around the East and Southern Africa region, and participated in the Rural Sociological Society Annual Meeting. Gunter presented our work at the Modeling of Infectious Disease Agent Study Conference.


Highlights • Publication of the first article reporting Technology Network findings. • Contributing a chapter to the Lal and Stewart book. • Collaboration with the VBI to develop network simulation analyses • Production of a working papers on social networks for CA in Lesotho, Kenya, and

Uganda

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LTRA 9 Team. 2013. Agricultural Actors, Networks, and Farmer Identity: Examining Perspectives and Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in Botha Bothe, Lesotho. Working Paper No. 01-13. SANREM Innovation Lab. OIRED/Virginia Tech. September 2013.

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Soil Carbon and Soil Quality CCRA Principal Investigator: Tom Thompson Research progress by objective The overarching goal of this CCRA is to determine if dryland smallholders in the developing world can increase SOC and hence soil fertility, by adoption of CA. We know that CA increases SOC under mechanized agriculture in the developed world, but it is unclear if such increases are feasible in the developing world for smallholders growing staple crops. There is also an interest to determine the potential for carbon sequestration in these systems, which may potentially lead to payments under carbon trading schemes. Coordination and standardization of soil and agronomic investigations among all 13 developing countries before and after CAPS are implemented is critical to measuring soil fertility and carbon sequestration changes due to CAPS. Our specific objectives are to:

1. Quantify SOC at SANREM experimental sites due to CAPS implementation versus traditional agricultural practices. 2. Identify CAPS cropping systems or biophysical elements that improve soil fertility. 3. Relate increased soil fertility to site-specific socioeconomic environments.

We also facilitate LTRAs and host-country partners to build capacity regarding biophysical data collection from CA plots vs. current practice controls in order to determine effects on production and the ability to produce sufficient biomass to protect the soil and increase SOC. The hypothesis is that CAPS will increase SOC and soil fertility in less than 5 years after implementation, compared to conventional practices. We propose to use SOC as an indicator of soil quality and fertility. Although total SOC is expected to increase slowly after CAPS implementation, we will focus on parameters that are sensitive to short-term changes in agricultural practices by quantifying SOC by density fractions and structural changes at Time 0 and after several years of CAPS. Basic soil fertility parameters (total carbon (C) and nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), etc.) will also be measured in order to provide an overall picture of soil fertility changes due to CAPS. One of the main functions ofCCRA-9 is to facilitate coordination among the crop and soil scientists throughout all the LTRA project areas in order to quantify SOC and soil quality. This includes, but is not limited to:

1. Develop a common minimum dataset to determine SOC baseline data before the implementation of CAPS,

2. Build a soil library from SANREM project areas in order to perform further soil analyses that will quantify several indicators of soil quality under one laboratory,

3. Identify elements that improve soil fertility in project areas, and


4. Relate increased soil fertility to site-specific socioeconomic and agro-climatological environments.

This work necessitates close collaboration with LTRA project PIs and CCRAs. We are identifying local gendered knowledge of soil fertility as well as determining the capacity of local CAPS to improve SOC. If the latter holds true, we will also determine the potential for payments under a carbon trading system in coordination with LTRA and CCRA economists. Objective 1: Quantify soil organic carbon (SOC) in host country project areas before and after CAPS implementation. Critical research accomplishments Presently, soils have not been collected for Time X at LTRA sitesto measure soil C and C fractions in comparable soils with and without CAPS implementation at multiple SANREM sites. Dr. Fleming has been in contact with LTRA PI’s about soil collection and shipment to Virginia Tech. Soils from Time X will be analyzed via density fractionation of organic matter and subsequently analyzed for total C. Development Impact Although the final soils have not been collected yet, Dr. Fleming has been in contact with LTRA PI’s about collection and objectives for analysis. Determining SOC in soilfractions will indicate if CAPS treatments (<5 years implemented) will impact changes in those soil fractions. Challenges and Responses No challenges have been encountered. Objective 2: Determine CO2 emissions resulting from CAPS compared to traditional practices in Kenya. Critical Research Accomplishments A team from the soils CCRA at Virginia Tech (Fleming and Thomason) visited the SANREM LTRA-10 site at Manor House Agricultural Center (MHAC) near Kitale, Kenya in July, 2013. With the assistance of the on-site staff and scientists, sufficient materials and power sources were obtained to power and secure the ACE units in the research plots. ACE units were installed in three replications of two treatments: 1) the ‘best bet’ CAPS rotation treatment (no till; corn/bean intercrop with mucuna relay) and 2) the ‘farmer practice’ treatment (traditional tillage practices; corn/bean intercrop with bean relay). While on site, baseline soil CO2 emissions were captured from the various plots over two days, and the units were calibrated accordingly. ACE units will be in place for 1 year to collect data. Since installation, data has been shared with Virginia Tech once per month (approximately 4 months currently).


Development Impact The Virginia Tech team worked with the scientists and staff at MHAC to train the local partners on operation, maintenance, data handling, and troubleshooting of the ACE units. Partners also discussed the theory and practice of soil CO2 monitoring and achieved a greater understanding of monitoring this parameter under Kenyan conditions. Challenges and Responses Partners at Manor House have been quick to relay potential issues with the machines, in order to troubleshoot in a timely manner. The ACE units have been problematic, and have had a variety of malfunctions. Troubleshooting of issues has involved Virginia Tech, the USA distributor of the units (OptiSciences), and the UK manufacturer (ADC BioScientific). Objective 3: Determine cross-site comparisons of soil fertility increases, if any, resulting from CAPS compared to traditional practices. Critical research accomplishments Soils collected at Time X will be analyzed for soil fertility parameters

Development impact Although the final soils have not been collected yet, Dr. Fleming has been in contact with LTRA PI’s about collection and objectives for analysis. Determining soil fertility parameters in soils will indicate if CAPS treatments (<5 years implemented) will impact changes in those soils. Challenges and responses No challenges have been encountered. Objective 4: Identify regions that have similar agroclimatology to the locations in which SANREM research is conducted. This will facilitate technology transfer to areas where adoption potential is likely to be successful. Critical research accomplishments Over the summer, a Ph.D. student (Anthony Philips) in the VT meteorology program was hired to complete a literature review of the OIRED sites across the globe. That is now complete and Peter Sforza is working with a geography student to implement the analysis on a global scale. They have been using a combination of traditional GIS and a new cloud-based analysis platform from Google called Google Earth Engine (https://earthengine.google.org/). Development Impact The approach is not at a large scale since the Center for Geospatial Information Technology (CGIT) is using available precomputed global climate / soil datasets, but their paper demonstrates how powerful the Google cloud can be for analytical purposes.

https://earthengine.google.org/


Challenges and Responses Issues / delays arose in Fall 2013 when using desktop GIS software due to the massive scale of the calculations we are attempting. This explained the decision to leverage the Google Earth Engine platform. Degree and nondegree training activities Training took place at MHAC to instruct the local scientists and staff on how to fully manage and operate the ACE units while under their supervision. Anthony Philips (Graduate student, VT, Meteorology) completed a literature review of the OIRED sites across the globe concerning Objective 4. Publication, presentations, and other SANREM products Mulvaney, M. J.,Reyes, M. R.,Chan-Halbrendt, C.,Boulakia, S.,Jumpa, K.,Sukvibool, C., & Sombatpanit, S., (eds.). 2012. Conservation Agriculture in Southeast Asia and Beyond. Special Publication No. 7, World Association of Soil and Water Conservation (WASWAC), Beijing, China. 126 pp. Stewart, R. E.,Hodges, S. C.,Mulvaney, M. J.,Pavuluri, K.,Thomason, W. E. Rhizosphere phosphorus solubility and plant uptake as affected by crop in a clay soil from the Central Plateau Region of Haiti. In review. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. Manuscript no. LCSS-2012-0365. Submitted July 27, 2012. In press. Mulvaney, M. J.,Graham, M., Xia, K., Barrera, V. H., Botello, R., and Rivera, A. K. S. 2012. Soil Organic Matter Characterization in Bolivia and Ecuador. ASA • CSSA • SSSA International Annual Meeting. Cincinnati, OH. 21-24 Oct. Mulvaney, M. J.,Graham, M., Xia, K., Barrera, V. H., Botello, R., and Rivera, A. K. S. 2012. Chemical stability of organic matter in the Andes. ASA • CSSA • SSSA International Annual Meeting. Cincinnati, OH. 21-24 Oct. Networking activities 1) In November, 2013, Dr. Fleming met with Dr. Jeff Alwang (LTRA-7) and Dr. Jay Norton (LTRA-10) at the ASA-CSSA-SSSA annual meeting in Tampa, Florida to discuss collection of soil samples. 2) In July, 2013, Dr’s. Fleming and Thomason met with MHAC scientists and staff for installation and training of the ACE units to be deployed near Kitale, Kenya.


Highlights We have been collecting soil CO2 flux data from the ACE units in Kenya for approximately four months.

220

Appendixes Training participants Table 61. Long-term degree trainees

Student Name

Sex (M/F) Nationality Discipline

Country(s) Supported Sa

ndw

ich

Prog

ram

(Y

/N)

Program

Deg

ree

Funding ($)

LTR

A

SANREM Advisor/PI

University(s) (degree granting institution first)

Start Date

End Date

SAN

REM

Non

-SA

NRE

M

Aida Cossitt F American Environmental Policy and Planning

Global N Apr-12 Dec-12 BS N N ME Moore Virginia Tech

Aliza Pradhan F India Soil Science, Agronomy

India N Jan-12 Dec-14 PhD Y N 11 Idol University of Hawaii at Manoa

Anna Testen F USA Plant Pathology

Ecuador N Aug-10 Dec-12 M.S. Y Y 7 P. Backman Penn State

Ayesha Mohanty

F India Soil Science India N Aug-12 Jul-13 MS Y Y 11 Mishra Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology

Balaram Rijal M Nepal Soil Science Nepal N Jan-12 Oct-14 MS Y Y 11 Pande

Tribhuvan University, Institute of Agriculture & Animal Science

Barry Weixler-Landis

M US Ag Economics Uganda N Aug-13 Jul-13 MS Y N CCRA-6

Norton Virginia Tech

Bibhuti Bhushan Pati

M India Ag. Economics India N Aug-12 Jul-13 MS Y Y 11 Tripathy Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology

Bidyashree Tripathy

F India Soil Science India N Aug-13 Jul-14 MS Y Y 11 Mishra Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology

Bikash Paudel M Nepal Env. Economics, Tech. Transfer

Nepal N Jan-12 Dec-14 Ph.D Y N 11 Chan-Halbrendt University of Hawaii at Manoa

Bipana F Nepal Agronomy Nepal N Jan-12 Oct-14 MS Y Y 11 Chaudhary Tribhuvan


Student Name



ndw

ich

Prog

ram

(Y

/N)

Program

Deg

ree

Funding ($)

LTR

A

SANREM Advisor/PI


Start Date

End Date

SAN

REM

Non

-SA

NRE

M

Paudel University, Institute of Agriculture & Animal Science

Brinton Reed M USA Ag. Economics USA N Jan-11 May-13 MS Y N 11 Chan-Halbrendt University of Hawaii at Manoa

Carl Yoder M USA Soil Science Mozambique Aug-11 Dec-12 Y 9 Eash University of Tennessee

Cathy Fleming

F USA Crop and Soil Science

Kenya N Jun-13 Post-doc

Y N CCRA-9

Thompson Virginia Tech

Corinna Clements

F USA Agricultural Economics

Global N Apr-13 May-15 BS N N ME Moore Virginia Tech

Cynthia Lai F American Social Economics

India, Nepal N Sep-09 Aug-13 Ph.D.

Y N 11 Chan-Halbrendt University of Hawaii at Manoa

Daniel Sumner

M USA Geography USA, Cambodia Aug-12 May-14 MS Y CCRA-7

Christie Virginia Tech

Danny Farías M Ecuadorian Chemistry Ecuador N May-12 Jun-13 Eng. Y N 7 Alvarado Universidad Central del Ecuador

David Cruz M Bolivian Agronomy Bolivia N Jul-12 Bs Y 7 Mamani Escuela Técnica de Agronomía Sayarinapaj

Deb O'Dell F USA Soil Science Lesotho Aug-12 Jul-14 MS Y 9 Eash University of Tennessee

Debi Prasad Modak

M India Agronomy India N Aug-13 Jul-14 MS Y Y 11 Behera & Roul Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology

Don Immanuel Edralin

M Filipino Energy and Env. Systems

Philippines N Aug-11 May-14 Ph.D.

Y Y 12 Reyes North Carolina A&T State University

Emily Pfeufer F American Plant Pathology

Bolivia & Ecuador

N Aug-10 Dec-14 PhD Y Y 7 Gugino Penn State University

Epsita Barik F India Agronomy India N Aug-12 Jul-13 MS Y Y 11 Behera Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology

Eric Bisangwa M Rwanda Agricultural Lesotho Aug-11 May-13 MS N Y 9 Lambert University of


Student Name



ndw

ich

Prog

ram

(Y

/N)

Program

Deg

ree

Funding ($)

LTR

A

SANREM Advisor/PI


Start Date

End Date

SAN

REM

Non

-SA

NRE

M

Economids Tennessee Erine Thornburgh

F US Agronomy Global N Summer 2011

Spring 2014

MS 8 Prasad / Garrett Kansas State University

George Mahama

M Ghana Agronomy Ghana and US N Spring 2012

Spring 2015

PhD 8 Prasad / Rice Kansas State University

Gyan Bandhu Sharma

M Nepal Agro-forestry Nepal N Aug-11 Jul-13 MS Y Y 11 Chaudhary Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry

Iddrisu Yahaya M Ghana Ag. Economics Ghana and US N Fall 2011

Spring 2015 PhD 8 Dalton / Prasad

Kansas State University

Ivan Cuvaca M Mozambique

Soil Science Mozambique Aug-12 Jul-14 MS Y 9 Eash University of Tennessee

Jacqueline Halbrendt

F USA Gender, Agronomy

USA N Jan-11 May-14 PhD Y N 11 Idol University of Hawaii at Manoa

Jaime Estrada M Bolivian Rural development

Bolivia N Oct-11 Bs Y 7 Mamani Universidad Mayor de San Simon

Jarrad Farris M USA Ag Economics N Aug-13 May-15 MS Y Y CCRA-6


Jeremiah Okeyo

M Kenyan Soil Science Kenya and Uganda

N Aug-10 Jun-14 PhD Y 10 Norton University of Wyoming

Jerod Myers M American Environmental Policy and Planning

Global N Nov-11 May-13 BS N N ME Moore Virginia Tech

Jessie Gunter F American Public Health Global N May-12 Dec-14 MPH Y Y CCRA-8

Moore Virginia Tech

Juan Arévalo M Ecuadorian Agronomy Ecuador N Oct-11 Jun-13 Eng. Y N 7 Barrera Universidad Estatal de Bolívar

Juan Raul Alvarez

M Bolivian Agronomy Bolivia N Oct-11 Bs Y 7 Mamani Universidad Mayor de San Simon

Judith Asiimwe

F Ugandan Agricultural Economics

Uganda N Aug-10 Jun-14 MS Y 10 Bashaasha

Makerere University, Uganda

Judith Odhiambo

F Kenyan Agronomy Kenya, Uganda, and U.S.A

N Jan-11 Jun-14 PhD Y N 10 Norton University of Wyoming


Student Name



ndw

ich

Prog

ram

(Y

/N)

Program

Deg

ree

Funding ($)

LTR

A

SANREM Advisor/PI


Start Date

End Date

SAN

REM

Non

-SA

NRE

M

Kabelo Mahlehla

M Lesotho Soil Science Lesohtho Aug-12 Jul-14 MS Y 9 Eash University of Tennessee

Kate Vaiknoras

F US Ag Economics N Jan-13 Jul-13 MS Y CCRA-6


Kathleen Weber

F USA Soil Science Ecucador N Aug-10 Aug-13 MS Y Y 7 Stehouwer Penn State

Lilian Mbuthia F Kenya Soil Science Lesotho/Moz Aug-12 Jul-14 PhD Y Y 9 Eash

University of Tennessee

Linsey Shariq F USA Human Dimensions

India & Nepal N May-11 May-14 PhD N Y 11 Chan-Halbrendt & Gray

University of Hawaii-Manoa

Lyda Hok M Cambodian Energy & Environment

Cambodia N Aug-11 May-14 PhD Y N 12 Reyes North Carolina A&T State University

Madalyn Lynch

F USA Crop and Soil Science

Haiti N M.S. Y 6 Thompson Virginia Tech

Maricruz Suárez

F Ecuadorian Agronomy Ecuador N Oct-11 Jun-13 Eng. Y N 7 Barrera Universidad Estatal de Bolívar

Mary Harman F USA Geography USA, Philippines

May-12 May-13 MS Y CCRA-7

Christie Virginia Tech

Matt Bruns M USA Soil Science Lesotho Jan-10 Dec-12 MS N 9 Eash University of Tennessee

Matt Fornito M USA Psychology Global N Sep-13 May-16 PhD Y Y CCRA-8

Keith M. Moore Virginia Tech

Matti Kuykendall

F US Agronomy Global N Spring 2013

Spring 2015

MS 8 Prasad / Rice Kansas State University

Michael Barrowclough M US

Agricultural Economics Ecuador N Aug-12 Aug-15 PhD Y Y 7 Alwang Virginia Tech

Michael W. Graham

M USA Soil science Haiti N May-11 9/31/2014

PhD Y N CCRA-9

Mulvaney & Thomason

Virginia Tech

Michael Williams

M USA Energy and Env. Systems

USA N Aug-12 May-15 Ph.D Y N 12 Reyes North Carolina A&T State University

Molefi Mpheshea

M Lesotho Soil Science Lesotho Aug-12 Jul-14 MS Y 9 Eash University of Tennessee

Moses Obbo Owori

M Ugandan Agr. Economics

Kenya and Uganda

N Sep-11 Apr-13 MS Y 10 Peck University of Wyoming


Student Name



ndw

ich

Prog

ram

(Y

/N)

Program

Deg

ree

Funding ($)

LTR

A

SANREM Advisor/PI


Start Date

End Date

SAN

REM

Non

-SA

NRE

M

Nathan Kennedy

M USA Forestry Haiti N Ph.D Y N 6 Amacher/Thompson Virginia Tech

Patrick Oluko M Kenyan Soil Science Kenya N Sep-11 Jun-14 MS Y 10 Okalebo University of Eldoret Phanice Adikinyi Ong'ong'a

F Kenyan Soil Science Kenya N Sep-11 Jun-14 MS Y N 10 Okalebo University of Eldoret

Puspa Sharma M Nepal Soil Science, Agronomy

Nepal N Aug-12 Jul-13 MS Y N 11 Radovich University of Hawaii at Manoa

Rafael Padre M Filipino Land/Water Res Eng

Philippines N Jun-08 4/31/2012

Ph.D Y 12 Victor Ella University of Philippines Los Baños

Rodrigo Cervantez

M Bolivian Agronomy Bolivia N Sep-12 Bs Y 7 Mamani Escuela Técnica de Agronomía Sayarinapaj

Roshan Pudasaini

M Nepal Soil Science Nepal N Jan-11 6/31/2013

MS Y Y 11 Pande


Ruth Suárez F Ecuadorian Agronomy Ecuador N Oct-11 Jun-13 Eng. Y N 7 Barrera Universidad Estatal de Bolívar

Sarita Gautam F Nepal Ag. Economics Nepal N Jan-13 Jun-13 MS Y Y 11 Chaudhary


Sasmita Behera

F India Fruit Science India N Aug-13 Jul-13 MS Y Y 11 . Dash Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology


Suman Dhakal

M Nepal Agronomy Nepal N Jan-13 Jun-13 MS Y Y 11 Chaudhary


Timeteo Simone

M Mozambique Agricultural Economics

Mozambique Aug-12 Jul-14 MS Y Y 9 Lambert University of Tennessee

Will McNair M USA Agricultural Economics

Mozambique Aug-11 May-13 MS N Y 9 Lambert University of Tennessee

226

Table 62. Nondegree training activities Program type (Workshop, seminar, field day, short course, etc.)

Date Audience

Number of Participants Training Provider

(US university, host country institution.)

Training Objective M F

Bolivia

Workshop Jan 16, 2013

Local farmers 10 13 PROINPA Evaluate quinoa varieties in Kaspicancha Alta

Workshop Feb 20, 2013

Local farmers 5 5 PROINPA Evaluate quinoa varieties in Kaspicancha Baja

Field day April 10, 2013

Local farmers 15 20 PROINPA and World Vision

Promote CA in Tiraque area, validate cover crops among male and female farmers

Cambodia

Participatory Gender Workshop; Cambodia

Jan 10, 2013 PADAC Technicians 6 1 Christie

Train team in qualitative research methods to be used in Focus Group and household interview activities throughout trip

Seminar; Cambodia Jan 16, 2013

University of Battambang 100 150 Christies and Sumner (SANREM Gender CCRA)

Gender awareness Introduction to conservation agriculture

Field training; Cambodia

Jan 10-18, 2013

Virginia Tech graduate student 1 Christie Training in qualitative research methods and gender analysis

Ecuador

Language training May 15-30, 2013

Undergraduate interns and graduate student 1 6 Language institute in Quito Language training for UG interns

Training in field survey techniques

May 15-30, 2013

Undergraduate interns and graduate student 1 6 Alwang, Barrera, Escudero Training in field survey techniques

Workshop Mar 5-7, 2013

Scientists at INIAP 13 9 SANREM and IPM Training program on impact assessment of agricultural research

Workshop Nov 14, 2012

Various technicians 10 4 INIAP (Barrera) Conservation agriculture and IPM.


Farmers in Culebrillas, Mulanga, Marcopamba and Pucarapamba.

23 10 INIAP (Barrera, Escudero, Valverde, Gallegos and Ochoa).

Conservation agriculture and IPM.


Farmers in Bola de Oro, Guarumal amd Panecillo. 13 8 INIAP (Barrera, Escudero, Valverde, Gallegos and Ochoa).



Program type (Workshop, seminar, field day, short course, etc.)

Date Audience




Workshop Dec 12, 2012

Farmers in Bola de Oro and Panecillo and INIAP technicians.

9 4 INIAP (Escudero) Soil conservation techniques: contour planting and deviation ditches


Farmers in Culebrillas. 8 3 INIAP (Escudero and Asaquivay).



INIAP-SANREM technicians and farmers in Culebrillas.

5 3 INIAP (Escudero). Soil conservation techniques: contour planting and deviation ditches


Farmers in Bola de Oro, Guarumal amd Panecillo. 13 6 INIAP (Martínez). Conservation agriculture in the cultivation of blackberry, treee tomato, and naranjilla

Field visit Mar 3, 2013

Farmers in Culebrillas and INIAP technicians. 35 10 INIAP (Barrera, Escudero, Gallegos).


Field visit Mar 5, 2013

Farmers in Chillanes, Bola de Oro and INIAP technicians.

27 14 INIAP (V Barrera, Escudero, Ochoa andGallegos).

Conservation agricultura and IPM.

Workshop April 2, 2013

INIAP-SANREM technicians and farmers in Bola de Oro.

9 4 INIAP (Escudero). Preparation and use of Bocashi.

Field day April 17, 2013

Producers, students, professors, and technicians 70 37 INIAP (Barrera and Escudero)

Diffuse conservation agriculture practices in Alumbre

Field day June 25, 2013

Producers, students, professors, and technicians. 80 40 INIAP (Barrera, Asaquivay and Escudero)

Diffuse conservation agriculture and IPM practices in Illangama

Keynote speech July 3, 2013

Students, professors, and technicians 60 35 ARS (Delgado)

Climate Change and the Nitrogen Index. 24th Anniversary Ceremonies of the Universidad Estatal de Bolivar, Guaranda, Ecuador

Field day July 6, 2013

Farmers, students and technicians 51 33 INIAP (Barrera and Celleri)


Keynote speech July 6, 2013

Students, professors, and technicians 140 80 INIAP (Barrera) Natural resource management and conservation agricultura in Chimbo, Ecuador.

Field visit Aug 5, 2013

Farmers and technicians 16 8 INIAP (Barrera and Escudero)


Field visit Aug 6, 2013

Farmers and technicians 24 11 INIAP ( Barrera, Gallegos and Celleri)

Diffuse conservation agriculture and IPM practices in Illangama

Ghana

Review meeting 18 May 2013

Farmers/NGO/Extension 15 4 . Naab, Kanton, and Prasad Summarizing results and prepare for field plantings



Date Audience




Review meeting 16 – 19 July

Farmers/NGO/Extension 28 23 Naab, Kanton and. Prasad Discuss the progress and future planning

Field days July and August 2013

Farmers/NGO/Extension 45 27 Naab and other partners For farmers to observe differences in crop growth at vegetative stage in Mother trial

Haiti Workshop at Corporant, Haiti

Jan 30, 2013

25 agronomists and agricultural technicians 24 1 Virginia Tech LTRA team, Zanmi Agrikol agronomists

Conservation Agriculture: Principles, methods, application, demonstration

Workshop at Corporant, Haiti

Jan 31, 2013

22 students at CFFL Agri-technical school 18 4 Virginia Tech LTRA team Conservation Agriculture: Principles, methods, application, demonstration

Workshop at Maissade, Haiti

Feb 1, 2013

25 agronomists and agricultural technicians 22 2 Virginia Tech LTRA team, Caritas agronomists

Conservation Agriculture: Principles, methods, application, demonstration

Seminar at Port au Prince, Haiti

Feb 6, 2013

15 students at FAMV-State University of Haiti 12 3 Virginia Tech LTRA team Conservation Agriculture: Principles, methods, application

Open discussion, question and answer

April 29, 2013 Farmers and local community 12 0

Virginia Tech, Zanmi Agrikol, USAID External Review Team

Conservation Agriculture Methods: Farmer Adoption, Gender Roles


April 30, 2013

Farmers and local community 7 8 Virginia Tech, Zanmi Agrikol, USAID External Review Team



May 1, 2013

Farmers and local community 9 7 Virginia Tech, Zanmi Agrikol, USAID External Review Team



Aug 6, 2013 Agronomists and Technicians 5 1 Virginia Tech

CAPS outcomes, methods to increase farmer participation


Aug 6, 2013

Agronomists and Technicians 7 1 Virginia Tech CAPS outcomes, methods to increase farmer participation


Aug 7, 2013

Agronomists and Technicians 5 0 Virginia Tech CAPS outcomes, methods to increase farmer participation

Seminar/training at Corporant

Oct 2, 2013

Smallholder farmers 14 10 Virginia Tech, Zanmi Agrikol

Training on methods for on-farm CAPS trials

Seminar/training at Lachateau

Oct 3, 2013

Smallholder farmers 15 11 Virginia Tech, Zanmi Agrikol

Training on methods for on-farm CAPS trials

Seminar/training at Maïssade

Oct 4, 2013

Smallholder farmers 13 7 Virginia Tech, Caritas Training on methods for on-farm CAPS trials



Date Audience




India Field day and farmers’ Training on “Maize-based Conservation Agriculture”, India

Sept 11, 2012

Village farmers 50 30 SMARTS, OUAT, India

-Promote maize based CAPS through demonstrations Train farmers on the basic concepts of CAPS in a maize-based farming system

Field day and farmers’ Training on “Harvesting, post harvest care and crop residue management”, India

Dec 13, 2012

Village farmers 51 49 SMARTS, OUAT, India

Demonstrate and promote the technology of maize-based CAPS and mustard cover crop residue retention Train farmers on the concepts of crop residue recycling

Lesotho

Field Trials

Week 3 of Feb, 2013

Core area’s lead farmers 15 8 Growing NationS Cover crops

Farmers’ training Feb 5, 2013

Farmers from Mpharane, Ha-Jobo, Braakfontein 3 6 Growing Nations Cover crops


Farmers from Mesitsaneng, Mataoeng & Ha-Joang 1 5 Growing Nations Cover crops


Morija Theological Seminary 8 9 Growing Nations CA

Farmers’ training Feb 27,2013

Farmers from Ha-khalo, Ha lelinyane 1 6 Growing Nations Cover crops


Farmers from Monyameng 5 1 Growing Nations Cover crops

Farmers’ field visit

Mar 4, 2013

Holy Cross farmers 4 0 Growing Nations CA field tour

Farmers’ Training

Mar 6, 2013

Farmers from Mapeleng & Majakaneng 6 7 Growing Nations Cover crops

Field day

April 5, 2013

NCATF team members, Minister of Agriculture & Food Security, minister, farmers from all core areas where GNT works, 2 schools

125 125 Growing Nations Launching of CA strategy, Farm tour

Farmers’ training

Mar 18-20, 2013

World Vision Quthing Farmers 11 5 Growing Nations CA principles, management keys & Cover Crops



Date Audience




Farmers’ training

Sept 23-24, 2013

RSDA farmers (Group 1) 12 12 Growing Nations CA principles, management keys & Cover Crops

Farmers’ training

Sept 25-26, 2013

RSDA farmers (Group 2) Growing Nations CA principles, management keys & Cover Crops

Field Visit

Mar 12, 2913

Rehobothe Church 4 0 Growing Nations CA field tour

Mozambique Community awareness

2013 Mozambique 267 183 CIMMYT CA principles

Evaluation meetings 2013 Mozambique 170 130 CIMMYT CA principles Farmer to farmer exchange

2013 Mozambique 55 114 CIMMYT CA principles

Field days 2013 Mozambique 356 346 CIMMYT CA principles Study tours 2013 Mozambique 10 2 CIMMYT CA principles trainings 2013 Mozambique 83 64 CIMMYT CA principles

Planning meetings 2013 Mozambique 20 2 CIMMYT CA principles

Nepal

Water-stable aggregate refresher training, USA

Feb 23-30, 2013

LI-BIRD soil specialist 1 0

Soil Ecology & Biogeochemistry Lab, Natural Resources & Environmental Management, University of Hawaii, USA

Build the capacity of lab analysis on Water Stable Aggregate Analysis through exchange knowledge/procedures between University of Hawaii and the Soil and Plant Analysis Lab of LI-BIRD

Farmers exposure visit to various research stations, Nepal

Dec 5-8, 2012

LI-BIRD staff, village farmers 16 11

LI-BIRD, HASERA, Kavre, HCRC-Dolakaha, Jiri Tech. School, Jiri Agri. & Livestock farm, Nepal

Build the capacity of farmers in the field of CAPS through an exposure visit to various research stations in Nepal Promote knowledge and enhance livelihoods through exposure alternate cultivation approaches



Date Audience




IPM training to farmers from three SMARTS project sites, Nepal

Oct 8, 2012

Village farmers 18 9 District Agriculture Development Office, Dhading, Nepal

Promote an organic and integrated farming system for supporting a healthy environment and improving family health Learn methods to avoid the heavy use of synthetic fertilizers and insecticides in the farming system

On-farm CAPS workshop, Thumka village, Nepal

Dec 16, 2012

Thumka village farmers 10 5 SMARTS team of LI-BIRD, Gairapatan, Pokhara, Nepal

Understand how the various CAPS treatments can benefit income and livelihoods Learn how to minimize the cost of production and increase income through farmers preference for CAPS

On-farm CAPS workshop, Hyakrang village, Nepal

Dec 18, 2012

Hyakrang village farmers 12 4 SMARTS team of LI-BIRD, Gairapatan, Pokhara, Nepal


F-CASA Conference, Nepal

Mar 26, 2013

Researchers, NGO staff, government personnel, students

45 14 SANREM, Virginia Tech; University of Hawaii, USA; LI-BIRD, Nepal

- Share the research activities and development status of CAPS in South Asia -Present recent CAPS research in the fields of: agronomy, economics, soil, gender, and food security Build capacity and strengthen networks of researchers, government, and NGOs working with CAPS

F-CASA Field day, Nepal

March 27, 2013

Researchers, NGO staff, government personnel, students

5 2 LI-BIRD, Nepal

Demonstrate conservation agriculture / agro-forestry related technologies in the mountain environment for attendees of the F-CASA Conference



Date Audience




On-farm CAPS workshop, Khola Gaun village, Nepal

Dec 20, 2012

Khola Gaun village farmers 8 6 SMARTS team of LI-BIRD, Gairapatan, Pokhara, Nepal


The Philippines

Training on Rubber Nursery & Budwood Establishment for Conservation Agriculture with Trees

July 3-4, 2013

Farmers, Barangay Government personnel, cooperative members & officers

40 12 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Acquire additional knowledge on rubber technology

Educational Field Visit to SANREM Conservation Agriculture with Trees (CAT ) research farm

July 10-11, 2013

Researcher, farmers, LGU, PO’s 10 4 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Explore future research collaboration

Field Visit to SANREM Conservation Agriculture with Trees Farm

Oct 10, 2012

Municipal agriculture officer, Municipal Council members, agricultural technicians, farmersfrom Lanao del Norte

34 5 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gainknowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented in Claveria

Nursery & Budwood Garden Establishment Training for conservation agriculture with trees

Oct 26, 2012

Farmers 22 9 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gainmore knowledge in relation to rubber production



Date Audience




l Field visit to SANREM Conservation Agriculture with Trees Research farm

Nov 6, 2012

Provincial agriculture officer, agricultural technicians

21 21 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gainknowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented in Claveria

Conservation agriculture with trees consultation meeting and field visit to CAT farm

Nov 13, 2012

Researchers, farmers, consultants 36 9 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Farmers’ Meeting (w/ Denise Matias)

Educational Field Visit to SANREM Conservation Agriculture with Trees Research Farm

Nov 15, 2012

LGU-Manolo, farmers, agriculture technicians 28 25 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gainknowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented

Team Meeting on Project Consultation and Validation Activity

Jan 25, 2013

Researchers, consultants, 1 7 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Discussion related to the incoming activities

Team training; Philippines

Jan 25 2013

SANREM/ICRAF team 3 4 Christie Harman Prepare FGD

Farmer restitution and field day

Jan 26 2013

Farmers involved in Gender CCRA household research in summer 2012

17 16

, Christie and Harman Site Coordinator for SANREM SE Asia LTRA, Jun Mercado

Explain results of mapping, interviews, and soils analysis. Introduce CAP.

CAT Research Project Results Presentation & Field Day

Jan 27, 2013

Researcher, consultant, farmers CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Project result presentation of Mary Harman’s research


Mar 6, 2013

DENR regional staff 1 2 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Conduct agroforestry documentation



Date Audience





Mar 7, 2013

Agroforestry students 19 8 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gain knowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented


Mar 8, 2013

Farmers, researchers 16 9 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gain knowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented


Mar 14, 2013

Consultant, Researchers, Farmers (Jassa & Noel Vock’ visit)

18 14 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria


Mar 14, 2013 Provincial Agriculture Council of Misamis Oriental 24 8

CRDFI, ICRAF- CRDFI, Claveria

Gainknowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented

Farmers Cooperators’ Meeting

Mar 15, 2013

SANREM CAPS Farmer and researchers 8 8 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria SANREM CAPS farmer- managed project updates and field visit to experimental sites


Mar15, 2013

Researchers, consultant from DA-NOMIARC 2 3 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Project related discussion



Date Audience





Mar 24, 2013

Researchers/Consultants 2 2 CRADFI, ICRAF-Claveria Agroforestry project related discussions


April 6, 2013

Consultants/Researchers

7 4 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Project related discussion


April 10, 2013 (AM) (PM) another set of visitors

MOSCAT President and other visitors 6 2 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gainknowledge on agroforestry technologies/practices implemented


April 12, 2013

LGU-Camp Philips, Bukidnon

13 30 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gainknowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented

Conservation with Trees Field Lecture & Visit

April 29, 2013

City Government of Iligan 87 26 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria

Gainknowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented


May 21, 2013

UNI-FRUITY Philippines personnel 4 1 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Agroforestry Project Related Discussion



Date Audience





May 23, 2013

Provincial Agriculture Council of Misamis Oriental 8 20 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gainknowledge on Agroforestry Technologies/practices implemented

Project Team Meeting May 24, 2013

United Rubber Planters & Processor Association members

15 3 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria/Department of Agriculture - X

United Rubber Planters & Processor Association Meeting & Project Presentation


May 24, 2013

NestlePhilippines personnel 1 2 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Gather various information on Agroforestry Farm in Claveria

Educational field visit to SANREM Conservation Agriculture with Trees research farm

June 11, 2013

Nestle Philippines personnel 1 3 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Informal discussion on agroforestry topics


June 26, 2013

Researchers 3 3 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Observe agroforestry practices in Claveria


July 16, 2013

LGU’s form DA WESVIARC (Farmers, DA, DENR , MAO

23 22 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Explore agroforesty farm practices in the region



Date Audience





July 23, 2013

Midasayap faculty and staff 5 13 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Acquire additional knowledge related to Agroforestry practices implemented.


August 1, 2013

Agricultural extensionist & farmers 15 15 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Observe d agroforestry technologies being practiced

Short course on Zero tillage demonstration on corn dibble planting

August 2, 2013

Farmers, LGU 23 19 CRDFI, ICRAF-Clvaeria Acquire possible technique of planting corn in simple way.


August 6, 2013

Farmers, Barangay officials, researchers 15 12 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Acquire knowledge of agroforestry practices.


August 6, 2013

Farmers, LGU officials, MAO, agricultural technologist

20 16 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Observed various agroforetsry technologies being implemented


August 7, 2013

Barangay Kagawad, Barangay Health Workers, Framers, MPDO, BNS, AT’s

21 14 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Lecture & actual exposure on diversified integrated organic farming system



Date Audience





August 30, 2013

Farmers, Barangay Captains, Barangay Kagawad, 18 22 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Ackquire knowledge related to agroforestry practices

Rubber Nursery & Budwood

April 18-19, 2013

Farmers, Researchers 19 10 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria Rubber Nursery & Practices

Garden Establishment & Management for Conservation Agriculture with Trees Training

April 18, 2013

Bureau of Agriculture Statistic Office (BAS) 1 1 Mercado Inquire information related to agroforestry practices implemented in the region

Project Mid-term Evaluation

June 22-24, 2013

Researchers, Academe, LGU, 8 5 CRADFI, ICRAF-Claveria Project midterm evaluation


June 27-29, 2013

Researchers 3 3 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria In-depth acquisition of knowledge on agroforestry

Rubber-Based Agroforestry Farming System Training for Conservation Agriculture with Trees

Nov 27-29, 2013

Researchers, LGU-Officials, Agriculture Technicians

19 12 CRDFI, ICRAF-Claveria To observe and gained knowledge on agroforestry technologies/practices implemented



Date Audience




Tanzania

Short-Course Mar 11-15 2013

Faculty and doctoral students at Sokoine University of Agriculture

15 11 OIRED/Virginia Tech

Understand and use basic social network analysis (SNA) terms and concepts. Explain how alternative approaches to SNA address different types of problems. Compare and contrast different applications of SNA. Understand and apply basic SNA research tools

Uganda

Planning Workshop Dec 2-3, 2013

Management and field research staff of the three host organizations (MHAC, SACRED, and ATU) 5 4 University of Wyoming

Planning for the final Year 5 SANREM research activities and budgeting for the same

Reflection and planning meeting

Feb 7-8, 2013

Molo, Osuna’s, and Odoi’s farmers groups 6 25 AT Uganda Review of CA trials performances and plan for 2013

Marketing research survey

October, 2012

Agro vets, M pesa operators, middlemen, high school teachers, millers, National Cereal and Produce Board

7 11 University of Wyoming and Manor House Agricultural Centre

Identify bottlenecks in the marketing channels with a goal of making policy recommendations, and proposing ideas for additional projects and research

Marketing research survey

October, 2012

Agro vets, M pesa operators, middlemen, high school teachers, millers, National Cereal and Produce Board

7 11 University of Wyoming and Manor House Agricultural Centre

Identify bottlenecks in the marketing channels with a goal of making policy recommendations, and proposing ideas for additional projects and research

Farmer to Farmer exchange visit

Nov 30-Dec 1, 2012

Kapchorwa and Tororo host farmers 9 9 AT Uganda Expose farmers to CA in other areas to reinforce learning

Workshop Feb 9, 2013

Kapchorwa Farmers 18 11 Manor House Agric. Centre Equip farmers with skills in land preparation, planting, and weeding using oxen and donkeys drawing MFI

Reflection and Training Workshop

Apr 10, 2013

Tororo host farmers and their group representatives

7 9

University of Wyoming, Manor House Agricultural Centre, SEATEC, and AT Uganda

Discuss and reflect upon the performance of trials in previous seasons, and gauge farmers’ evolving understanding and adoption of CA options



Date Audience





Apr 11, 2013

Kapchorwa host farmers and their group representatives

18 11

University of Wyoming, Manor House Agricultural Centre, SEATEC and AT Uganda



Apr 23, 2013

Trans Nzoia and Bungoma host farmers 9 2 SEATEC, Manor House Agricultural Centre, and SACRED Africa



Apr 23, 2013

Trans Nzoia and Bungoma host farmers 9 2 SEATEC, Manor House Agricultural Centre, and SACRED Africa


Field Day on CAPS, MFI, and Biointensive agriculture

Sep 12, 2013

160 participants, including 24 farmers and staff from ATU, 12 from Trans-Nzoia and 6 from Bungoma. Others included regional partners from Eldoret University and various agricultural stakeholders from Trans-Nzoia and Bungoma Counties including the Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya Seed Company, Syngenta and other Agrovet dealers, two local community radio service representatives, and members of Trans-Nzoia County Stakeholders Forum.

100 60

University of Wyoming, University of Eldoret, Manor House Agricultural Centre, SEATEC, AT Uganda, and SACRED Africa

Show case ongoing on-station CAPs research including testing the MFI and appraise its performance plus a tour of other intensive farming technologies promoted by Manor House. Theme of the field day was “Attaining Economically and Environmentally Sustainable Maize Production through CAPs

Workshop Oct 18-20, 2012

Kaplak and Kwosir farmers groups 15 12 AT Uganda Gender mainstreaming training

Socio –Economic Impact Survey

Nov 23-24, 2012

Trans Nzoia host farmers 5 4 University of Wyoming and Makere University, Uganda

Evaluation of the costs and benefits of CAPs compared to conventional farming practices

USA

Internship class Jan- May 2013

Undergraduate interns and graduate student 1 6 Alwang, Bosch, Norton

One-credit internship class. Covered social, economic and cultural conditions in Ecuador, conservation agriculture, field work, design of choice experiments, Spanish language training



Date Audience




Student workshop May 8 2013

Virginia Tech students 4 7 OIRED-Gender CCRA Prepare students for upcoming fieldwork using participatory, qualitative methodologies

Short course

23-25 July 2013

Manor House Agricultural Center scientists and staff

3 0 Virginia Tech ACE automated soil CO2 sampling units – installation, calibration, and data collection from CAPS study

Researcher exposure visit and project training, Hawaii, USA

Sept 18-24 2013

OUAT and IAAS professors 2 0 University of Hawaii, USA

-Demonstrate farming and experimental field design at the University of Hawaii Expose visitors to commercial coffee production at both large and small scales from farm to market Build capacity for project budgeting, management, and reporting Sshare cross country experiences within the project

242

SANREM publications, presentations and other products Articles Published in Refereed Publications

Dalton T., Yahaya, I., and Naab, J. B. 2013. Perceptions and performance on conservation agricultural practices in northwestern Ghana. Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment (In press).

Ella, V. B.,Keller, J., Reyes, M. R., and Yoder, R. 2013. A low-cost pressure regulator for improving the water distribution uniformity of a microtube-type drip irrigation system. Applied Engineering in Agriculture (in press).

Escudero, L., Delgado, J. A., Monar, C., Valverde, F., Barrera, V., and Alwang, J. 2013. A new Nitrogen Index for assessment of nitrogen management practices of Andean mountain cropping systems of Ecuador. Mountain Research and Development (In Review).

Harman, M., Christie, M. E., and Bagares, I. 2013. Gender and conservation agriculture production systems: Constraints and opportunities in the Philippines. GeoJournal, (In Review).

Monar, C., Saavedra, A. K., Escudero, L., Delgado, J. A., Alwang, J., Barrera, V., and Botello, R. 2013. Positive impacts in soil and water conservation in an Andean region of South America: Case scenarios from a US Agency for International Development multidisciplinary cooperative project. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 68(1):25A-30A.

Moore, K. M., Lamb, J. N., Laker-Ojok, R., Sikuku, R. N., Ashilenji, D.S., and Norton, J. Multiple knowledges for agricultural production: Implications for the development of conservation agriculture in Kenya and Uganda. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension (In Review).

Moore, K. M. 2013. Review of: Contested Agronomy: Agricultural Research in a Changing World. Sumberg and Thompson (eds.). Agricultural Systems 116:3-4

Nguema, A., Norton, G. W., Alwang, J., Taylor, D. B., Barrera, V., and Bertelsen, M. 2013. Farm Level Impacts of Conservation Agriculture in Ecuador. Experimental Agriculture, 49:134-147.

Saavedra, A. K., Delgado, J. A., Botello, R., Mamani, P., and Alwang, J. 2013. A new Nitrogen Index to assess nitrogen dynamics in potato systems of Bolivia. Agrociencia (In Review).


Stewart, R. E., Hodges, S. C., Mulvaney, M. J., Pavuluri, K., Thomason, W. E. Rhizosphere phosphorus solubility and plant uptake as affected by crop in a clay soil from the Central Plateau Region of Haiti. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. Manuscript no. LCSS-2012-0365. Submitted July 27, 2012. (In Review).

Testen A. L., Jimenez-Gasco, M.,Ochoa, J. B., and Backman, P. A. 2013. Molecular detection of Peronospora variabilis in quinoa seeds and phylogeny of the quinoa downy mildew pathogen in South America and the United States. Phytopathology 103: Accepted in Press.

Testen, A. L., McKemy, J. M., Backman, P. A. 2013. First report of Ascochyta leaf spot of Quinoa caused by Ascochyta sp. in the United States. Plant Disease 97(6):844

Testen, A. L., McKemy, J. M., and Backman, P. A. 2013. First report of Passalora leafspot of quinoa caused by Passalora dubia in the United States. Plant Disease 97(1):139.

Books/Book Chapters

Alwang, J., Norton, G. W., Barrera, V., and Botello, R. 2013. Conservation agriculture in the Andean highlands: Promise and precautions. In: Mann, S. (ed.), The Future of Mountain Agriculture, Springer Geography, Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.

Halbrendt, J., Shariq, L., Lai, C., Idol, T., Ray, C., Roul, P. K., and Mishra, K. N. 2013. Development of an integrated approach for introducing conservation agricultural practices to the tribal communities of Odisha, India. In: Mulvaney, M.J., M. R. Reyes, C. Chan-Halbrendt, S. Boulakia, K. Jumpa, C. Sukvibool and S. Sobatpanit (eds). Conservation Agriculture in Southeast Asia and Beyond. WASWAC Special Publication No. 7. 73-84. Bangkok, Thailand: Funny Publishing.

Lai, C., Chan-Halbrent, C., Halbrendt, H., Naik, D., and Ray, C. 2013. Farmers’ preference of conservation agricultural practices in Kendujhar, Odisha using the analytic hierarchy process. In: Mulvaney, M.J., M. R. Reyes, C. Chan-Halbrendt, S. Boulakia, K. Jumpa, C. Sukvibool and S. Sobatpanit (eds). Conservation Agriculture in Southeast Asia and Beyond. WASWAC Special Publication No. 7. 85-98. Bangkok, Thailand: Funny Publishing.

Melnick, R. L., Bailey, B. A., Backman, P. A. 2013. Bacterial Endophytes of Perennial Crops for Management of Plant Disease. In: Maheshwari D.K. Ed. Bacteria in Agrobiology: Disease Management, 49-76. Springer Books, Berlin Heidelberg.


Mercado, A. R. Jr., Reyes, M., Ella, V., and Boulakia, S. 2012. Conservation agriculture research in the Philippines. In: Mulvaney, M.J., M. R. Reyes, C. Chan-Halbrendt, S. Boulakia, K. Jumpa, C. Sukvibool and S. Sobatpanit (eds). Conservation Agriculture in Southeast Asia and Beyond. WASWAC Special Publication No. 7. Bangkok, Thailand: Funny Publishing.

Moore, K. M., Myers, J., and Clements, C. 2013. Small farmer choice and decision making for sustainable soil management. In: Lal, R. and B.A. Stewart. Managing the Soils of Smallholder Agriculture. Taylor & Francis. (Forthcoming)

Mulvaney, M. J., Reyes, M. R., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Boulakia, S., Jumpa, K., Sukvibool, C., and Sobatpanit, S. (eds). Conservation Agriculture in Southeast Asia and Beyond. WASWAC Special Publication No. 7. Bangkok, Thailand: Funny Publishing.

Theses and Dissertations

Arévalo, J. 2013. Evaluación de sistemas de labranza, uso de suelo y fertilización en el cultivo de papa (Solanum tuberosum L.) en la microcuenca del río Illangama, provincia Bolívar. Agroforestry engineering thesis. Guaranda, Ecuador: Universidad Estatal de Bolívar.

Bisangwa, E. 2013. The influence of conservation agriculture adoption on input demand and maize production in Butha Buthe, Lesotho. MS thesis. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee.

Bruns, M.R. 2012. Optimizing maize planting date, plant population, and fertilizer application rates for Lesotho subsistence farmers. MS Thesis. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennesse.

Bruns, W. A. 2012. Energy balance and carbon dioxide flux in conventional and no-till maize fields in Lesotho, Southern Africa. MS Thesis. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennesse.

Harman, M. 2013. Using Qualitative Geographic Information Systems to Explore Gendered Dimensions for Conservation Agriculture Productions Systems in the Philippines: A Mixed Methods Approach. MS thesis. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

McNair, W. E. 2013. Assessing the influence of conservation agriculture on household wellbeing and Maize Marketing in Tete and Manica, Mozambique. MS thesis. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee.


Montúfar C. 2013. Caracterización y modelamiento de las microcuencas de los ríos Illangama y Del Alumbre con la utilización del Modelo Hidrológico Generalizad Wathershed Loading Function (GWLF). MS Thesis. Quito, Ecuador. Universidad Internacional SEK.

Owori, M. O. and D. Peck. 2013. Conservation agriculture in Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya: assessment of beneficiaries’ baseline socio-economic conditions. M.S. thesis. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming.

Stewart, R. E. 2012. Physical and chemical parameters of common soils in the Central Plateau region of Haiti. MS thesis. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic and State University.

Testen, A. L. 2012. Microbial approaches to support Andean quinoa production. MS Thesis. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

Webber, K., 2013. Evaluation of the Effect of Liming on the Phosphorus Availability in Andisols. MS Thesis: University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

Extension Publications/Learning Tools

Odhiambo, J., Norton, U., Ngosia, D., Omondi, E., and Norton, J. 2012. Maize-bean farming and seasonal greenhouse gas (GHG) Emissions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming Extension.

Moore, K. M. and Gunter, J. L. 2013. Social Network Analysis – An introductory short course. iAGRI/SANREM.

Conference Proceedings

Hauswirth, D., Pham, T. S., Nicetic, O., Tivet, F., Le Quoc, D., Van de Fliert, E., Kirchhof, G., Boulakia, S., Chabierski, S., Husson, O., Chabanne, A., Boyer, J., Autfray, P., Lienhard, P., Legoupil, J. C., and Stevens, M. L. (eds). 2012. Conservation Agriculture and Sustainable Upland Livelihoods. Innovations for, with and by Farmers to Adapt to Local and Global Changes. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Conservation Agriculture in Southeast Asia. Held in Hanoi, Vietnam, 10th-15th December 2012. Montpellier, France: CIRAD; Phu Tho, Viet Nam: NOMAFSI; Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland.


SANREM Working Papers

Harman, M., Christie, M. E. and Mulvaney, D. M. (2013) Gender and Local Knowledge: Linking farmers’ perceptions of soils with fertility analysis in the Philippines. Geoderma, Working Paper.

Lamb, J. N., Moore, K. M., Marake, M., Lambert, D., Wilcox, M., Eash, N. et al. 2013. Agricultural Actors, Networks, and Farmer Identity: Examining Perspectives and Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in Botha Bothe, Lesotho. SANREM CRSP Working Paper No. 01-13.

World Wide Web Sites and Documents

Loeffler, A. 2013. Agriculture vs. gender culture. Agrilinks, ed. USAID. Available as http://agrilinks.org/blog/agriculture-vs-gender-culture.

Moore, K. M. 2013. “The Multi-Functional Implement: A tool to jump-start development”. Agri-Links Blog. USAID; http://agrilinks.org/blog/multi-functional-implement-tool-jump-start-development.

Moore, K. M. 2013. Video on community-driven development and social capital. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqaL_Bbxj-Q&feature=youtu.be.

Papers/ Seminars Presented

Crow, S. E., Radovich, T., Paudyal, P., Paudel, B., Halbrendt, J., Tamage, B. B., and Thapa, K. 2013. Supporting maintenance of soil quality and sustainable production through implementation of Conservation Agriculture Production Systems (CAPS) in rainfed, sloping land farming of the mid-hill region of Nepal. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Dalton T, Yahaya, I., and Naab, J. B. 2013. Perceptions and performance on conservation agricultural practices in northwestern Ghana. Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment (In press).

Halbrendt, J., Reed, B., Radovich, T., and Tamang, B. B. 2013. Gender implications for agricultural labor in the Mid-hills of Nepal with the introduction of conservation agriculture practices. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

http://agrilinks.org/blog/agriculture-vs-gender-culture



http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqaL_Bbxj-Q&feature=youtu.be


Harman, M., Christie, M. E., Bagares, I., Mercado, A., Ella, V., and Reyes, M. 2013. Using qualitative GIS to explore gendered dimensions for CAPS in the Philippines: A mixed methods approach. Paper presented at the Association of American Geographers, Los Angeles, California, 10 April 2013.

Paudel, B., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Norton, G., Nguema, A., and Sharma, G. B. 2013. Economic Analysis of conservation agriculture in maize-based farming systems in Nepal. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Paudel, B., Radovich, T., Crow, S., Halbrendt, J., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Tamang, B. B., and Reed, B. 2013. Using competition ratios and total revenue parameters to assess millet and legume intercropping under conservation agriculture production systems in Nepal. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Pradhan, A., Idol, T., Roul, P. K., Mishra, K. N., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Halbrendt, J., and Ray, C. 2013. Effect of tillage and intercropping on crop productivity, profitability and soil fertility under tribal farming situations of India. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Pudasaini, R. and Pande, K. R. 2013. Managing tillage and FYM for enhancing maize production and soil properties in Mid-hills of Nepal. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Reed B., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Halbrendt, J., and Roul, P. 2013. Measuring the economic impact of conservation agriculture adoption in rural India using linear programming and economic surplus analysis. Presented at the University of Hawaii at Manoa College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR) and College of Engineering (COE) 2013 Student Research Symposium, Honolulu, Hawaii, 12-13, April 2013.

Reed, B., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Tamang, B. B., Halbrendt, J., and Chaudhary, N. K. 2013. Using analytic hierarchy process to understand smallholder perceptions of conservation agriculture adoption in Nepal and India. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.


Reed, B., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Lai, C., Radovich, T., and Limbu, P. 2013. Economic analysis of farm labor and profitability of three tribal villages in the central middle hills region of Nepal. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26, March 2013.

Reed, B., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Habrendt, J., and Roul, P. K. 2013. Using multiple objective linear programming and economic surplus analysis to predict the economic impact of CA adoption: A case study in Odisha, India. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Roul, P. K., Ray, P., Mishra, K. N., Dash, S. N., Barik, E., Chan, C., Idol, T. W., Pradhan, A., and Ray, C. 2013. Influence of maize-based conservation agricultural practices (CAPs) on productivity, profitability and soil fertility in rain-fed uplands of Odisha. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Roul, P. K., Ray, P., Mohanty, T. R., Mishra, K. N., Chan-Halbrendt, C.,. Idol, T.W., Pradhan, A., and Ray, C. 2012. conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) in tribal societies of India. Presented at the Annual Convention of American Society of Agronomy, Cincinnati, OH, 22 October 2012.

Electronic Presentations

Alwang, J. Conservation agriculture as a potential pathway to better resource management, higher productivity, and improved socio-economic conditions in the Andean region. Presented to SANREM Exrernal Evaluation Panel, Blacksburg, VA, March 2013.

Bashaasha and Mukhwana, E. 2012. Social networks and smallholder conservation agriculture in East Africa. Presented at the Symposium on Conservation Agriculture for Improving Food Security and Livelihoods. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America International Annual Meetings, Cincinnati, Ohio, 21-24 October 2012.

Boulakia, S. 2012. Creation and adaptation of direct seeding mulch based cropping systems for Cambodian upland. Presented at the Third International Conservation Agriculture Conference in Southeast Asia, Hanoi, Vietnam, December 2012.

Boulakia, S. Creation and adaptation of direct seeding mulch based cropping systems for tropical upland in South-East Asia. Presented at the Third International Conservation Agriculture Conference in Southeast Asia, Hanoi, Vietnam, 10-15


December 2012, and at the SANREM and ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012. 2012.

Christie, M. E. 2012. Gender in SANREM CRSP projects. Presentation for the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH. October 20, 2012.

Christie, M. E. and Sumner, D. 2013. Documenting the gendered nature of tillage: Identifying gender-based constraints and opportunities to conservation agriculture in Battambang Province, Cambodia. Presented at the University of Battambang. Battambang, Cambodia. January 16, 2013.

Christie, M. E. SWOT analysis SANREM CRSP gender CCRA. Presentation for the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 21 October 2012.

Christie, M. E., Harman, M., Dayo, H., Mercado, A., Ella, V., and Reyes, M. 2012. Gendered soils knowledge, access to resources, and agricultural practices in the Philippines. Presentated at the ASA/CSSA/and SSSA International Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 22 October 2012.

Crow, S. E., Radovich, T., Paudyal, P., Paudel, B., Halbrendt, J., Tamage, B. B., and . Thapa, K. 2013. Supporting maintenance of soil quality and sustainable production through implementation of Conservation Agriculture Production Systems (CAPS) in rainfed, sloping land farming of the mid-hill region of Nepal. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Dash, S. 2013. Sustainable management of Agroecological resources for tribal societies (SMARTS). Presented before all the team members at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, 24 September, 2013.

Delgado, J. A. 2013. Conservation practices are essential land management strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation. 17th World Congress of the International Soil Conservation Organization (ISCO), Medellin, Columbia, 10 July 2013.

Delgado, J. A., Alwang, J., Escudero, L., Saavedra, A. K., Monar, C., Barrera, V., and Botello, R. 2013. Assessment of nitrogen dynamics and cropping system sustainability in the Andean region of South America with a new tool available for computers and smartphones devices (App). 17th World Congress of the International Soil Conservation Organization, Medellin Columbia, 10 July 2013.


Edralin, D., Hok, L., Le, K., Williams, M., and Reyes, M. 2012.The Oasissofa: Application of conservation agriculture in urban vegetable production. Presented at the Third International Conservation Agriculture Conference in Southeast Asia, Hanoi, Vietnam, December 2012.

Edralin, D. I. A., Hok, L., LeNgoc, K., Williams, M., Gayle, G., Raczkowski, C., and Reyes, M. R. Conservation agriculture in urban deserts. Presented at ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Ella, V. B., Reyes, M. R., and Mercado, Jr., A. Analysis of TDR-measured soil moisture retention and soil organic matter variability under conservation agriculture production systems in Claveria, Misamis Oriental. Presented at the 62nd PSAE Annual National Convention, Puerto Princesa, The Philippines, 23-27 April 2012. 2012.

Escudero, L. Costs of production, conservation agriculture. Presented to a workshop on evaluation of impacts of agricultural research, Estación Experimental Santa Catalina del INIAP. 6 March 2013.

Halbrendt, J., Reed, B., Radovich, T., and Tamang, B. B. 2013. Gender implications for agricultural labor in the Mid-hills of Nepal with the introduction of conservation agriculture practices. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Harman, M., Christie, M. E. , Bagares, I., Mercado, A., Ella, V., and Reyes, M. Using qualitative GIS to explore gendered dimensions for CAPS in the Philippines: A mixed methods approach. Presented at the Association of American Geographers, Los Angeles, California, 10 April 2013.

Kennedy, N. and Amacher, G. 2012. The Utilization of soil conservation practices in Central Haiti. Presented at the ASA, CSSA, and SSSA Annual Meetings, Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Kennedy, N. Household Decision-Making and Climatic Risk in Central Haiti. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Agricultural Economics Association, Washington, DC, 5 August 2013.

Lai, C., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Halbrendt, J., Ray, C., and Naik, D. 2013. Highlighting mental perception gaps between professional and farm of four conservation agricultural treatments: a focus on Tentuli Village, Kendjuhar, India. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.


Lambert D. Smallholder Adoption of Conservation Agriculture and GHG Reduction Potential in Mozambique and Lesotho. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Agricultural Economics Association, Washington, DC, 5 August 2013.

Le, K., Williams, M., and Reyes, M. 2012. The oasissofa: Application of conservation agriculture in urban vegetable production. Presented at the Third International Conservation Agriculture Conference in Southeast Asia, Hanoi, Vietnam, December 2012.

Monar, C., Silva, D., Delgado, J., Villafuerte, O., and Villafuerte, L. 2013. Indice de Nitrogeno Version 4.4.1. Aplicado para la producción de quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Will) en Ecuador. IV Congreso mundial de la Quinua, Ibarra, Ecuador 8 - 12 July 2013.

Moore, K. M. 2012. Higher education to feed the future: The SANREM CRSP educating for sustainable innovation. Presented at the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 20-21 October 2012.

Moore, K. M., Lamb, J. N., Norton, J., Laker-Ojok, R., Nyachowo, J., Sikuku, D. N., Ashilenji, D. S., Bashaasha, B., and Mukhwana, E. 2012. Social networks and smallholder conservation agriculture in East Africa. Presented at the Symposium on Conservation Agriculture for Improving Food Security and Livelihoods. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America International Annual Meetings, Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Moore, K. M. 2013. Stakeholders, social network analysis and participatory innovation for conservation agriculture. Presented at the Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory (NDSSL) Spring Seminar Series. Blacksburg, VA, 5 February 2013.

Mukhwana, E. J and Tungani, J. O. 2013. Status report on three seasons of SANREM Research, 2011/2012. Presentation to members of School of Agriculture, SACRED Training Institute, Bungoma, Kenya, 22 March 2013.

Norton, G. and Nguema, A. 2012. CCRA-6 economic analysis and impact. Presented at the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 20 October 2012.

Norton, G. 2013. Economic impact assessment of SANREM. Presented to SANREM Review Team, Blacksburg, VA, 5 April 2013.

Norton, G. CCRA-6 Economic Analysis and Impact. Presented to the SANREM External Evaluation, Blacksburg, VA April, 2013.


Norton, J., Omondi, E., Norton, U., Ngosia, D. S., Odhiambo, J., Okeyo, J., Okalebo, J. R.,

and Oluko, P.S. 2012. Conservation agriculture for smallholder farms in Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya. Presented at the ASA, CSSA and SSSA Annual Meetings. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Odhiambo J. A., Norton, U., Norton, J. B., Laker-Ojok, R., Okalebo, R., Bashaasha, B., Arnould, E., Peck, E., Press, M., Mukhwana, E. J., Odera, J., Ashilenje, D., Tino, C., Nambozo, K., Okeyo, J.M., Odhiambo, J., Owori, M., Oluko, P., and Ogonga, P. 2012. Conservation agricultural production systems (CAPS) impact on greenhouse gas emissions, soil inorganic N and plant growth parameters in small holder farms in Kenya and Uganda. Presented at the ASA, CSSA and SSSA Annual Meetings. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Odhiambo J. A., Norton, U., Norton, J. B., Laker-Ojok, R., Okalebo, R., Bashaasha, B., Arnould, E., Peck, D., Press, M., Mukhwana, E. J., Odera, J., Ashilenje, D., Tino, G., Nambozo, K., Okeyo, J. M., Odhiambo, J., Owori, M., Oluko, P., and Ogonga, P. 2012. Assessing conservation agricultural production systems (CAPS) for small holder farmers in rain-fed farming system in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Presented at the ASA, CSSA and SSSA Annual Meetings. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Okeyo, J. 2012. Progress of SANREM research and Borlaug leap fellowship long term reduced tillage study. Presentation at the Borlaug Leap Fellows World Food Prize Symposium, Des Moines, IA, 15-19 October 2012.

Paudel, B., presented by Norton, G. Economics of transition from conventional to conservation agriculture for subsistence agriculture systems in South Asia : A Case Study from Nepal. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Agricultural Economics Association, Washington, DC, 5 August 2013.

Sikuku, D.N, Omondi, E.C. , Norton, J.B., and Okalebo, J.R. 2013. SANREM LTRA-10: Development and transfer of conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) for smallholder farms in eastern Uganda and western Kenya. Presented at Examining Opportunities for Linkages in Collaborative Research, Technology Dissemination, and Human and Institutional Capacity Development CRSP Council, Morogoro, Tanzania, 5-7 March 2013.

Webber, K., Alvarado, S. P., Stehouwer, R. C., and Farías, D. 2013. Soil Science Society of America meetings, November, 2013.


Reyes, M. R., Edralin, D. J., Aebeyo, A., McDaniel, R. et al. 2013. Oasissofas: A paradigm for high school students to experientially learn soil and water quality concepts. Oral presentation at the 2013 Water Education Summit: Making a Difference in Your Community. Chattanooga, TN, 24-26 September 2013.

Reyes, M. R., Armstrong, M., Keefer, M., Edralin, D. J., Le, K. N., and Hok, L. 2013. Conservation agriculture in urban landscapes. Oral presentation at the 2013 Annual International Meeting of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Kansas City, Missouri, 21-24, July, 2013.

Le, N. K. and Reyes, M. R.. 2013. Conceptual modification carbon sequestration component in the epic model for long-term simulation of conservation agriculture. Poster presented at the 2013 Annual International Meeting of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Kansas City, Missouri, 21-24, July 2013.

Mulvaney, M. J., Graham, M., Xia, K., Barrera, V. H., Botello, R., and Rivera, A. K. S. 2012. Soil Organic Matter Characterization in Bolivia and Ecuador. Presented at the ASA, CSSA and SSSA Annual Meetings. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Mulvaney, M. J., Graham, M., Xia, K., Barrera, V. H., Botello, R., and Rivera, A. K. S. 2012. Chemical stability of organic matter in the Andes. Presented at the ASA, CSSA and SSSA Annual Meetings. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Posters

Bisangwa, E., Wilcox, M. D., Lambert, D. M., Marake, M., Walker, F. R., Eash, N., and Park, W.M. 2012. Conservation agriculture in Lesotho: The drivers of adoption and the role of extension. Poster. Presented at the 8th Annual Conference of the National Association of Community Development Professionals, Park City, Utah, 20-23 May 2012 .

Bisangwa, E., Wilcox, M. D., Lambert, D. M., Marake, M., Walker, F. R., Eash, N., Moore, K., and Park, W. M. 2012. Conservation agriculture in Lesotho: residue use patterns among CA adopters vs. non-adopters. Poster. Presented at the 2012 SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 20-21 October 2012.

Bondad, R. M., Ella, V. B., Saludes, R., Reyes, M. R., and Mercado, A. R. 2012. Simulating the impact of conservation agriculture on corn yield in the Philippines Using the DSSAT Ceres-Maize Model. Poster. Presented at ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meeting., Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.


Dash, S. 2013. Sustainable management of Agroecological resources for tribal societies (SMARTS). Poster. Presented before all the team members at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, 24 September 2013.

Dhakal, S., Chaudhary, N. K., and Pande, K. R. 2013. Performance of the maize cultivars intercropped with legumes and non-legumes under midhills of Nepal. Poster. Presented at the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Edralin, D. J. and Reyes, M. R. 2013. Conservation Agriculture with drip irrigation in Siem Reap, Cambodia. Poster. Presented at the 2013 Water Education Summit: Making a Difference in Your Community. Chattanooga, TN, 24-26, September 2013.

Edralin, D. I. A., Hok, L., Kieu, L.-N., Gayle, G. A., Raczkowski, C. W., and Reyes, M. R. 2012. Urban conservation agriculture for food deserts. Poster. Presented at ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Edralin, D.J., Reyes, M. R., Le, K. N., Izhar, L. and Creason, S. 2013. Growing food while mimicking the forests. Poster presented at the 2013 Water Education Summit: Making a Difference in Your Community. Chattanooga, TN, 24-26, September 2013.

Gunter, J., Rivers, C., Eubank, S., Moore, K. M., Kuhlman, C., Lamb, J. N., Norton, J., Omondi, E., Ojok, R. L., Sikuku, D. N., Ashilenje, D., and Odera, J. 2012. Innovation networks and social contagion in East Africa. Poster. Presented at the Models of Infectious Disease Agent Study Network Meeting, Arlington, VA, 15 November 2012.

Harman, M., Christie, M. E., Agriesti, K., Sumner, D., Botello, R., Bagares, I., Mercado, J., Ella, V., Reyes, M., and Alwang, J. 2012. Gendered soils knowledge, practices, and access to assets in CAPS: Student research in the gender CCRA. Poster. Presented at the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 20 October 2012.

Himmelstein, J., and Katz, J. 2013. Education through collaboration: Improving food security with SANREM. Presented at the CRSP Council Meeting, Des Moines, IA, 14-15 October 2013.

Lamb, J. N., Moore, K. M., Norton, J., Omondi, E., Ojok, R. L., Sikuku, D. N., Ashilenje, D., and Odera, J. 2012. Social network analysis for strengthening conservation agriculture participatory research: A closer look at collaboration in the Mount Elgon Region of Kenya and Uganda. Poster. Presented at the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 21-22 October 2012.


McNair, W. E., Lambert, D. M., Wilcox, M. D., Eash, N, and Thierfelder, C. 2012. A first look at maize markets and demographics among conservation agriculture adopters and non adopters in Mozambique. Poster. Presented at the 2012 SANREM-CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 20-21 October 2012.

Mercado, A. R. Jr., Arcinal, G., Edralin, D. I., Ella, V., and Reyes, M. 2012. Developing conservation agriculture production systems for sloping acid upland in the Philippines. Poster. Presented at ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meeting. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Mishra, K. N., Roul, P. K., Dash, S. N., Mohanty, A., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Idol, T., Pradhan, A., and Ray, C. 2013. Influence of maize-based conservation agriculture production system (CAPS) on some basic soil indices in the hilly terrains of Odisha. Poster. The International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 March 2013.

Moore, K. M. 2012.Higher Education to Feed the Future: the SANREM CRSP Educating for Sustainable Innovation. Poster. Presented at the SANREM CRSP Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, 20-21 October 2012.

Omondi, E., Ngosia, D.S., Odhiambo, J. A., Norton, U., Okalebo, J. R., Oluko, P. S., Okeyo, J., Shibonje, D.A., Laker-Ojok, R., Owori, M. O., Peck, D., Bashaasha, B., Mukhwana, E. J., and Norton, J. 2012. Development and transfer of conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) for small-holder farms in Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya. Poster. Presented at the ASA, CSSA and SSSA Annual Meetings. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Pande, K. R. 2013. On station and on farm experiments on conservation agriculture in sloping lands of Nepal. Presented before all the team members at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, 24 September 2013.

Paudel, B., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Norton, G., Nguema, A., Limbu, P., Radovich, T., Crow, S., and Halbrendt, J. 2013. Economic analysis of conservation agriculture in maize-based farming system in Nepal. Poster. Presented at the University of Hawaii at Manoa College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR) and College of Engineering (COE) 2013 Student Research Symposium, Honolulu, HI, 12-13 April 2013.


Reed B., Chan-Halbrendt, C., Paudel, B., and Friday, J. B. 2013. Measuring the economic impact of conservation agriculture adoption in rural India using linear programming and economic surplus analysis. Poster. Presented at the University of Hawaii at Manoa College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR) and College of Engineering (COE) 2013 Student Research Symposium, Honolulu, HI, 12-13 April 2013.

Sumner, D., Christie, M. E., and Reyes, M. 2013. The Gendered Nature of Tillage in Conservation Agriculture in Cambodia. Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Geographers, Los Angeles, CA, 9-13 April 2013.

Tarnate, P. O., Ella, V. B. and Reyes, M. R. 2012. Modeling solute transport in soil under conservation agriculture production systems in the Philippines. Poster. Presented at ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meeting. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Testen, A., and Backman, P. 2013. Plant growth promoting characteristics of Bacillus species associated with chenopodium quinoa. Poster presented at American Phytopathological Society annual meeting, Austin, TX, August 2013.

Ella, V. B., Reyes, M.R., and Mercado, A. R. 2012. Variability of soil quality parameters under conservation agriculture production systems in the Philippines. Poster. Presented at ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meeting. Cincinnati, OH, 21-24 October 2012.

Fact Sheets(small ext. pubs.)

Tungani, J. O., and Sogomo, J. 2013. Farmers and Farm Hands Guidelines on the SANREM Experiment for Season 1, 2013. Bungoma, Kenya: SACRED Training Institute.

Videotapes

Katz, J. 2013. SANREM in Cambodia. Blacksburg, VA: Office of Outreach and International Affairs, Virginia Tech. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bx6jJjNI45M

Loeffler, A. 2013. Virginia tech soil scientists work in Haiti. Blacksburg, VA: Office of Outreach and International Affairs, Virginia Tech. Available at http://www.cals.vt.edu/news/multimedia/soil-scientists-haiti.html

http://www.cals.vt.edu/news/multimedia/soil-scientists-haiti.html


Magazine and Newspaper Articles

Exporting Conservation. Research: A Magazine of the Agricultural Research Program. Volume 9 2012.

Reports

Grabowski, P., Walker, F., Haggblade, S., Maria, R., and Eash, N. 2013. Conservation agriculture in Mozambique-Literature review and research gaps. Agricultural Research Institute of Mozambique.

Odhiamba, J. Maize-bean Farming and Seasonal Greenhouse Gas Emisssions in Sub-Saharan Africa –University of Wyoming field day research report

Influence of CAPS grain yield of crops. CSIR-SARI Annual Report, 2012

Abstracts

Adedayo A., Mahama, G. Y., Little, C., and Tesso, T. 2012. Response of sorghum genotypes to charcoal rot and Fusarium infection under three nitrogen fertilization regimes. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Cincinnati. OH, 21-24 October 2012

Harman, M., Christie, M. E., and Mulvaney, M. J. Gender and Soil Knowledge: Linking farmers’ perceptions of soils with fertility analysis in the Philippines. Abstract accepted to the SouthEast Division Association of American Geographers (SEDAAG), Roanoke, VA, 24-26 November, 2013.

Mahama, G.Y., Prasad, P. V. V., Mengel, D. B., and Tesso, T. T. 2013. Genetic difference in yield and nitrogen use efficiency traits in grain sorghum. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Cincinnati, OH 21-24 October, 2012.

Mahama, G.Y., Roozeboom, K., Mengel, D.B., and Prasad, P.V.V. 2013. Effect of double cropping on yield and biomass accumulation of cover crops in Kansas. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Tampa, FL 3-6 November 2012.

Mahama, G. Y., Prasad, P. V. V., Mengel, D. B., and Tesso, T. T. 2013. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on growth, yield and N use among grain sorghum genotypes. Soil Science Society of America - Nitrogen Use Efficiency Conference, Kansas City, MO, 13-15 August 2013.


Prasad, P. V. V., Naab, J. B., and Kanton, R. L. 2013. Sustainable intensification and resilient dryland cropping systems for sub-saharan Africa: Case study of Ghana. Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, 3-6 November, Tampa, FL, USA.

Prasad, P. V. V., Dalton, T. D., and Ares, A. 2013. Sustainable intensification and resilient dryland cropping systems: Opportunities in sub-saharan Africa. USAID, Innovation Lab Meeting, Accra, Ghana 8 July, 2013.

Sumner, D., Christie, M. E., and Boulakia, S. Gendered dimensions of conservation agriculture in pichangva village, Cambodia: Intra-household decision-making, access to resources, and the reallocation of labor. Abstract accepted to the SouthEast Division Association of American Geographers (SEDAAG), Roanoke, VA, 24-26 November, 2013.

259

USAID Common Indicators for SANREM Table 63. USAID Common Indicators

Indicator Documentation (list each relevant item by indicator category)

Beneficiaries

Increases in smallholder income 45-84% increase (India); 30% increase (Ghana)

Improved nutrition of smallholder families (increase in caloric and

protein intake)

13-30% increase in total food grain production in terms of maize yield equivalent (Nepal)

Number of male-headed rural households benefiting directly from

interventions 4094

Number of female-headed rural households benefiting directly from

interventions

160

Number of partner organizations and active institutional members of

those partner organizations

52 partner organizations; 961 members

Number of agriculture related firms benefiting directly from

interventions

28

Number of producer organizations assisted/benefiting

34

Number of water user associations assisted/benefiting

6

Number of trade and business associations assisted/benefiting

8

Number of community based organizations assisted/benefiting

10

Number of women’s organizations/associations

assisted/benefiting

5

Number of new public-private partnerships assisted/benefiting

4


Indicator Documentation (list each relevant item by indicator category)

Training Male participants in short-term training 3937

Female participants in short-term training 4110

Male participants in long-term training 38

Female participants in long-term training 31

Technologies Increase in crop yields 20% increase (Ecuador); 30% increase (Ghana);

2000% increase (Lesotho); 8-18% increase (Nepal); 120-160% increase (India)

Decrease in production costs No change (Ecuador); 20% decrease (Ghana); decrease (Lesotho); 10-15% decrease (Nepal);

$20.39/hectare/year (India) New technologies/management practices under research 61

Technologies or management practices being field tested 69

Technologies made available for transfer 27

Hectares under new technologies 4688

Number of farmers adopting new technologies 8657

New surveillance systems 10 (Kenya and Uganda); 7 (Nepal and India)

SANREMInnovationLab - USAID

Documents

Transcript of SANREMInnovationLab - USAID