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Candidate no. T 2 1 2 6 9

Module Title: Digital Industries and Internet Cultures

Module Code:(e.g. 5AABC123 ) 7AAYCC28

Essay no:(e.g. 1 or 2) 1

Essay Title:(may be abbreviated) Users role in Journalism Today

Assignment tutor/group: Dr. Tim Jordan

Deadline: 13th January 2014

Date Submitted: 13th January 2014

Word Count: 3834

The word count, which should preferably be calculated electronically,must be stated accurately above.For details of how to calculate the word count, please consult the Schoolhandbook. No penalty is exacted for work up to 5% above the word limit.Thereafter two marks will normally be deducted for every 5% above theword limit, until 50% is reached. After 50%, three marks will normally bededucted for each additional 5% above the word limit. These regulationsare laid down by the Boards of Examiners in the School of Arts &Humanities.

DECLARATION BY STUDENTThis assignment is entirely my own work. Quotations from secondaryliterature are indicated by the use of inverted commas around ALL such

quotations AND by reference in the text or notes to the author concerned.ALL primary and secondary literature used in this piece of work isindicated in the bibliography placed at the end, and dependence upon ANYsource used is indicated at the appropriate point in the text. I confirmthat no sources have been used other than those stated.I understand what is meant by plagiarism and have signed at enrolment thedeclaration concerning the avoidance of plagiarism.I understand that plagiarism is a serious examinations offence that mayresult in disciplinary action being taken.

Introduction

Michael Schudson (2003) states that journalism is,

“The business of a set of institutions that

publicizes periodically (usually daily)

information and commentary on contemporary

affairs, normally presented as true and sincere,

to a dispersed and anonymous audience so as to

publicly include the audience in a discourse

taken to be publicly important.”

This indicates that journalism is that commercial

model which aims at informing the society issued in

2

public interest. This conventional business model in

journalism has become obsolete due to economic,

social and technological developments (Kovach and

Rosenstiel, 2001) and is moving into a more advanced

phase where the consumers of news are becoming its

producers. Thus, ‘Journalism’ as a field has

drastically evolved and will continue to develop in

the future.

This essay takes upon the factors, which have led to

a radical shift in the field of journalism over the

last few decades and how and why the news industry is

no longer the only source of accessing information

across the world. It assesses users being one of the

main causes of a radical shift in business model of

journalism especially with the rise of web

technologies and critically analyzes their

contribution to journalism. It delves deeper into

3

their role in collection, creation and dissemination

of news and information and how it has evolved and

made its place in the field of journalism. This is

further supported by an analysis of iconic events

such as the London Bombings, Hurricane Katrina, the

26/11 attacks in Mumbai and other significant

incidents, which reflects role of users in

disseminating news. It further highlights the shift

of the role of users in journalism with the rise in

alternative media. It finally embarks upon its impact

on the social, cultural and political structure of

the world and how it is shaping the roadmap of news

reporting in the future.

Radical Shift in Journalism: An Overview

Journalism has been associated with creation and

dissemination of news via traditional media outlets

4

such as newspapers, magazines, radio and television,

which had continued to be a steady model for about a

century (Tuchman, 2002 cited in Domingo and Quandt et

al., 2008, pp. 326-342).

However, over the last few decades, the world has

seen many drastic transformations, which have led to

radical shifts in hierarchical structure journalism

today. These are:

Political Transformations, which include shifts in

government hierarchies and policies, (Franklin,

2012)

Social Transformations such as change in population

structures, it’s effect on the society as a whole

and privacy concerns of the publics (OECD, 2008)

and changes in the interests and demands of users

5

Economic Transformations, where traditional media

revenues have been affected through a shift in

advertising (Franklin, 2012, p. 633; OECD, 2008).

This has led to the rise of electronic commerce

on the Internet, which has driven advertisers

online.

Technological Transformations that not only involves the

rise in the use of Internet but also the

development of platforms which, enables users to

communicate more efficiently among each other. It

also facilitates statistical analysis of the

level of interaction among users on web platforms

(OECD, 2008). There is also the huge impact of

the expansive use of mobile media and other

portable devices, which has changed the way news,

is produced and consumed (Peters, 2012).

6

What’s interesting here is, that these

transformations are notably user-centric, who are

becoming the cause of this radical shift in a

professional journalist’s role as a part of the

larger business model.

According to Griffen-Foley (2004: 533) we do witness

the beginning of a different kind of journalism in

the 1800’s where users began to participate by

writing for periodicals and ‘confessional magazines’.

A concerned citizen who wasn’t a journalist by

profession was spreading information and expressing

views through brochures and pamphlets (Jurrat, 2011).

Citizens were still propagating their views to the

general public in this manner despite it being an

expensive mode to communicate to the masses.

Although, this kind of user participation did

7

continue to exist over the years, traditional media

outlets such as newspapers, magazines, radio and

television were still the quickest and more trusted

sources of news across the world. Whether it was the

World War II in 1945, the John F. Kennedy

assassination in 1963, or events as recent as the

9/11 attacks in 2001, the public would rely on

information broadcast by professional journalists

through these mediums (Gillmor, 2006). The 9/11

attacks caused a massive stir across the world. The

print media and television media contributed

immensely in broadcasting real time feeds and

publishing fine details of the attacks respectively,

for users to be more aware of the situation (Gillmor,

2006). The traditional news channels generated

massive traffic on their websites which eventually

crashed leading to readers across the world turning

to real-time eyewitness accounts that were being

8

emailed and published on blogs and forums online

(Bowman and Willis, 2009). It was the first time in

the history of news making that the consumer had

become the producer just as Rosen (2006) states in

his article for which Denison (2011) later coined the

term ‘Prosumer’.

The connotation of ‘Journalism’ associated with

professional journalists producing and disseminating

news has significantly declined as the users have

involved themselves in the ‘reporting and

broadcasting’ process. One doesn’t need to be

professionally qualified to be a report an incident

or share experiences anymore. New terms such as

‘User-Generated Content’, ‘Crowd-Sourcing’, ‘Citizen-

Journalism’ or ‘Participatory Journalism’ is now

being well associated with news reporting (Hamilton,

2013). Benkler’s (2006) theory of “networked public

9

sphere” rightly correlates with the fusion of

‘Citizen-Journalism’ and the Internet, which has

allowed users to not only monitor mass media but also

participate in the process. Thus, with the growth and

development of technological platforms over the

years, users are becoming more proactive, up to date

and are willing to contribute first-hand information.

‘Participatory Journalism’ or ‘Citizen Journalism’

can thus be best defined as the different ways in

which these users or audiences are now playing ‘an

active role in the process of collecting, reporting,

analyzing and disseminating news and information’

(Bowman and Willis 2003, 2).

Role of Users in Journalism

10

Before the development of alternative media outlets,

users although were able to express their point of

view through ‘letters to the editor’, only a handful

would get printed in the newspapers. Users have

always played an important role in the news-making

process; professional journalists overpowered the

field of journalism because of the publics trust in

them, their skills, training, and resources at hand.

Post the 9/11 attacks users began to use alternative

media because they were unhappy with the way news was

reported during the attack (Allan, 2006) Now, with

increase in the use of Internet, it has aggregated

the power to users to communicate, share and alter

information as per their interests.

11

The following are their major roles, which have

reshaped the field of journalism for professional

journalists and publics.

‘Accidental’ Journalists: At the right place and

Right Time

Professional journalists have covered historical

and iconic moments around the world intuitively

as a result of years of training in the field.

But the untrained eye of an enthusiastic citizen

can capture the unforeseen. Stuart Allan in his

book (2013, p. 1) embodies Accidental Journalists

as ‘citizen witnessing’. Citizen journalism

enables users to go beyond just reading,

watching, listening and witnessing (Rosen, J.

2000, p 680) and encourages them to willingly

12

contribute to shape and to help in the

development the society.

On 22nd November 1963, the world witnessed the

Kennedy assassination from the eyes of Abraham

Zapruder, a local businessman in Dallas, carried

his camera to film John F. Kennedy, his idol

(James, n.d) and little did he know that his 26

seconds of recording could turn the world around!

Life magazine bought its print rights for $50,000

and the additional rights for $100,000 within two

days of the assassination after which some images

released by the magazine created so much stir

that they decided to withhold the infamous frame

313 and the 26 second video until ABC News

broadcasted it in 1975 (Breed, 2013). This was

one of the first illustrations ‘accidental

13

journalism’ that the world witnessed at a grand

scale.

In a similar scenario, the London bomb attacks on

July 7th 2005 was another international incident

where the public played major role in reporting

the event at the time of it’s occurrence. People

present at the scene of the crime instinctively

used their camera phones to click and record the

bombings (Liu et al.2008) In the spur of the

moment, over 1000 images and videos were shared

with BBC, about 20,000 emails and over 4000 texts

were shared with the BBC News team by citizens

who were concerned about the publics safety and

intuitively used the power of mobile and internet

to report the exact details of the bombings

(Alejandro, 2010) Even photo-sharing and other

social networking sites on the Internet were

14

utilized to spread the horrors of the incident

(Liu et al.2008). Helen Boaden, Director BBC

News Radio mentioned in her blog that on the day

of the bombing the “6 O'clock News was produced

entirely from pieces of user-generated content”

(Boaden, 2008).

In the above examples, both incidents occurred in

different technological generations, which caused

a gap in the way the information was

disseminated. However, they had one thing in

common- the presence of a spontaneous concerned

and technologically savvy citizen and an existing

and powerful traditional media set up. Stuart

Allan in his book points out that the unedited

versions of a citizens attracts readers more

because of its personalized touch (Allan, 2006).

Thus, the citizens have become their own

publisher.

15

Redefining Journalism: A “Symbiotic Relationship”

between professional and citizen journalists

Professional journalists have realized the power

that users are beginning to utilize because of

growing direct-communication technologies and

platforms such as social networking sites. They

have started to embrace these technologies

attributed by Charlie Beckett’s “Networked

Journalism” theory (2008) which mainly highlights

the process of acquiring user-generated content

using technologies such as mobile phones,

cameras, email, and social networking platforms.

He states that-

“The journalist still reports, edits,

packages the news. But the process is

16

continually shared. The networked journalist

changes from being a gatekeeper who delivers

to a facilitator who connects.”

November 26th 2008, terrorists attacked the

Tajmahal Hotel, Mumbai for 60 hours, taking 163

lives and injuring over 350. (Nair, 2008 cited in

Balakrishnan, 2011). The world witnessed round

the clock live coverage by news channels and

real-time images, videos and other updates posted

on social media especially Twitter by citizens

present at the scene. It was because of this

collaborative efforts of citizens and

professional journalists that the news channels

were able map the exactly what was happening and

were able to report accurate information in

detail to viewers across the world. (Mishra, n.d,

cited in Balakrishnan, 2011)

17

Because such collective assignments have only

brought fruitful results, news organizations have

become active on social networking sites. Even

journalists have set up their personal profiles

online to post their opinions, listen and interact

with their readers because they have realized the

concept of “You are where your audience is!”

Platforms such have MuckRack have emerged as a one-

stop-shop for journalist’s profiles across social

networking sites, which can be accessed by other

professional journalists, Public Relations

professionals for free, and readers for a

subscription fee (Sreenivasan, 2012). Thus, with

the power of immediacy in the hands of a citizen

journalist and trained skills of a professional

journalist, the symbiotic relationship between them

produces quality content for viewers across the

world in a very short span of time.

18

“Your Wish is our Command” – Demand-Push

Journalism

There has been a clear decline in traditional media

revenues, which has become alarming for the news

industry (Bakker, 2012). This is because of the

content generated by users on different platforms

on the web is so massive that it has become rather

difficult for professional journalists to go

through each and every report and conversation

which is relevant to them. Moreover, professional

journalists are now expected to create, curate and

disseminate content online at low cost (Bakker,

2012).

It is becoming evident that users have most

definitely found alternate sources to receive and

19

publish news and other information. In order to

control this market shift and track such content,

news organizations have strategically created

aggregation websites and techniques to crowd-source

information in one place for them as well as other

users to access.

Huffington post, one of the most visited websites

in the United States is a platform where bloggers

publish their content for free. Over 9000 bloggers

willingly contribute the Huffington Post for free

as attributed by Bakker’s “no pay to low pay”

theory (2012), which he has labeled as

“Huffinization”.

Most recently, Forbes announced their very own

social networking iOS application called “Stream”

on January 6th 2014, which enables Forbes online

20

subscribers to follow a “Forbes-Content Only”

stream as well as lets them to contribute as

writers to the website (Forbes, 2014). It also

allows users to re-share existing content on other

social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter,

LinkedIn, and many more. With the amount of content

choices users have to their disposal, they are

essentially becoming independent in selecting the

kind of content they want to consume online

according to their interests (Forbes, 2014). This

is why entities such Huffington Post and Forbes

have created such platforms in order to avoid users

from moving to other news sources online and are

also relying hugely on continuous contributions of

bloggers and writers.

Breaking the Barriers

21

Traditional media outlets such as news channels

and newspapers have always faced challenges with

respect to covering international incidents. Lack

of manpower, money, timely presence on the scene,

technological advancements made it very difficult

to report major news instantaneously around the

world. But, with the rise of the Internet and

mobile technologies, users have now been able to

disseminate information at a global scale.

In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina, which was

deemed the deadliest of hurricane disasters in

the history of the United States of America,

reflected the communication restrictions

especially during tragedies, which have no

geographical boundaries in particular. This

catastrophe saw a revolutionary change in the way

information was shared. Social networking sites

22

were used to share images of scene, report found

or missing persons, synchronize volunteers around

the affected areas, and provide information for

nearby housing and relief camps (Nelson et al.,

2010 cited in Goldfine, 2011).

In May 2009, minutes after the Sichuan earthquake

in China, ubiquitous feeds of images and videos

flooded on social networking sites, which were

taken by people, especially tourists present at

the time, even before US Geographical Survey

updated the information (Alejandro, 2010) This

helped many news channels such as BBC News and

particularly the Cable News Network (CNN), who

were not present in Sichuan to map and broadcast

minute-by-minute details of the information to

the rest of the world.

23

The USP of CNN has been its “unifying global

force” (Küng-Shankleman, 2000, cited in Palmer,

2012). Their website “ireport” was a remarkable

initiative to curate news through the eyes of the

general public to report all kinds of events from

everywhere in the world.

This is a productive way to generate news since

the locals of the area reporting, although may

not have the skills of a professional journalist,

but have more idea about the political, economic

and social state of their country. This kind of

collaborative effort between professional

journalists and citizen journalists is also cost

effective and at the same time generates volumes

of content from different perspectives.

Users as Secondary Gatekeepers

24

Gatekeeping has been central to a professional

journalists role for over six decades (White,

1950 cited in Singer, 2013). It is a process of

collecting, filtering and disseminating

information to the public (Shoemaker & Vos.

2009). They choose types of information carefully

keeping their audiences interest, demands and

their capability to understand in mind to

broadcast relevant information. However, it is

becoming more and more challenging for the news

industry to carry out the role of gatekeeping

because of the increase in free flowing user-

generated content on the Internet. In this

technological era, it is becoming clear that

professional journalists are unable to access and

filter each and every piece of information posted

on the web.

25

While they still remain the ultimate gatekeepers

in the field of journalism, users have begun to

play a pivotal role in choosing what they want to

share and re-share (Singer, 2013). In the world

of multimedia and interactivity, hyper-texted

content has made it fairly easy for users to re-

disseminate content with not only their personal

contacts but with the larger audience present on

the Internet. This form of secondary gatekeeping

maintains the quality of the content published on

the web and enables professional journalists to

observe the kind of information users are sharing

with their circles.

Real-Time Journalism

26

Social networking sites like Twitter enable real-

time feeds, which have encouraged the

"communication of many to many on a global scale"

(Castells, M., 2001: 2). A great advantage of web

2.0 has been its ability to disseminate content

at the time of the occurrence of the event.

What’s interesting here is, that enthusiastic

online users have embraced this power to share

what they witness almost immediately.

A study conducted by researchers at the Korea

Advanced Institute of Science and Technology

suggests that Twitter has increasingly helped in

sparking interests in news and information to

politically and socially unaware citizens

(Alejandro, 2010) which encourages them to share

as well as re-share content.

27

In May 2011, Sohaib Athar, also known as

@reallyvirtual on Twitter, a coffee shop owner in

Pakistan, frustratingly tweeted about a

helicopter explosion around his residence in

Abbottabad not realizing until a while later that

he tweeted his way through the attack on Osama

Bin Laden. This was covered by a number of news

organizations across the world. Around the same

time, Keith Urbahn confirmed Osama’s attack on

Twitter, which went viral, because his tweet was

re-tweeted by many of his followers including

influential journalists (Newman, 2011).

A similar incident took place in Washington D.C.

when the Discovery Channel office was under-

attack by a gunman in September 2010 and real-

time tweets from inside of the building including

first image shots of the gunman were posted on

28

Twitter (Blasingame, 2011). News channels cannot

possibly cover this kind of detailed real-time

reporting under such circumstances.

Websites like Twitter have now become a “first-

stop” platform for users to report, consume and

even confirm information shared by news channels

and their journalists with the followers they

trust. Information is broken out on digital

platforms immediately after its occurrence where

users are not only able to consume and share

their opinions but also re-disseminate that

information to their widespread networks.

Citizen Journalism: Social and Political

Initiatives

29

With Internet technologies at everyone’s

disposal, it has become rather empowering for

citizens to report incidents and help in find

resources through networking.

There are many profiles today on social

networking sites, run by users who want the

society to be a better place to live. From the

simplest initiative of creating networks for

blood donations ((Friends2support, n.d.) and

creating networks on Twitter to report live

traffic updates (Traffline.com, n.d.).

On 15th August 2010, while India celebrated its

63rd Independence Day, a non-profit organization

known as Janaaagraha launched an anti-bribery

initiative called the “I Paid A Bribe” (IPAB)

campaign. This was a “citizen-to-citizen”

30

initiative, which was taken to encourage the

public in India to anonymously report the bribes

they have paid to get any administrative work

done (AEC.net, 2013). A recent news report

suggests that over 22,000 bribes were reported

on the website which amounts to about Rs. 57

crores (over $ 9 million). The website has

handed most of these reports to the respective

departments of which a standing example has been

the Pune Transport and road safety authority

where the notices are immediately sent out to

the accused official demanding and explanation

of the report (Jayaraman, 2013). This initiative

has not only inspired more number of users to

report bribes but also gained global relevance

where international groups have approached

Janaaagraha to help them develop IPAB for their

respective countries.

31

Thus, any person with a mobile phone and access

to the Internet now is able to publish for free

(Shirky, 2008) because they feel the need to

share and express their concern with the society

for its own good. This has not only inspired

other users online to participate but even

launch such action-oriented initiatives on the

web.

Conclusion: The future of users and journalism

Are users becoming the backbone of journalism today?

Users do bring a great amount of difference to

journalism by shaping influence and behavior within

the society. They have been able to attract attention

of the rest of the world and also inspired others to

participate too, by sharing unfiltered information

with the rest of the world. They have stumbled upon

32

and enthusiastically reported news, which the news

industry relies on a great deal. Interestingly, it

has also been shaping up the news-industry to a great

extent. A news report by Mashable.com recently

suggests that the top levels of news organizations

are now providing mandatory social media training to

their journalists (Taylor, 2014). This is because

most newspapers have lost a great deal of revenue

since the uprising of the medium and journalists are

now worried that they might lose their jobs. So much

so, even Lloyd's List- the “worlds oldest newspaper” has

gone digital after 279 years (Dean, 2013). As Mitch

Gelman from CNN rightly states;

“Traditional journalism is on the outside

looking in Citizen journalism is in the

inside looking out. In order to get the

complete story, it helps to have both points

33

of views” (Gonzales, 2005 cited in Meraz,

2006)

However, it is clear that Internet and cutting edge

mobile technologies are one of main reason why users

are able to freely participate and contribute greatly

to reporting today. Citizen journalism in the present

day can be a successful phenomenon if people have

quick and steady resources at hand. Without the

Internet access and mobile devices at hand, one will

not be able to create and share real-time content

speedily. In most cases of citizen reporting, we have

observed that while the spectator happened to present

at the scene of the incident while it was taking

place, he also happened to have the correct

technology at hand to record and share the

information with the world. Hence, users play a very

important role in the field of journalism today but

34

are co-dependent on existing and future mobile

technologies, which enable them, produce and

disseminate content to create impact. Although, there

is a massive increase in use of mobile technologies

in developed countries, we are yet to witness these

technologies flourishing in under-developed nations,

which is when we will be able to see the real global

impact of users on journalism as a field and society

as a whole!

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