REPORT RESUMESED 018 127 EN 006 182THE INFLUENCE OF THE CINEMA ON CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS, ANANNOTATED INTERNATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. REPORTS AND PAPERS ONMASS COMMUNICATION, NO. 31.UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULT.ORGREPORT NUMBER 669 -B PUB DATE 61EDRS PRICE MF40.50 HC -$4.36 107P.

DESCRIPTORS- *FILMS, *CHILDREN, *ADOLESCENTS, *ANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHIES, NETHERLANDS "PREVENTIE FONDS" (PREVENTIVEFUND)

THIS IS A COMPREHENSIVE AND INTERNATIONAL ANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS CONCERNED WITH THE INFLUENCE OFFILMS ON YOUNG PEOPLE. THE ENTRIES ARE ARRANGED BY SUBJECTAND EACH ENTRY DESCRIBES THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY, THERESEARCH METHODS EMPLOYED, AND THE MAIN CONCLUSIONS REACHED.THERE IS VIRTUAL UNANIMITY AMONG THE AUTHORS AS TO THE VALUEOF MAKING AND DISTRIBUTING FILMS SPECIALLY FOR CHILDREN. THISDOCUMENT IS AVAILABLE AS 669-B. FROM NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS OFUNESCO PUBLICATIONS OR FROM THE MASS COMMUNICATION CLEARINGHOUSE, UNESCO, PLACE DE FONTENOY, PARIS..-7E, FRANCE, FOR$1.50. (MF)

. ":,;,

41117.7,TrlITR.1.-5,401./.11,11.11MINVISI,.M1.01,47"..9.11MIIP.TIY,

. ..

Reports and Va erson Mass

Communication

N-e\1 ,11.4 ,f)k,

,. . 'A

.,;';*

yr,

r

..1741:144.

t

1.',t' r{eS{ At:7'44,..11 ". )4,$';,

40;', f4t1/ iV'77

d-i;`;':i";:f:'4 4,,c;;1:'

,,-,1_V'

.14440'4

r-ICOirs-4

cpw

: ',

,..;

-1' "'*";'-''.' 4 -; ik :

, .s... .., , , 1, r. ,.-,;.

:, :: , : - . ...-,.. , *v., .3;4 4.4 .4,4' )4,4 I :4.. .1

40.

:, ',. ....;'1,.., .;. ''.... -..-'.. i:: , 7414"..} % :. 14^.''

,,40 ,..^ .. . 1., ',

IQ , , ' ' , ..., ' /

. ,-71. . ...

r" , ,.

e- 1-. ,;;`;;L:k ?!. 4 *. -; ., ..; ,-' ';i: .. 7. ;. -

'''' -k .' 4 4k" .; ._ V :'.,....' 4:0!: ',,.. :.;;

" -.; - ...V"' ;:..". ''

.1 :....;: ,7,,:.;."-;4.,.,;....-;,;;IVIrr.,.....,.,,r4P-", ---1.,..:.1-..4.7. ` ;.t.;,44';`1; --''' 7. '7:.....t%-V ;::',,t,.'%. k .' .. ' :, . .;., .. 1 0,..,

.410.4t....,' . rr ,,;, ,,,, , r ,,4 ,"4, 1.-.:'" ",...('7,e"

';'`e,..iy,-4;..gidle";;" 77-...;.',./-.1''.7***'4";."4,kci:."%>':,,,'

.- 4" a .', ,'''' -i ':1'.'. ;4"P- cl ,',,,

). . ,.. 4 ,- * 4 ;14.4k4.' ';'1 l't V * ''.."' ''.'"D'' '!' '' 's ta.'r'. ''',.. '2., '. .: ,,1;,..

% ;;',.!;;T"C."'' %,." .... VI,''''' ' 4' ..i%:: .' : ' :. : :- * ....' .....=.: -;,..1. ."..r.- ...k, 1. ,,:. .....; ...:,,.

...' ... 4" io....,:-. -tril ,.. i ,. : ,,- 41°4 "t1Vi.;1".'-.

l'':71t; ,A.1. -Is'''' '.:,:'. ,.'"; - .'' .1',);;;..., , ,'7".. ,- - ,,',' '41. ''. r .3- ' r.... ' ' .../..": 7. 'C7;`,.:1)^Z,'' ''''' !:,,i..-1.,:t , V, , , A, 4,,, ; , ' ; ' 1,1;1,...,4 '- - ;;;; 't,, ' ,''. .; ' ' " i .o.,

...::'Y . 'VtiArr :I, '''(, ry.' 't k ,f- 4.4,'-

4144' '0;4;ro, ;;;.

.

r .:...r.'t41,;'!.;,;, r'F,;

7 ',:

7 I,4

irnvrnatio bi

7r.

N.

t; ti';'

4

This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Clearing House ofthe Department of Mass Communication of Unesco. Unless otherwise stated, the re orts may be

__renrnducecl in or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco. The following reports ana papershave so far been issued and are obtainable from National Distributors of Unesco Publicationsor from the Mass Communication Clearing House, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION

No 1 Films and Filmstrips about the work of the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies, May 1952 (out of print).Na 2 World Film Directory - Agencies concerned with Educational, Scientific and Cultural Film - Section A:

Africa : Section 8: America (North, Central and South); Section C: Asia and Oceania; Section D: Europe andSection E : International, July 1952/September 1953 (free on request).

No 3 Films and Filmstrips about Education. August 1952 (out of print).No 4 Unesco Publications on Mass Communication - An Annotated Bibliography. October 1952 (out of print) with

Supplement 1954 (out of print).NG 5 Television - An Experiment in Community Reception in French villages. August 1952 (out of print).No 6 Kerosene Filmstrips and Slide Projectors. November 1952 (free on request).No 7 The Daily Press - A Survey of the World Situation in 1952. December 1953 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 8 Education for Journalism - 1953. January 1954 ($0.40 ; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 9 Bibliography on Filmology as Related to the Social Sciences. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 10 Newsprint Trends 1928-1951. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 11 Paper for Printing (other than Newsprint) and Writing -1929 -1951 Trends. March 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.);1,00 NF).No 12 Paper for Printing and Writing - Tentative Forecasts of Demand in 1955, 1960 and 1965. April 1954 ($0.40;

2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 13 Tentative International Bibliography of Works Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1952). September 1954

($0.50; 3/- (Stg.); 1,50 NF).No 14 Catalogues of Short Films and Filmstrips - Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 15 Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. May 1955 ($0,40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 16 Television and Tele-Clubs in Rural Communities. July 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 0,50 NF).No 17 International Rules for the Cataloguing of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films and Filmstrips. Preliminary

edition, May 1956 ($0.40; (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 18 A Manual for Evaluators of Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 19 List of Films Recommended for Children and Adolescents up to 16 years Following Selections made in 22

Countries. June 1956 (out of print).No 20 Catalogue of 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print).No 21 Current Mass Communication Research I - Bibliography of Books and Articles on Mass Communication published

since 1 January 1955. December 1956 ($1 ; 5/- (Stg.); 2,50 NF).No 22 Periodicals for New Literates : Editorial Methods. June 1957 ($0.75; 3/5 (Stg.); 1,50 NF).No 23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences. December 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No 24 Periodicals for New Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1; 5/- (Stg.); 3,00 NF).No 25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF).No 26 The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF).No 27 Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development.1959 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 NF).No 28 Film Programmes for the Young. 1959 ($0.75; 3/ 6 (Stg.) ; 2,50 NF).No 29 Film- making on a Low Budget. 1960 ($0.50; 2/ 6 (Stg.) ; 1,75 NFLNo 30 Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($ 1.50 ; 7/6 (Stg.) ; 5,25 NF).

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED

a afew Alstovk)

MC. 61.XVII.31.A

Printed in the Workshops of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7eUNESCO 1961

The influenceof the cinema

on childrenand adolescents

An annotatedinternational bibliography

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

unesco

VIONNIIIFIII.NIFIMIMMNIIMIII.21114111.M.1.011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction: A survey of trends 5

1. General Works 9(a) Introductory studies, reflexions and assessments 9(b) Studies on the objectives of research, and methods employed 12(c) Bibliographies and special periodicals 16

2. The attitude of youth towards the cinema 18(a) Frequency of cinema attendance: cinema habits; the cinema in

relation to other leisure activities 18(b) Motives for cinema attendance; film preferences; star-worship . . . 29

3. Analysis of film content 33

4. Dr. process of seeing a film 36(a) Perception and comprehension of films 36(b) The psychology of film experience (participation, identification,

projection, etc.) 40

5. Influence and after-effects of films 48(a) The influence of films on general knowledge, ideas, and attitudes . . 48(b) The influence of films on emotional life and behaviour 50(c) What do children and young people recollect from films? 61(d) Films and juvenile delinquency 62

6. Educational as ects and ractical measures 67(a) The use of films in the development of personality 67(b) Education towards better appreciation and critical assimilation of films ,

(cine-clubs; film education) 70(c) Production and distribution of children's films; selection of suitable

programmes for children and adolescents 82(d) Censorship and legislation 90

7. Miscellaneous 94(a) Special numbers of general periodicals 94(b) Conference reports; handbooks of organizations, etc. 98

Index of authors 103

INTRODUCTION

A SURVEY OF TRENDS

Those who want to know what has been discoveredabout the influence of the cinema on children andadolescents will find an answer here. It has beengiven by some four hundred writers, from nearlythirty different countries, whose work is repre-sented in the following pages.

The purpose of this bibliography is to list andto annotate the most important books and articlespublished throughout the world during the pastthree decades dealing with the influence of thecinema on young people. The task has not been aneasy one: the field of subject-matter is wide andhas been approached from various points of view -physiology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology,criminology, education - and the results have beenpublished in many languages and places. Indeed,almost the only completely unassailable conclusionthat may be drawn from a study of these pages isthat great and growing importance is attached to theproblem of film and youth. There is widespreadagreement that something should be done.

What should be done is quite another matter.Few authoritative judgements could be made simplyon the evidence of the bibliographical data collectedhere - at least without reference to the full textsof the books and articles themselves. Even then,the considered opinions and apparently substan-tiated conclusions of one writer seem, all toooften, to cancel out those of another. As oneauthor puts it, if one thing is known with certaintyabout children and the cinema, it is that very littleis known with certainty about children and thecinema - beyond the obvious fact that they have apersistent liking for it.

Yet, whenthis note of caution has been sounded,there are nevertheless some broad trends whichcan be discerned in the present bibliography andwhich should not be overlooked. At various pointsin this world debate on the cinema's influence it ispossible, without taking a show of hands, to gauge"the feeling of the meeting".

Studies on the educational film - that is, onthe use of the film strictly as a teaching aid -havebeen excluded from this bibliography, in order tokeep the publication within manageable proportions:but such action does not rule out the topic of filmeducation ("education cinematographique") or, asit is called in several countries, "film apprecia-tion". In point of fact, the growing interest infilm education, allied with the development of eine-clubs for the young, the production and distributionof special children's entertainment films and thepresentation of special programmes, represents

the most noticeable of the trends to be detectedhere. A large number of writers advocate thatteaching about the cinema should not merely beencouraged but that it should be given formal re-cognition in the school curriculum. In severalcountries (e .g. the Union of Soviet Socialist Republicsand the United Kingdom), evenbefore the periodcovered bythis book, this attitude existed. Any at-tempt to classify a collection of data such as this intopositive and negative categories would have been"unscientific "; yet, as against those items whichexpress viewpoints plainly antagonistic towardsthe cinema and its effects on the young, one cannothelp being impressed by the volume of opinion infavour of the educational aspects and practicalmeasures which are considered as positive influ-ences of the film. The largest sections in factdeal with these, and even censorship, traditionallyregarded as essentially negative, is representedas capable of being a positive factor.

The individual opinions expressed by writersin most of the other sections are often sharplycontradictory, but nowhere more so than in thesection dealing with "juvenile delinquency". How-ever, although the subject ifi tendentious and con-troversial, it was obviously necessary to includea grouping of items under this heading, if onlybecause the problem has attracted such widespreadcontemporary interest. Two or three assumptionscan safely be made after an examination of theseitems. One is that, on the evidence so far avail-able, it is extremely difficult - indeed, virtuallyimpossible - to establish that the cinema has adirect influence on juvenile delinquency. While agreat deal of research has been carried out todecide whether or not films corrupt youth, whathas been done is conflicting both as to methodsand results. There are a number of psychiatrictheories on the subject, but the evidence in sup7port of them is inconclusive. At one extreme itis claimed that films actively incite young peopleto delinquency; at the other that they are safety-valves which may help to prevent it; on the onehand, that they supply first-hand knowledge of howto commit criminal acts; on the other that, bykeeping children off the streets, they preventjuvenile misbehaviour and crime. A "half-way"attitude is that criminal and amoral behaviour isto be imputedto deeper and more subtle influencesthan the film alone, although much that is shownon the screen is unsuitable for children.

There is no doubt that a good many hobby-horses are riddenthroughthese pages. Nevertheless

5

while there is no unanimity about the direct in-fluence of the cinema, a majority of authors dospeak of indirect and unconscious influences. Theconsensus of their opinion is that such influencesare rarely the product of a single film or even ofseveral, but are much more likely to be the out-come of a succession of movies with similar themesand tendencies, causing by reiteration a new stateof mind or change of outlook in the young spectator .To put it another way, it is widely argued that therepeated presentation of certain themes and be-haviour patterns onthe screen has much morelikelihood of producing a long-term, indirect effectthan the immediate, overt influence of any indivi-dual film, however specific . The broad generali-zation might be made that the film has mainly aprovocative effect but is rarely basically causal.

It would seem to be accepted now as almostbeyond doubt that boys and girls get ideas from themovies on such superficial and generally harmlessmatters as dress, hair styles, speech, recreationand games. So far as harmful influences are con-cerned, the factors most frequently cited as re-sponsible are over-emphasis and distorted pre-sentation of crime, cruelty and horror, and ofthose elements which may be put under the genericlabel of "sex" . However, as the evidence of thebibliographical entries reveals, considerable con-cern is also felt among parents and educators aboutthe effects of a number of rather less obvious ele-ments in cinema entertainment. There is a pre-vailing objection to the artificial conception of lifein the world of the cinema (where "what is extremeis presented as normal") which is said to endangerthe sense of values of the immature. Among as-pects in this category that draw critical fire are:the recurrent portrayal of luxury and of the "easylife"; the "glorification" of revenge as a motive;the unrealistic solutions put forward when diffi-culties arise; and the artificial patterns of the"boy-meets-girl" situation. Several writers drawattention to the stereotyped images which thescreen creates both of characters (e.g. the cow-boy and the gangster) and of modes of behaviour;and the question is raised whether this stereotyp-ing may give a wrong conception of national life andcustoms to young audiences in other countries.There is some evidence that in the case of racialattitudes or prejudices, these can be influenced -in one direction or the other - by a few strikingfilms only.

It might have been expected that the entries inthe section headed "juvenile delinquency" wouldall be of comparatively recent vintage. But thisis not so. Writers in the early part of the periodunder review did not neglect the topic: there werestudies on it in 1933; and the opinion of one writeris quoted to the effect that studyinthis field begansoon after 1910 - in other words practically assoon as the cinema began to have an impact on thegeneral public . Here again, writers and theoristsappear to have been divided from the outset as towhether the film has any direct influence on the

6

young - and if so, why. Even the increasing avail-ability and use of scientific research techniqueshas not noticeably clarified the situation. In thiscontext it is justifiable to draw attention to thewish expressed by one writer that there should becloser co-operation among the different investi-gators in the field of film and youth. The publica-tion of this bibliography should at least go someway towards helping research workers to avoidentering unknowingly on portions of the field whichhave already been well cultivated.

In other sections of the bibliography the issuesare rather more clear-cut than they are in thosedevoted in juvenile delinquency and other cinematicafter-effects. For instance, in the sections oncinema attendance (2a) and film preferences (2b),several trends emerge fairly clearly. Some ofthese trends may seem obvious: nevertheless itis perhaps useful to find confirmation, from manyquarters, of the view that children in general goto the cinema more often than their parents andthat as they grow older they go less and less inparental company; that boys tend to go more oftenthan girls; and that the children who are mostfrequent attenders are (to generalize) those whoare unhappy or lonely, those who want "to escapefrom daily life" and therefore are seeking distrac-tion, and those who have least interest in otheractivities. Rather more specifically, there isevidence to show that attendance is affected bystandards of income, intelligence and education,with children at the lower levels in these threerespects going to the movies more frequently thanchildren who are well off, of high intelligence, andcarefully educated.

In very many works on the influence of thecinema, the age of the young people concernedassumes first importance, because of its bearingon their habits and behaviour as film-goers, ontheir understanding of the medium and the effectsit has upon them, on measures of censorship andlegislation, and on the production and selection ofwhat are regarded as suitable programmes. Froma perusal of the items in this bibliography, foursignificant stages or periods in the developmentof young people's film-going can be reasonablyclearly distinguished, even though it will be rea-lized that one should not be arbitrary about age-groupings and that one phase will merge intoanother. The first stage is that up to the age of7 years, the so-called "fairy-tale" age in whichchildren live in an imaginary world. It may benoted here that a substantial body of opinion in-clines to the view that the movie-theatre is noplace for infants, and therefore, in general, thatchildren should not start picture-going before theage of 7, and certainly not without the company ofa parent or some other responsible adult. Thesecond age-group covers the period between 7 and12. This is what is known as the "Robinson age",when experience of realism comes more and moreto the fore and children are mostly interested inadventure and action. But it is also noticeable

that they can already adopt an objective attitude,and can follow the main lines of action in a story.This period merges into the third stage, the ageof puberty, between 12 and 16, when the child'spersonality is markedly developing and tensionsare arising. By this time the average child isstrongly attracted towards the cinema, althoughaware of its fictitious nature. He can not onlycomprehend the film as a whole, but can also formsome interpretation of the screen-play' s internalstructure and meaning. This view is supported bythose writers who claim that "film language" can-not be understood by children before the advent ofpuberty. A variation of this is the theory that twophases can be distinguished in the development ofthe child' s understanding of the cinema, a mentalage of 10 years being necessary if he is to keeppace with sequences and with the various techniquesof film expression, while a proper grasp of a film'sreal significance demands a mental age of at least12 years. Most writers consider that the fourthstage in film comprehension starts at about 16 or17 which, in a number of countries, is the agewhen young film-goers are legally regarded ashaving reached adult status and are therefore nolonger officially subject to censorship restrictions.Their interest in the cinema is largely influencedbythe desire to penetrate the mysteries of the adultworld which they themselves are now entering.

But it is the age of 12 or 13 which is seen asthe crucial dividing line. The problem of the filmbegins at 12 years, it is said: and among thewriters represented here, it is fairly generallyagreed that the reactions of adolescents at thecinema are naturally different from those of child-ren, the onset of puberty producing not only a newoutlook on film and a better understanding of whatfilms are saying, but also sharper impressionsand stronger effects on imagination and sentiments,with the consequent appearance of new problems.It is, for example, in adolescence that the cult of"star-worship" becomes most evident.

So far as preferences in screen entertainmentare concerned, it is a commonplace to saythattastesin films mature as the subject himself matures.However, it may safely be adduced from the evid-ence available here, that boys prefer films of ad-venture, action and violence, while girls like thoseconcerned with love, private life, and "glamour".These categories may be broken down a littlefurther, as follows: for lore -war films, westerns,comedies, animal films, musicals, detective andcrime thrillers, sports stories; for girls - musi-cals, nature and animal films, comedies, storiesabout love, everyday life and human relations.One may sum up these particular trends by sayingthat, in addition to levels of education, intelli-gence, age and income, the social milieu andconditions at home exert an influence on the fre-quency of children' s visits to the cinema and ontheir preferences, tastes, and reactions to films.But it would be hazardous to make a more precisestatement than we have here attempted.

From a survey of the relevant entries in Sec-tion 6, it seems to be generally agreed that thereis such a thing as "film language" and that educa-tors must take account of its existence, for thereason that films cannot be properly understoodwithout some knowledge of this "language". Simi-larly, as regards production, there appears to belittle doubt that simplicity is a prerequisite in themaking of films for children, particularly youngchildren, who have difficulty in following "filmlanguage" (camera movement, time symbols, etc.)which involves a different process from that re-quired for reading and understanding a hook. Thosewriters - and there are many - who favour the en-couragement of "film teaching", especially throughail-clubs and film discussions ( idler at the clubor in the classroom itself), have a generally con-sistent idea about the lines along which suchactivities should be conducted. Similarly there isvirtual unanimity as to the value of making anddistributing films specially for children, just asthere are few divergences of opinion concerningthe pitfalls which will be encountered or the waysin which these might be avoided.

Origins and Scope of the Bibliography

The original basis of this work was a selection ofabstracts of studies about young people and thecinema which was compiled by Dr. J.M.L. Peters,Director of the Netherlands Film Institute with theaid of a grant from the Netherlands "Preventiefonds" (Preventive Fund) and facilities made avail-able by the Instituut Film en Jeugd. Unesco sup-plemented this selection by entries from othersources, and then circulated the resulting compila-tion of items in the form of a Draft Bibliographyto its Member States and to individual authorities,inviting them to supply new and supplementarymaterial and to make comments. More than ascore of Member States and several organizationsand individual specialists responded to this re-quest. As a result the volume of additional mate-rial received not only made the present publicationa great deal more comprehensive than the drafthad indicated, but also had the effect of changingthe nature of the bibliography, so that in its pre-sent revised form it is no longer essentially aselection by any single individual or group but hasbecome, in effect, a compendium of selectionssupplied by specialists in the various MemberStates. This procedure may have led to a certainlack of proportion and may explain to some extentwhy certain countries have more representationthan others among the entries - quite apart, ofcourse, from the fact that the cinema's rate ofdevelopment has differed widely throughout theworld. It should also be noted in this connexionthat different national groups have different atti-tudes towards the medium and different criteriafor judging its importance and influence.

This publication, then, is not exhaustive or de-finitive, for no bibliography on a daily-developing

7

subject such as the cinema can ever be that; butallowing for errors and omissions, it is believedthat with the co-operation of many persons it hasbecome acceptably comprehensive and interna-tional in scope.

In general, only those works which have adirect bearing on the influence of the cinema onchildren and adolescents have been listed. Theword "influence" has been used throughout, andespecially in the title, in a wide sense, with theresult that the bibliography includes studies onsuch subjects as "motives" and "cinema habits"which, it might be argued, do not come directlyunder the heading of "influence". The exclusionof studies on the educational film has already beenexplained.

Each entry includes an abstract which de-scribes - in so far as it has been possible to ascer-tain these things - the purpose of the study, theresearch methods employed and the main conclu-sions reached, sothatthe reader may judge whetherthe publication is relevant to his own field of inter-est. The summaries express the conclusions andopinions, often quite forceful, of the writers of theoriginal works, but not(it should be noted) theopinions ofUnesco. It must also be emphasizedthat

A

the length of each abstract has been determined bythe nature of the book or article and in some cases(in the absence of the original) by the extent of theinformation available concerning it; but in no casehas it been determined by any conclusion regard-ing its relative importance. One factor taken intoaccount, however, was the accessibility of theoriginal; among the studies given fuller treatmentare some which are not readily available to thebulk of readers in all countries of the world.

The bibliographical entries are arranged bysubject according to a scheme of classificationwhich was tested and revised considerablybefore being chosen as the one least likely to causedissatisfaction for the present purpose. Becausemany of the publications listed cover several topics,cross-references will be found at the end of eachsection, drawing attention (by mention of theappropriate numbers) to items in other sectionscontaining relevant information.

In general the period covered is from 1930 to1959, but a few studies published before the formerdate have been included as being of importance andhaving a direct bearing on subsequent research.An index of authors will be found at the end of thebibliography.

1. GENERAL WORKS

(a) INTRODUCTORY STUDIES,REFLEXIONS AND ASSESSMENTS

1. Begak, B. and Gromov, J. Bo lsoe iskusstvodl'a malen'kih. /A great art for the young/Moscow, State Film Publications, 1949.

Problems of films for children are treated in thefollowing nine chapters: (1) Specific characteris-tics of films for children; (2) Films for children;(3) Film biographies; (4) Filmed fairy tales; (5)Adventure films; (6) Film comedies for children;(7) Children's literature and films for children;(8) The dialogue in children's films; (9) Perspec-tives of children' s films.

In chapter one the educational value of thecinema and the particularly powerful influences ofthe cinema on children are studied. The concep-tion of a children' s film is defined, age limits areestablished and various opinions of educators onthese subjects are discussed.

The authors define the specific characteristicsof children' s films according to age groups. Theyconsider that the child's perception is empirical andfinal, and that this dictates the particular characterand form of children' s films: situations requiring acertain maturity ofjudgement bythe spectatorsmust be treated with discretion; special precision isrequired in the representation of moral values, andthere should be a maximum of action. The choiceof subjects is not limited; the authors feel that child-ren's literature differs from general literature in themanner of telling a story and not in what it tells.

In the second chapter the authors examine thehistorical development of children' s films withclearly-defined contemporary subjects, and ana-lyse the best films of the past and the present.

The third chapter is devoted to films concerninggreat men. Their educational value, based on ex-ample, is enormous. Different aspects of biogra-phical films -biographies of real or fictitious per-sons, historical or contemporary - are examined.In addition to ideological content, stress is laid onthe problem of invention and fiction which bears aclose relation to the recreational qualities and theinterest of the spectacle.

In the fourth chapter the filmed fairy tale isdefended. This type of entertainment is accessibleto all ages; such films differ, of course, as to thecomplexity of conception, plot structure, pictorialrealization and the verbal texture of the story. Adetailed analysis of a cartoon is given.

The fifth chapter deals with adventure filmsciting several examples. Their special successwith children is attributedto their presentation ofuncommon and vivid events, and easily surmounteddifficulties, and to the fact that they contain more"crowded" action than any other ,ape of film.

The authors are also of the opinion that thehero must always win.

For the production of films of phantasy basedon scientific facts, documentation, archives, andworks of popular science should be used.

The sixth chapter is devoted to comedy whichshould normally have a place inthe children's himrepertoire. Reference is made to classic comedies,adapted for different age-groups and dealing withclearly defined social problems. The method ofconstructing a comic situation for a children'sfilm is examined and the educational role of laughteris stressed, whether as a reaction to simple good-heartedness or to satire.

The seventh chapter discusses the close rela-tionship between children's literature and children'sfilms and analyses the problems of adaptingliteraryworks to the screen. The cinema does not alwaystake the best advantage of experience gained in thefield of children's literature.

In selecting literary works for adaptation tothe screen, the literary interests of children, andtheir reading ability and problems of literarystudies at school should be considered.

The eighth chapter analyses the characteristicsof film dialogue for children, the dialogue being oneof the elements inthe constructiou of the character.The authors comment onthe precision and persua-sive force ofthe dialogue inthe best children's films.

In the final chapter, the development of children'sfilms accordingto anideological and artistic plan,and the need to train personnel for future produc-tions, are discussed.

2. Charters, W.W. Motion Pictures and Youth:A Summary. In one volume with Holaday, P.W.and Stoddard, George D., Getting Ideas fromthe Movies, New York, Macmillan, 1934,66 p. (Payne Fund Studies).

Gives a summary survey of the "Payne FundStudies" , which are dealt with separately in thisbibliography. See also under:Holaday, P.W. and Stoddard, George D. , Getting

Ideas from the Movies (no. 259);Peterson, Ruth C. and Thurst one , L. L. , Motion Pic-

tures and the Social Attitudes of Children (no .190;

9

Shuttleworth, Frank K., and May, MarkA., The SocialConduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans (no. 198);

Dysinger, Wendell S. and Ruckmick, Christian A.,The Emotional Responses of Children to theMotion Picture Situation (no. 214);

Peters, Charles C., Motion Pictures and Standardsof Morality (no. 123);

Henshaw, Samuel, Miller, Vernon L., and Marquis,Dorothy, Children's Sleep (no. 226);

Blumer, Herbert, Movies and Conduct (no. 205);Dale, Edgar, The Content of Motion Pictures

(no. 116);Dale, Edgar, Children's Attendance at Motion

Pictures (no. 59);Blumer, Herbert and Hauser, Philip M., Movies,

Delinquency and Crime (no. 266);Cressey, Paul G. and Thrasher, Frederick M. ,

Boys, Movies and City Streets (no. 271);Dale, Edgar, How to Appreciate Motion Pictures

(no. 321).

3. Cohen-Seat, Gilbert. Les debats en 1955 surl' influence du cinema et sur les problemes dufilm et de la jeunesse (Debates in 1955 onproblems of the cinema and youtW. In: Revueinternationale de filrnologie, Paris, VI (20-24),1955, p. 157-173.

Although only slight progress was made duringmany discussions, meetings and conferences onthecinema and youth held during1955, it can be saidthat the cinema is gradually being taken seriouslyin all circles. To illustrate this a number of textsare reproduced: a discourse by H.H. the Pope (de-livered before representatives of the Italian filmindustry); "Is Culture in Danger? " (a debate oncommunication media -press, film, radio, televi-sion - held at Geneva); a report of the "Journees dela sante mondiale" (held in Paris); and a text pro-duced by Unesco on the use of recreational filmsby cinema-clubs and in adult education.

4 . Commission on Educational and Cultural Films .The Film in National Life. London, Allen &Unwin, 1932, n. p.

A report on the position of the cinema in England,its cultural influence, its instructional potenti-alities and its social significance as a recreationalactivity; principles applicable to the productionand distribution of documentary and educationalfilms, and various information on the technicalaspects of the use of films in education. A detailedbibliography.

5. Corradini, Umberto. Contributo allo studiodei rapporti tra cinema e gioventA contribu-tion to the study of the relations between thecinema and young people/In: Lumen, Brescia,May 1955, p. 83-88; August 1955, p. 114-116;January 1956, p. 149-160.

The author, after assessingthe influence of the cine-ma on child development and its responsibilities

10

towards young people in sever al articles contributedto Lumen, examines the different views expressedon this matter and briefly die cusses the main booksand articles dealing with the question.

6. Dolinskij, I.L. Detskoe kino LThe cinemafor children.' Moscow, 1957. (manuscript).

This study is intended for publication in vols. 2and 3 of "Studies onthe History of Soviet Cinema" ,in preparation by the Cinema Section of the Instituteof History of the Arts of the Academy of Scienceof the USSR.

Describes the development of the cinema forchildren in the USSR from its beginning before theRevolution up to the present day.

The most important part of this work dealswith the stages of development of this branch offilm art. The author also seeks to define thespecific character of the form and content of re-creational and documentary films for children.From the mass of children's films he selects themost valuable productions for analysis: ("GoldenHoney", "Worn Slippers", "A White Sail on theHorizon", "There was a Little Girl", "Cuk andGuek", "Kortik", etc.).

Touching on the problem of the aesthetic anddidactic roles of children's films, the author dis-cusses the relationship between the cinema as aform of art and education. Artists concerned withthe direction of children's films are, in a sense,educators; failing such a relationship with educa-tion, the development of children's films isimpossible.

The role which children's literature and the"theatres for young audiences" have played in thedevelopment of childreri's films is stressed. Theexperience of authors of children's books andplays and the traditions of theatre groups have beena valuable aid to the craftsmen of children's films.

Great attention is given to questions of inter-pretation(disguise and games for children who arenot professional actors). Throughout the essay,the author insists onthe necessity for a specialproduction studio for children's films, which heconsiders vital to the satisfactory development ofchildren's films .

The parts played by the Komsomols, and theeducational and social organizations, in the historyof the Soviet cinema for children are also described .

7. Federation of Children' s Welfare Organizationsof Yugoalavia. Film i dete: clanci, doku-menti i informacije LThe cinema and children:Articles, documents andinformatioil. Com-mission on the Cinema and Children, of theFederation of Children's Welfare Organiza-tions of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, 1957, 88 p.(stencilled).

An internal bulletin containing mainly texts alreadypublished in foreign works and periodicals, inparticular:

Field, Mary: "Children's Film Taste";Badawczy, Zaspol: "Researches into the Problems

of Entertainment Films for the Children inPoland";

Brinkmann, Donald: How to Make Good Films forChildren and Youth. Reviews of certainforeignbooks, notably: Film und Jugend (Cinema andyouth), published by the Deutsches Institut

Filmkunde; Agel, Henri and Genevieve:Precis d' initiation au cinema (A brief intro-duction to the cinema); OCIC, Revue Inter-nationale du cinema, nos. 13 and 18. Adetailed bibliography.

8. Ford, Richard. Children in the Cinema.London, Allen & Unwin, 1939, 240 p.

Taking cognizance of the fact that in normal timesnearly five million children attend the cinema eachweek in England, the writer presents a survey ofand a tentative answer a great many problemsof social and psychological interest arising in thiscontext.

9. Goncalves, S. Consideracoes sobre acrianga e o cinema. /Considerations concern-ing the child and the cinema) In: Crianga,Rio de Janeiro (2), 1943, p. 137-146.

A resume of various studies and problems concern-ing the influence of the cinema on children. Ingeneral, a marked preference for comic films isfound at all ages. Such pictures are suitable forchildren from the age of 7 on into adolescence;children under 7 should be prevented from attend-ing the cinema.

10. Heinrich, Karl. Film und Erziehung. Mate-rial zur Jugend-Film-Frage./ Films andeducation, material on the problem of thecinema and young peoplej Darmstadt,Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Lehrerver-bande, April 1957, 128 p. (Material-undNachrichten-Dienst Mund, 80).

Excerpts from reports of meetings on problems ofthe cinema and youth, giving the fundamental prin-ciples involved, theses, work programmes andconclusions reached.

Texts are quoted from the reports of: thedepartmental committee on children and the cinema(May 1950); the international congress on press,radio and film for young people (Milan, 1952); theinternational meeting on the psychological, tech-nical and social aspects of films for children(Luxembourg, 1955).

Ideas and findings discussed during meetings,about the educational influence of film, the pro-duction of suitable recreational films for youngpeople, and the tasks of scientific research in thissphere, are reviewed.

The texts of regulations concerning film cen-sorship, the protection of young people, and film

education in the Federal Republic of Germanyare reproduced.

Includes a survey of organizations and insti-tutions dealing with problems of the cinema andyouth, and an extensive bibliography.

11. Keilhacker, Martin. Neuere psychologischeund padagogische Forschungsergebnisse aufdem Gebiet "Jugendschutz und Film _A:Jrmiltsof recent psychological and pedagogical re-search on the protection of youth and thecinema/. Jugend und Film, Munich, (1)91958,p. 13-30.

A resume of investigations, particularly inGermany,into films suitable for young audiences and into theinfluence of the cinema on young persons. In thefirst part, the author refers to the studies ofSierstedt, Gratiot-Alphandery and Gerhartz-Franck (the last named studied especially theyounger child up to the age of about 8 years) andsummarizes his own theories and those of Stuckrathregarding children aged 8-12 and those over 12years. In the second part, he discusses researchcarried out on the influence of the cinema on youngpersons; this he arranges in three sections, ac-cording to the objective effects of the film duringand immediately after screening, long-term in-fluence, nature of cinematographic experience. Asuccinct analysis of the studies of Zazzo,Bellingroth, Sicker, Wall and Simson, Dale,Stuckrath, Welker and Keilhacker.

12. Lacis, A. and Kejlina, I. Deti i kino./Children and the cinema/. Moscow,General Directorate of Social Education,Peoples' Commissariat of Instruction of theRSFSR, Moscow, 1928, 85 p.

Chapter 1 presents information about collectiveinfatuation or "cinematomania" of children collectedby the Institute of Curricular Methods through anexamination of 2,000 children in Moscow. Dataare included on the dangerous influence on childrenof films which are not appropriate to their age.

Chapter 2 describes the adaptation of filmservices for child audiences, the opening of acinema for children, and the arrangements madefor special children's matinees. For the sake ofcomparison, information is also given about achildren's cinema in Germany during the sameperiod.

Various practices adopted at the first children'scinema (800 seats) in Moscow are outlined: in thefoyer was a "cinema corner" with a mural news-paper and publicity material; a co-operative snackbar was opened and group games were organized;in the cinema hall proper, the services of an edu-cational expert were made available.

Other subjects treated are the equipmentneeded for children's cinemas and liaison betweenthe children's cinema and other children's organi-zations. A report on the work of a children's

11

-141,Mr1=,,,IFTOM11.111111,7,..111,1WW1,1,,...

cinema and notes on several children's filmsare included.

A diagram of educational work in connexionwith the screening of three films before childaudiences is given in the annex. Illustrated withsix scenes from Soviet children's films.

13. Lunders, Leo. Introduction aux problbmes ducinema et de la jeunesse. /An introduction tothe problems of the cinema and young people/Paris-Brussels, Editions universitaires CIDALC,1953, 221 p. Dutch edition: Inleiding tot de pro-blemen van film en jeugd, Purmerend, Muusses,1955.

A discussion of the influence of films on children,film education for the young, and the selection andproduction of children's films. Analyses filmlanguage, the influence of the cinema on childrenat different ages, the processes of identificationand imitation, the role of the cinema in juveniledelinquency. It is considered that film educationis necessary for young people of all ages, and thatteachers must be specially trained for this task.Universities should therefore provide courses infilmology and youth groups, film clubs, and studycircles should promote group discussion of variousaspects of the film. Discusses the need for morescientific research and the various tools of re-search.

The economic aspects of producing, distribut-ing, and exhibiting children's films are dealt with,as well as the work undertaken in this field byChildren's Entertainment Films (United Kingdom),the Children's Film Library (United States ofAmerica) , the Instituut Film en Jeugd (Netherlands),and the Conseil superieur du cinema (Belgium). Aplan is proposed for the establishment of inter-national criteria for the selection of films suitablefor children and for the banning of unsuitable films.

14. Marzi, Alberto and Canestrari, Renzo. Re-cherches sur les problbmes du cinema /Re-search on problems of films and youtW. In:Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris,III (II), July-December 1952, p. 179-192.

A survey of the studies published in Italy duringthe last five years on aspects of filmology and theproblem of the cinema and youth; with a bibliography.

15. Mirams, Gordon. Speaking Candidly: Filmsand People. Hamilton, New Zealand,Blackwood Paul, 1945, 240 p.

A critical survey of the cinema and its social im-portance, with special reference to New Zealandconditions. Contains chapters on the educationalinfluence of the entertainment film, the picture-going habits of children and what should be doneabout them, and also probes into the questions ofcensorship, film criticism and the possibilities ofcommunity control of the cinema.

12

16. Mizutani, Tokuo. Eiga Ni Kansuru Shomondai/ Various problems of thecinemal, Tokyo,Shakai-Kyoiku Kyokai /Social EducationAssociationj, 1933, 40 p. (Shakai-KyoikuPanfuretto /Social Education/ Series, 178).

Contents:1. Foreword2. The educational film movement and its

history3. Problems of youth and the cinema4. Problems of school education and the

cinema5. Problems of cinema amusement for the

public6. Problems of social education and the

cinema7. Problems of educational films and national

counter-measures.

17. Perlman, William J. The Movies on Trial: TheViews and Opinions of Outstanding Personali-ties anent Screen Entertainment Past andPresent. Compiled and edited by WilliamJ. Perlman, New York, Macmillan, 1936, 254 p.

Nineteen reports on the artistic significance of thefilm, its dangers for young people and society,film censorship, educational possibilities, etc.See under:

Lindsey, Ben B. , The Movies and Juvenile Delin-quency (no. 280);

Blats, W.E., What do the Children Think of theMovies? (no. 54).

See also: no. 491.

(b) STUDIES ON THE OBJECTIVES OFRESEARCH, AND METHODS EMPLOYED

18. Adler, Mortimer J. Art and Prudence. AStudy in Practical Philosophy; The Moral,the Political and the Aesthetic Aspects of theMotion Picture. New York & Toronto,Longmans, Green & Co., 1937, 686 p.

A study in practical philosophy, containing criticismof the Payne Fund Studies on "Motion Pictures andYouth" (see no. 2).

19. Feldman, Erich and Hagemann, Walter. DerFilm als Beeinflussungsmittel, Vortrage andBerichte der 2. Jahrestagung der deutschenGesellschaft far Filmwissenschaft. /Thecinema as a means of influence. Papers andReports of the second annual meeting of theGerman Filmological Society/. Emsdetten,Verlag Lechte, 1955, 118 p.

Several of these papers touch upon the subject"cinema and youth", in particular:

Keilhacker, Martin (Die Filmeinflfisse beiKindern und Jugend lichen und die Problema-tik Hirer Feststellung; pp. 49-66; cf. infraKeilhacker);

Feldman, Erich (Der Film als Kulturfaktor:pp. 23-48; cf. infra Feldman);

Ei land, Karl (Der westdeutsche Schulfilm;pp. 101-103).

20. Field, Mary. Children and Films . AStudy of Boys and Girls in the Cinema.Edinburgh, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust,1954, 56 p. App. 40 still pictures, 390photos.

A series of infra-red photographs show behaviour,facial expressions and gestures of children dur-ing a children' s film performance. The frameof the particular film scene and the photographtaken at the same time are reproduced side byside. Scenes were selected for their "emotion-provoking" content. The social background ofthe children photographed is described and thenecessity for co-operation with psychologists inthe interpretation of the photographs isemphasized.

21. Gel'mont, A.M. IzuEenie detskogo kinozritelja./The young spectator' s reactions studied/.Moscow, Roskino, 1933, 64 p.

Different methods of research on the reactions ofyoung spectators.

Chapter 1 explains the importance of thiswork.

Chapter 2, "What we know and what weshould know of the young spectator" , gives arapid outline of research undertaken in the SovietUnion and abroad during the years 1920-1930,concerning children's interest in the cinema,their reactions to different types of films, theinfluence of the cinema on children, etc. Con-clusions are drawn concerning methods to beadopted in future studies of the young spectator.

Chapter 3 describes the methods of statisticalevaluation of children's cinema-going habits andthe use made of the information thus obtained instudying the young spectator.

Chapter 4 describes procedures and methodsof research concerning the interests and wishes ofyoung spectators: debates, talks by young people,surveys, etc .

Chapter 5 describes methods of studyingthe reactions of children to films: notes onindividual reactions during projection, photo-graphic records of their expressions at differentmoments during the presentation of the films,debates, compositions, drawings, etc .

The object of this work is to stimulate theinitiative of educators in applying differentmethods of research into the reactions of youngpeople during extra-curricular activities withchildren.

22. Giraud, Jean. II cinema e l'adolescenza/ The cinema and adolescence/. Rome,Editrice Avio, 1958, 519 p.

Aninquiry carried out among young apprentices atItalian and French trade schools into the subject"cinema and youth". Separate chapters are devotedto research methods; relations between adolescentsand the cinema today; adolescents on the screenand before the screen; immediate reaction anddelayed reaction of adolescents to the cinema;various educational problems.

23. Glogauer, Werner. SozialpsychologischeAspekte der Filmwirkung Aocio-psychologicalaspects of the influence of +he cinema,/. In:Jugend und Film, Munich, (2), 1957, pp.1-16.

The socio-psychological aspects of the cinema andits influence has not received sufficient attentionso far. The author suggests possible subjects forsuch a study: public taste, influence of adults onadolescents and vice versa regardingthe choice offilms they see, socio-psychological behaviour ofchildren and adolescents before, during and afterscreening, influence of the cinema on the behaviouror "attitudes" of a group (fashion, tourism, leisureactivities, etc.), influence of film stars onadolescents' views of life, fluctuations in the in-fluence of the cinema according to the milieu towhich the spectator belongs, contributions by thecinema towards the betterment or worsening ofsocial relations, etc .

24. Irgens, Hans Rutger. Filmseende och mognad/Reactions to films and maturity/. G5teborg,1958, 89 p. (M.A. thesis, with resume inFrench).

A "pilot inquiry" , undertaken with the aid of newmethods, into the reactions of adolescents to theFrench film "Avant le deluge" and their recollec-tions of it. The inquiry was carried out amongforty-two high-school children whose age andfamily circumstances corresponded to those of theprincipal characters.

The questions asked were designed to deter-mine the extent to which the affective reactions ofthe subjects and, more particularly, their re-actions toward the parents portrayed in the film,varied with age and personality. The reactionswere measured by reference to the ability of thesubjects - who were shown a series of picturesrepresenting scenes from the film with extracts ofthe dialogue (in Swedish) - to locate the dialogue inthe film. Other questions: sympathetic characters,unsympathetic characters, their nature, theirresponsibility for the incidents, justice of the sen-tences passed, etc . Most of the children ascribedthe responsibilityforthe incidents to the spirit ofthe age. The more intelligent were critical of theundue severity of the sentences. With abibliography of 112 titles .

13

25. Keilhacker, Martin. Die Filmeinfliisse beiKindern und Jugend lichen und die Problematikihrer Feststellung /The influence of the cinemaon children and adolescents, and how to assessit/. In: Feldman, Erich and Hagemann, Walter:Der Film ale Beeinflussungsmittel Vortrageund Berichte der 2. Jahrestagung der deutschenGesellschaft fur Filmwissenschaft. (See no. 19)Emsdetten, Verlag Lechte, 1955, 118 p.

The word "influence" is considered under threedifferent aspects: the force of attraction exertedby the cinema, the impression produced (intensityand duration), the effect of these two factors onthe views and behaviour of the spectator. The in-quiries into cinema attendance among children andadolescents help to supply an answer to the firstquestion. The study of the second meets withcertain methodological difficulties. The authordescribes in detail observations he has himselfmade with the aid of methods relating to the psy-chology of expression. The third question is themost difficult as it assumes a thorough and pre-vious analysis of the cinematographic experienceof young persons.

26. Keir, Gertrude. Psychology and the Film.In: Penguin Film Review, London, (9), 1949,p. 67-72.

The circumstances in which the viewer sees afilm, and the technique and content of the film it-self are the two factors usually taken into accountin explaining the emotional impact of a film. Inorder to understand this better, an attempt shouldbe made to learn more about the states of sugges-tibility engendered by visits to the cinema ascompared with those brought about by the othermass media; the extent to which ideas, attitudesand sentiments are influenced by films, and theconsequent modification of behaviour. The resultsshould then be correlated, allowing for differencesin age, sex and socio-economic background.

27. Klapper, Joseph T . Studying Effects of MassCommunication. In: Communication and theCommunication Arts, edited by FrancisShoemaker, New York, 57 (2) , November1955, p. 95-103.

What is "communication research"? The differentfactors as given in Lasswell's formula "who sayswhat to whom with what effects", are interacting.The content of communication influences theeffect; hence the importance of content analysisresearch. But content analyses alone cannotprove influence in a given direction, it providesonly valuable working hypotheses. The effect islargely determined by the public and its socio-psychological characteristics, such as sex, age,domicile, profession and political orientation.The public's predisposition concerning the sourceof communication can also influence the effect.

14

28. Lunders, Leo. Comment evaluer l'influencedu cinema sur les enfants? /How to evaluatethe influence of the cinema on children?. j In:Revue internationale du cinema, Brussels,4 (12), 1952, p. 50-55.

Several quantitative and qualitative methods whichoften result in incorrect conclusions are criticallyreviewed. Is it not desirable and possible to havecloser co-operation between the different investi-gators in the field of film and youth? A work planshould be developed, and several suggestions inthis direction are offered.

29. Muth, Heinrich. Land-Jugend und Kino /Thecinema and rural youth]. In: Planck, Ulrich:Die Lebenslage der westdeutschen Landjugend,Munich, Juventa-Verlag, 1956 (Part I: 409 p.;Part II: 558 p.).

A critical survey of the methods and results ofpast research into the influence of the cinema onyouth. This research can be divided into threecategories: psycho-pedagogic studies; pedagogicstudies which merely increase public anxiety aboutthe deleterious influence of the cinema; and socio-logical investigations, which have been neglectedso far. If studies in individual psychology are tobe fruitful, they must be based on sufficient socio-logical data which can be supplied by an investiga-tion of the attitude of rural youth towards the cinema.The author studies cinema attendance among theyoung rural population and quotes various correla-tions which show that cinema lovers (who go to thecinema at least twice a month) differ from less keenspectators also in other respects: a preference forleisure activities outside the family circle, absenceof certain prejudices; for instance against make-up.The cinema in no way makes young persons dis-satisfied with their life, as censorious people suggest.

30. Nozet, Hugues. L 'Influence du cinema surla leunesse. Etudes experimentales.influence of the cinema on young people.Experimental studies j In: Atti del congressointernazionale organizzato dal CIDALC, Firenze,6-11 Giugno 1950 " ll cinema nei problemi dellacultura" ecords of the International Congressorganized by CIDALC, Florence, 6-11 June 1950"Film and cultural problems. Rome, Biancoe Nero, 1951, p. 79-83.

A short explanation of methodological difficultiesencountered in research on the influence of thecinema on young people. When studying reactionsto the feature film, the investigator is confrontedwith the problem of not being able to vary thecomposition of the film itself. Special films shouldbe produced for such investigations. The fact thata film provokes a whole complex of reactions inchildren and adolescents - motor, physiological,emotional, and intellectual - makes such studiesvery complicated. A brief expose of the methodused by Professor Wallon is included.

31. Reymaker, J. de. Methodes voor het onder-zoek van de invloed van de film op de Jeugd.ZResearch methods used in examining the in-fluence of films on young people/. Louvain,University, 1950, unpublished thesis.

A critical survey of several investigations whichhave been carried out on the influence of films onyoung people, with special reference to the meth-ods of investigation. For the study of film pre-ferences the method of Heuyer, Lebovici andAmado (Recherches au Centre de neuro-psychiatrieinfantile/Research at the Children's Neuro-psychiatric Centre) seems to be the best, as itinterprets preferences for certain films withintheframework of clinical investigation. The investi-gations on the influence of the cinema on mentallife (Holaday and Stoddard; Zazzo) seem to offerhopeful prospects. The author considers, how-ever, that research into the influence of films on"attitudes" (Petersen and Thurstone) is not likelyto yield great results. Many investigations pointto the suggestive (unconscious) influence of films(Rosen). Wiese and Cole have shown that filmsare assimilated differently, according to socialand educational levels. Thus, the most fruitfulpoint of departure for further research is thedynamic life of the child or adolescent. Objectivetechniques (Biumer, Funk, Mayer) can be usedfor the investigation of both groups and individuals.In research into group reactions, these techniquesshould be concentrated on certain aspects and noton the entire problem. A thorough study of iden-tification is of great importance, but the authorconsiders that the psychoanalytical interpretationis too biased to be of value. A detailed biblio-graphy completes the study.

32. Stfickrath, Fritz. Das Filmspiel, ersterBericht Ober eine neue Methode zur Unter-suchung des Filmerlebens in Kindheit andJugend Lrhe film play. First report on a newmethod for investigating film experience inchildhood and adolescence; In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, VI (9), December 1956, p. 22-25;44-47.

As the child's oral expression does not alwaysprovide a satisfactory basis for gaining an insightinto his film experience, a "film play" was de-signed in the form of a miniature puppet filmstudio where children can produce their own films.They can imitate a film they have recently seen ormake a new one. Very useful data can be obtainedfrom the way in which the child manages decor,props and puppets and from his "conversations"with the puppets. (See also nos. 179, 180.)

33. Tarroni, Evelina. L 'apporto dell, esperienzafilmica alla vita psichica del fanciullo 157e--influence of cinematographic experience onthe mental life of children]. In: Ragazzid'Oggi, Rome,(1), January1953, pp. 17-20.

Until now, studies (e.g. Field, W1cIde) have beenconcerned mainly with the immediate reaction ofchildren screening, whereas, from thepedagogic point of view, they should, save in ex-ceptional cases, concentrate on the immediatereaction after screening. The aim is to ensurenot only a kind of prophylaxis, but also a moraland cultural training through cinematographic ex-perience. Hence the need to investigate and control"delayed" reactions with the aid of free discussionsof the films and especially by drawings, for a childpossesses, up to the age of 12 to 13, a specialkind of visual memory whereby images are re-tained by the retina more or less long accordingto their emotional quality. Examnles of the firstresults of this methodological te,anique, and con-clusions to be drawn from them.

34. Tarroni, Evelina and Paderni, Sandro. Filmper ragazzi e pericoli del semplicismo Nlinsfor adolescents and dangers of over - simplicityIn: Cinema, Rome, V (57), March 1951,pp. 99-101, (new series).

The author recommends the use of the question-naire, which he considers, especially if it is on asufficiently large scale, the ideal method for in-vestigating a problem and discovering a solution,however approximate. A section of the question-naire is reserved for free statements. It is truethat the objective of this method is pedagogicalrather than filmological.

35. Trager, Walter. Methoden der Jugendfilm-forschung. Ein Ueberblick LA resume ofmethods suitable for research on alma foryoung persons/. In: Jugend, Film, Fernsehen,Munich, 3 (1), 1959, pp. 1-13.

Research on the subject "Children and the cinema"is mainly concerned with the cinematographic ex-perience and the influence of the cinema. Butother aspects should also be examined, notablycinema attendance habits of young people, theirpsychological reaction to the cinema and theirmanner of assimilating films. A resume of thedifferent methods which can be used during, after,or both before and after the screening of a film.During the screening one may resort, for instance,to direct observation or the more subtle "WiggleTest". The behaviour of the spectators may alsobe recorded in photographs, on film or on tape.Psychological measurements, in particular theuse of electro-encephalography, are mainly com-plementary aids. After the screening, recoursemay be had to oral, written or non-verbal expres-sion (for instance, drawing); finally, the imme-diate impact of a film may be assessed with thehelp of depth analysis tests, questionnaires, etc.,before and after screening.

36. Wasem, 'Erich. Der "Wiggle Test" aleAnhaltspunkt fir die Jugendeignung eines

15

Filmes . eihe "Wiggle Test" as an indication_of the suitability of a film for young audiences/.In: Jugend und Film, Munich, December 1955,pp. 9-12.

A study of the usefulness of the "Wiggle Test" indetermining whether a film is suitable for certainage-groups. A detailed analysis, with diagrams,of "Smoky, Hero of the Prairie".

37. Wasem, Erich. Jugend und Filmerleben.Beitrage zur Psychologie und Padagogik derWirkung des Films auf Kinder und Jugend-liche. Youth and cinema experience. Contri-butions to the psychology and pedagogy of theinfluence of films on children and adolescents./Munich/Basel, Ernst Reinhardt Verlag, 1957 ,140 p.

The methods which have been used to investigatethe influence of films on children and young peopleare examined, and the risk run by the observer ofchildren's behaviour of projecting his own ideasand experiences is discussed. The observer ofchildren's reactions and comments must possessconsiderable intuition, since spontaneous reactionsand comments are far more indicative of real feel-ing than responses to questionnaires, which areinevitably superficial. The difficulties of establish-ing a useful questionnaire are emphasized. Themerits and demerits of the individual interview andgroup discussion for the study of the cinema andyouth are considered, as well as the importance ofthe discussion leader's psychological intuition andexperience. The technique of holding competitionfor the best piece of writing or drawing on themesfrom films, several projective tests, and certainkinds of psycho-technical and medical apparatusare also discussed. The second chapter deals withthe benefits and dangers of films for children andyoung people, including the theory of discharge oftension, the film star cult, and the possible in-direct incitement to crime through the underminingof moral standards. In the third chapter, thecriteria for judging the suitability of films foryoung people are reviewed. Fairy-tale films, in-formation films, westerns and war films are con-sidered, from ethical, psychological, and socio-logical points of view. The value of various testsis discussed. The last chapter deals with thedesirability of film education, the influence of thecinema on the vocabulary of young people and theirability to express themselves, the r8le of films insocial education, art appreciation and religiouseducation.

See also: nos. 53, 85, 120, 166, 170, 244, 246,423, 459, 475, 282, 491.

16

(c) BIBLIOGRAPHIES ANDSPECIAL PERIODICALL

38. Beeldcultuur en opvoeding [Visual Cultureand Education/. Documentation bulletins onvisual culture and education, Instituut Filmen Jeugd, Parkstraat 85a, The Hague. Everytwo months.

39. Cine-Gioventt. Mensile di cultura cinemato-grafica(Monthly review of cinematographicculturej Rome 1954.

40. Cinema educatif et culture'. Quarterly reviewof the Centre international du cinema educatifet cultural, CIDALC, via Santa Susanna, 17,Rome. 1952-

41. Dale, Edgar and Morrison, John. MotionPicture Discrimination. An Annotated Biblio-graphy. Columbus, Ohio, Bureau of Educa-tional Research, Ohio State University, I (7),s. d. , 41 p. (Series I - Modern Media ofEducation).

Following a short introduction on the meaning offilm education, the bibliography lists sixty booksand periodical articles on this subject, mostlypublished in the United States of America.

42. Education et cinema. Quarterly review ofcinematographic techniques in popular educa-tion. Paris. 1950-1956.

43. Film-Bild-Ton. (Published by: Institut furFilm und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht,Munich) Seebruck am Chiemsee, Heering-Verlag. 1951- Monthly, 36 p.

44. Film, Jugend, Schule. Zeitschrift Filmer-ziehung und Filmkunde. (Review of film edu-cation and filmology/. (Published by: Landes -bildstelle Westfalen und Westdeutsche Schul-film , Gelsenkirchen) 1952- Quarterly.

45. &he/ Film Teacher. Journal of the Societyof Film Teachers. London. 1952- initiallyprinted, now stencilled. Quarterly.

46. Heinrich, Karl. Bibliografie Film und Jugend/Bibliography on the cinema and youth)Frankfurt am Main, Hochschule fur Inter-nationale padagogische Forschung, 1959,269 p. (stencilled).

Two thousand eight hundred and sixty-five biblio-graphical notices on some 2,500 books and articlesin periodicals (many titles are quoted more thanonce under different headings). These publicationsdeal not only with the relations between the cinemaand youth, but also with the cinema as a means ofexpression and communication, the use of films in

teaching, etc. The preface and table of contentsare given in German, English and French. Theitems are divided into the following categories:A. The film as a means of expression and

communication.B. Social and economic aspects of the cinema.C. General comments on the relations between

the cinema and children and adolescents.D. The influence of the cinema on youth.E. Films for children and adolescents .

F. Films and education.G. The cinema as a pedagogic and educational

medium.H. The cinema as a school subject (knowledge

and appreciation of the cinema).I. Out-of-school film education.J. Materials for use in schools and youth clubs

(this does not, of course, mean documentationon filmology, but teaching aids: films, film-strips, works on the cinema).

K. Protection of youth and censorship.L. Novels (especially those dealing with film

stars) - written for young readers.M. Reference books - collections.N. Catalogues - supplements on the cinema.O. Bibliographies.

47. Image et son. Review of the Union frangaisedes oeuvres lafques de Peducation par ',imageet le son -Ligue frangaise de Penseignement.Paris. 1946-

48. Jugend und Film: since 1958, Jugend,Film, Fernsehen. Mitteilungen des Arbeit-skreises Jugend und Film e.V. (Bulletin ofthe Jugend und Film study group) Munich, 1950-

49. Vincent, Carl, (et at) Bibliografia _generale delcinema (General bibliography ontne cinema/Rome, Edizioni dell'Ateneo, 1953, 252 p.

A general bibliography of film literature, divided in-to the following categories: General works; Histo-riography; Aesthetics and criticism; Technique;Social and moral problems; Legal and economicproblems; Film and science; Sub-standard andamateurstilm; Documentation and anthologies;Scenarios and shooting scripts; r n-classifiedworks. Each sectionis introduced by a short de-scription of the nature of the works listed in Anumber of publications relatingto film and youthare included in the s ection "Social and moralproblems".

50. Wir Blenden Auf

Published by Landesjugendreferat, Vienna forViennese school teachers engaged in film educa-tion. Weekly (stencilled).

For bibliographical references see also: nos. 7,10, 14, 24, 31, 65, 96, 158, 203, 213, 294, 322,335, 364, 368, 383, 423, 477, 479, 490.

17

2. THE ATTITUDE OF YOUTH TOWARDS THE CINEMA

(a) FREQUENCY OF CINEMA ATTENDANCE;CINEMA HABITS; THE CINEMA IN RELA-TION TO OTHER LEISURE ACTIVITIES

51. Bailyn, Lotte. Mass Media and Children:A Study of Exposure Habits and CognitiveEffects. Cambridge, Mass., Centre forIntemational Studies, Massachusetts Instituteof Technology, 1958. 41 p. (stencilled).

A critical and analytical survey of American publi-cations dealing with the influence of mass commu-nication media on youth. The author examinessuccessively the time devoted by young persons tomass media (cinema attendance, listening to theradio, reading of strip cartoons, etc.); the con-tents of mass media; young persons' preferences;their recollections of what they have heard, seenor read; the role of mass media in the lives ofyoung persons and specific influence they exercise.

The general impression is that, on the whole,children devote to mass media a considerable partof their leisure time, which, however varies inextent with age, level of development, and sex, aswell as various social and economic factors. Twomethods in particular may be used to study thecontents of mass media: their various elementsmay be analysed by classification, or they may beconsidered in relation to the cultural level andstandards of morality of the public (this methodwas used, in particular, by Charles C. Peters,Motion Pictures and Standards of Morality, PayneFund Studies no. 123, and by Wolfenstein andLeites,. Movies, A Psychological Study). It appearsthat the preferences of young persons for certain-programmes are not determined entirely by supply,but are also influenced by other factors: age, levelof development, sex, social and economic circum-stances, etc. The relations between these prefer-ences and the influence of mass media on youngpersons are still insufficiently known. Various in-quiries have been undertaken with a view to assess-ing the influence of certain character traits (forinstance, aggressiveness) or certain mental apti-tudes on a child's recollections of a film, a radioprogramme, etc. Mass media may play a multiplerale in the lives of children: the latter find inthemcompensation for their frustrations, an escape, asolution to their personal problems, a broadeningof their horizon, etc. The author endeavours torelate these various attitudes to the studies of thecontents of mass media and the preferences of thepublic. Finally, she analyses the different methods

18

used in the study of the specific influence of massmedia on children, and summarizes the resultsobtained.

52. Behringer, Gertrude. Welche Rolle spieltder Film tatsachlich im Leben unserer Jugend?16,000 Wiener Jugendliche geben Antwort.What is the role of the cinema in the life ofour young people? 16,000 Viennese youngpeople give their answers In: Oester-reichischer Jugend-nformationsdienst, Vienna7 (9-10), June-July 1954, p.4-6.

An inquiry carried out by means of questionnairesamong 16,000 Viennese schoolchildren, to findout how often they attend the cinema, for whatreasons, with whom, how they select the films tosee, what kinds of films they prefer.

The frequency of cinema attendance was foundto vary greatly among the age-groups studied; the10-14 year-olds went to the cinema an average of2.2 times monthly; the 15-18 year-olds, nearlyfive times monthly. "Recreation" and "instruc-tion" are the reasons most frequently given forgoing to the cinema. Film titles, publicity photo-graphs, anticipation of the film contents, and thenames of the actors were cited as the main decid-ing factors in the choice of films. The preferencefor certain kinds of film was found to vary greatlywith age and type of school.

53. Bianco e Nero. Chi va al cinema e perche?LWho goes to the cinema and why l/ Rome,XIX (2), February 1958.

A number devote'd entirely to a discussion of themethods and results of a survey of cinema au-diences by Malcolm MacLean, Jr., Luca Pinnaand Margherita Guidacci. It contains variousreferences to the reactions of young audiences.

54 . Blats, W.E . What do the Children Think of theMovies? In: Perlman, William J.: The Movieson Trial, New York, MacMillan, 1936 p.232-248, (see no. 17).

An interim account of an investigation carried outin Toronto in 1934-1935 among more than 2,000children between 9 and 19 years of age. The follow-ing were the main results. More than 50 per centof the boys and 60 per cent of the girls did not goto the cinema more than once every two weeks inwinter. Only 7 per cent of the boys and 3 per cent

of the girls went more than once a week. Thesechildren generally went to the cinema wial otherpersons (mainly with their parents). Up to the ageof 13 years the film comedy is first choice, followedby the "mystery" film and the musical comedy.Musical comedy is the first choice with olderchildren. Gangster and love films were likedleast bythe youngest children. When young peopleare asked to show their preference for various formsof amusement including the cinema, the latterusually just makes second place.

55. Bosio, Luigi. Inchiesta sul cinematografo/Inquiry on the cinemaj In: Stampa, cinema,radio per ragazzi, Rome, n.d. , p. 84-92.

An inquiry, carried out in Turin in April and May1952, intothe cinema attendance habits and prefer-ences of 1,500 schoolchildren.

56. Bossard, Robert. Film and Familie /Thecinema and the family/ In: Pro Juventute,Zurich, XXXVIII (1), January 1957, p. 3-11.

A child's early visits tothe cinema are normallymade inthe company of his family and he graduallyadopts the habits of his parents and elder brothersand sisters inthis respect. With a view to determin-ingthe influence of the cinema on a child and theeffect of this influence onfamilylife, the author inturn examines the following questions: (1) how doesa film affect a child? (2) what role does cinema at-tendance playinthe life of our children? (3) whatarethe advantages and dangers of cinema attend-ance? (4) what steps should be taken to ensure thatthe influence of the cinema is as beneficial aspossible?

He reaches the following conclusions: (1) Untilthe end of the period of compulsory schooling parentsand teachers are responsible forthe cinema attend-ance of the children. It would be advisable not toallow the latter to visit the cinema more than once afortnight; (2) in order to prevent children, as far aspossible, from seeing films not meant forthem, thenumber of performances arranged for children be-tweenthe ages often and fourteen, at suitable timesand reduced prices and showing a specially se-lected programme should be increased; (3) specialperformances could similarly be arranged forchildren of fourteento sixteen, with programmeschosen by a committee of teachers and educatio-nists; (4) children above the age of sixteen shouldbe permitted to go freely to the cinema, but thisdoes not mean that the educator should relinquishall responsibility; (5) debates should be arrangedat school and in youth clubs designed to train youngpeople to form their own judgement of films theyhave seen.

57. Box, Kathleen and Moss, Louis. The CinemaAudience. An inquiry made by Wartime SocialSurvey for the Ministry of Information. London,Wartime Social Survey, 1943, n.p. ,(Report

new series, 37b). Also in: Mayer, Jacob P. ,

British Cinemas and their Audiences.London, Dennis Dobson Ltd. , 1948, p. 250-275, (see no. 104).

An investigation of the composition of the cinemapublic and cinema attendances in the UnitedKingdom during the war. Of 5,639 persons inter-viewed, 304 belonged to the 14-17 age-group,(young people who had left school). The secondage-group between 18-40 years (2,368 persons)was not further subdivided. 43 per cent of the14-17 year-olds went to the cinema twice or moreper week. 759 mothers whose children were be-tween 5 and 14 years old were questioned on thefrequency of their children's cinema attendances.

Information obtained showed that childrenvisited the cinema more than twice as often asadults. Children from lower economic levels wentmore often than those from more comfortablehomes and children whose mothers had gone to asecondary school went less frequently than child-ren whose mothers had primary education only.Children with working mothers visited cinemasmore often than other children.

58. Chresta, Hans. Moderne Formen der Jugend-bildung: Literatur, Film, Radio, Fernsehen./Modern methods of adolescent education:literature, film, radio, television/. Zurich-Stuttgart, Artemis-Verlag, 1958, 199 p.

This work, prepared under the auspices of theSwiss National Commission for Unesco, contains,in the section devoted to the cinema (pp. 75-120),a detailed documentation on the cinema attendancehabits of young persons, Swiss legislation on filmsfor young persons, the influence of the cinema onyouth and the development of a taste in films. Theauthor discusses the principal inquiries and confer-ences which have been held in Switzerland, thelegislative provisions in force, and various booksand articles in periodicals.

59. Dale, Edgar. Children's Attendance at MotionPictures. New York, MacMillan, 1935, 81 p.(Payne Fund Studies).

An examination of cinema habits and the frequencyof children's cinema attendances in the UnitedStates of America. Children between 5 and 8 yearswent to the cinema 0.42 times per week. 22 percent of this age-group had never visited the cinema.Boys between 5 and 8 years saw an average of 24programmes per year, but girls of the same ageonly 19. In the 8-19 year age-group, the averagefrequency of cinema attendance was nearly oncea week and only 5 per cent had never visited thecinema. In this age-group, boys saw an averageof 57 programmes per year and girls 16. 27 percent of the boys and 21 per cent of the girls of thisage-group went to the cinema at least twice a week.Village children saw fewer films than town children.

19

Fathers took their sons (between 8 and 19 years ofage) in only 2.63 per cent of all cases to the cinema;mothers 3.65 per cent. Boys of 8 were accom-panied in 23 per cent of all cases by both parentson each occasion. Boys and girls prefer to be ac-companied by friends, brother or sister, rathcrthan parents. Of all persons visiting the cinemain the United States of America, 3.1 per cent wereunder 7 years of age; 13.7 per cent between 7 and13; 20.8 per cent between 14 and 20; and 62.4per cent 20 and over. Eleven million children inthe United States of America under the age of 14and 28 million under the age of 21 visited thecinema each week.

60. Department of Social Welfare and CommunityDevelopment in Accra and Kumasi. Childrenand the Cinema: a Report of an Inquiry intoCinema-going among Juveniles Undertaken bythe Department of Social Welfare and Com-munitz Development in Accra and Kumasi.1954, 14 p. (stencilled).

A report on a small-scale inquiry into the cinemaattendance of juveniles between the ages of eightand sixteen, in Accra and Kumasi (Ghana), carriedout mainly in response to the frequent complaintsconcerning the influence of the cinema on juveniledelinquency. It appears that juveniles attend, forthe most part, performances between mid-day andthree o'clock and sometimes miss school for thispurpose. To procure the necessary money theyhave recourse to several expedients; if they havenot earned or saved it, they beg, steal or persuadesomeone else to pay for their seats. The childrendo not understand the dialogue, so that only thevisual part of the film is intelligible to them. Theyentirely fail to grasp the subject and any moral thestory may contain. A short resume of the differentreactions of juveniles and their preferences forcertain films. The chief danger of the cinema liesin the circumstances in which children visit it(secretly, against the wish of their parents, with-out possessing the necessary money).

61. Feo, G. de. Quand et comment les jeunesfrequentent le cinema. /When and how youngpeople go to the cinemaj In: Revue inter-nationale du cinema educateur, Rome, IV(10 -11) , October - November 1932, p. 865-874;944-955.

A statistical inquiry carried out in 742 schools inItaly into the frequency and circumstances ofyoung people's cinema attendance. Answers werereceived from 18,757 pupils (70.3 per cent boys,29.7 per cent girls). It was discovered that child-ren and adolescents were inclined to visit cinemasof a higher level as they grew older and thereforeviewed films of a correspondingly higher quality.They also go more frequently to the cinema as theyget older, and boys go more frequently than girls.Children generally attend the cinema more

20

frequently on Sundays and holidays; children fromworking-class homes prefer evening and holidayperformances. Children go more often to thecinema with their parents in large towns than insmaller towns.

62. Gibson, Harold J. (Mrs .) and Nahabedian,Vaskey (Mrs.). A Survey of the Reading,Radio and Motion Picture Habits of Royal OakPublic School Students and their Parents.Royal Oak, Michigan, Royal Oak Public School,1949, 21 p.

The average pupil in the school surveyed attendsthe cinema much more frequently than his parents.At the age of 8, he goes to the cinema once a week;until the age of 12 he attends the Saturday afternoonperformance. When he reaches junior high schoolhe goes to the cinema on Friday evening, generallywith a friend. His parents help him in the selectionof films, and he generally appreciates the filmshis parents consider suitable for him. Comedies,westerns, cartoons and animal films are hisfavourites; later his interest in westerns wanesand his interest in musicals grows. He nowchooses films on the basis of cast and publicity.When he reaches high school, he will be more in-fluenced in his choice by official film criticism,and he tends to have the same criteria as hisparents.

63. Giraud, Jean. Il cinema e l'adolescenza/The cinema and adolescents/ Rome, Ed.Avio, 1958, 519 p.

On pages 175-287 the author discusses the cinemaattendance habits of adolescents and their prefer-ences, and analyses, by a method of his own, theresults of the inquiry conducted in France andItaly. He outlines certain problems, the solutionof which calls for further study and experiment.

64. Giraud, Jean. Quelques aspects du rapportentre le cinema et un type d' adolescents:l'eleve du centre d' apprentissage. /Someaspects of the relationship between the cinemaand a certain type of adolescent: the trade-school pupil/. Paper read at the SecondInternational Congress of Filmology, Paris,1955.

An account of investigations into the frequency ofcinema attendance, cinema "habits", and prefer-ences for certain films of a large number of pupils.

65. Gray, Barbara. Enfants et adolescents devantles films. (-Children and adolescents in aworld of films/. In: Revue internationale defilmologie, Paris, III (11), July-December1952, p. 193-210.

A survey of research on the influence of the cinemacarried out in the United Kingdom since the war

with particular regard to (1) cinema-going habitsof children; (2) regional differences observed inthis respect; and (3) influences on individualchildren. Special film performances for children,and cinema clubs receive special attention and thework of Mary Field in this direction is cited. In-cludes a detailed bibliography.

66. Gray, Barbara. The Social Effects of theFilm. In: The Sociological Review, London,XLII (7), 1950, p.12.

A survey carried out among 300 children in WestBromwich (Birmingham) under the auspices of theUniversity of Birmingham, of cinema attendancehabits and the influence of film. It was found thatcinema attendance takes up as much time as homework, but less than radio listening, playing out ofdoors and reading.

The children attended the cinema between onceand twice a week on the average, mainly withfriends or parents. 10 per cent preferred to goalong. 8 per cent of the children visited thecinema "to excess".

There is no relationship between cinema at-tendance and juvenile delinquency, in spite of thepopularity of crime films. In general, films donot appear to bring about diminished respect forparents; in fact the children's respect for theirparents tends to increase after they see sentimen-tal films dealing with parent-child relationships.The recurrent portrayal of idealized luxury andthe representation of love as physical attractionand passion only, rather than as a more complexemotion, endangers the sense of values of all butthe emotionally mature.

The author considers that, as a means ofcounteracting the harmful influence of films, filmeducation should be introduced in the schools, agelimits for cinema attendance should be morestrictly enforced, and a government body shouldbe created to deal with the production of suitablefilms for children and the showing of such films inspecial children's cinemas.

67. Hart, W.A. 't. Bioscoopbezoek doorjongeren. Een bijdrage$ tot de verkenningvan het vraagstuk film en jeugd aan de handvan een enquete, in oporacht van het InetituutFilm en Jeugd uitgevoerd door het Isonevo.ZVisitstothe cinema by young people. A con-tribution to the study of 'the problem of thecinema and youth, based on a survey carriedout by Isonevo on behalf of the Instituut Filmen Jeugg, Rotterdam, Brusse, 1955, 45 p.

A ehz;ri stmAztary of an extensive sociological'survey of the cinema attendance :tabits of boys andgirls, 14-19 years old, in a number of towns inthe Netherlands, The survey was carried out dur-ing 1901-1953: the subjects were secondary schoolstudertts and young workers, of various social andcultural backgrounds. Following a critical

examination of the questionnaire used, of the scopeof the study and of the requirements of sociologicalsampling, the findings are described and cor-related with other sociological factors.

Approximately 68 per cent of the young peopleinvestigated went to the cinema once a week orless, 30 per cent went more often. Cinema at-tendance was most frequent during the week-end;boys went alone to the cinema more often thangirls; 23 per cent went with a member of theopposite sex.

Girls preferred the following kinds of film:musicals, comedies, films about everyday life,nature and animal films, films about love andsports. Boys preferred war films, comedies,cowboy films, musicals, detective stories, filmsabout sports and Tarzan. Film selection appzzaredto be guided mainly by other people's opinions.Asked which r8le they themselves would like toplay, 30 per cent of the girls said they would liketo appear in a musical, 16 per cent of the boyswould like to play cowboys. Preferred leisure-time occupations were reading and sports 20 percent each, music 16 per cent, handicrafts 12 percent, and dancing 10 per cent.

The survey is then compared with otherE whichhave been carried out in the Netherlands.

68, Hart, W.A. 't. Een inleidend onderzoek tothet probleem film en jeugd. LA preliminaryinvestigation of the problem of film and youthIn: Nederlands tijdschrift voor de psychologieen haar grensgebieden, Amsterdam, VIII (2),1953, p. 163-200, (new series).

Results of a preliminary investigation conductedamong 1,000 schoolchildren in Dutch primary andsecondary schools (age 11-18 years), and a studyof the frequency of the children's cinema attend-ance, their preference for certain types of films,etc.

In the 11-16 year age-group, the frequency ofattendance rises with the age of the children goingto a lower secondary school, whereas the frequencydiminishes with children who attend grammarschool. The type of school attended seems to playa part in the frequency of cinema attendance. Pre-ferences for certain films depended also on thetype of school; these preferences underwent achange as the children became older.

69. Helier, Daniel. Kind en bioscoop. De Juiste

golden mea . In: Het kind, Brussels, (1),verhoudingiChildren and the cinema - the

January-February 1952, p. 31-44.

After quoting figures relative to cinema attendanceby children, the author summarizes in non-technical language the results of certain scientificinquiries into the influence of the cinema on theemotional life of young persons, the cinema anddelinquency, etc. He then examines certainexperiments in arranging film performances for

21

children in England and France and concludes withsome comments on the conditions to be fulfilled bya good children's film.

70. Hiroshima Association of Juvenile Correction.Cinema Habits and Film Preferences. Seito-jido no Eiga-Kanran ni Kansuru Taisaku nitsuite "Principles for the showing of films tochildreW ed. by Kumataro Hirakawa,Hiroshima, 1937, 73 p.

Contents:

1. Introduction2. Survey of pupils' attendance at3. Comments of various groups on

by pupils4. The use of films at school, in

principle5. A committee for studying m

cinema .

cinemasfilm-viewing

71. Home Office.Committee on

Report of

practice and in

easures on the

the DepartmentalChildren and the Cinema.

London, H.M. Statione109 p.

ry Office, May 1950,

This Committee was set up in 1947 to investigatethe effects of cinema attendance by children underthe age of 16 and especially in children's filmclubs, and in the light of results to see whether theexisting system of film classification, existingregulations concerning the admission of childrento the cinema, or the leadership and managementof children' s film clubs, should be modified. TheCommittee interviewed 270 persons among whomwere government officials, educators, specialistsin children' s film , doctors, psychologists, psy-chiatrists, social and religious leaders. Data wasalso obtained from police files and tribunals andfrom discussions with children and mothers.

88 per cent of the children from 5 to 15 yearsof age (a total of 7 million children in England,Wales and Scotland) visit the cinema from time totime. Parents as well as children regard weeklycinema visits as a normal form of recreation. TheCommittee recommended that children under 7years should not be allowed to enter a cinema un-less accompanied by their parents or other bonafide adults . The existing regulations allowingchildren under the age of 16 years to be admittedto films if accompanied by parents or other adultswere considered unsatisfactory by the Committee.The Committee found in 1948 that approximately896,000 children attended a performance each weekin children' s film clubs and expressed its dissatis-faction with programmes shown. In this connexionit recommended the establishment of a nationalbody for children' s films. Concerning the rela-tionship between film visits and juvenile delinquencyit was stated that of 38,000 children under the agef 16 who appeared before a juvenile court over a

period of 6 months, there were only 141 cases of

22

criminal behaviour and 112 cases of moral mis-behaviour where a direct relationship could beestablished with films which these children hadseen. The Committee came to the conclusion thatcriminal and amoral behaviour are to be imputedto deeper and more subtle influences than filmalone. Nevertheless, the Committee consideredthat many scenes shown on the screen are un-suitable for children. Positive action, particu-larly in the field of film education was stronglyrecommended by the Committee.

72. Itkyal, N.L. Report on Cinema and thePublic: A Pilot Survey of Audience Reactionin Greater Bombay. Bombay, India, CentralBoard of Film Censors, 1958, 89 p. (stencilled).

This pilot survey of audience reaction was carriedout in 1956-1957, by the random sampling method,among 3,107 citizens (193 children and adolescentsand 2,194 adults) constituting 0.15 per cent of thepopulation of Greater Bombay, the survey wasconducted by the Central Board of Film Censorswith the assistance of the Tata Institute of SocialSciences, Chembur. The data collected consistedof the results of personal interviews based onquestionnaires drawn up separately, but containinga number of common items, for the three age-groups 10-14, 15-20 and 21 and over.

Some of the findings classified according tojunior (10-20) and senior (21 and above) age-groupsare given below. 88.6 per cent of the junior age-group and 62 per cent of the senior age-group goto the cinema with the following frequency:

Junior age- Senior age-

Once or more than once

group group

a week 12.11 8.1Once to three times amonth 50.0 26.6

Once in two, four or sixmonths 27.0 27.0

Eleven per cent of the junior age-group and 37.1per cent of the senior age-group do not go or havestopped going to the cinema. The classification ofcinema-goers by income groups shows that 18 percent of the junior age-group and 49 per cent of thesenior age-group belong to the income group ofRs.120 or less a month; 45.5 per cent and 37 percent respectivelyto the income group Rs.121-300a month and 36.5 per cent and 14 per cent respective-ly to the income group Rs. 301 or more a month.

If finances allowed, 31.7 per cent of the juniorage-group and 38.8 per cent of the senior age-group would have liked to go to the cinema morefrequently as against 12.1 and 8.1 per cent shownabove for these two groups respectively in thehighest frequency category (' once or more thanonce a week') . In both age-groups females ex-pressed a greater desire for more frequent cinemaattendance (5 or 6 times more than at present) thandid males (3 times more than at present). 40.9 per

cent of the junior age-group and 56.9 per cent ofthe senior age-group feel that films exert an un-healthy influence.

Other findings relate to preferences of cinema-goers and answer questions on such topics as:which type of films are liked/disliked? are music/dances in Indian films liked? comparative pre-ference for Indian and foreign films; views ofcinema-goers on documentary films and newsreels,length of films, censorship of films .

73. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen noEiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo, jo .

(Summary of surveys on film-viewing bychildren and adolescents, vol. g, Tokyo, Minis-try of Education, Social Education Bureau.1929, 79 p. (Kyoiku Eiga Kenkyu ShiryoLDatafor Research on Educational Films/series, 3).

This volume is a summary of data collected on thecinema attendance of boys and girls of primaryand secondary schools in Tokyo and Osaka. Thesurveys which produced the data were made inOctober 1927 in Tokyo, and in December 1927, inOsaka.

Part 1. Survey on primary schoolchildren(1) Film-viewing by primary schoolchildren,

according to sex,(2) Film-viewing by primary schoolchildren,

according to zones of industry,Part 2. Survey on middle school pupils.Part 3. Survey on pupils of girls' high schools.Part 4. Comparison of Parts 1, 2 and 3, and

conclusions.Supplement. Observations of school authorities

on the films shown and on the influence of film-viewing .

74. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen noEiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo, Chu.(Summary of surveys on film-viewing bychildren and adolescents, vol. 2/. Tokyo,Ministry of Education, Social EducationBureau, 1930, 87 p. (Kyoiku Eiga KenkyuShiryo / Data for Research on EducationalFilm" series, 4) .

This second volume (for volume 1 see no. 73above) presents further statistical data obtainedfrom the 1927 surveys carried out in Tokyo andOsaka.

Chapter 1. Frequency of children's and pupil'svisits to the cinema.

Chapter 2. Film-going by children and pupils :(1) Types of film-theatres visited by children and

pupils.(2) Films preferred by children and pupils.(3) Actors and actresses preferred by children

and pupils.Chapter 3. Children and pupils who do not go

to the cinema:(1) Number not going to the cin.ema.(2) Reasons for not going to the cinema.

Supplement: Counter-measures taken by schoolsagainst the influences of commercial cinema; andfacilities for educational films

75. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen noEiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo, Ge`Summary of surveys on film-viewing bychildren and adolescents, vol. 2/. Tokyo,Ministry of Education, Social EducationBureau, 1932, 85 p. (Kyoiku Eiga KenkyuShiryoJ Data for Research on EducationalFilms/ series, 8).

Following volumes 1 and 2 (see nos. 73 and 74above), vol. 3 presents statistics and analysis offindings of the 1927 surveys carr out in Tokyoand Osaka.

Chapter 1. Children in labouring districts,and the cinema.

Chapter 2. Children in districts of small-scaleshopkeepers and handicraftsmen and the cinema.

Chapter 3. Children in districts of low-salariedworkers and the cinema.

Each chapter has sections on the sorts of film-theatres which children attend, the children'spreferences in films, and in actors and actresses.

Chapter 4. Comparison of findings accordingto districts in which children live.

Chapter 5. Children who do not go to film-theatres .

76. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen noEiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo(Summary of surveys on film-viewing bychildi en and adolescentY. Tokyo, Ministryof Education, Social Education Bureau, 1935,65 p. (Kyoiku Eiga Kenkyo Shiryo /Data forResearch on Educational Films/ series,11).

This is a report of a survey on film-viewing byprimary schoolchildren and pupils of middleschools and girls' high schools in the cities ofTokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya, Kobe, Yokohama,Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Niigata and Sendai, in June1934.

Chapter 1. Survey of primary schools.Chapter 2. Survey of middle schools.Chapter 3. Survey of girls' high schools.Chapter 4. Comparisons of film-viewing by

primary schoolchildren, middle school boys, andhigh school girls.

Chapter 5. Film-viewing by children fromvarious industrial zones.Supplement: Policy of schools on film-viewing byschoolchildren; and the use of films for educationin school.

77. Jessel, Oskar R. Munchner Vorstadtkinderund Film /Suburban children of Munich andthe cinema/. In: Jugend und Film, Munich,November 1956, p. 1-12.

An inquiry carried out among 695 boys and girls

23

between 8-14 years of age, attending Catholic andProtestant elementary schools in Freimann (asuburb of Munich). A questionnaire was used todetermine how often these children went to thecinema, for what reasons, with whom, whichcinemas they preferred, which films they had likedand disliked, which films they preferred most ofall, which actors and actresses they preferred,whether their parents went frequently to the cinema.

Some of the findings are given below. About30 per cent of the children attended the cinemaeach week; about 50 per cent went once or twice amonth. This includes attendance at the bi-weekly"Children's film hour" in which there is greatinterest. The order of preference for varioustypes of film is as follows:

Boys:1. Animal films 84%2. Adventure films 73%3. Cartoons 59%4. Wild West films 41%5. Fairy tale films 39%6. Romantic films 23%

Girls1. Animal films 58%2. Fairy tale films 55%3. Adventure films 52%4. Cartoons 47%5. Romantic films 38%6. Wild West films 12%

78. Karsten, Anitra. Lasten elokuvissakayminen. /Cinema habits of Finnish childre.O.In: Lapsi ja Nuoriso, Helsinki, (7), 1955.

In the spring of 1955 the Central Union for ChildWelfare in Finland undertook a study of the cinemahabits of children of school age in Helsinki. Itappears from this study that one child in ten inHelsinki went to a cinema for the first time whenonly 2-3 years old. In general, however, childrengo to a cinema the first time when five years old(for 34.6 per cent the first visit took place at theage of 5 years). Children in those parts of thetown where workers live go far more often tocinemas than children from quarters where themajority of the inhabitants are officials and pro-fessional people. In quarters where workers arein a majority, 50.8 per cent of the elementaryschool boys went to the cinema at least once a week,the corresponding figure for girls being 38.5 percent. In the schools situated in the centre of thetown the figures were: boys 33.3 per cent andgirls 21.1 per cent and in the "official and profes-sional" quarters: boys 24.6 per cent and girls9.3 per cent.

Of the boys and girls in all schools, 45-55 percent went to a cinema 1-3 times a month. Onlytwo children of elementary school age among thoseincluded in the study had not been once to a cinemaduring the school year.

24

It frequently happens that .11ildren of kinder-garten age go to a cinema once a month, usuallyin the company of their parents, sisters, brothersor friends. When the children reach school agethey go less often to cinemas with their parents;the company of sisters and brothers or friendsseems to become more important. One boy infour, but only one girl in nine, goes alone to thecinema.

The children were asked which films they pre-ferred. Films about animals were the mostpopular: 71 per cent answered that they preferredthese . The following categories of film seem tobe almost as popular: cartoon films 69.9 per cent,serial films 65.6 per cent and fairy tale films 64.7per cent. Then 37.4 per cent preferred adventurefilms and 18.8 per cent historical films, followedby musical films (16 per cent), war films (5.8 percent), and love stories (1.8 per cent). A largenumber of the films belonging to the last-mentionedcategories were "for adults only". The preferencefor films about animals was apparently due to thesuccessful screening in Helsinki of "The LivingDesert" at the time the study was made.

79. Keilhacker, Margarete. Zum Filmbesuch der15-18j. Jugendlichen und seiner MethodischenErfassung. /A study of cinema attendance by15-18 year-olds and the methods use.Y. In:Jugend und Film, Munich, September 1956,p. 1-20.

This study, which is part of an inquiry carried outall over Germany by the Wissenschaftliches Insti-tut fur Jugendfilmfragen (Scientific Institute forQuestions concerning Children's Films) in Munich,was made in three schools for girls in Munich -two industrial trade schools (375 girls) and onehigh school (144 girls). 88 per cent of the girlswere between 15-17 years of age, the remainderwere between 14 and 15 or 18 and 20.

Asked to name their favourite films, the girlsmentioned 4,500 titles in all (700 different titles).42 per cent of the trade school students and 27 percent of the high school students named "Sissi" astheir favourite film. There was generally a notablecontrast between the selections of the trade schoolstudents and the higher school students.

80. Lanz-Stuparich, Maria. Les adolescents etle cinema, recherches preliminaires. /Ado-lescents and the cinema: preliminaryresearch. In: Baumgarten, Franziska.Compte rendu du IXe Congres international depsychotechnique, Berne, 12-17 septembre1949. La psychotechnique dans le mondemoderne. Paris, Presses universitaires deFrance, 1952. p. 557-561.

A study of cinema attendance, film preferences,and reactions to film, of 400 adolescents (200 boysand 200 girls from 13-16 years of age) of similarsocial and cultural backgrounds in Trieste, carried

out by means of individual interviews, clinicalanalysis, and questionnaires. 90 per cent of theboys attended the cinema at least once a week, theremainder 2, 3 or 4 times. Girls went more often;60 per cent went once, 22 per cent from 3 to 6times a week. 6 per cent of the boys stated thatthey went to the cinema with friends, 10 per centwith parents; 40 per cent of the girls went withfamily members (often their mother) and 30 percent with girl friends. A large proportion pre-ferred to go alone.

With regard to film preference, 30 per cent ofthe boys preferred war films, and 25 per centgangster films; 25 per cent of the girls preferredlove films, 20 per cent musicals . With regard tofilm selection, 45 per cent of the girls were at-tracted by the appearance of the stars; 20 percent of both boys and girls were guided by the filmtitle, and 5 per cent by the name of the director.

After seeing a film, 60 per cent of the boys and55 per cent of the girls found emotional relief indiscussing it; 10 per cent identified themselveswith the film hero. 50 per cent of the boys enjoyedfilms that have a sports background, 20 per cent ofthe girls liked an artistic background, and 25 percent enjoyed luxurious surroundings. 60 per centof the boys said they particularly liked fight scenes,50 per cent of the girls liked love scenes. 2 percent of both groups were interested in comedies .

Boys were aware of the moral danger of gangsterfilms, and girls of love films. But the processesof identification and projection in relation to thesetypes of film should be further investigated.

81. Le Moal, P. and Faugere, M.M. Le cinemaet 1' enfant. /The cinema and the childj. In:La sauvegarde de l'enfance, Paris, (15-16),November-December 1947, p. 66-77.

An investigation carried out by means of question-naires concerning 1,163 primary and secondaryschoolchildren of both sexes between 10-16 yearsof age (two-thirds were between 12 and 14), fromreligious and non-religious backgrounds. 91 percent of the boys and 71 per cent of the girls likedto go to the cinema. Girls preferred sentimentalfilms and boys patriotic and adventure films. 51per cent of the boys and 59 per cent of the girlshad dreams about films seen. Differences betweenchildren from religious and non-religious back-grounds were greater than differences betweenchildren from differing social backgrounds. 72 percent of the "religious" children and 28 per cent ofthe "non-religious" children were affected by im-moral scenes (which they described as having todo with sex), frightening, violent, war and murderscenes, and those involving wild animals. As thechildren get older, fright during screening de-creases (more rapidly with boys than with girls);interest in historical and sentimental films anddocumentaries increases whereas the interest inadventure, comic and crime films diminishes.Frequency of cinema attendance decreases with

age. As they get older, fewer boys go to thecinema with their parents. The percentage of"solitary" cinema attenders (approximately 10 percent) remains constant at all ages.

82. McIntosh, Douglas M. Attendance of School-children at the Cinema. Glasgow, ScottishEducational Film Association, 1949, 15 p.

(Research Publication, 1.)

An account of an investigation into the frequencyof cinema attendance by Scottish schoolchildren.Eight out of 10 schoolchildren go to the cinemaregularly every week; a surprisingly large numbergo even more often; the type of film screened haslittle influence on frequency of ci..ama attendance.Even children between 5 and 7 years go to thecinema almost as often as older Children. Thefrequency does not decrease with secondary school-children although older pupils in a secondary schoolgo less often. Films appeal more to children froma poor home than to those from better surroundings,and rural children go much less often to the cinemathan town children.

83. Osaka Prefecture Association of JuvenileCorrection. Chuto-gakusei no Kogyo-eigaKanran ni Kansuru Chosa. ZSurvey.on film-viewing by secondary school pupils/ Osaka, 1935,38 p. (Kyogo Panfuretto rJuvenile CorrectionPamphlet/ series, 51.)

This is a report on the survey made in May 1935,at the request of the Social Education Bureau of theMinistry of Education on film-viewing by secondaryschool pupils. The survey was made at 7 middleschools, 4 vocational schools, and 6 girls' highschools.

1. Foreword.2. Subjects of the survey.3. Summary of the survey.4. Policy of school authorities concerning film-

viewing by pupils.5. Use of films at school and equipment required.6. Conclusion.

84. Patel, A.S. Attitudes of Adolescent Pupilstowards Cinema Films. In: Journal of Educa-tion and Psychology, Baroda, Bombay, 1952,p 225 -230 .

In this investigation, the attitudes of school-children in the eleventh. grade in Baroda, India(100 boys and 47 girls between 15 and 18 years ofage) were recorded. E was found that the boyswere more favourably impressed with the cinemathan the girls. The author concludes: "We havenot yet realized that in expert hands the film iscapable of doing great service and in raw hands itmay do great harm".

25

85. Rebeillard, Monique. Etat actuel de la re-cherche filmologique en neuro-psychiatrieinfantile /Present state of filmological re-search in infantile neuro-psychiatryl, Paris,La Productrice, 1955,45 p.

A doctoral thesis giving a resume of the researchcarried out over several years by the Children'sNeuro-psychiatric Centre directed by ProfessorHeuyer, in collaboration with the Institute ofFilmology, onthe influence of the cinema on juveHiles, and of the results of these investigations.The sociological study investigated the frequencyof cinema attendance among juvenile delinquents;as this was considerable, the investigators natu-rally wished to examine the influence of the cinemaon delinquency. The psychological study wasundertaken in two parts; in the first, the com-prehension and recollection of films by normaland maladjusted children were studied with the aidof the "Wartegg" and Catell's F Factor tests. Itwould appear that intelligent and well adjustedchildren are stimulated by pictures: their vocabu-lary is enriched and their imaginative faculty in-tensified by it. On the other hand, some childrenfeel tired and their intellectual activity is reducedafter the performance, especially in the case ofvery moving films in which identification with cer-tain unhappy heroes leaves behind an impressionof sadness. The second part of this study wasconcerned with the affective reactions, especiallywith manifestations of empathy. It was very evi-dent that the young spectators projected theirpersonal conflicts into the situations shown in thefilm. The psycho-physiological investigationsconsisted mainly of electro-encephalographic ex-periments, the results of which have already beenpublished in the "Revue Internationale de filmo-logie" . In view of the inadequacy of the instru-ments and methods used it is not yet possible todraw any definite conclusions from these results,or from those of other experiments carried outwith the aid of haematologic examinations.

86. Scott, W.J. Reading, Film and Radio Tastesof High School Boys and Girls. Wellington,New Zealand, Council for Educational Research,194'l, p. 112 -145.

This report gives a survey of the films seen (andof the books read and the radio programmes lis-tened to) by 4,000 high school boys and girls inNew Zealand in 1942. The author discusses thesocial and educational implications of the material,sets out the standards of judgement he uses as abasis of criticism of contemporary popular culture,and shows the relationship between the informationhe has gathered and the teaching of English inhigh schools . Tables showing the frequency ofcinema attendance by the two sexes at differentages disclose that the boys were more frequentfilm-goers than the girls. The evidence collectedsuggests that the cinema on the whole influences

26

the lives of New Zealand ado' ents leF ^ than itdoes those of British and Amt . ican adoltscents.

87, Sekerak, Robert M. Mass CommunicationMedia, Reading Comprehension and Intelli-gence. In: Audio-Visual Communication Re-view, Washington, 5 (2), Spring 1957, p.468-475.

A study of the relationship between reading com-prehension, intelligence, and mass media con-sumption among high school students in the UnitedStates of America . It is generally concluded thatthe mass media consumption of pupils of higher-than-average intelligence is greater than that ofpupils of lower-than-average intelligence.

88. Skoleinspektoren I Hamar. /The Inspector ofSchools, Hama" Barn og film - Resultaterav en film-unders6kelse blant barn i Hamar./Children and film - results of a film surveyamong children in Hamar? Published bySkoleinspektaren in Hamar, Stubstad, Brede,1958, n.p. (stencilled).

A report, resulting from a questionnaire to whichreplies were given by 421 children, aged 8-15, in1955. The report gives an interesting picture ofthe cinema habits and preferences of children ina medium-sized Norwegian provincial town. Thegreat lack of real "children's films" is confirmedby this report.

89. Tarroni, Evelina and Paderni, Sandro.Cinema e Gioventti: Studio degli aspettisociali e dei motivi di interesse (Cinemaand youth: a study.of the social aspects andcauses of interest/. In: Istituto di Pedagogia,Quaderni, Rome, 1952, p. 163.

The authors limit their research to average fre-quency of attendance, to the measurement ofinterest by comparison with other activities, tothe "responsibility of choice" and to the interestshown in different types of films. They assertthat interest in the cinema, although considerable,is not sufficient to supplant other activities in thecase of a child exercising a free choice, especiallyupon his emergence from adolescence. The curvesshowing the degree of interest in different types offilms in relation to age and sex present fluctuationsand common points which are to form the subjectof a later, detailed examination which should yieldimportant new results.

90. T/Snnessen, H.A. Ungdom og kino - en under-stSking over kinovaner of filminteresser hosOslo ungdom i alderen 12 til 18 Ai.. LYouthand the cinema - an investigation into thecinema habits and film preferences of youngpeople in Oslo between 12 and 18 years/.Oslo, Universitetets Pedagogiske Forsknings-institutt, /Pedagoecal Research Institute,University of 0s12/(10), 1952, 138 p. (Report).

The survey shows how often young people go to thecinema, when, with whom, what films they preferand what differences exist between children withdifferent social backgrounds and of different agelevels . The survey was carried out between theend of March and the middle of June 1948 and con-cerned 744 youths (394 boys and 350 girls) from13 different Oslo schools - 6 public schools fromWest, East and Central Oslo, 2 continuation-schools, one for boys and one for girls, 3 highschools, 1 vocational training school and 1 domes-tic science school. One weekly visit seems to bethe normal routine. But many go more frequently,some as often as 3-4 times a week. Boys go moreoften than girls. Both girls and boys go mostoften to the cinema at the age of 17-18: Autumnand the first months of the year are the timeswhen most visits are paid to the cinema. Saturdaysand Sundays are the favourite days except duringthe summer months when the beginning of the weekis preferred.

Pupils of continuation and vocational schoolsseem to go more frequently to the cinema than dopupils in high schools. It may be that high schoolsstimulate other interests, but the milieu is pro-bably a more important factor. Children whosemothers are widows, divorced or unmarried gomost often to the cinema. Many of these childrengo very frequently indeed. Next come children ofunskilled labourers. Children whose parents havean academic background or who are artists goleast frequently to see films. It thus seems thatchildren whose families are least well off go tothe cinema most frequently. Bad living conditionsand difficult family relations also seem to be areason for visits to cinemas. Most of the youngpeople questioned during this survey go to thecinema to enjoy themselves. But about every thirdchild says he goes to instruct himself, althoughthis is not the direct reason for the visit to thecinema. Some go just because they have nothingbetter to do. Those who do not go to the cinemavery often say that they either don't feel like it,have no money or no time. Some girls give reli-gious reasons. Those who go infrequently to themovies use their spare time for many other thingswhich interest them more than films.

Boys like to see war, cowboy, jungle, huntingand Tarzan films and also gangster films andcomedies. Girls prefer musicals, historicalfilms, jungle, hunting and Tarzan films as wellas films about love and children. During ado-lescence interests change, particularly as regardscowboy, jungle, hunting, Tarzan and gangsterfilms. Up to the age of 14-15, most childrenadore such films, but then the interest wanes,first among girls, then among boys. At this ageinterest in problem films, films with a culturalsubject and musicals increases, the change of in-terest being noted first among girls. The interestin films follows the same characteristic development as the interest in reading and seems to ex-press the young person's individual needs.

The change in interest is related to the physicaland psychological development of the children andalso to their social background. Those belongingto the lower income groups prefer jungle, huntingand Tarzan films, gangster, cowboy and love films.Such films are also preferred by young people fromthe higher income groups but not to the same ex-tent; they are relatively more interested in worth-while films dealing with cultural and historicalsubjects and in problem films.

Of the 438 films shown in Oslo between 1 July1947 and 30 June 1948, almost one in five was athriller, one in six a comedy and one in seven aproblem film. It appears that nearly half of allfilms mentioned by the 14 year-olds were classedas unsuitable for children. Of the "unsuitable"films mentioned by children under 16, most werethrillers, war films and problem films.

91. Traversa, Carlo. Psicologia del cinema./Psychology of the cinema/. In: Stampa,cinema, radio per ragazzi, Rome, 1952,p. 69-75.

An analysis of the most significant aspects of thebehaviour of a child who visits cinemas showingordinary programmes, with a study of the mostimportant stimuli to which he is subjected. Reac-tions and consequences.

92. Volpicellit_Luigi. Bambini e bambino alcinema. /Young children at the cinema/.In: Cinedidattica, Rome, November-December1952; January, July, August 1953.

An inquiry conducted in elementary schools inRome into the r8le played by the cinema in therecreational activities of children.

93. Wall, William D. and Smith, E.M. Lesadolescents et le cinema /Adolescents andthe cinema/. In: Revue internationale defilmologie, Paris, II (6), 1951, p. 153-158.

A brief resume of the principal results of the re-search carried out by the authors and their col-leagues in Birmingham into the influence of filmson adolescents. The investigations extended tomore than 5,000 persons. It appears that in1946-1947 secondary school pupils visited thecinema on an average of once or twice a month(grammar school pupils somewhat less frequentlythan those in secondary modern schools; girls alittle less frequently than boys) . Only one fifth ofall the films shown during the period in questionhad been passed by the censor for screening toadolescents. 47.5 per cent of the subjects hadseen films not intended for them. The choice ap-pears to be determined chiefly 7J y the publicityphotographs, but there is, strictly speaking, noconscious choice. The girls prefer on the wholefilms dealing with human relationships, the boys(particularly pupils of other than grammar schools)

27

adventure and war films. Grammar school pupilsgreatly enjoy films portraying animal life. Aboveall films are expected to be rich in action andexcitement. Boys and girls frequently expressedtheir admiration for certain actors and declaredthemselves to be particularly appreciative of truth-fulness, the triumph of justice and realism infilms. Their reactions to love scenes depend verymuch on the level of their affective development.Their enthusiasm for certain films frequentlyappears to be determined by the ease with whichthey can identify themselves with the principalcharacters. Scenes of violence, crueltyto animals,excessively dangerous or tragic situations seem toshock or frighten children. Boys and girls believetheir friends to be influenced by the cinema inseveral respects: clothes, games and other re-creational activities.

94. Ward, J.C. Children and the Cinema . An in-quiry made by the Social Survey in October1948 for a Departmental Committee appointedby the Home Secretary, the Secretary ofStatefor Scotland and the Minister of Education.London, Central Office of Information, April1949, 100 p. (stencilled).

How often do English schoolchildren visit the cine-ma? How many children belong to the Saturdaymorning film clubs? To what extent do childrensee "A" films (films which children may see onlyif accompanied by an adult)?

Of the children under 10 years of age includedin the survey, 47 per cent of the boys and34 per cent of the girls visited the cinema at leastonce a week. In the 5-10 age-group, 16 per centof the boys and 8 per cent of the girls went to thecinema. The level of education, the social milieuand the home had an influence on the frequency ofvisits to the cinema. Three out of four youngerchildren went to the cinema in company; morethan half of the 14-year-olds went alone. Saturdayand Monday are favourite days. The habit of regu-lar attendance is, by a slight majority, the mostfrequent factor determining visits to the cinema.

Of the mothers questioned, 84 per cent declaredthat they knew which films their children saw. 20per cent of all the children covered by the inquirybelonged to the Saturday morning film clubs, but25 per cent of club members went to the cinemamore than once a week. 47 per cent of all the childrenhad seen "A" films, often because the programmeshowed also a "U" ("universal" exhibition) film.25 per cent of boys liked Wild West, detective andgangster films best, which only 8 per cent of thegirls preferred, but 22 per cent of the girls pre-ferred musicals. The children who go most oftento the cinema are those who have the least interestin other activities. There are some indications

28

that children who visit the cinema most frequently(and they come from the lower income groups) givepreference to a "romantic" occupation over a rea-listic one. They find their own lives uninterestingand look to films for adventure.

95. Zazzo, Bianka and Rene. La jeunesse et lecinema: etude exnerimentale du Centre inter-national de 1' enfance effectuee au laboratoirede psychobiologie de 1' enfant . /Youth and thecinema: an experimental study carried out bythe Centre international de l' enfance at theLaboratory for Child Psycho-Biology./. In:Centre international de l' enfance, Courrier,Paris, VIII (4), April 1958, p. 185-197.

A resume of investigations carried out in 1955-1956at the Laboratory of Child Psycho-Biology of theCentre international de l'enfance. The first inquirywas conducted, with the aid of a questionnaire,among 15,000 boys and girls aged 14-18, drawn fromdifferent social and cultural milieus . It was con-cerned with cinema attendance, the choice of filmsand preferences for certain films, the attitude ofjuveniles towards censorship and the correlationbetween cinema attendance and reading. Cinemaattendance appears to be less frequent among school-children than among young workers, and amonggirls than among boys. As the children grow up,they visit the cinema less frequently with theirfamily. The films which adolescents most frequentlysee do not always appear to be those which they en- 'joy most . Many children under 16 see films bannedbythe censor for children of their age. Cinemaattendance appears to encourage reading.

The second investigation, which belonged to thefield of experimental psychology, was concernedwith the attitude of adolescents towards theirparents, friendship, love, the social relations be-tween the sexes, occupation and freedom to chooseone' s occupation, etc. It was conducted with theaid of 50 films chosen as likely to provoke affectivereactions among 900 boys and girls aged 14-18,divided into several categories according to age,level of development and social background. Thereactions of the subjects were studied by means ofquestionnaires and interviews. In analysing thereactions provoked by three of the films, the authorsindicate what the adolescents thought: of theirparents as educators (in connexion with the film"Domani P troppo tarde"); onthe right of parentsto interfere in the emotional experiences of theirchildren (film: "She Only Danced One Summer");of the right of parents to interfere in their child-ren's choice of a profession (film: "Le point duJour").

See also: nos. 15, 22, 29, 189, 192, 246, 249,344, 345, 385.

(b) MOTIVES FOR CINEMA ATTENDANCE;FILM PREFERENCES; STAR WORSHIP

96. Agel, Henri. Le cinema. /The cinema].Tournai-Paris, Casterman, 1954, 352 p.

The chapter dealing with "Film and Society" dis-cusses the following questions. Why do people goto the cinema? What factors inhibit people' smental activity in the cinema? What are thepublic's tastes, and how can they be improved?Chapters II to IX are devoted to film language,film technique and film aesthetics. Chapter Xdeals with the improvement of young people' sappreciation and understanding of films.

A large number of examples, from the author'sown experience, are cited concerning the selectionof suitable films, introduction of the film prior toscreening, and debates after the performance.During lessons at school some preliminary studyof films can profitably be made in language andliterature classes.

An annex includes an outline for leading dis-cussions, a survey of the principal organizationsconcerned with film education, etc. , and a biblio-graphy.

97. Descamps, J. Pourquoi les jeunes vont-ilsau cinema? /Why do adolescents go to thecinema ?J In: La nouvelle revue pedagogique,Tournai-Paris, (6), March 1951, p. 326-352.

An inquiry carried out in 1950 among more than2,000 Belgian students above the age of sixteen.

98. Grail, Xavier. James Dean et notre jeunesseLiames Dean and our adolescents?, Paris,Editions du Cerf, 1958, 107 p. ("Tout lemonde en parle" series).

An account of James Dean's childhood and ananalysis of the three chief films in which he ap-peared and of the parts he played; a study of thecult which developed around him after his death:at the end of 1956 the many fan clubs into whichhis admirers had formed themselves numbered3,800, 000 members. During the summer holi-days of 1956, one year after his death, 154,000"pilgrims" visited his grave. The author attri-butes this admiration to the physical qualities andto the character of James Dean, with whom ado-lescents sought to identify themselves. They seein him the typical representative of the "difficult"adolescents of our day and call him "the AmericanArthur Rimbaud".

99. Handel, Leo A. Hollywood Looks at itsAudience. Urbana, Ill. , Urbana UniversityPress, 1950, 240 p.

Information on the public's tastes and preferencesfor certain types of film in the United States of

America. A comparison is made between children'sand adult's appreciation and between tastes of per-sons from higher and lower social levels. Prefer-ences by age -group are as follows:

12-16 17-29years

30 -44years

Over44 years

Musical comedy 11.3% 13.1% 13.8% 9.4%War films 13.1% 10.5% 10.5% 11.8%Westerns 5.7% 3.6% 3.6% 4.2%Gangster films 4.9% 3.6% 2.8% 4 . 2%Drama 5.1% 10.3% 10.8% 12 . 2%Love films 10.9% 12.6% 12.8% 9.9%

The highest income group seems to preferdramatic films; lower groups prefer Westernsand gangster films .

100 .Havem Tonko T. ten. Speelfilms in de belevings-wereld van jeugdigen. ,Feature films as ex-perienced by young peoplej, Purmerend,Muusses, 1956, 246 p.

Report of a socio-psychological investigation ofthe reactions to three films of 120 boys (somefrom a secondary school, some from youngpeople's "club-houses") and girls aged 14 to 16years. Through visits and conversations withparents and children, case histories were obtainedon most of the persons investigated. After thescreening of three films ("Meet John Doe", "TheBarclays of Broadway", and "This Happy Breed")the boys and girls were questioned. A number ofthe secondary school pupils wrote in addition acomposition concerning each of the three films.Furthermore, data was obtained concerning thecinema habits of these children. The boys' reac-tions were noticeably different from the girls' .

This held good for secondary schoolchildren andthe "club-house" children. "Meet John Doe" wasrated higher than the other films. The boys ap-preciated this film more than the girls and thesecondary schoolchildren more than the "club-house" children. The opposite was true for "TheBarclays of Broadway" which was most appre-ciated by the "club-house" children. "This HappyBreed", a film dealing with family life, was moreappreciated by the girls than by the boys. Severalexamples of these differences in reactions aregiven. The reactions recorded are related to psy-chological factors and to the maturity, intelligence,temperament and the emotional life of the testpersons. Extensive case studies of three testpersons are included.

101.Keilhacker, Margarete. Zwei Hauptmotivedes Filmbesuchs der Filnfzehn - bis Achtzehn-ihrigen. /The two main reasons for cinema

attendance of adolescents between the ages offifteen and eighteen]. In: Jugend, Film,Fernsehen, Munich, II (4), 1958, p. 1-14.

The numerous investigations carried out amongadolescents during the last five years and the

29

results of a written inquiry undertaken among3,000 pupils (boys and girls) in schools of all typesindicate clearly the two main reasons why ado-lescents go to the cinema: (1) the desire to escapefrom everyday life; (2) the desire to get to knowreal life better. These two motives are veryclosely related to the way of life and the psycholo-gical make-up of adolescents of that age-group.Contrary to appearances, these motives are notidentical with those of adults; the first -the desireto escape from everyday life -presupposes, in thecase of adults, a certain degree of neutrality, ofpassivity and renunciation of one's personality.One wishes to be entertained, without becomingpersonally involved. Adolescents, on the contrary,expect a film to excite and grip them; they mustfeel personally affected by the incidents shown onthe screen. But a film must also give them theimpression of reflecting life as it really is, theirideas in this respect differing considerably attimes from those held by adults. For adolescents,real life is the life conjured up for them by theirconception of the world, their dreams of the futureand their ideals.

The author then examines the types of filmscapable of "liberating adolescents from everydaylife" (such are, in particular, comedies) and thosecapable of presenting to them a picture of a "betterlife" (to use their own w rds). The films whichare enjoyed by adolescents because they portrayforthem what they believe to be real life, must haveman himself for their main theme. Such films arethose which present human destinies and problems.

102.Lyness, Pauli. Patterns inthe Mass Communi-cation Tastes of the YoungAudience . In: Journalof Educational Psychology, Philadelphia (Pa.),42, 1951, p. 449-467.

The "pattern interest" in reading, radio listeningand movie-going of five different age-groups ofboys and girls were studied by a questionnairesurvey of 1,418 Iowa schoolchildren. The prefer-ence scores for specific subject content in each ofthe media were calculated by weighing first, se-cond, third and fourth choices, and the resultsreported for each sex in grades 5, 7, 9 and 11.

Boys preferred an "adventure and violence"pattern while the older girls preferred "love,private life and glamour". Neither sex showedmuch interest in "educational" content, except thatboys liked magazines dealing with popular scienceand mechanics. Tests of children in grade 3, ana-lysed separately, emphasized adventure, humourand fantasy, with little interest in love, private lifeor glamour, and still less in educational themes.

103 .Manvell, Roger. The Film and the Public.London, Pelican Books, 1955, 352 p.

Chapter 4 of this book ("The Cinema and Society")contains a succinct exposition of the reasons whichinduce the public to see films, of the influence of

30

cinema-going on crime, the distortion of basicmoral values in certain films, film stars, children'sfilms, film censorship and State control of films,and various other related matters. The authordoes not examine the problem of films and juveniledelinquency, but confines himself in the main toreproducing quotations from other authors (forinstance Mayer - see no. 104).

104.Mayer, Jacob, P. British Cinemas and theirAudiences. SQdological Studies. London,Dennis Dobson Ltd. , 1948, 280 p.

The first part of this bock comprises 60 statementsfrom persons of different professions and age-groups (40 per cent under 20 years of age, and38.3 per cent between 20 and 25) who recount thereasons for their interest in films , their initialpreferences, the extent of the influence of filmsover them, the films which had frightened them,adulation of the film hero or heroine, etc. Nearly66 per cent of the total stated that a film had causedfright and nightmares, others that they had gonethrough a film as a personal experience. Thepublic's tastes seem to be entirely dependent ontheir education.

The second part deals with film preferences.Data were obtained through competitions (withoffers of prizes for the best contribution) organizedby the periodical "Picture-goer". 23 of the 50replies published came from people under 20, and13 from those between 20-25. According to theauthor, the answers show that the cinemas do notsupply the kind of entertainment desired by thepublic. Details of an investigation by Louis Mossand Kathleen Box (" The Cinema Audience" seeNo. 57) carried out by the Wartime Social Surveyfor the Ministry of Information are published in anannex.

ow

105.Morin, Edgar. Les stars. Film starsj,Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1957, 192 p. , ("Letemps qui court" series).

A sociological study of the importance of film starsin the world of films. Their outstanding import-ance at the production stage and their influence onthe public . The main conditions which they mustfulfil to achieve such a success, and different typesof stars. The development of the "star", of the"pin-up", into a public idol and factors determiningthis development. The "star" is not only a subjectfor adoration, cinema fans create a veritable cultaround them (examples taken from the copious "fan-mail") . The Charlie Chaplin "mystery" and theJames Dean "case". The exploitation of stars forpublicity purposes. The star is also an actor oractress: the rale of the star as a film-actor, anda comparison between his rale and that of the actorin the theatre. The rale played by the star in thelife of the spectator.

106.Nagaki, Teiichi. Jido Eiga to Jido Geki.Films for children and dramas for childre,

Tokyo, Senshin-Sha, 1931, p. 165-214(Kodomo Kenkyu Koza /Study of Children/series, 8).

The section on films for children deals with:1. Reasons why the cinema has developed.2. Reasons for preference in films.3. General films for children.4. Value of the film in terms of social education.5. Relations between content and form.6. Relations between the cinema and crime.7. Countries prohibiting children from entering

movie-theatres.8. Various methods of censorship.9. Film-showing outside movie-theatres.10. Film-showing at schools.11. Educational effects.

107.Parrot, Philippe, Spinat, P. , Guitton, R.,and Corbal, F . Une identification herofuede 1, adolescent delinquent: Eddie Constantine./A heroic personification of juvenile delin-quency: Eddie Constantine/. In: Redducation,Paris, II, January-February 1957, p. 23-33.

Twenty-four boys aged 16-18, who were underobservation at the Reception and ObservationCentre at Macanan, were asked to write an essayon the following subject: "Who is your favouritefilm actor or actress? Give reasons for yourchoice." Out of 17 boys who expressed a prefer-ence for heroes of adventure films, 13 chose EddieConstantine. The reasons for this preferencewere, in particular, that "he fights", " knowshow to treat women" and "overcomes allobstacles".

The authors analyse in greater detail the un-conscious motives for this preference. They note,in particular, that the type of character portrayedby Eddie Constantine is not especially intelligent,but that his intelligence is always of a practicalnature and that he knows how to take swift, clear-cut and effective decisions. He is free, indepen-dant, egocentric, not tied to anything or anyperson in particular. His love relations are slightand superficial; his love-life is neither speciallyintense nor very subtle. His dominant quality ishis instinct. He consumes large quantities ofwhisky without showing any ill effects. The authorsare of the opinion that the type of character heportrays is particularly dangerous for juveniledelinquents, because he respects no moral codeand frequently plays an ambiguous role; one cannever tell whether he is on the side of the policeor on the side of the gangsters.

108 . Pitta, A. and Capriolo, E. I ragazzi votanoper"Domani P troppotarde" ZChildren,s pollon "Domani L troppo tardelY. In: Cinema,Rome, V (60), 15 April 1951, p. 198-202(new series).

An inquiry carried out among 1,214 boys and girlsaged 10-15. Since the subjects had not been warnedpreviously, the answers show considerable spon-taneity and consequently reflect faithfully the psy-chological make-up of children today.

109.Tarroni, Evelina. 11 divismo e gli adolescenti/Film-star worship and adolescent. In:Ragazzi d'Oggi, Rome, IV (7-8), July-August1953, p. 13-16.

A differentiation between "worship" as a phenomenonrelated to the rise of the film industry and "worship"as a psychological tendency in adolescents to choosefilm actors and actresses as the heroes and heroineson whom to model their lives. An analysis of thenegative and positive aspects of this phenomenon.

110. Wall, Williams, D. and Smith, E.M. TheFilm Choices of Adolescents. In: BritishJournal of Educational Psychology, London.XIX (1), June 1949, p. 121-136.

A study of film preferences in adolescents basedon (a) interviews of 2,069 boys and girls between13-17 years of age, following 808 screenings ofnearly 300 films, and (b) compositions by 979 ado-lescents of the same group on the theme "The bestfilm I have ever seen". The main conclusionsreached were: (1) There is a tendency, mainlyamong girls, to base the selection of suitable filmson their own preferences. However, the order ofpreference expressed in the compositions differssubstantially from that which is indicated by theiractual visits to the cinema. (2) Children's prefer-ences vary little according to sex or educationallevel. (3) Films about animals were found to bemore popular than had been anticipated in view ofthe small number of such films. Girls have agreater preference for films about human relationsthan have boys, who prefer adventure, war andhorror films. (4) Factors which determine boys'preferences are: exciting action, star appeal,realism. Those which determine girls' prefer-ences are: star appeal, realism, colour, senti-ment and pathos. (5) Films provide an opportunityfor identification with film stars and with the filmcharacters in given situations. Comments bychildren on love scenes and the moral valuesimplicit in films reveal their level of emotionaldevelopment.

111.Wyeth, Ezra, R. Children andA summary of a survey, 1949.Aids Review, Melbourne, I (1) ,p . 20-22 .

the Cinema.In: VisualAugust 1950,

A summary report of research carried out in1949by the School of Education in the University ofMelbourne. Children from primary and secondaryschools who were tested were asked to reply to aquestionnaire by way of a school exercise.

31

A total of 1,401 answers were received fromchildren and adolescents between 7 and 19 yearsof age. Their order of preference for differenttypes of film was as follows: comedies, detectivefilms, cowboy films, war films, cartoons, musi-cals, ghost films, newsreels, historical films,gangster films, educational films, love films,serial films and documentary films. The childrenconcerned generally saw only films intended foradults.

112. Zanotti, Mi lena. Cinema per ragazzi:Premesse ad un problema attuale /Films forchildren: preamble to a topical question/. In:Rivista del Cinematografo, Rome, (5), 1951,p. 21-22.

A child's choice of films depends nearly always onthe level of his intellectual maturity and imagina-tion; it is influenced by the faces and names of theactors, even if the latter are little known, and byposters, especially where these suggest fights andscantily-dressed scenes. The author condemns thecinema from the moral point of view since it inten-sifies erotic tendencies and warps comprehensionand judgement.

113 . Zazzo, Rene and Bianka. Une enquete sur lecinema et la lecture chez les adolescents . /Aninquiry into film and reading habits amongadolescents/. In: Enfance, Paris, (3), May-June 1957.

Adolescents' preferences between reading andfilms. Is one detrimental to the other? Does

32

previous knowledge of a film encourage reading ofthe book and vice versa?

114.Z6chbauer, Franz. Von neuen G6ttern. ZurProblematik des Starkultes. /New gods.Problems of film-star worship/. In: Jugendand Film, Munich, (1), 1958, p. 1-12.

A report on an investigation into film-star worshipcarried out inSalzburg amongfour thousand childrenand adolescents. With the aid of a questionnaire,the influence of some particular star on the cinemaattendance habits of young persons and the roleplayed by that star in their lives were assessed.For 40 per cent of adolescents aged 15-18, thestar personifies a moral ideal, 70 per cent ofyoung persons between the ages of 10 and 18 modeltheir manners and attitudes on those of the star's;the film-star furnishes standards of economic be-haviour (preference for certain consumer goods;79 per cent of the subjects replied in the affirma-tive to the question: "Has the cinema taught youto dress better? "); the star furnishes standardsof behaviour towards the other sex (51 per cent ofthe 14 year-olds replied that they had learnt fromfilms "how to act when in love"; etc.). The authorconsiders that star worship among juveniles is allthe more significant since the influence of parents,pastors and masters is waning.

See also: nos. 9, 29, 31, 37, 51, 52, 54, 55, 62,63, 64, 67, 68, 70, 71, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80,81, 86, 88, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95, 127, 169, 183,184, 189, 237, 239, 240, 268, 271, 345, 385, 407,432, 450, 465, 482, 483.

I

3. ANALYSIS OF FILM CONTENT

115 .A re, Amedge. L 'enfant personnage du film./The child in films/. In: Vie enseignante,Paris, (91), November 1954. Italian edition:Il bambino protagonista di film. In: Maestri,Rome, September 1955.

The author of this article studies from concreteexamples taken from various films, the rdle ofchildhood in the making of films and variousproducers' concepts of how to portray children;the child evoking nostalgic memories of the past,as an active moral protagonist, or as portrayedin neo-realist film.

116 .Dale, Edgar. The Content of Motion Pictures,New York, MacMillan, 1935, 234 p.

A content analysis of 1,500 feature films (500 fromeach of the years 1920, 1925 and 1930). Ten cate-gories were made: crime, sex, love, the comicelement, mystery, war, children, history, traveland social propaganda. In 1930, love (29.6 percent), crime (27.2 per cent) and sex (15 per cent)were the most important subjects, i.e. a total of72 per cent of all subjects. 16 per cent were takenup by comedy, and 8.6 per cent jointly by mysteryand war. Only one out of 500 films was a child-ren's film; in 1930 there were 7 historical and 9travel films, but not one social propaganda film.An average of one crime film was seen each monthby those who visited the cinema once a week. Innearly two-thirds of all cases, adolescents findcrime films unattractive. Of 115 crime filmsshown in Columbus (Ohio) cinemas, murder tech-niques are shown in nearly every Alm, actualmurder in 45, attempted murder in 21, and re-volvers were used in 22 films. Sex films show:extra-marital relations, seduction, adultery,procuring, illegitimacy, prostitution and bedroomjokes. Romantic love films have for subject:melodrama, courtship, love, flirting, difficultiesin marriage, historical romances.

117.Jones, Dorothy, B. Quantitative Analysis ofMotion Picture Content. In: Public OpinionQuarterly, Princeton University, N.J. , (6),1942, p. 411-428.

An analysis of 100 grade "A" and "B" films, dis-tributed in the United States of America in 1941-1942. 188 actors and actresses portrayed leadingcharacters in these films (126 men and 62 women).Three out of five leading characters were shown

as adults in economically comfortable circum-stances, free from parental control; suitablymarried, and with limited social and economicresponsibilities. Nearly half were wealthy orwell-to-do, 17 per cent were poor or needy, 80per cent belonged to the middle-class; only 8 percent were titled and 11 per cent had distinctlycome down in the world. Two out of five wereAmericans and seven out of ten unmarried. Themain behavioural motives were: love (68 per cent);fame, reputation or prestige (26 per cent); security,health and economic independence (16 per cent);the fulfilment of vague needs, described as "wayof life" (14 per cent); money and material goods(10 per cent); "to do one's duty" (9 per cent).These percentages overlap as some charactershad expressed more than one predominant wish.60 per cent saw their wishes realized at the end ofthe film. 10 per cent did not reach their goal and14 per cent had their wishes only partly fulfilled.

118.Mirams, Gordon. Boy meets Girl - on theScreen. In: New Zealand Listener, Wellington,31 (788), 27 August 1954, p. 6-7.

A survey of the pattern of romantic behaviouramong young people portrayed on the screen, basedon a detailed analysis of 300 feature-length filmsfrom the United States of America and GreatBritain. It was found that 73 per cent of these 300films dealt specifically with the topic of boy meet-ing girl and "falling in love". In 68 per cent of thefilms in tht4 category, it was a case of "love atfirst sight", if not at first glimpse. Analysis ofthe circumstances in which romantic first meet-ings are shown taking place reveals that 69 percent of them depend on an unusual situation - suchas the boy rescuing the girl from danger -whichthe average young person would have little chanceof encountering in real life. Only 31 per cent arisefrom meetings in normal or probable circumstances.

119.1Viixams, Gordon. Drop that Gun. In: TheQuarterly of Film, Radio and Television,Berkeley, Ca., VI (1) , Fall 1951, 19 p.

A preliminary investigation of the occurrence ofcrime and violence in 100 feature films. Thesecontained a total of 659 cases of crime and violence,i.e. an average of 6.6 per film. Only 14 filmswere entirely free from these two faetors. Amongthe crimes were 168 murders or attempted murders,of which 73 happened in 17 Westerns (not every

33

homicide in a Western was considered as murder).Types and motives of these misdeeds and acts ofviolence, as well as the techniques applied, areexamined and films of American and British originare compared.

120.Mirams, Gordon. The Face of the Film. In:The British Film Academy, Journal, London,Spring 1955, p. 10-13.

An introduction to a general survey of the subject-matter of motion pictures, with a discussion aboutthe primary importance, for investigators, of es-tablishing clearly the extent to which various pat-terns of screen behaviour are created by reitera-tion before going on to consider the possible in-fluence which such patterns may have on thestandards of value accepted among audiences,particularly juvenile ones. These repeatedbehaviour patterns and false standards of valueare likely to be much more serious in their effect,it is argued, than the overt influence of any indi-vidual films. For the general run of picture-goersas well as for children, it is necessary to discoverand pinpoint what the basic patterns are; thearticle includes a discussion on methodology inthis connexion, and gives some of the general find-ings on the incidence of certain themes and situa-tions (e.g. violence, crime and punishment,romantic attitudes, economic status of screencharacters) revealed by an examination of 300films over several years.

121.Mirams, Gordon. The Ideas in Films.Wellington, New Zealand, Department ofEducation, 1953, 36 p. (Post Primary SchoolBulletin, 7 (9)).

Content analysis of 300 recreational films distri-buted in New Zealand. The following conclusionswere drawn from this survey: 40 per cent ofAmerican films have crime as principal theme;only 25 per cent are entirely free of crime. Thesecond most frequently encountered type of film iscomedy (about 15 per cent of the British andAmerican films studied) . Love occurred as themain theme in only 8 per cent of the films studied,though it appeared as a topic in 84 per cent. Themost neglected subjects are biographies, history,religion, sport, and social problems.

Among the goals motivating the film characterswere personal ambition ("getting on in the world")and earning more money, in 67 per cent of thefilms. Crime was used as a means to achieve theseends in 63 per cent c: the films. Love occurred as aprincipal motivational force in 45 per cent of the films;parsonal revenge in 35 per cent.

Of 2,400 characters appearing in the filmsanalysed, 34 per cent were very wealthy, 45 percent were in good financial circumstances, andonly 16 per cent were poor. With regard to theprofessions portrayed, most of the characters oldenough to work appeared to be rich without having

34

to work, criminals, or variety artists. Otherprofessions are evidently much less esteemed.

122.Muller, H.S . , Driel, A .A.E. van, Peters,J.M.L . , Sijmons, A H. and Wieringen, H.van. Sociografie van de tweede wereld. Watkrijgt onze jeugd in de bioscoop to zien?/Sociography of the second world: what areour children offered in the cinema ?JPurmerend, Muusses , 1958, 80 p.

A content analysis of 60 films which children under18 may see in the Netherlands. 30 Westerns,adventure, and war films (preferred by boys) and30 "show-world" films, operettas, and romanticlove films (preferred by girls) were analysed.After an introduction on the methodology, theprincipal milieus shown by these films are inves-tigated, as well as the film story, the appearance,character and social status of the principal actors,and the ideological and cultural-sociological inter-pretation of typical elements found in the contentof these 60 films . The authors conclude that thefilm content seems to be completely adjusted tothe "teenage mentality" of the public, i.e. to theneeds and motives of persons still mentally im-mature. Attention is drawn to the lack of every-day things and normal family conditions; to themany situations in which the principal actor's roleis found "glamourized" and is not elaborated to agreater extent than an immature mind can copewith; to the dualityinthe presentation of the prin-cipal characters, who lead decent ordinary lives inthe film whereas their behaviour (e.g. in dancescenes) often becomes questionable; to the naivetyand superficiality of the action; and to the stereo-typed solutions adopted when difficulties arioe.

123.Peters, Charles, C. Motion Pictures andStandards of Morality. New York, MacMillan,1933, 285 p. Payne Fund Studies.

In his study, the author distinguishes between filmswith a content which conforms to existing morals ,religious ideas and conventional standards andfilms which are in conflict with these values.Samples selected from six social groups wereasked to give their opinion on four types of filmscenes for moral evaluation. The results seemedto show that the cinema may "legalize" patternsof behaviour which deviate from standards that arenormally accepted and observed. The cinema notonly reflects current morals but also changes them.

124.Vandromme, Pol. Le cinema et 1' enfance./ Cinema and children/. Paris, Editions duCerf, 1955, 120 p. (" 7e Art" series).

A review of films about children reveals that theirscenario writers are more attracted to the exte-rior aspects of childhood than to the inner worldof the child, with its peculiar myths and personal

interpretation of life. A large number of films,categorized according to the stage of emotionaldevelopment of the child who is the principalcharacter of the film, are discussed.

125 .Warshow , Robert. Movie Chronicle: TheWesterner. In: Partisan Review, New York,21 (2) , March-April 1954, p. 190-203.

The Westerner and the gangster, as "the two mostsuccessful creations of American movies", are com-pared. They are important in the present context asrepresenting the characters widely regarded ashaving most influence onthe young male film-goer,and as being the figures with whom he most oftenidentifies himself and in whose adventures he ima-ginatively participates. The author says that whilethe gangster is engaged in" unceasingnervous ac -tivity... outside the field of utility", the "Westernhero... is a figure of repose ... lonely... melancholy",not like the gangster "who has put himself in a posi-tion where everybody wants to kill him and even-tually somebody will"; but because "life is unavoid-ably serious ... his loneliness is organic ... testifyingto his completeness" . The Westerner, a man ofleisure who doesn't need to go any place because he"is already there", is placed in a setting of land andhorses - symbols of physical freedom and "moralopenness". Justice and order are nothis real mo-tives. They offer hint his "calling" and as suchpresent us with an image of honour circa 1870 thatis still real for us . The moral dilemma stems fromthe fact that , whatever the justification, he still kills.There may be variationinthe content, but ifthereis too much variationinthe art form, the westernceases to exist as such. The new type of westernmay present a figure more like a gang type (i.e."The Gunfighter") but not in his prime. He is hisonly judge. He sees his life clearly as waste butplays out the patternto its predestined conclusion -killing until it is his turnto be killed, continuouslylooking the part of a hero. If the individual does notstand out above the problems of the social order"the Western setting becomes a mere back-dropof beautiful scenery" ("The Ox-Bow Incident") . Whydoes the western film still hold the popular imagina-tion? Its orientationtowards violence is serious.The Westerner... "lives in a world of violence , butthe drama is one of self-restraint". He offers us"fantasies of irresponsible freedom", to be deniedonly because they are dangerous. "He isthere toremind us of the possibility of style... inthe midstof our anxieties over the problem of violenceLpre-serving/ for us the pleasure of a complete and self-contained drama... in a time when other, more

consciously serious art forms are increasinglycomplex, uncertain and ill-defined".

126. Wasem, Erich. Das Bi ld des Erziehers undZoglings in Spielfilmen. /Teacher and pupilin recreational films/. In: Jugend und Film,Munich, (1), 1957, p. 23-32.

A critical study, illustrated by numerous examplestaken from well-known films, of the portrayal ofteacher, child and adolescent in recent films.The manner in which various American, Italian,French, German and Soviet films portray theyoung child and the adolescent in their relationswith adults - parents or teachers - or withanimals (a dog or a horse, for example), andthe teacher in his efforts to mate contact withmodern youth.

127. Witty, Paul and Bricker, Harry. Your Childand Radio, TV, Comics and Movies, Chicago,

, Science Research Associates Inc. ,1952, 49 p.

The booklet discusses the following topics: thethings children are exposed to in comic books, mov-ing pictures, radio and television; the reasonschildren are attracted to them; the way parentsand teachers can help children make the best useof these forms of entertainment; methods whichparents and teachers can use to help boys and girlsto improve their judgement so that they will choosewhat is good and reject what is bad; and the needfor community action which will give the childrena better chance to see and hear and read morewholesome and worth-while material.

128.Wolfenstein, Martha and Leites, Nathan.Plot and Character in Selected French Films:AnAnalysis of Fantasy. In: Metraux, R. andMead, Margaret, Themes in French Culture,preface to a study of French community,Stanford University, Ca. , Stanford UniversityPress, 1953, n.p.

Forty French films were examined for recurrentpatterns of plot and character which appear to re-flect feelings and attitudes typical of the culture.A four-part analysis is offered: (1) the father inthe role of the suffering hero; (2) the vicissitudesto which the hazards of human impulse expose ue;(3) the accidents and unreliability of justice; and(4) the major disappointing experiences with whichFrench films are preoccupied.

See also: nos. 51, 192, 240, 343, 389.

35

4. THE PROCESS OF SEEING A FILM

(a) PERCEPTION AND COMPREHENSIONOF FILMS

129 .Aibauer, Rosa. Zur Sittlichen Beurteilungvon Filmen. Test mit 10-14 Jahrigen Mad-chen fiber Teufelskerle. /The moral evalua-tion of films. A test with 10-14 year-oldgirls concerning the film "Teufelskerle"(Boys' Town)]. In: Film, Jugend, Schule,Gelsenkirchen, (45), July 1954, 6 p.

An investigation of the moral evaluation of a filmby a group of 32 girls between 10 and 14 years ofage, parallel to and comparable with the investi-gation concerning a similar group of boys reportedby Roessler, E. and W., (see no. 140). After thescreening of the film "Teufelskerle" (Boys' Town),the girls were asked to relate or draw events fromthe film. They were then asked a number of ques-tions on how they had liked the film, which rolethey would have liked to play themselves, if theywould like to take part in the film, which scenesthey had found especially exciting or boring, etc .All 32 girls gave a detailed answer to the question:"What does the film mean to convey to the spec-tator?", and most girls had completely understoodthe sense of the film. In many points, the girls'moral evaluation of the principal actors and theirbehaviour was found to differ from that of boys.

130.Albertini, Laura and Caruso, Ada, P. Per-cezione e interpretazione di imagini cinematografiche nei ragazzi. (Perception and inter-pretation of film images by childrenj In:Bianco e Nero, Rome, (X), 5 May1949, p. 9-27.Also in: Baumgarten, Franziska, Compterendu du 1 le Congres international de psycho-technique, Berne, 12-1? September 1949. Lapsychotechnique dans le monde moderne.Paris, Presses Universitaires de France,1952, p. 557-561.

A study of the reactions of 576 children, aged 8 to14, to Flaherty's film "Nanook". Four hundredand ninety children were questioned: 86 made un-solicited comments. Particularly apparent werethe many errors in observation and the discre-pancy between what actually occurred in the filmand what the children thought they had seen. Therapid succession of images, the inability to under-stand clearly, to compare precisely and to inter-pret exactly when drawing up a report has the

36

following results for children: real difficulties inmaking accurate comparisons as to sizes and like-nesses, in recognizing regular geometric forms,in establishing the position of persons in relationto a known object, and in interpreting some oftheir movements and attitudes. Such difficultiesas these do not seem to lessen proportionately asthe child grows older. Further research is re-commended to study the choice of motion-picturesfor children of different age groups.

131.Brandt, Herman, P. The Psychology of See-ing Motion Pictures. In: Elliott, Godfrey M.:Film and Education, New York, PhilosophicalLibrary, 1948, p. 39-54.

Deals with "seeing" film as physical, physiologicaland psychological process and the similarities anddifferences between the action of the human eye andthe film camera; the sensorial and motor processeswhich play a role during the viewing of a film; per-ception as an activity of attention; selection andarrangement of impressions, and of the most import-ant movements of the eye during the viewing of a filmand the general rules appertaining to them. Acomparison is then made between the reaction(orientation, concentration, relaxation and activeparticipation) to a still and a moving picture. Anumber of conditions concerning film performancesare formulated, so that greatest possible partici-pation by the spectator can be attained.

132.Brinkmann, Donald. Jugend and Film./Youth and Film j In: Reformierte Schweiz,Pfaffikon-Ziirich, (11), November 1956,p. 400-403.

Develops several ideas for discussion at a studyweek on youth and film, held in Zurich in 1956.Arising from numerous observations in Switzerlandand other countries, four stages have been distin-guished in young people' s development which aresignificant for an understanding of their reactionsto film: (1) Up to 7 years of age (called the fairy-tale age) children live in an imaginary world inwhich they do not clearly distinguish between sub-ject and object, self and surroundings, dream andreality. (2) Between ? and 12 realistic experiencemakes its appearance. This is the so-called"Robinson" age, in which interest is mainly inadventure. (3) Between 12 and 16 (age of puberty)the child' s personality develops and he learns todistinguish "self" from his surroundings. Conflicts

often arise at this time which determine the courseof his adult life . (4) After the age of 16 , tensions of-ten arise owing to the fact that young people at thisstage are expected to behave like adults, but arefrequently not taken as seriously as they feel theyshould be. The vividness of children's life up to theage of puberty, and the results of the analysis ofchildren's drawings, which can deepen insight intothe four stages of film experience, are furtherinvestigated.

133 . Fulchignoni, Enrico. Cinema et psychologie.(Cinema and psychology:fin:Revue de psy-chologie appliquée, Paris, I (2), January 1951,p. 61-68.

The perception of film images is very different fromthe perception of objects and persons in reality oronthe stage, mainly because of the particularrhythm of film images andthe space relationshipsin cinematography. Difficulties in the interpreta-tion of objects, movement, dimensions and scale infilms are experienced by children. Infilms forchildren, therefore, photography should be simplerand movement slower than in films for adults.

110

134 .Gerhartz -Franck , Ingrid . 1Ther Geschehens -gestaltungen in der Auffrassung von Filmendurch Kinder. (Perception psychology appliedto the comprehension of films by children.]Leipzig, Johann Ambrosius Barth Verlag,1955, 124 p.

An investigation to test how children assimilate andunderstand educational and fairy-tale films at dif-ferent ages. Comprehension of the film story as"gestalt" was tested using a puppet film, "The TownMouse and the Country Mouse", made by the Dielbrothers. Six-year olds do not seem to be able tounderstand film action as "gestalt". They do not seethe relations between particular scenes, and cannotidentify the principal characters throughout. Theyonly sum up a number of separate parts of a film story.Children 7-8 years old can place the separate scenesin a series but cannot yet be said to understand therelations between the scenes depicting a given phaseof action. These children do not know how to distin-guish between the important and unimportant scenes.

With 9- and 10-year-olds, the action is under-stood as a whole. These children can alreadytakean objective view of film action and detach it com-pletely from their own life and surroundings. Buta clear understanding of the internal structureof the action is not yet present. Here and there astart is made with a kind of interpretation of thefilm story. Only with 11- to 14-year-olds is thisinternal structure understood.

135 .Heuyer, Georges . Cinema et affectivite.(Cinema and emotion.] In: L'ecole desparents, Paris, (3), January 1956, p. 15-27.

A report on investigations with maladjusted

children, carried out by the author and his colla-borators in a psychiatric clinic. These investiga-tions, which were particularly concerned withchildren's understanding of films, show that achild must have reached a mental age of 12 to becapable of understanding the full content of a film.An inquiry into the reactions of maladjusted child-ren to film comedies reveals that the children'sreactions during screening are often in contradic-tion with their ultimate assessment of the films.Cartoons are not generally enjoyed. The emotion-al reactions of children are often and to a greatextent conditioned by their personal problems;aggressive, perverse or paranoic tendencies wouldappear to encourage a preference for certaintypesof film or for certain scenes. Ir. estigations werealso carried out with entirely normal subjects, sothat a comparison could be made. The conclusionsfrom these various inquiries are summarizedunder ten headings.

136.Heuyer, Georges. Influence immddiatementdecelable du film a partir de 10 ans . Ren-contre internationale d' experts sur lesaspects psychologiques, techniques et sociauxdes problemes du cinema et de la jeunesse,Luxembourg, 31 May-4 June 1955. (Theimmediately discernible influence of thecinema from the age of 10 upwards. Inter-national meeting of experts to consider thepsychological, technical and social aspectsof problems concerning the cinema and youngpeople, Luxembourg) Geneva, FraterniteMondiale, 1955, 12 p. (stencilled)

From the age of 10 years the influence of a filmon the child is immediately discernible, with re-gard to his perception, understanding and emotion.The study of perception in children requires ac-curate and comprehensive experiments in bothvisual and auditive fields. There are two stagesthat can be distinguished in understanding a film:a mental age of 10 years is required for the childto keep pace with the sequences; for an under-standing of the entire significance of the film amental age of 12 years is required.

Only the simple comic element is understoodby children under the age of 12. Above this agethe child's understanding of the comic element ison a level with that of adults. For the understand-ing of a commercial cartoon, a mental age of atleast 12 years is essential. Emotional reactionsto a film yield valuable evidence for the investiga-tion of the child's individual tendencies. Thesereactions are of an individual nature, and differaccording to sex.

The role of the cinema in developing criminaltendencies has not been conclusively demonstrated,but it appears that the gangster film does play a partin "teaching" the techniques of crime . The film alsoinfluences factors which remain in the infialhal.°4.after a film performance, and thus affects the child'sconduct. Electro-encephalographic and biological

37

investigations must be encouraged to give a phy-siological basis to psychological observations ofemotional reactions.

137.Mialaret, G. and Me lies, M.G. Exgriesessur la comprehension du langage cinemato-graphique par 1' enfant . (Experiments on theunderstanding of film language by the childjIn: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris,V (18-19), July-December 1954.

An interim report of an investigation of the under-standing of a film by children between 4 and 12years. Three specially made short films repro-duced three different versions of the same simplestory, each using different "film language". Itcould be seen which techniques (close-up, dis-solve, etc.) presented problems to children ofdifferent ages.

138.Ponzo, Ezio. Temoignages de pre-adolescentset d' adolescents sur un film. Statements byyoung people about a film, In: Revue inter-nationale de filmologie, Paris, V(17), April-June 1954, p. 147-159. Also in: ScuolaPositiva, Milan, (4), 1952, p. 521-525.

A film sequence showing a simple incident duringa gymnastic exercise was shown to 115 boys be-tween 11 and 19 years of age in an orphanage.Following the screening the boys were questionedin accordance with the method developed by Stern.Several boys were unable to relate accurately whatthey had seen in the film, and the reasons for thisare discussed. Films can be a useful instrumentfor research into the accuracy and validity ofyoung people's testimony. It is furthermore con-cluded that a study of the personality, socialsurroundings and past experience of the youngpeople concerned is essential if the reactionsreported are to be correctly understood andevaluated.

139.Rey, Andre. Laperception d' un ensemblede deplacements - donnees sur 1' evolution dela perception.,_gIernati ue. (Perception ofmovement as a whole - data on the develop-ment of cinematic perception2 In: Revueinternationale de filmologie, Paris, V(17),April-June 1954, p. 75-92.

An investigation of the manner in which childrenand adults perceive different simultaneous move-ments in the film image. Most people, and espe-cially children, cannot record analytically thedifferent movements which take place in a sceneprojected on the screen. They perceive the move-ments as a whole. The movements of a film scenemust not be complex if they are to be followedaccurately by children.

38

140. Roessler, E. and W. Sit he Film' urteilungZehn-bis Vierzehnjahriger. Eine psychologisch-padagogische Studie zu dem Film "Teufelskerle".LMoral evaluation of films by 10-14 year-olds.A psychological-pedagogic study concerning thefilm "Teufelskerle" (Boys' Town)J. In: Film,Jugend, Schule, Gelsenkirchen, 44 (6), September1955, 8 p.

An investigation of the ability of thirty 10 to 14year-old boys to judge the moral value of the film"Teufelskerle" (Boys' Town). Immediately afterthe screening the boys were asked to write or drawsomething about the film. Later, they completeda written questionnaire in which they stated whichrole they would have liked to play themselves,their appreciation of certain scenes, their judge-ment of the behaviour of the principal actors, andthe meaning of the film taken as a whole. It ap-peared that only a third of the boys identifiedthemselves with a given film character. It is feltthat the boys were capable of making a moraljudgement and that it is therefore not useless todiscuss these matters with children. Even 10year-olds are capable of an objective judgementwith regard to things which interest them. (Seealso: Aibauer, Rosa, no. 129.)

141.gnejder, M. Hudaestvennoe kino vvospitatel' noj rabote skoly. LThe film andeducation at school2 Moscow, Academy ofPedagogic Sciences of the R.S.F.S.R., 1950,32 p.

Contains useful information for the study of theunderstanding of films by children, compiled fromobservations of the attitudes of children during thescreening of films and analyses of discussions withchildren after performances. The experimentrelated to children between 9 and 10 years of ageand was spread over several years.

A comparison of the information thus obtainedat the beginning of the school year with that obtainedat the end of the same year shows that the children'sunderstanding of the films and the subject becomesmore complete and extensive as they grow older.

Records of experimental data concerning thepresentation of the same film to classes of childrenaged 10 to 12 years provide concrete evidence ofthe differences in the understanding of a filmaccording to the age group of the children.

142.Soriano, Marc. Lire, assister. (Reading andparticipationj In: Revue internationale defilmologie, Paris, (3 -4) , 1948, p. 299-304.

The understanding of the film language and the per-ception of the message which the film seeks toconvey, is an entirely different process from thatof reading and understanding a book. The under-standing of a book is an intellectual process,whereas the film is a direct sensory experience.

143 .Tarroni, Evelina. U film per 1, infanzia e itprobiema del livello di comprensione .LChild-ren' s films and the problem of the level ofunderstandingj In: Rivista del cinematografo,Rome, X (4), 1952.

An analysis of various investigations carried outby psychologists in this field; its conclusions indi-cate that it is necessary on the one hand to leadchildren gradually towards mastering the diffi-culties of interpreting the modern film, and on tother hand to produce films particularly addresto young people and which take account of thesedifficulties.

esed

144 .Zazzo, Bianka. Analyse des difficultes d'unesequence cinematographique par la conduitedu recit chez 1' enfant. LAn analysis of thedifficulties of a cinematographic sequencebased on the child's narrationj In: Revueinternationale de filmologie, Paris, III (9) ,

January-March 1952, p. 25-36.

In order to investigate the types of difficulty expe-rienced by children in understanding films, asimple film sequence specially selected for thepurpose was shown to a group of 53 girls between6 and 12 years of age. The children were asked torecount the story of the film sequence after thescreening. They were also asked to place in cor-rect order a number of photographs showing themost important events of the film. The purpose ofthe latter exercise was to counteract errors whichmight have resulted from imperfect verbal expres-sion.

The following conclusions were drawn: (1) Thecourse of action is understood very early, fromseven years onwards . The dynamic reproductionof the action, the visual and concrete element offilm reproduction and the strong structural qualityof film were considered responsible for this. (2)The difficulties which the child experiences inunderstanding a film are due to the use of "filmgrammar" (e.g. time symbols). (3) The longer thefilm, the greater the difficulties for the child. Thechild can generally follow the action of the film andparticipate in it intensively, but the way in whichthe film relates this action is largely lost to him.

145.Zazzo, Biamobilite d

nka. Effets de la grosseur et de laes plans sur les reactions des spec-

tateurs-enfants. LEffects of size and move-ment of shots on the reactions of juvenilespectat rs...7 Paper read atthe Second Inter-national Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955.

An investigation to find out how shooting techniquesaffect the intensity of film experience in children.The reactions of four groups of boys and girls (7 to9, and 9 to 11 years of age, of each sex) to differentshots from four films were recorded. They in-cluded: (1) shots ranging from close-ups to longshots, and (2) shots showing no movement, shots

showing movement, but taken with a fixed camera,and shots taken with a moving camera. Shots show-ing movements and long shots are more likely toprovoke reactions than those showing no movementand close-ups .

The continuous change in camera angle andmovement of objects keep the spectator in a stateof expectation ( "attente "), and one should thereforenot regard film viewing as a passive occupation.

146.Zazzo, Bianka and Rene. Une experience surla comprehension du film. LAn experiment infilm understanding./ In: Revue internationalede filmologie, Paris, II (6), 1951, p. 159-170.

An investigation of the understanding of two shortfilm sequences carried out among 42 young peoplebetween 6 and 25 years of age, with mental agesranging from 4.7 to 14 years. The test subjectswere backward children, maladjusted children,and children with more or less serious characterdisturbances, under treatment in the psychologicallaboratory of the 118pital Henri Roussel in Paris.A psychological and medical case history wasavailable for each child.

After the first screening the children were askedto recount what they had seen in order to determinetheir comprehension of the action, the chronologyof the events shown, the r8le played by differentactors, the technique of "reverse angle shooting"(in which people in conversation are shown fromdifferent angles), their ability to recount the con-tent as a whole logically and spontaneously. Ther8les played by the actors and the technique of"reverse angle shooting" were least well understood.

The object of the second screening was to deter-mine to what extent the audience understood the"dissolve" technique. Nineteen of those testedfailed completely (they were children whose mentalage was under 8 years 3 months). Two cases weredoubtful (mental age about 7 years), 10 childrenpassed the test (mental age 8 to 10 years) and 3 didexcellently (mental age over 12).

147. Zazzo, Rene. L'influence du cinema sur le de-veloppement de la pensee de l'enfant. Lille in-fluence of the cinema on the development ofthe thought-processes of the child./ In:L 'ecole des parents, Paris, January 1956,p. 1-14.

The author distinguishes two problems: firstly,the influence of the cinema on the development ofthe child's intelligence; secondly, its influence onthe opinions, tastes, attitudes and "thoughts" ofthe child.

The author has examined difficulties which thechild encounters in grasping the language of thecinema. Until about the age of seven, the childunderstands almost nothing of a film, whilst takingan interest in the content of its images. Butwhen the threshold of understanding is reached,the experience of the cinema may exercise a

39

favourable influence on his intellectual growth.Opinions of research workers and theorists are

frequently contradictory, particularlyin connexionwith the problem of sex and eroticism in films andthe prime responsibility of the cinema in cases ofjuvenile delinquency. The author is of the opinionthat the real problems lie elsewhere, and that oneshould examine, for example, whether the view oflife presented to young people by films is a trueor a distorted one.

148.Zazzo, Rene. Niveau mental et comprehen-sion du cinema. /Mental level and the under-standing of the cinemaiIn: Revue internatio-nale de filmologie, Paris, II(5), 1951, p. 29-36.

A lecture given at the Institut de filmologie of theUniversity of Paris concerning the importance,the difficulties and the methods of investigatingchildren's understanding of film language . Thislecture introduces a report of several experimentswhich were later published in nos. 6 and 9, vol. II,of the Revue internationale de filmologie.

The gradual development of the child's mindand his capacity, at different ages, to understandfilm language are studied. Piaget speaks of thechild's inability to "decentre" himself. A modelof a landscape with a typical village is shown tothe child, after which a number of photos of thislandscape, taken from various angles, are shownto him. The child is then asked to point out on themodel the points from which the photos were taken.Under 8 years of age the child does not understandthat the view of the landscape depends on thespectator' s point of observation. At the age of10 to 12 these difficulties are barely overcome.

How then can children understand the quickchanges in point of observation in a film? Forexample, the understanding of a typical cinema-tographic process, the shooting at reverse angle,wherein two persons in conversation are shownfrom each other's point of view, was investigatedfirst. The extent to which film dynamics corre-spond with the movement of subconscious thought,and whether frequent contact with film languagecan result in modifications of normal perceptionand thought, are questions also considered.See also: nos. 60, 85, 155, 228, 233, 319, 353,409, 470, 483, 490.

(b) THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FILM EXPERIENCE(PARTICIPATION, IDENTIFICATION,PROJECTION, ETC.)

149.Banfi, Antonio. L'aspect social du cinema entant que spectacle . LThe social aspect of thecinema as a spectacle/In: Actes du Congresinternational sur la presse periodique, cinema-tographique et radio pour enfants, 19-23 March1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 133-138.

40

(1) General study of the nature of the spectacle;(2) study of the character of the cinema as a spec-tacle and as a factor in the development and expe-rience of young people; (3) the cinema reachesthe child more easily than any other spectacle;warning against the falsification of reality; thecinema for children should enrich, deepen andpenetrate the reality of daily life.

150.Beley, Andre. Cinema entre enfants et cinemad'adultes. (Children's film shows and cinema-going with adults] In: L ' &Ole des parents,Paris, (4), February 1958, p. 25-30; (6), April1958, p. 25-30.

The reactions of the child are by no means thesame when he goes to the cinema with adults(parents or other members of his family, forexample), as when he attends a children's filmshow. As a result of the constraint imposed by thepresence of adults, he no longer participatesspontaneously in the spectacle, and his impres-sions differ from those which he would have ifsurrounded by other children.

With the aid of various examples drawn fromthe study of film clubs, the author shows that thesolution of the problem of "films for children"should not be sought in the production of specialfilms, but rather in the organization of specialsessions for children, with the screening of suit-able "adult films".

But the task of film clubs is not limited to thepresentation of good films for children; theyshould also organize film discussions and enablechildren to :reach a joint appreciation of themessage of the film.

151 .Bouman, J. C . , Heuyer, G. and Lebovici, S.Une experience d' etude de groupes. Processusde 1' identification et P importance de lasuggestibilite dans la situation cinematogra-phique. (An experiment in group study. Theprocess of identification and the importanceof suggestion inthe cinematographic situation/.In: Revue Internationale de filmologie, Paris,IV (13), April-June 1953, p. 111-141.

A description is given of an investigation among150 students of medicine, psychology and law,concerning identification and the various forms inwhich it occurs. Identification is considerably in-fluenced by suggestive explanations given to thetest person prior to the screening of the film.

152.Brudny, Wolfgang. Arne Sucksdorff's dasgrosse Abenteuer: ein Erfahrungsberichtaus Jugendvorstellungen. LArne Sucksdorff's'The Great Adventure': the record of a filmshow for young peoplej In: Jugend and Film,Munich, 1955.

The author has studied the intensity of cinemaexperience by observing (by means df tape recordings

and photographs) numerous children during thescreening of the film "The Great Adventure". Hedescribes the reactions of the audience as a whole,and particularly of four children aged between 9and 10, to the main scenes. He concludes that thisfilm had an unexpectedly deep effect on the child-ren, this being confirmed later when, on two se-parate occasions, they were asked to write essayson the subject of the film.

153 .Cahn, Paulette. Remarques sur les reactionsde 1' enfant a son image filmigue et a celle deses freres. borne remarks on the child'sreactions to his filmic image and to that of hisbrothers." Paper read at the second Inter-national Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955.

Tentative results of an experiment on the reactionsof several very young and several older childrentotheir own filmic image. A distinction can be madebetween different phases in the child's attitudevis-à-vis his own filmic image. The child cannotmake an initial distinction between his own "self"and his filmic image. Later on he learns to re-cognize it as an image, and to distinguish it fromthe actual "self". In the third phase, the child isable to establish a link between the filmic image'and his own experience.

154 .Canestrari, Renzo. La psicologia differen-ziale ed il cinema. (Differential psychologyand the cinema." In: Infanzia anormale, Rome,(24), 1953, p. 284-293.

The relationship between audience and motion pic-ture is conceived as a dynamic and projectivesituation in which the individual's emotions findrelease and his intellectual faculties are stimulated.Because the individual reacts as in a situation ofreality, his whole personality is involved in theprocess. Experiments have shown the varying in-fluences of the motion picture upon the personalityof the mentally retarded, the child, and the ado-lescent. In a case of re-education a film expe-rience has even been used as the starting point forgroup therapy.

155 .Canestrelli, Luigi. Psicologia e films -roblemi sicoli ci, etico- sicolo ci e

psicopedagogici. sychology and films -psychological, ethico-psychological andpsycho-pedagogical problems." In: La Difesadel Ragazzo, Rome, (5), September-October1956, p. 219-238.

A paper presented to the First Congress of theInternational Centre of Films for. Children. Theauthor deals with general questions of psychologyand the cinema, the process of identification incinema experience, the conditions of cinemato-graphic perception and specific problems of filmsfor children (legislation, censorship, content andpsychological reactions) . In conclusion, he

affirms that the film should help the childdevelop its personality.

156.Debesse, Maurice. L 'enfant au cinema .Eihechild at the cinema." In: Revue internationalede filmologie, Paris, VII (26), April-June1956, p. 99-109.

Summary of a lecture given at the Institut de filmo-logie in Paris on the film-theatre as a leisure-timemilieu for children. The University of Strasbourghaving started some investigation in this field, thepossible results of such research are discussed,e.g. the atmosphere of the film-theatre itself; theproportion of seats occupied; the presence (orabsence) of parents and other adults, which mayinfluence the child' s behaviour in the theatre andhence his reaction to the films seen therein.

157.Deprun, Jean. Cinema et transfert. /inemaand transferencej In: Revue internationalede filmologie, Paris, I(2), 1947, p. 204-207.

Does "transference" occur in film experience asin a psycho-analytical situation? Two conditionsmust be satisfied if complexes are to be "trans-ferred"; they must be symbolically represented,and they must be projected outside the spectatorwithout danger of return. The film satisfies boththese requirements .

158 .Eiserer, Paul E. The relative effectivenessof motion and still pictures as stimuli foreliciting fantasy stories about adolescent-parent relationships. In: Genetic PsychologyMonographs, Worcester, Mass., Clark Uni-versity, (39), 1949, p. 205-278.

Fifteen motion pictures (10 to 21 seconds in length)were compared with 15 still pictures (selected fromthe motion pictures) to determine their relativeeffectiveness as projective instruments. Both pro-jective tests were administered to 50 tenth-gradeboys with a median S-B IQ of 134.5. The followingare some of the conclusions drawn: (1) the motionpicture can be used as an effective projective in-strument for personality study; (2) motion picturestend to elicit more material of psychological signi-ficance; (3) it is uncertain whether the superiorityof the motion picture is of sufficient magnitude towarrant its development for immediate use; (4)considerable evidence indicates that structuringthe stimulus situation (e.g. intra-family relation-ships) produces more data than are otherwiseobtainable.

There is a bibliography listing 44 items.

159.Flores d'Arcais, Giuseppe. 11 cinema, il filmnell' esperienza giovanile (Cinema . The filmin juvenile experience." Padua, Ed. Liviana,1953, p. 295.

The problem of educational films and films for use

41

in schools, and their relationship from a pedagogicpoint of view. The work is composed as follows:(1) phenomenology of the cinema; problems con-cerning the cinema's power of expression; (2)cinema experience: an analysis of the cinema asa means of entertainment, relaxation and escape,and from the point of view of content and of form;(3) the cinema as art: the possibility of increasingthe significance of the cinema for young spectators;(4) the didactic cinema: relationships between thecinema and education.

160 . Fulchignoni, Enrico. Filmologie et psycho-logie infantile. ZFilmology and child psycho-logyzi In: Revue internationale du cinema,Brussels, I(4), 1949, p. 38-41.

The attitude of the spectator towards events as repre-sented bythe film differs in several respects from hisattitude towards reality itself or towards a stage play.The spectator does not keephis distance from thefilm, nor does he protect himself; in fact, he oftenfrees himself from inhibitions which normally domi-nate his conscience. The difficulties which the childexperiences in observing a film, and the results ofresearch with children and film are discussed. Thechild' s perception is quite different from that ofadults. The film language can be appreciated bychildren only with the advent of puberty. With regardto the child s emotional reactions to films, thecinema situation resembles the hypnotic state in thatreactions are much stronger therein than is the caseunder normal conditions. Research carried out atthe Psychological Institute of the University of Romehas shown that the rhythm of film images exerts aninfluence on the spectator' s rhythm of respiration,indicating that the spectator quickly becomes in-volved emotionally during the screening of a film.

161. Funk, Alois. Film and Jugend. Eine Unter-suchung fiber die psychischen Wirkungen desFilms im Leben der Jugendlichen. LThecinema and youth. An examination of thepsychological effect of the cinema on the lifeof young peopled Munich, Ernst Reinhardt,1934, 174 p.

A study by Alois Funk of the psychological effectsof recreational films on working youths between14 and 18 years of age. The survey was carriedout by means of three questionnaires: one designedto obtain from educators their opinions on the in-fluence of the cinema; one to obtain informationfrom young people aged 14 to 18 on their filmexperience; a third to find out how boys over 18felt the cinema had influenced them when they wereyounger. Replies were obtained from 235 of the1,000 educators who received the questionnaire;from 2,625 of the 3,000 young people between 14and 18; and from 425 of the 1,000 boys over 10.The writer concludes that the r8le of identificationin film experience is very important. The terms"znitgezogen werden" (to be carried along), "alles

42

IVO

miterleben" (participate in everything) , "sichselbst ale Held des StOckes Millen" (to consideroneself as the hero of the piece) occur repeatedlyin the young people's responses. The photographiccharacter of film, the character of movement, themobility of the camera etc. , are largely responsiblefor the power of the film.

162.Galletto, Albino. Cinema e ragazzi ginemaand children./ In: Ragazzi Aspiranti, Rome,(3), 1949, p. 105-109.

An analysis of young people's reactions to thecinema, and suggestions as to appropriate attitudesand action on the part of teachers.

163 .Gemelli, Agostino. Cinema e psicologia.LCinema and psychologyd In: Vita e Pensiero,Milan, (11), 1949, p. 591-596.

A resume, intended for the general public, oftheories already expressed in earlier experimentsin cinematographic realism and the psychologicalreactions of young spectators.

164.Gemelli, Agostino. II cinema per i ragazzi.LCinema for children./ In: Vita e Pensiero,Milan, XXXIV, June 1951, p. 315-321.

In the opinion of the author, "the realism of thefilm resembles that of a dream": sentiments,trends of character, strong emotions and thedeepest elements of the individual personality areprojected on to the screen. The critical sense ofthe adult permits him to judge not only the film butalso his own reaction to it, but this is not so in thecase of the child. From the age of 6 to 10, andeven 11, the influence of the film is slight: eitherthe film belongs to the realm of fantasy, so thatits action forms a part of the "play-world" inwhich, up to this age, the child spends much ofhis time; or, if it does not belong to this realm,it is of no interest to him. The problem of thefilm arises from the age of 12 onwards when theadolescent, with the strong emotions characteristicof his age, re-enacts the adventure and abandonshimself to it, as well as to the ideas behind it.

165.Glogauer, Werner. Die psychische Verar-beitung des Filmerlebens 1m Jugendalter.(Mental assimilation by young people ofcinematographic experienced In: Film -Bild - Ton, Munich, (9), December 1958,p. 41 -46.

On the basis of impressions made upon boys andgirls, the author establishes that at the age ofpuberty, when emotional receptivity is alreadystrong, a film may so heighten sentiments that theadolescent is obliged to direct them towards someobject. At this age, cinematographic experiencehas such an impact on the young personality as awhole that the reality of the film becomes confused

with the reality of daily life, to which the adolescentthen has difficulty in adapting himself. Why do theimpressions of a film last so long? Mainly becausethe spectator often related the action of the film tohis own life and above all to his own future, andbecause the film nourishes those moods of depres-sion or melancholy to which adolescents aresubject.

The cinema stirs their imagination to such anextent that they are left powerless to meet the de-mands of everyday reality. Young workers inparticular have in their daily life so few opportu-nities for giving free rein to their imagination thatthey seek in the cinema fictional satisfactions fromwhich they cannot then break free.

For adolescents, cinematographic experienceextends even to their dreams; desire for successand other aspirations especially erotic ones, un-consciously awakened by a film, find repeatedexpression. In the end adolescents also transformcinematographic experience by a process of con-scious thought: examples provided by films some-times help them to resolve their personal problems.

166 .Keilhacker, Martin. Le cinema et lee reac-tions des enfants et des adolescents. In:Colliers de pedagogic de l'universite deLiege, (14), 1955, p. 67-75. (From: Psycho-logical Abstracts, Washington, 31 (2), April1957.)

It is not possible for an adult, on the basis of hisown reactions, to predict the reactions of childrenand adolescents to movies. Only objectives re-search can solve the problem. This shows thatthe reactions of adolescents are different fromthose of children. For children, the movie is animaginary world. For adolescents it is also afield in which they can work out their own future.

16?.Keilhacker, Martin. Grundzfige des Filmer-lebens der Kinder und Jugend lichen in derausgehenden Kindheit und beginnendenPubertit. LFundamentals of the reaction ofchildren and young adolescents to films,.] In:Filmkunst, Vienna, 1956, p. 5-16. (Specialnumber "Jugend und Film" .)

Children are not so much spectators of a film showas "co-actors" . They "live" a film in an intro-verted way and see in it their own story. Childcharacters and animals in films, when they playleading r8les, evoke the greatest sympathy fromthe young audience. Films about animals givechildren an interest in books about animals. Aspecial form is required for children's films. Theinterests of the 14-18 age-group are very varied;and children in this group have a preference forfilms which are about real life but which also havean idealistic tendency. At the end the authordescribes the work and research methods of theMunich Arbeitskreises (Work circle), "Jugend undFilm" .

10

168 .Keilhacker , Martin. Der Wirklichkeitscharakterdes Filmerlebens bei Kindern und Jugend lichen.LThe character of reality in the film experienceof children and adolescents .:1 In: Jugend undFilm, Munich, (1), 1957, p. 9-22.

The adult experiences film mostly as a "play" andnot as a reality, and he can generally say whetherthe film content is a representation of real eventsor simply fantasy. Children's film experiencediffers in both respects. Play and reality oftencoincide and the film contents are largely seen asa reproduction of reality. Three forms of realityexperienced by the child can be distinguished:(1) Small children aged 6-7 years often take filmimages for objective reality; only later do theymake a difference between objective reality andthe filmic image. (2) A form of reality is experi-enced in active participation in the film action.(3) The third form consists of emotional participa-tion in the action, and with the film "hero".

In pre-puberty, the children may believe in thegenuineness of the film action, even if it is repre-sented by trick photography. The only exceptionsare fairy-tale films. The child become. criticalwith regard to trick photographs only at the begin-ning of puberty. If older children are asked tostate their preferences (films on "real life" orfilms with a "fantastic" story), they generallychoose the first type. But on closer examination,the films of their choice often appear to be thoseconsidered by adults as a product of the "dreamfactory" . Young people willingly see reality infilms. They generally make a negative appraisalof films which represent unreality.

169.Keilhacker, Martin and Margarete. Jugendand S ielfilm. Erlebnisweisen und Einflilase.Youth and the fiction film. How young people

experience films and are influenced by theme./Stuttgart, Ernst Klett Verlag, 1953, 128 p.

A study of the psychological and educational aspectsof the cinema as related to young people. Thechapters on psychological aspects are concernedwith the way in which young people of different agesexperience films; e.g. how they relate the filmstory to their own life, how they identify themselveswith the characters, what standards they apply injudging films, how boys and girls react differently,what difficulties they experience in understandingthe film language, how much interest they show inthe film's human element. The chapter on educa-tional aspects summarizes the conclusions of research in this field and deals with the influence ofthe cinema on the "inner life" of young people.

A chapter is devoted to preferences in film sub-jects and their educational significance; a com-parison is also made between children's films andchildren' s books. The chapter deals with theorganization and programming of children's filmperformances.

43

170.Keilhacker, Martin; Brudny, Wolfgang;Lammers, Paul. Kinder sehen Fume a(Children see films Munich, EhrenwirthVerlag, 1957, 168 p.

Martin Keilhacker explains the value of the ex-pression-psychological method in the study of theeffect of films on the child, this method beingparticularly adapted to the child. He examines thenature of children's film experience, as well asits special qualities at different age levels parti-cularly with regard to the degree to which childrenexperience film as reality. By comparison withfilm experience, hearing a fairy tale, listening tothe radio, reading a book, or looking at a puppetshow is much less an experience of reality.

Wolfgang Brudny reports on research on thereactions of children carried out by means of infra-red photographs and discusses the implications of44 of these photographs. Children of 3 to 4 yearsappear to experience little contact with the film.With children of 5 to 7 years there is also littleevidence of film understanding. The situationchanges with children between 8 and 11 and theauthor discusses, for this age category, suchquestions as: the degree of interest in the film,the tension with which the child experiences thefilm action and how far he anticipates it, the signi-ficance of film music for the child, his capacity toreceive aesthetic impressions, the extent to whichthe child is touched by the film, how he reacts tocomic situations, his fright and fear reactions andhis comprehension of the film language.

The study by Paul Lammers is concerned withresearch by means of infra-red cinematographyon the individual differences in the film experienceof children, including a number who are deaf anddumb. Twenty series of photographs taken fromthe infra-red films made are studied extensively.The author concludes that the banning of cinemavisits for certain age-groups does not constitute asolution to the negative influence of the film onchildren. It is up to parents and educators to guidechildren with regard to their visits to the cinema.

171 .Lercaro, Giacomo. Per un film vero, buonoe bello. (Towards a true, good and beautifulfilm . In: 11 Regno, Bologna, (12), December1956, p. 11-17.

A study of psychological problems of puberty: ana-lysis of the influence of the cinema on children,and practical suggestions for the production offilms to meet the needs of the young spectator.

172.Leroy-Boussion, A. Etude du comportementemotionnel enfantin au cours de la projectiond'un film comique. LA study of the emotionalbehaviour of children during the projection ofa comic In: Revue internationale defilmologie, Paris, V (17), April-June 1954,p. 103-123.

44

An account of an investigation carried out inMarseilles of the emotional reactions to a comicfilm of three groups of children between 4 and 8,9 and 10, 11 and 14 years respectively, making atotal of 222 children. The difference in the reac-tions ("laugh" reactions were mainly registered)appeared first of all to be linked with age: as thechildren grew older they laughed more. The seconddifferentiating factor was the sex: laugh frequencyincreases evenly with boys and girls, but olderboys reached the "laugh ceiling" sooner than girlsof the same age. It goes without saying that amore mature child understands comic film situa-tions more readily, but the "laugh" frequency doesnot run parallel with the intellectual level, becausemany other factors (temperament, shyness, familycircumstances) can influence the tendency to laugh.With regard to the social milieu factor, the childreninvestigated were (1) suburban children, (2) childrenfrom working class districts and (3) children fromresidential districts. It was found that, generally,suburban children laughed less often than townchildren.

173 .Leroy-Boussion, A. Le jeune spectateur etson entourage. (The young spectator and hisentourage] (a study of the inter-individualrelationships of 222 children aged between 4and 14 years during the projection of a comicfilm) . In: Enfance, Paris, (4), September-October 1954, p. 293-316.

A young spectator is seldom so absorbed in a filmthat he forgets those surrounding him. This workis a study of the influence exercised by the peoplesurrounding the child (friends, audience, teachers)on his emotional reactions to a film. The authorendeavoured to establish the most natural possibleconditions for observation. He showed a shortcomic film ("Charlie Chaplin takes a cure") 222times before uniform groups of children aged be-tween 4 and 14. On each occasion he chose atrandom one child, which he observed attentivelyand whose attitude was carefully recorded. Inorder to examine the 222 subjects closely, he wasobliged to attend 222 showings of the test-film. Herecorded 1,080 reactions which could be consideredas forms of social contact, and 7,680 reactionsclassed as "solitary" or individual. Only 52 of the1,080 inter-individual reactions could be inter-preted as signifying a lack of interest in the film.The remainder were all related to the film: thechild seeks to make contact with his friends, withthe audience or with the teachers present in orderto enhance his enjoyment of the film or to seek re-assurance when a scene frightens him. The authorthen examines in closer detail the nature of theseindividual reactions, which he classified underfour headings.

174.Marzi, Albertozil fanciullo davanti al cinemaapettacolare. (The child and entertainment filingIn: Cinedidattica , Rome ,III (2), February 1952, p.5-6.

The author shows that the film constitutes a syn-thesis of very precise sensual and intellectualstimuli: when these are too strong, they endangerthe harmonious development of the child's per-sonality. Nevertheless, the cinema has certainpsychologically important positive aspects.

175.Maucorps, P.M. Les phinomftes de parti-cipation et 1' experimentation filmologique.LThe phenomena of participation and filmo-logical experimentation.] Paper read at thesecond International Congress of Filmo logy,Paris, 1955.

An attempt to arrive at a clearer definition of"participation", "empathy", "identification", and",projection" . A description is given of the mutualrelationship between these phenomena.

176.Musatti, Cesare. Les processus psychiquesactives par le cinema. ZPsychological pro-cesses activated by the cinema.] In: Actes duCongres international sur la presse perio-dique, cinematographie et radio pour enfants,Milan, 19-23 March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffrb,1953, p. 156-158.

The film is experienced as reality by the adultspectator, but as reality on a different level fromthat which he experiences in daily life. The childexperiences film in a different manner and the fic-titious character of realistically presented scenesis often not recognized. Only with puberty doesthe young person's understanding of film approachthat of adults. At this time the film becomes forhim a means of penetrating the world of adults.Dream analysis in the course of psychiatric treat-ment shows that numerous film characters andscenes, and sometimes whole film sequences, are"stocked" in the subconscious. On the other hand,desires and fears present in the subconscious caninfluence the emotional experience of film. Emo-tional reactions to film can be related to neuroticstates or phobia, and can have an autopunitivecharacter. Identification with film characters cantake the form of consolation, jealousy or sympathy.These forms are examined.

177.Pellizzi, Camillo. II cinema e la sua funzionesociale. (The cinema and its social function/In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, XII (4), Apri11951,p. 31-37.

The cinema is a recreation of the hypnotic typewhich tends to release the latent emotionaltensionsof the spectator. Strong precautions should beobserved when dealing with children up to the ageof 16. In fact, the cinema may, up to the age ofadolescence, drug or sap their willpower. Thereshould, in the case of children at least, be anelement of preparation before the film and a dis-cussion afterwards. This is perhaps the best,although the slowest, way of gradually eliminatingthe antisocial characteristics of the film.

178.Perron, Roger. Essai de mise en relation decertains t es de contenus filmi ues et desreactions des spectateurs enfants. A studyof the relationship between certain kinds offilm sequences and the reactions of juvenilespectators.] Paper read at the second Inter-national Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955.

A study of children' s reactions to certain kinds offilm sequences, to determine whether the degreeof "participation" is related to the kind of dramaticsituation portrayed. Verbal, motor and non-verbalsound reactions (e.g. laughing) of boys and girlsaged 7 to 9 and 9 to 11 were recorded during thescreening of nine different film sequences (the heroin danger, the hero hunted, the hero vanquishinghis enemies, etc.). It was found that 60 per centto 80 per cent of the children consistently reactedin the same way to the same type of situation.Three major types of participation were noted:(1) in which the child is no longer interested inwhat happens around him in the cinema; (2) "ac-tive" participation; (3) "emotional" participation.This study shows clearly that film viewing is notpassive.

179.Stfickrath, Fritz. Das Sohn-Problem alsSchlassel zum Filmerleben. Cinematographicexperience and the personal problems of thechild..7 In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, IX, June,1959, p. 29-32 and 49-50.

This article is a sequel to one by the same authorin the February issue of "Film-Bild-Ton". Thecase here is that of young Rfidiger, aged 12, whochose the film "The Journeys of Ulysses" (pro-duced by Mario Camerini). Here, once again, adetailed evaluation is made of the extent to whichthe family situation and the personal psychologicalproblems of the child influence his cinematographicexperience. As his father has left home, Radigerlives alone with his mother, who has several malesuitors. The child appears to have identified him-self completely with the character of Telemachus,whose situation resembles his own. Among thepuppets, Rudiger cannot select one which is suitedto the r8le of Telemachus; he will consequentlyplay this part himself. In other words he rejectsthe choice of a puppet for the character and assumesthe r8le himself whenever Telemachus appears.The way in which Rudiger solves the technicalproblems presented to him by the action of the filmis also of interest because it reveals still moreclearly those parts of the story which have mostdirectly affected him. The "film play" also indi-cates that this boy is particularly sensitive to themain female character, Penelope (in whom herecognizes his own mother). Photographs of thepuppet play.

45

180 .Stiickrath, Fritz. Seelenanlage und Filmerleben beim Kind. (Cinematographic experence and the mental life of the child_ In:Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, VIII, Februaryp. 3-7.

i

1959,

The author has developed a method which he callsthe "film play" to discover the effects of a film onthe child's subconscious. Children can reproducea film they have enjoyed on a miniature stage , withthe help of puppets. (cf. the article by the sameauthor in "Film-Bild-Ton", December 1956 -title no. 32.) This is, the record of an experimentcarried out with a little girl aged 10, Bfirbel;having suffered for several years from stammer-ing, she was shy, retiring and socially maladjusted.The little girl selected the film "The GoldenGoose". The choice of the film, of the puppets toplay the principal roles, the manner in which thechild "directed" the play, manipulated the puppetsand made them speak, etc., gave a clear pictureof the extent to which she transferred to the filmher own situation and problems. She obviouslyidentified herself with the heroine (the princesswho will not laugh) and her latest psychologicalproblems find gradual expression in the play.(Photographs of the puppet play.)

181 .Stfickrath, Fritz andPsychologie des FJugend. ZPsycholochildren and adoleder Schroppschen172 p.

Schottmayer, Georg.erlebens in Kindheit und

gy of film experience inscents_f Hamburg, VerlagLehrmittelanstalt, 1955,

Research on the films' experience of children andadolescents between 4-18 years old in Hamburg,using Murray's Thematic Apperception Test. Onthe basis of the results, three age-levels of filmexperience are distinguished. (1) With childrenaround 6 years, reactions are mainly emotional.Generally the cinema attracts them only superfi-cially. But this can suddenly change into activeinterest. Seeing too many films may endangertheir emotional development, as the film contentsdo not correspond with their emotional level.However, the child of this age is able to assimilatecertain parts of a film, which can constitute a va-luable experience. (2) With children of around 12years, vital relationships with the outside worldare being built up. Children are now stronglyattracted by the cinema. Lack of opportunity orinterest in other leisure -time activities is often adetermining factor for cinema visits. The childof this age often goes to the cinema to compensatefor his failures and to escape from his conflicts.Obtaining money from perents for the admissionfee is often a problem, and leads to minor delin-

encies. Cinema visits, and the child's desireo discuss with other children what he has seen,

lead frequently to the formation of groups. Theinfluence of the film is becoming marked and isstronger than that of other cultural commodities.

46

Suitable films stimulate the child' s vitality andcontribute to his experience of human relations.However, unsuitable films can be a contributoryfactor in anti-social behaviour. (3) From the ageof puberty a growing interest in the outside worldand the child's desire to assert his own personalityand strength become apparent. An increased de-gree of financial independence contributes to givingcinema visits a more individual character. Cinemaexperience now approaches that of adults. Escapismplays an important role as also does identification.Participation in the life of film characters - whetheror not the adolescent identifies himself with them -is of great importance for his development. Thisoften results in his imitating behaviour and adopt-ing ideas of screen characters. The influence ofthe cinema on sexual development, which is quitestrong, is discussed in detail. The cinema canon the one hand have a cathartic effect; on theother hand, it can be a contributory factor in anti-social, and even criminal, behaviour.

182.Tarroni1 Evelina. I ragazzi non sono maisoli. LChildren are never alonej In:Ragazzi d 'Oggi, Rome, III (3), March 1952,p. 9-12.

A comparison between the "dangers" of cinemaand radio, in which the former is seen to be lessdangerous, since a visit to the cinema requires"a decision and a choice" and because "betweencinema experience and real daily life" there is asort of interlude (determined by the very fact thatafter the cinema show the spectator goes home),which itself permits an initial release of emotionaltension provoked by the film, whereas the ado-lescent is more vulnerable to the permanent in-fluence of the radio.

183.Tarroni, Evelina. Personaggio ed attore neifilm per ragazzi. Character and actor infilms for childrend In: Ragazzi d'Oggi,Rome, IV (4), April 1953, p. 17-19.

Observations of the reactions of the young spec-tator to film characters. The child up to the ageof 8 identified himself with this character (forexample, the animals of Walt Disney). Above theage of 8, the important film character for youngspectators is the strongest hero, and at this stagethey are not concerned with the qualities or defectsof the text, but with the qualities or defects of thecharacter. There are good characters and badcharacters, those who are our "friends" and thosewho are not. Then, little by little, through thecharacter he is portraying, the actor reveals hisown physical characteristics and attitudes. Atlast, with adolescence, comes film-star worshipwith all its problems and dangers.

S

184 .Wagner-Simon, Th. Psychologisches zum(Psychology of the entertainment

filmj In: Schweizer Rundschau, Zurich,1948, p. 785-790.

Examples set by the cinema are extremely conta-gious, but imitation is mainly concerned with theoutward appearance of the film-stars who areadmired and idealized. Entertainment films gene-rally lack realism; they present an inaccuratepicture of life an.d establish false values. For thisreason there is the danger that they may alienateman from himself, cause him to lose his sense ofresponsibility and point him towards an artificialideal rather than encouraging him to affirm hisown personality.

185 . Wallon, Henri. L'interet de 1' enfant pourles evenements et pour les personnages dufilm. LThe interest shown by the child inevents and persons in the filmj In: Revueinternationale de filmologie, Paris, V (17),April-June 1954.

A report of a lecture given at the Institut de filmo-logie in Paris. The spectator of a film (includingthe child) is mainly interested: (1) either in amere succession of a series of events or in thedevelopment of the action from one event to theother; (2) in the actors (their actions, theiraccomplishments, etc.). The child's interest cannaturally b aroused by a mixture of both.

186 .W5lker, Herbert. Das Problem der Film-wirkun . Eine ex erimental s cholo acheUntersuchung. A study in experimentalpsychology on the influence of the cinema]Bonn, H. Bouvier, 1955, 150 p. ("Abhand-lungen zur Philosophie, Psychologie undPidagogilt", series 6).

A comparative study of the reactions of 120 youngpeople to filmstrips and shorts. A series of experi-ments carried out with the aid of four filmstripsfrom Murray' s Thematic Apperception Test and fourshorts with the same content shows that the shortsprovoke stronger, deeper, more pronounced andmore violent reactions than the filmstrips. Thefilms, of mediocre content and produced by themost typical processes (travellings, changes offocus and so on), must consequently owe theirappeal for the most part to the specific nature offilm language. The film lends itself much morereadily than the filmstrip to the process of identi-fication. Detailed research in this connexionwould supply interesting answers to certain ques-tions: does the cinema stimulate or weaken theimagination? Is the lure of the cinema due to thefact that the spectator looks to it for the fulfilmentof his dreams or for mastery over his fears?Does the cinema encourage delinquency or exposethe child at a formative period to over-violent stimuli?

187.Zieris, Franz. Zur Identifikation bei Filmund Fernsehen. identification in the cinemaand on television. In Jugend, Film, Fern-sehen, Munich, 2 (3), 1958, p. 21-36.

Identification is a very common psychological pheno-menon. Inthe cinema it is encouraged bythe techni-cal processes of photography (travellings, changesof viewpoint, etc.)as well as by the darkness of theauditorium and the concentration of attention onthescreen. In addition to identification inthe forms ofconsolation, sympathy and jealousy studied byMusatti (cf. notice no. 176), distinction should alsobe made between a dynamic, affirmative identifica-tion and a defensive identification. Finally, televisedpresentations do not produce exactlythe same effectsas those of the cinema .

See also: nos. 13, 20, 56, 80, 125, 132, 203, 213,215, 243, 249, 465, 490, 491.

47

5. INFLUENCES AND AFTER-EFFECTS OF FILMS

(a) THE INFLUENCE OF FILMS ON GENERALKNOWLEDGE, IDEAS AND ATTITUDES

188 . Bruner , Jerome, S. and Fowler, George. TheStrategy of Terror; Audience Response to"Blitzkrieg im Westen". In: Journal of Ab-normal and Social Psychology, Boston, 36,October 1941.

A study of the reactions of a student audience be-tween 19 and 23 years of age to the German pro-paganda film "Blitzkrieg im Westen" screened inthe United States of America before that countrywent to war with Germany. After the screening aquestionnaire was submitted to the 1,300 personspresent, 260 of whom supplied answers. On thebasis of these answers, the spectators were dividedinto four groups: (1) the belligerents who wouldhave liked to go to war against the German; (2) thepassive defeatists; (3) the frightened alarmistsand (4) the indifferent. The propaganda influenceof this film appeared to be different in each of thefour groups. The first were strongly in favour ofUnited States intervention in the war and were theleast receptive to the idea that resistance to theGerman Wehrmacht was futile. The second group(to which a number of pro-Germans belonged) feltthat there was no sense in offering resistance tothe German army. The third group was convinced,during the showing of the film, of German supre-macy but this feeling disappeared afterwards. Thefourth group remained uninfluenced.

189 .Cressey, Paul G. LThe7 Influence of MovingPictures on Students in India. In: AmericanJournal of Sociology, Chicago, XLI (3),November 1935, p. 341-350.

A study of the influence of films of western originon university students in India. A questionnairewas submitted to 233 university students (148 men,85 women) in different parts of India, relating to(1) film preferences, particularly with regard toAmerican and films; (2) the influence offilms on behaviour and opinions. These studentswere found to attend the cinema 1.5 to 3.7 timesa month; this is probably higher than average cine-ma attendance by students in India. The responsesto the questionnaire revealed a preference forfilms giving insight into western living conditions.Students who do not go often to the cinema fre-quently prefer Indian films. With regard to the

48

influence of films on behaviour and opinions, mostof the students declared that it was superficial andthat their fundamental social attitudes remaineduntouched, except for a desire for greater freedomin social relations. This did not lead, however,to revolt against traditional family organization.The effect of American films on their appreciationof America is ambivalent; there is a respect formaterial gain but other aspects of American lifeare considered decadent. The influence of foreignfilms is limited by the great cultural differencesbetween east and west. Female students are lessinfluenced by western films than are male studentsbecause the former are more conservative andattend the cinema less frequently.

190 . Evans , Frederick. War Films and ChildOpinion. In: Discovery Reports, Cambridge,July 1939, p. 345-360.

An account of an examination of the effect onschoolchildren of war reportage films from theFirst World War. A distinct difference was foundbetween the first spontaneous reactions of thechildren and their replies to a questionnaire. Thesereplies were much more in agreement with theterms of anti-war school education. Children arelargely resistant to what adults consider to be warpropaganda.

191 .Feo, G. de. Les impressions des jeunes surles films de guerre. (The reactions of youngpeople to war films_j In: Revue Internationaledu cinema educateur, Rome, V (1-4), January,February, March and April 1933, p. 39-52;135-143; 217-224; 315-319.

An inquiry into the reaction of young people to warfilms in Belgium. Of the 4,846 answers received,4,441 were from French-speaking pupils (2,764boys and 1,677 girls), and 405 were from Flemish-speaking pupils (349 boys and 56 girls).

The following reactions to war films wereobserved:

1. Patriotic or belligerentFrench Flemish

feelings 1,501 1432. Pacifist feelings 1,436 1123. Vague answers 4274. Critical comments 641 1135 . Political comments 94 116. Appreciation of educa-

tional value 341 6

Since different opinions were expressed by child-ren in the same school, it was concluded that thechildren' s opinions were not formed by theirteachers alone but reflected the opinions heard athome or in their social surroundings.

192. Forman, HenryJ. Our Movie-made Children,New York, MacMillan, 1933, 288 p.

A popular summary of findings of the Payne Fundstudies (see under Charters, Motion Pictures andYouth: A Summary Item no. 2), which stressesthe main points of interest to the layman.

193 . League of Nations Advisory Committee onSocial Questions. The Recreational Cinemaand the Young. Geneva, League of Nations,1938, 34 p.

The development of cinematography has been sorapid that its cultural and social influence cannoteasily be assessed. The Committee's opinion isthat children are more influenced than adults byfilm. Young people must therefore be protectedagainst the harmful influence of the cinema.Among the worst consequences of cinema visitsare bad dreams, but the bad influence of a film isoften compensated for in play. Noticeable dif-ferences regarding preferences between youngerand older children, and between boys and girls,become evident.

Two methods of protecting young people againstthe influence of unsuitable films are mentioned:(1) the positive method, i.e. the screening of filmsto develop good taste; and (2) the negative method,i.e. censorship and limitation of cinema attend-ances by classification according to age-groups.In several countries attempts have been made togive the cinema a more positive value for relaxa-tion and education by the arrangement of specialperformances. Film clubs and similar groups canbe of use and the press can also contribute to theformation of better judgement of filins.

194 .Peterson, Ruth C. , and Thurstone, Louis L.irhe/ Effect of a Motion Picture Film onChildren's Attitudes Towards Germans. In:Journal of Educational Psychology, Baltimore,Maryland, 23 (4), April 1932, p. 241-246.

The motion picture "Four Sons" was responsiblefor a measurable change in the attitude of highschool students in Genoa, Illinois, towards theGermans.

195 .Peterson, Ruth C. and Thurstone, Louis L.Motion Pictures and the Social Attitudes ofChildren. New York, MacMillan, 1933, 75 p.(Payne Fund Studies).

Investigates the influence of 13 films on some4,000 secondary schoolchildren, in order to studytheir attitudes concerning the following eight social

issues: the Germans (the investigation took placein 1933), war, crime, prohibition, the Chinese,punishment of criminals, capital punishment, andthe Negroes. The films dealing with these subjectswere selected from 600 contemporary films to en-sure that the child had neither seen them nor readcriticisms of them. The films had to be morallysound. Before the screening of a particular filmthe children answered a carefully-prepared ques-tionnaire containing 30 questions on the issueconcerned. They were questioned again the dayafter the screening and all results were statisti-cally tabulated. It can thus be assumed thatextraneous influences were practically eliminatedand that changes in attitude are directly attributableto the film. The strongest influence was recordedafter the showing to 182 children of the film "Sonof the Gods" (the Chinese), which provoked achange in attitude in favour of the Chinese. "Birthof a Nation" (the Negroes) shown to 434 childrenhad the opposite effect; "All Quiet on the WesternFront" (war) shown to 214 pupils strengthenedanti-war feelings. "The Criminal Code" (punish-ment of criminals) shown to two groups of 246 and276 pupils resulted in a change of attitude againstthe prevailing system of punishment, but the show-ing of two other films on the same subject ("BigHouse", attendance 138, and "Numbered Men",attendance 168) resulted in no significant changes.However, when both films were shown to the samegroup, positive influence was recorded which in-creased when this group saw "The Criminal Code"as a third film, thus establishing cumulative effect.By testing certain pupils again after 2 1/2, 5, 8and 19 months, the authors found lasting changesin attitude.

196.Raths, L.E. and Trager, F. Public opinionand "Crossfire". In: Journal of EducationalSociology, New York, (21), 1948, p. 345-368.

The theme of the film "Crossfire" is racial andreligious prejudice. This study of its effect onattitudes was conducted in two parts: (1) A highschool population in an Ohio city filled out a ques-tionnaire before and after seeing the picture.Interview data supplemented the questionnaire.Results indicated a slight change in attitudes in afavourable direction. (2) Adult reactions werelearned from a different questionnaire filled outin the lobby of theatres in Boston and Denver, ortaken home and returned by mail. The generalconclusion is that "Crossfire" does not changeanybody's basic attitudes; but it does initiate alearning process.

197. Rosen, I.C. The Effect of the Motion Picture"Gentleman's Agreement on Attitudes TowardsJews. In: Journal of Social Psychology,Provincetown, Mass., XXVI, 1948, p. 523-536.

Shows changes in attitude towards the Jews, afterthe screening of "Gentleman's Agreement" before

49

a number of University students. After carefulselection (all those who had read the book on whichthe film was based, those who had already seenthe film, and all Jewish students were eliminated),two groups were chosen, an "experimental" and a"control" group; both groups being tested by the"Levinson-Sanford Questionnaire on Anti-semi-tism" . After the screening of the film, the "ex-perimental group" was asked to reply to fivequestions, some in the form of an essay. Of the50 members of the " experimental group" , 72 percent showed a favourable change in attitude to-wards Jews, 26 per cent became more prejudicedand 2 per cent remained unchanged. The "controlgroup" was tested and was given other questionsfrom the same questionnaire. Of the 90 memberstested, 47 per cent had a more favourable attitudethan before, 52 per cent a less favourable one,and 1 per cent showed no change.

198 .Shuttleworth, F.K. and May, Mark A. TheSocial Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans.New York, MacMillan, 1933, 142 p. (PayneFund Studies).

The first part concerns the relationship betweencinema attendance and the character and socialbehaviour of young people. The test groups werecomposed of an equal number of "movie" and "non-movie" children, i.e. children who attended thecinema 4 or 5 times a week and children who wentonly twice a month. The results were based oninformation obtained from the children and theirteachers. It was found that "movie" childrenbehaved less satisfactorily in general - were lessco-operative, had less self-control and emotionalstability, poorer judgement, poorer school per-formance - than the "non-movie" children. Theywere, however, more often cited by their class-mates as "best friends" and were more apt toadmire others. No differences in honesty, per-severance, obedience and moral consciousnesswere observed between the two groups.

In the second part of the investigation the opi-nion of 416 "movie" and 443 "non-movie" childrenon a variety of matters were compared. Moviechildren were found to have more admiration forcowboys, popular actors, ballet girls, than "non-movie" children; they believe more readily thatalcoholism exists, attach more importance toclothes, object more to parental control, go moreoften to dance parties, and read inore, but whatthey read is not of good quality. The "non-movie"children showed a greater interest in students andteachers as film characters than did the 'movie"children. However, these differences cannot beattributed solely to the cinema.

199 .Thurston, Louis L. Influence of MotionPictures on Children's Attitudes. In: Journalof Social Psychology, Provincetown, MassII (3), August 1931, p. 291-305.

50

This is one of a series of studies attempting tomeasure the effect of motion pictures on the atti-tudes of schoolchildren. It reports the results ofexperiments with two films: "Street of Chance",describing the life of a gambler, and "Hide-out",a film involving bootlegging. Before and afterseeing each film the children filled out schedulesintended to reveal their attitudes on the issues in-volved. In the case of the former film a markedeffect upon the children's attitude toward gamblingwas demonstrated. (Summaries in French andGerman.)

200. Thurstone, Louis L. The Measurement ofChange in Social Attitude. In: Journal ofSocial Psychology, Provincetown, Mass. ,May 1931, p. 230-235.

Schoolchildren in two Illinois towns, who had pre-viously filled in an attitude questionnaire aboutthe Chinese, were exposed to two different films,one friendly in its interpretation of Chinese culture,the other critical and unfriendly. The results ofthe tests showed that the attitudes of the childrenwere reversed after seeing the films.

See also: nos. 15,121, 125,469, 473,

22, 24, 31, 51,213, 233, 240,475, 478, 483,

56,241,487,

66, 73,306, 387,

489.95, 103,455, 468,

(b) THE INFLUENCE OF FILMS ONEMOTIONAL LIFE AND BEHAVIOUR

201.Altavilla, Enrico. Film di gangster e riflessipsicologici sui fanciulli. [Gangster films andtheir psychological effects on childrenj In:Bianco e Nero, Rome, X, October 1949,p. 45-49.

Gangster films are the cause of dangerous psycho-logical complexes, not so much because theyencourage the crimes they portray (which seldomhappens), as because they give rise to moral dis-turbances which may lie at the heart of numerousoffences. Mythomania, in particular, may inducein the child a conflict between two sets of ethicalvalues, those of the gangster hero and those of thefamily. The former, through its intensity, mayprevail over the latter.

202.Association nationale du cinema pour l'enfanceet la jeunesse (A.N.C.E.J.) (NationalAssociationof Cinema for Children and Young People)Le cinema et les enfants. LThe cinema andchildren) Paris, Association nationale ducinema pour l'enfance et la jeunesse, 1950, 48p.

The Association nationale du cinema pour 1' en-fance et la jeunesse attempts in this booklet to

show the influence of cinematographic images onchildren. Violence, eroticism, death and "theeasy life" contribute to the creation in children ofa false conception of the world; this is confirmedby competent authorities . In conclusion theA .N.C.E.J. proposes the creation of film clubs("Ecran des Jeunes" ), and gives a list of filmsselected by its Commission osychonfdagogioue in1950.

203 . Bellingroth, Friedhelm. Triebwirkung desFilms auf Jugendliche: EinfiThrung in dieanalytische Filmpsychologie auf Grundex rimenteller Anal sen kollektiver Trieb-prozesse im Filmerleben. Influence of thecinema on the instinctual life of young people:an introduction to the analytical psychology ofthe cinema on the basis of the experimentalanalysis of collective group reactions to films/Bern-Stuttgart, Verlag Hans Huber, 1958,p. 154.

The record of an experiment carried out with theaid of the Szondi test on several groups of approxi-mately 110 boys, most of them pupils in middleor vocational schools, comprising a total of 1,105subjects. Each group attended the showing of afilm, but before and after the projection, sixseries of eight photographs from the Szondi testwere shown on the screen, the members of thegroup being asked to state, on a special form,which of the characters in each series they con-sidered to be the most sympathetic and the leastsympathetic . The author's evaluation of the diag-nostic value of the Szondi test is based on practicalresults verified by long experience, rather than ontheoretical considerations. The ten films used inthe inquiry were selected as being likely to pro-voke instinctive reactions. The record of experi-ments carried out with two of these ten films:"Dein Leben in meiner Hand" (an American crimefilm whose original title is not given) and "Himmelfiber den Sampfen" (U cielo sully palude: a film onthe life of Maria Goretti) is particularly detailed.The first part of the study relates in detail the re-sults of the inquiry from the point of view not ofindividual reactions on the part of the subjects, butof changes induced by the film in the "instinct pro-file" (Triebprofil) of each group.

The data thus obtained make it possible toestablish "instinctive-psychological evaluations"for the ten films examined. Thus the influence ofthe film "Dein Leben iii meiner Hand" on the in-stinctive life of young people between the ages of14 and 17 years is analysed as inducing catharticemotions, and even a certain tendency towards thesublimation of instincts. The showing of the film"Himmel fiber den Stlmpfen" would appear to in-duce in young spectators between the ages of 14and 18 a violent conflict between the awakening ofsexual instincts and the mobilization of theirdefense mechanisms. The aggressive elements ofthe film provoked increasing distress among

numerous spectators. The second section outlinesa theory, based on this research, of the influenceof the film on the unconscious, together with anumber of pedagogical conclusions. (Bibliography)

204.Billstram, J. Mental Hygiene and FilmControl. In: Svenska Likartidningen,Stockholm, (33), 1936, p. 950-955.

People who are "intoxicated" by the cinema aregenerally by nature unstable and unbalanced, fre-quently socially maladjusted, feeling themselvesmore at ease in dreams than in reality. Neuras-thenics, on the contrary, are not particularlyinterested in the cinema, and sufferers from mildmental disorders have difficulty in fixing their at-tention on the film. The influence of the cinemaon neurasthenics is negligible; it in no way aggra-vates their condition.

205.Blumer, Herbert. Movies and Conduct, NewYork, MacMillan, 1933, 257 p. (Payne FundStudies).

Professor Blumer Is aim is "to ascertain the kindsof influence wielded by motion pictures on conductin so far as these can be determined from personalaccounts". His method is to present the evidencerather than to evaluate it, and his commentary onit is mainly elucidatory. The material he uses isextracted from "motion picture autobiographies"obtained from 1,823 young Americans of varyingrace, colour, and religion. Of these "autobio-graphies", 634 were obtained from universitystudents, 431 from college and junior college stu-dents, 583 from high school children, 67 fromoffice workers, and 58 from factory workers.Statements were given anonymouSly.

The numerous examples voted of film influenceon children's play indicate a very wide variety inthe forms which it takes; that such influence isvery generally felt is shown by the fact that, outof 200 boys under twelve, 75 per cent admittedplaying at impersonation of film stories and, outof 70 boys aged 12 to 14 years, 60 per cent madea similar admission. Re-enactment of love sceneswas common among girls, even those of 12 or 13years, whereas boys tended to prefer scenes offighting and police arrests, cowboy and Red Indiansituations, shootings, escapes, etc.

One of the most obvious influences, particu-larly in girls, is in the field of dress, hair style,and personal mannerisms. The extent to whichadolescents are prone to indulge in day-dreamingis shown by Professor Blurner's finding that, outof 458 autobiographies in relation to film-going,obtained from high school students, 66 per cent ona conservative estimate acknowledged this experi-ence as a result of seeing films . Ina total of 1, 200papers from Chicago children of elementary schoolage, more than 50 per cent of the children claimed tohave had their daydreams influenced by what theysaw in the cinema.

51

Other sections of the book deal with the subjectof fear and terror inspired by films. Out of 237younger schoolchildren accustomed to film-goingwho were questioned on the point, 93 per cent saidthat they had experienced fright while watchingfilms. Among the 458 high school students, 61 percent referred to similar experiences. Yet it isclear that a large number of children enjoy fright-ening pictures: for example, out of a class of 44young schoolchildren, 38 admitted to having beenfrightened by films, yet 31 out of 38 claimed thatthey liked these very films.

206 .Boyer, Robert (Mrs .) . Children in the Cinema.Newport, England, R.H. John Ltd. , 1950,p. 38.

Considerations of the dangers of bad films and theadvantages of good films for the child.

207.Brini, A. and Redslob, E. Les m6faits de lasymphonic pastorale. ZHarniful effects of thefilm "La Symphonie pastorale 'Y In: Annalesd'occulistique, Paris, (106), 1947, p. 104-106.

The clinical case-history of a girl of 14 afflictedwith hysterical blindness after seeing the film "LaSymphonic pastorale".

208.Brudny, Wolfgang.. Der Sensationskulturfilm -eine Warnung. LThe dangers of sensationalfilmed In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, V (9),December 1955, p. 18-19 and 39-40.

The author, after observing symptoms of trauma -tiams in various children, inquires whether filmsin which human beings are attacked by wild animalsare not more harmful for children than those inwhich men themselves resort to acts of violence.With the aid of examples taken from different films,he shows that scenes portraying attacks of thistype, especially if they contain a large number ofclose-ups, terrify children and subject them toexcessive nervous tension.

209.Bruel, Oluf. Psychic Trauma through theCinema - an Illustrative Case. In: Inter-national Journal of Sexology, Bombay, VII(2),November 1953, p. 61-63.

The content of a phobia of a 15-year-old girl wasidentified as "fear of entering a certain locality, awatchmaker's shop, where a short while ago shehad left her father' s watch to be mended". Using"free-association" and dream analysis, the thera-pist found that the experience of seeing the film"The Hunchback of Notre Dame" had been traumaticand had led to the phobia which, upon deeper inves-tigation, was found to be characterized by avoid-ance of the ugly, of the physically defective,Quaaimodo. The hypothesis proposed was thatseeing the film had awakened masochistic tendencies

52

which were condemned by th .1per-ego, then in-stantaneously submitted to se 'ondary in..ibitions.The film had aroused, and therefore strengthened,these inhibited tendencies to such a degree thatthey later became manifest in the describedneurosis, despite further attempts at inhibition.

210.Buhr, Wolfgang. Der Gegenwartsfilm alspsychologIsh-padagogisch Phanomen. /con-temporary cinema - a psychological and peda-gogical phenomenon:7 In: Film-Bild-Ton,Munich, VI (2), May 1956, p. 19-22 and44-47.

On the basis of a det -led study of the action of thecinema on the mental life of the individual, parti-cularly of its influence on criminality and neuroses,the author defines the conditions which should befulfilled by films for young people.

211. Centro ftaliano Femminile. Inchiesta sullacinematografia per ragazzi. LAn inquiry intocinema for children) Rome, 1952.

An inquiry carried out by means of questionnairesamong well-known artists, scientists, intellectualsand educationists, in connexion with sociology(psycho-criminology), legislation, production (fi-nance, renting), etc . The following questions wereasked: (1) What, in your experience, is the in-fluence of the cinema on children? (2) What isyour opinion of measures taken in other countriesto remedy the harmful influence of the cinema onchildren? (3) What is your opinion of the bill pre-sented to the Italian Parliament? (4) What mea-sures may be taken in favour of cinema for children?Do you consider it possible to set aside a specialpart of cinema production for children and to opencinemas showing children's films only?

Approximately 75 per cent of those questionedfavoured prohibition of entry to cinemas, under theprovisions of the Law on minors of 14, 16 and 18years of age. Some doctors considered that child-ren under 6 should be excluded from cinemas, inview of their physical frailty. Fifteen per centopposed prohibition in any form, as tending ulti-mately to have a contradictory result.

The majority of those questioned considered itnecessary to draw the attention not only of thegovernment but above all of doctors, educators andproducers to these problems.

An annex includes the texts of bills laid beforeParliament, in chronological order.

212 .Civardi, Luigi. Cinema e morale. LCinemaand moral. Rome, Ed. Ave, 1946, 222 p.

An analysis of the extraordinary psychological andmoral power of the cinema and its influence onsocial life. The cinema should not only be a healthyentertainment, but should also contribute to themoral elevation of the people. The chapters on"the cinema and young people" and ''the cinemato-graphic conscience" analyse the child's sensitivity

and weak critical capacity, legislative measuresand the question of films for children, the dutiesand responsibilities of parents and the training ofa film conscience.

213 .Decaigny, T. Influence du cinema sur l' en-fant et l' adolescent. LInfluence of the cinemaon children and adolescents/ In: CahiersJeunesse, Education Populaire, BibliothequesPubliques, Brussels, (1), February 1957.

Resume and analysis of important research under-taken since 1929 on the influence of the cinema onchildren and adolescents. There is a growingtendency in favour of the belief that no two childrenare influenced by films in the same way or to thesame extent; and that in general the cinema tendsto reinforce existing behaviour and attitude pat-terns. Furthermore the cinema is not the onlyleisure-time activity of children, and modernleisure-time activities are not the sole cause ofjuvenile delinquency. A film may sometimessuggest a delinquent act to a pre-delinquent child,but it is never the primary cause of the delinquency.

The emotional effect of the film depends onthree factors: (1) the intensity with which the in-dividual feels himself involved in the situationpresented; (2) his capacity for reaction and criti-cism; (3) the degree of confidence that he has inthe world and people around him. There is oneaspect of the cinema which is not sufficiently com-bated and condemned - the role it plays in spread-ing among young people a distorted conception oflife. Sixteen bibliographical references.

214 .Dysinger , Wendell S. and Ruckmick, C.A.The Emotional Responses of Children to theMotion Picture Situation. In: Peters, CharlesC. , Motion Pictures and Standards of Morality.New York, MacMillan, 1933, 122 p.

Certain psychological reactions accompanied bychanges in blood circulation, respiration and otherphysiological functions are examined. Respirationbecomes shallow with concentration and may evenstop- Modifications in emotion or attention can bemeasured by means of a galvanometer and a pneu-mocardiograph. Dysinger and Ruckmick havemade use of these instruments to investigate thereactions of given film scenes; 89 test personswere studied in their laboratory and 61 in thecinema. The test persons were divided into dif-ferent age groups, 6-12 years, 13-18 years, and19 years and over. Data obtained were in somecases completed by verbal information given by thetest persons. One hundred and eighty-seven scenesshowing "dangerous" situations, a conflict or atragic event and 35 scenes with erotic content wereselected and presented to the test persons. Thefirst type of film sequence (danger, conflict, tra-gedy) had the greatest effect on the group of 6-12years; the curve fell rapidly with the group of13-18 years, and was weakest with adolescents

over 19 years. Adolescents show little similarityto the first group, because older children are al-ready conscious of the fictions nature of the scenes.The youngest group is least influenced by romanticand erotic scenes; the greatest influence is shownfor the group of the 13-18 year-olds.

215.Emery, Frederick E. , and Martin, David.Psychological Effects of the "Western" Film:A Study in Television Viewing. Melbourne,University of Melbourne, Department ofAudio-Visual Aids, 1957, 47 p. (Studies inMass Communication.)

The report of an inquiry into psychological changesinduced in 43 boys between 10 an,' 13 years of ageby the television presentation of a Western ("TheLone Hand"). Research was based on the hypothesisthat the film does not systematically intensify ororientate aggressiveness (contrary to the argumentof other research workers that films of this typenecessarily provoke a weakening in the manifesta-tion of aggressive tendencies). This hypothesisis outlined in detail from a theoretical point ofview in the first part of the report, which alsostudies the situation of the televiewer. The secondpart examines some of the characteristics of theWestern, in particular the interaction between themain characters, the personality of the hero andhis relation to his community (outsider-insider),and the latent content of the Western. The experi-mental study, carried out with the aid of Rosenweiesfrustration test and the Thematic Apperception test,gave the following results: (1) the psychologicalsignificance of Western films is due primarily toits latent theme (of "good v. bad" type) and not tothe manifest themes; (2) pre-adolescent boys willbe attracted by the "good v. bad" pattern; (3) theviewer defends himself from the frightening effectsof a film by certain selective processes (of identi-fication and interpretation); (4) the film may causecertain temporary modifications of the way inwhich an individual sees himself in relation to hissocial environment; (5) these modifications, how-ever, do not appear to involve systematic changesin "aggressive drives"; (6) the individual will tendto adopt the posture or pose of the hero in accord-ance with changes in his self-perceptions.

The authors acknowledge that these conclusionscannot be regarded as firmly established, butconsider that they may be adopted as workinghypotheses for further studies.

216 .Frontall, Gino. Ii pediatra e iiroblemi dellacinematografia per la gioventa Pediatrics andthe problems of cinema for young peoplejIn: La Difesa del Ragazzo, Rome, XXV(3-4),May-August 1956, p. 115-118.

A paper presented at the First Congress of theInternational Centre of Films for Children. Ananalysis of the influence of the cinema on thephysical and mental health of children: hygienic

53

conditions required in cinemas; problems of edu-cation and mental health; films for children;cinema in schools and in children's hospitals;child-actors in films.

217 .Gaddini, Renata. Cinematografia e ragazzi -considerazioni di igiene mentale (Cinema andchildren - considerations of mental hygiene/In: La Difesa del Ragazzo, Rome, ma (3-4),May-August 1956, p. 135-146.

A paper presented at the First Congress of theInternational Centre of Films for Children, con-cluding that the harmful nature of the cinema can-not be generalized, since each child will overcomeit according to his own way of coming to termswith life. The adult's preoccupation should be toteach the child to solve the problem by overcomingits terrors and assaults.

218 .Galletto, Albino. Cinema e ragazzi (Cinemaand childrend In: Rivista del Cinematografo,Rome, XXIV (8), 1951, p. 4-7.

An analysis of certain types of film now beingproduced which encourage erotic tendencies inchildren, and which, the author says, are com-pletely lacking in spiritual qualities. The evidenceof children themselves on this point is noted; asare also the opinions of educators as to what con-stitutes a film suitable for children.

219 .Galliard, Olpho. La place du cinema dans lavie sociale (The place of the cinema in sociallife j In: Le musee social, Paris, VIII (9),September 1931, p. 297-324, (new series).

A study of the social and economic position of thecinema in different countries; notably France.Factors explaining the great economic extensionof the cinema are discussed. The harmful influenceof films in general is considered, and special at-tention is given to the dangers of immoral filmsfor children. Several instances of events infilmsas examples for juvenile delinquency are cited.

220 .Garcia Yalee, Juan. Influencia del cine en la'uventud (Influence of the cinema on youth]In: Rumbos, Santiago de Chile, August 1956,p. 257-265.

This study is limited to a few of the psycho-socialeffects of the cinema on children above the age of 7.

221.Giraud, Jean. Erreurs ou carences educativeset activites de loisir: cinema /7:K.mutational errors or deficiencies in leisure activities: thecinema.z7In: La sauvegarde de l'enfance, Paris,(11), January-February 1956, p.84-105. (Spe-cial number devoted to the campaign againsteducational errors and deficiencies: the parti-cipation of families, and public information":report of a Congress onthe same subject.)

54

The causes of maladjustment in young inmates ofreformatories must above all be sought in theiroriginal environment, particularly that of the family.The attitude of the family to the cinema may havea strong influence on that which will later beadopted by young people. For some of the latter,the cinema provides an escape from their environ-ment, but a number of cinemas, by their publicitymethods, locality, internal arrangements, clien-tele and programmes, constitute a real danger.Some maladjusted children lack the intellectualdevelopment necessary to understand a film and toassess its moral values still more, to recognizethe cinematographic experience as a diversionwhich has no immediate impact on real life.Violent emotional experience induced by a filmmay entail emotional disorders. In order to re-educate maladjusted children, in their new environ-ment, it is necessary to "de-intoxicate" them andto cause them to adopt a more positive attitude tothe cinema. They must learn that leisure may beutilized in other ways, some of them better ways.Finally, the author studies the various stages inthe intellectual growth of young people, in closerelation to the cinema.

222.Glastra van Loon, F.H. Speelt de film bijhet onstaan of in het verloop van psychischestoornissen van het kind een rol?" Does thefilm play a part in the genesis or progressof psychic disturbances of children?_/ In:Maandblad voor de geestelijke volksgesonheid,Amsterdam, 10 (2), February 1955, p. 62-72.

Some 400 psychiatrists and 200 pediatricians wereasked whether, within as well as outside their con-sultation rooms, they had noticed the appearanceof mental or physical disturbance symptoms in 8to 18 year-olds, as a direct consequence of visitsto the cinema. They were also asked to give theiropinions regarding a possible relationship betweenneurotic and psychotic deviations and visits to thecinema. A total of 87 replies to the written inquirywere received. The main conclusions were asfollows: (1) Most psychiatrists and pediatriciansdo not feel that the film is responsible for neurosisor psychosis in young people and have not madeany observations on the harmful influence of filmson young people. (2) In cases where the harmfulinfluence of a film is described, the predispositionto deviate behaviour is also mentioned. As far asit was possible to investigate, the film was themajor harmful influence in only a few cases. (3)The role of the film is mainly provocative, orpathoplastic, but rarely causal. Anxiety syn-dromes were sometimes observed in normal child-ren immediately after a visit to the cinema. (4)Films seem to have had a provocative-suggestive(mimeo-plastic) influence in some criminal beha-viour, but always with very =stable children orthose suffering from glandular disturbances. (5)In other cases films seem to have facilitated adirect release of pent-up emotions. In conscious

or unconscious conflicts as well as in neuroticstates of illness, films appear to have had acathartic-purifying and healing effect.

223 . Heinrich, Karl. Der Einfluss von Spielfilmenauf die soziale Einstellung von Kindern. Unter-suchung aber Zusammenhfinge zwischen Film-besuch und Aggressivitat durchgefiihrt an derHochschule fur internationale padagogischeForschung. LThe influence of feature films onthe social attitude of children. Investigationinto the relationship between visits to thecinema and aggressivity, carried out at theInstitute for International Educational Re -searchj In: Hochschule fur intern. padago-gische Forschung, Mitteilungen und Nach-richten, Frankfurt, (16), December 1957,p. 2-20 (stencilled).

An interim account of an investigation into therelationship between aggressiveness and cinemaattendances. A special test for aggressiveness(the tendency to destructive action) was used on anumber of 13-16 year-old pupils, who saw severalfilms with contents ranging from "very peaceful"to "very violent". A similar test was made usingphotographs from films. Preliminary researchinto the effects of seven films showed that it waspossible to detect a significant change in aggres-siveness.

224 .Heinrich, Karl. Traumfabrik und Jugend-traume. Eine filmpsychologische StudieLDream factors and juvenile dreams. Apsychological study of the film,.] In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, (6), 1953, p. 221-227;(7), 1953, p. 258-264.

A study of the influence of the cinema on the fan-tasy life and moral values of a group of 363 stu-dents (191 boys and 172 girls) aged 10 to 17. Theyoung people were asked to write a composition ona theme inspired by one of three posters whichthey were shown - one publicizing a film about thejungle, another a western film, and the third aromantic film. Fifty-two per cent of the studentsselected the film about the jungle as the subject oftheir composition, 23 per cent the western, and25 per cent (nearly all girls) the romantic film.Those who wrote about the jungle film stressed thejustice, helpfulness and goodness of heart of thecharacters. Physical force, skill and gallantrywere idealized and dominated the young people'sfantasies. The group which wrote about thewestern made no moral evaluation of the bandit'sactions, and seemed indifferent to the sorrow andmisery which he caused others. The large majo-rity of the third group interpreted the poster asrelating to a love film, and showed precociousnessand exaggerated romantic ideas about sex.

225 .Heisler, Florence. A Comparison betweenthose Elementary Schoolchildren wbo attendMoving Pictures, read Comic Books and listento Serial Radio Programmes to excess, withthose who indulge in these Activities seldomor not at all. In: Journal of Educational Re-search, ME dison, Wisconsin, (42), 1948,p. 182-190.

Pupils in grades 2 to 8 were studied, and the 10 percent who indulged most in the activities mentionedin the title were compared with the 10 per centwho 'Adulged least. No significant differenceswere found between the two groups in school achieve-ment, as measured by the Stanford test, or inpersonality adjustment, as measured by theCalifornia Test of Personality.

226.Henshaw, S., Miller, V.L., and Marquis,Donald. Children's Sleep. New York,MacMillan, 1933, n.p. (Payne Fund Studies).

Normal movement during sleep of a randomsample of 163 children between 6 and 19 years wascompared with movement after a visit to the cine-ma. The visit took place between 6.30 and 8.30p.m. and the children went to bed at 9 p.m. Theresults were as follows: (1) increase in movementafter a visit to the cinema varied with the test per-sons between 0 and 90 per cent. Fatigue expresseditself sometimes through reduced movement; (2)Visits to the cinema resulted in an even greaterdisturbance of the sleeping patterns than stayingup until midnight. The influence of some films onmovement was similar to drinking two cups ofcoffee in the evening. The influence of film per-sisted also beyond the night which had been precededby a visit to the cinema, and depended on age, sexand mental level of the child. (3) Some films dis-turb sleep more than others, and some children aremore affected by certain films than are other child-ren. Normal movement during sleep of childrenunder 10 years of age is generally less disturbedthan that of older children. It is concluded thatunwisely chosen films and excessive attendancehave a deleterious influence on the health and growthof children.

227.Heuyer, Georges and Lebovici, S. Troublesdu caractere et cinema. /Character distur-bances and the cinemaj In: Psyche, Revueinternationale des sciences de l'homme et depsychanalyse, Paris, (11), 1947, p. 1,106.

A study of the relationship between emotionaldisturbances of children and the films which theysee. Films are not generally the original causeof emotion disturbances, though they may provokethem.

55

228.Heuyer, G., Lebovici, S. and Bertagna, L.Sur Quelques reactions d' enfants inadaptes./Some reactions of maladjusted children] In:Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris,III (9) , January-March 1952, p. 71-79.

An investigation of the reactions of 22 childpatients (between 7 and 17 years) of a psychiatricclinic to a number of comic films, cartoons, ad-venture, gangster, and animal films. The child-ren were observed during screening and afterwardsquestioned. The main results of this investigationwere as follow: (1) only chill '-en of a higher men-tal age than 12 years were capable of generalunderstanding of the film shown, whereas (2) thoseof a mental age of 10-12 years were only able to"string together" odd scenes; (3) the film leavesonly unconnected impressions in children below amental age of 9; (4) only the elementary comicelement is accessible to children below the mentalage of 12 years; and (5) even older children appre-ciate only moderately the comic element in Chaplinfilms; (6) commercial cartoons are barely under-stood by children below the mental age of 12 years .

229. Hills, Janet. Are they .safe at the Cinema?London, The British Film Institute, n.d.,24 p.

Can violence, fright and sensation be accepted infilms to be seen by children and adolescents? Theanswer is not a categorical one as fright and vio-lence are essential elements in human experience.Violence for the sake of sensation is repudiated,as is also the tendency to falsify life's most im-portant values by emphasizing wealth, luxury,glamour, cheap success, etc . No irrefutable cor-relation exists between crime shown in films andjuvenile delinquency, although these films maylower standards. Censorship (British Board ofFilm Censors) is hampered by negativi. criteriaand by unsatisfactory age limits.

Too many visits to the cinema by childrencreate another problem: the child ought to seefilms adjusted to his understanding and his worldof experience. Productions by Children's Enter-tainment Films (Rank), followed in 1950 by thoseof the Children's Film Foundation are still rela-tively small in numbers, so that less suitablematerial must be used. A plea is made for thecreation of local committees of interested parentsand teachers, the institution of a special "C" clas-sification for children's films (since created), andthe spread of film education.

230 .Hoffmann, Hermann. Das Problem derReizaberilutun Bericht Ober die Ergebnisseeiner Testvorfahrun des Films "Die Feuer-Aprinira:rvon Montana". The problem of exces-sively sensational films. Results of an experi-mental screening of the film "Die Feuer-springer von Mortanag. In: Film, Jugend,Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (9), July 1954, 8 p.

56

A study, carried out with 28 schoolchildren be-tween the ages of 10 and 14, of the psychologicaleffects of the film "Die Feuerspringer von Montana"(the original title is not given). After the showing,the children were submitted to Wartegg's drawingtest, and were instructed to prepare a free compo-sition and a free drawing. An account of the be-haviour of the children during the film, theirassessment of it, their attitudes to its characters,etc . A study of the effects of scenes shot close toflames (the film is in colour) on the children. Sucha film is too sensational for young children (belowthe age of 13), and is too exciting for that age. Itmay well be asked whether such films should beshown to children under 16.

231. Indian Film Inquiry Committee. Report of theFilm Inquiry Committee, 1951. New Delhi,Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,1951, 339 p.

Contains comments on the relation between the filmand the public, effect of the cinema on the massmind, psychological effects of film themes, theproper role of films, film production Toy the govern-ment, and the use of films in education, etc .

Also includes comments on the production offilms specially for children, children in cinemas,and the effect of films on children.

232.Kahnert, M.E . Film und Psychohygiene.LThe cinema and mental healthd- In: GeistigeHygiene, Forschung und Praxis, ed. byPfister- Ammende, Maria, Basel, 1955,p. 179-195.

Children and young people ought not to be admittedto films intended for adults, because these filmsmay have a traumatic effect on them. Films cannotbe held directly responsible for juvenile delinquencybut they may prepare the way for it. The produc-tion of good children's films must be encouraged.In principle, there should be three types of child-ren's films: one for the "fairy tale" period of thevery young, in which surroundings and self merge;one for the "realistic" period of the 8-12 year-oldsin which the desire for adventure dominates; andone for children of 14 years and over who are al-ready seeking their own personalities.

A summary is given of the experience gainedby the Children's Entertainment Films Organiza-tion in the United Kingdom with the production ofchildren's films.

233 .Keilhacker, Martin and Margarete. Kind undFilm. LThe child and the film, Stuttgart,Ernst Klett Verlag, 1955, 55 p. (BedrohteJugend-Drohende Jugend /Threatened youth -Threatening youth series,39).

The following "dangers" of the cinema are dis-cussed: the child is exposed at too .early an age toimpressions which he cannot assimilate; children

are too young to understand the manner of expres-sion of the film (film language); they do not under-stand the meaning of the films which are shown tothem; they are exposed to an excess of stimuliand to the negative example and falseness of thelife which is represented by the film. Film cen-sorship in Germany is then discussed, as well asthe work of the "Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle"(Voluntary self-control) with its stress on the de-velopment of personal responsibility in the child.The chapter on "positive potentialities" discussesthe educational merits of films of value, filmeducation, and the organization of children'sperformances.

The work closes with ten principles, that givea short and practical summary of the above-mentioned points: children and adolescents seeand experience a film in a different way fromadults; young people generally like films for theirvisual clearness, their liveliness and action,rather than for their more abstract explanations.The film affects the spectator mainly throughimage, movement, sound, everyday conversations,and as a result of these forms of expression it iseasily understood. Special techniques of film lan-guage (bridging space and time) still cause childrengreat difficulties and lead to misunderstanding. Agood children' s film appears in a different way toeach age-group. Premature cinema-going harmsthe child, even if a good film is shown, as doesalso too frequent viewing of films, which can leadto nervousness. The film is very real to the childand moral criteria in film evaluation must there-fore be strict. One-sided representations of theworld give a false impression of reality and in-fluence children's values and stanearda.

Parents and teachers must be made to feel res-ponsible for visits to the cinema by children en-trusted to them. Joint visits to the cinema and afilm discussion are absolutely necessary fromtime to time. For ten to fourteen year-olds, thefollowing are especially recommended: animalfilms, films with young actors, good adventurefilms, and comedies adapted to their age. Humanvalues must dominate in film programmes forolder children.

234 .Kubenka , Max. Das Lehrer-Schfiler-Ver-hiltnis Erfahrun sbericht zum Film "derNachtigallenkitfig". LThe teacher-pupilrelationship: a report of experiences concern-ing the film "Der Nachtigallenkifig" (The cageof nightingaleigIn: Film, Jugend, Schule,Gelsenkirchen, 44 (15-16), April 1956, 4 p.

A number of teachers were asked to report ontheir experience with the French film, "La cageaux rossignols", as it gave rise to debates con-cerning its suitability for children. The reportpresents a general view of the teachers' personalopinions (partly negative and partly positive),describes how pre-screening preparation had beengiven in class; records the opinions of pupils

concerning the relations between teachers andchildren as shown in the film story, and thechanged behaviour of the class in the film towardthe teachers; and relates discussions betweenteachers and pupils following the screening of thefilm. As a result, some teachers abandoned theiroriginally negative point of view . Pupils appearedto be capable of correctly understanding the rela-tionship between teacher and pupils as representedby the film. Fears that this film had had an unde-sirable influence on the internal affairs of theschool were not confirmed.

235 .Lanoux, Armand. L 'enfant en prole auximages. nighe child, a prey to images.]Paris, Labergerie, 1950, 104 p.

Three chapters are devoted to the influence offilms which show crime, cruelty, eroticism andsexuality and to examples of attempts in the UnitedStates of America and the Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics to solve the problem of children's films.Several suggestions for tackling this problem inFrance are made.

^36 . Lox, Florimond. L 'enfant inadapte et lecinema. Leihe maladjusted child and theciremaj In: Les cahiers de l'enfance, Paris,(2'!), June-July 1956.

It would be a mistake to make the cinema the scape-goat for all the perversions and errors of children.There can be little doubt that it has a deeper in-fluence on difficult, temperamental or maladjustedchildren. In fact, the intensity and duration ofmental stimuli on children who lack security andaffection are considerably increased.

237 .Ludman, Rene. Cinema, foi et morale.[Cinema, faith and moralsj Paris, LeaEditions du Cerf, 1956, 144 p. ("Rencontres"series, 46).

The first chapter describes the influence of filmon moral behaviour. Attention is given to screen-star worship, commercial eroticism, sadism,masochism, gangster worship, escapism, super-ficiality, standardization in the behaviour of filmactors, etc . Film censorship, moral enlightenmenton film, and film education as means of counter-acting the harmful influences of film are considered.The theme "film and youth" is discussed in anappendix to this chapter.

The second chapter mentions a number of ele-ments in films which undermine religious belief,and deals in detail with the positive values of films,e.g. as a means of evangelization and as art. Thethird chapter discusses several types of film, in-cluding both the anti-religious film and the filmwhich is on a high spiritual level and in favour ofChristianity.

57

238 .Luxenburger , Hans. Psychiatrische undheilria.dagogische Fragen des Films. (Psy-chiatric and mental hygiene problems offilms _t/ In: Keilhacker, StUckrath, Film,Jugendpsychologisch betrachtet, FranzEhrenwirth Verlag, Munich, n.d. , p. 37-47.

In considering the influence of film on young people,a distinction must be made between the films them-selves and the cinema where they are shown. Theexterior of the cinema is attractive, exciting andstimulating to young people, with its lights, colours,photos, and the coming and going of people. Theinside of the cinema shuts off the real world andarouses expectations about the film. Under theintoxicating spell of the cinema, inhibitions andcares fade away.

The influence of films on the mentally-retardedchild, who cannot understand them either emo-tionally or intellectually, is unpredictable andquite likely to be harmful. The same danger ispresent in the case of epileptic children. The filmdoes not have a very great influence on childrensuffering from organic or endogenous disturbances .Its r8le in neurosis is over-estimated by educators .The film tends to reinforce emotional immaturity.Anti-social behaviour may be provoked by films inchildren who are emotionally immature. A filmof artistic quality can have a therapeutic effect if itgives a true picture of life.

239 .Maggi, Rafaello. Riflessi dell 'attuale posi-zione psycho-sociale del film. LConsequencesof the current psycho-sociological state of thecinema) In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, X (2),February 1950, p. 6-30.

Conditions involving the phenomenon of film-starworship and fashions in connexion with the cinema.A detailed analysis of the cinema's effects: fromautomatic imitation there is an increasing trendtowards conformity, which results in consciousimitation. Such effects are much more pronouncedin young people and they are, unfortunately, veryfrequently harmful.

240 . Manvell, Roger. Film. London, Pelican Books,revised edition 1946, 240 p.

Part II deals with the influence of film on presentsociety, discussing the influence on adults and onchildren, the public's tastes, and film censorship.Concerning the content of most American andEnglish films, it is said that the "good" generallywins, but these films often imply a number of verydebatable theories, such as: wealth in the abstractis desirable; luxury, mainly in connexion withwomen, is normal; it is also normal for idlebusinessmen and rich young men to run afterwomen; fathers spoil their daughters by gifts ofmoney; men are a source of money for women;night club life is desirable; sex is probably themost important sensation in life, etc .

58

241 .Mayer , Jacob. Sociology of Fi Studiesand Documents . London, Faber and Faber,1946, 328 p.

Chapters 4 to 8 deal mainly with "film and youth",whereas the others touch only indirectly on thissubject. The author sees great educational possi-biiities in the children's film clubs in England,and presents data obtained from a questionnairedistributed among 1,000 children in one of the"Odeon Cinema Clubs", and from 30 essays writtenby secondary school girls . A number of film dis-cussions with children who had won prizes for thebest answers were also held. The data are ana-lysed and discussed and the children's essays arereproduced in extenso. Chapter 7, "Movies andconduct" is largely based on the book of the samename written by Professor Blumer for the PayneFund (see no. 205) .

A general conclusion is drawn that children whosee films often are confronted with so many sub-jects that their view of real life must certainly beinfluenced, because many films represent theextreme as normal.

242.Metzger, W. Kind und Film. LChild andfilm] In: Psychologie und Praxis, Munich(11), 1952, p. 18-32.

The cinema which shows many things more vividlyand more easily for the audience than other formsof presentation, need not be harmful, but manyfilms are because of their content. Commercialentertainment movies, the choice of newsreels,previews, and advertising shots are discussed inrelation to frequent tendencies to show crime andcruelty, lack of restraint, and unrealistically highstandards of living. Films are said to alter notionsof privacy and also tact, and to change the relativestatus of various social roles in a direction whichis not conducive to the proper functioning of society.There have been "constructive" films which havemade a great appeal to children; more such filmscould be made if they were demanded.

243 .Morin, Edgar. Le probleme des effets dan-gereux du cinema. LThe problem of thedangerous effects of the cinema.] In: Revueinternationale de filmologie, Paris, IV (14-15),1953, p. 217-233.

A critical account of research on the crime-provoking action of films on young people, withreference to: Payne Fund Studies (see no. 2);Adler, M. "Art and Prudence" (see no. 18) ;Report of the Departmental Committee on Childrenand the Cinema (see no. 71). It is noted that re-searchers often neglect to take into account thepsychological processes of identification and pro-jection.

Many studies show that the mimetic after-effectsof film concern only minor aspects of behaviour,e.g. manner of talking, dress, civilities, and that

the portrayal of anti-social activities such asmurders, other crimes and violence has a cathar-tic effect. Films may, however, suggest a tech-nique for committing an anti-social deed. Theinfluence of films cannot be dissociated from thesocial situation of the spectator. Differences inattitude and behaviour exist between children whovisit the cinema frequently and those who do not.It is regretted that most investigations are con-cerned only with children up to 16 years of age,and that it is therefore impossible to determine theinfluence of film on young people over 16.

244 Philippon, 0. L 'influence du cinema sur 1' en-fanc e et l'adolescence: 11 enquete nationalefrancaise. LThe influence of the cinema onchildhood and adolescence: French nationalinvestigationj In: Nouvelle revue pedago-gique, Paris, 7 (19), 1952, p. 526-530.

Results of an extensive inquir made in France bythe Comite catholique de Penfance. The chiefconclusion is that a child or an adolescent whogoes to the cinema more than once a week needspsychiatric attention and should be looked after. Itis claimed that the part played in education by thecinema is very small in comparison with the harmwrought upon young minds by emotional shocks andsentimental over-eXcitement.

245 . Preston, M.I. Children' s Reactions to MovieHorrors and Radio Crime . In: Journal ofPediatrics, St. Louis, Missouri, (19), 1941,p. 147-168.

The reactions of 200 physically and mentally nor-mal children to movie horror and radio crimewere studied by means of an emotional inventorydesigned to detect maladjustments in various as-pects of child life. Nervousness, generalizedfears, fears of kidnapping, sleeping disturbances,eating disturbances, nail-biting, callousness, day-dreaming in school, and sex interest were found tobe present to a more marked extent among addictsof horror movies and radio crime programmesthan among non - addicts . In addition, the severityof these symptoms of maladjustment increased asthe degree of addiction increased. Treatmentsuggested for those adversely affected by suchaddiction consists of gaining parental co-operation,restricting the frequency of indulgence, elimina-tion of crime and horror stories, and substitutionof a suitable recreational and social life.

246. Sicker,des FEine experimentelle Studie unter Verwendungdes Pigem- und des Tuanima- Testes. LChildand film. The influence of films on the emo-tional life of the child. An experimental study,using the Pigem and Tuanima tests...1 Bern -Stuttgart, Verlag Hans Huber, 1956, 143 p.

Albert. Kind und Film. Der Einflussmes auf das Seelenleben des Kindes.

1.401.11711WIFORIPWAIM

A study of the psychological influence of films onchildren. Gives quantitative data on cinemaattendance by schoolchildren and examines criti-cally research methods which have been used tostudy the influence of films on children. Particularreference is made to projective tests and to thePigem and Tuanima tests used by the author. Asummary of research on the influence of film onchildren and the results of the author's own inves-tigations include the following findings: the childexperiences the film in his own world; his reac-tions are largely emotional; the child sympathizeswith the "good" character; the emotions portrayedin the film are generally not understood; the childaccepts the film as something real; the child' sown character defects are reinforced by seeingthe same defects repeatedly portrayed in filmcharacters.

247 .Siegel, Alberta Engvall. Film-mediatedFantasy Aggression and Strength of AggressiveDrive. In: Child Development, Lafayette,Indiana, (27), 1956, p. 365-378.

The behaviour theory hypothesis of equivalence offorms was tested as it applies to the effects offilm-mediated fantasy aggression on the strengthof aggressive drive in young children. After thescreening of a highly aggressive cartoon film anda "matched" non-aggressive film, the children' splay was scored for aggression and for overt signsof guilt and anxiety. The scores were similar forthe two films. Sex differences and session differ-ences were found. Thirty-one references.

248.Siersted, El lon and Hansen, H. Lund.Reactions des petits enfants au cinema. Re-sume d 'une serie d 'observations faites auDanemark. (Reactions of small children inthe cinema. Summary of a series of observa-tions made in Denmark; In: Revue inter-nationale de filmologie, Paris, II (7-8), 1951,p. 241-245.

An investigation of the reactions of 250 infantschoolchildren and 350 pupils of the lower primaryschool classes to a film programme. A Disneycartoon, an animal film and a Tarzan film werescreened. Only 34 of the children had not seen afilm before. Infra-red photography, a tape record-ing and notes taken by observers during the screen-ing were used. Children were questioned afterwards,as also were a number of teachers and parents.The results showed that emotional reactions, parti-cularly of infant schoolchildren, during the screen-ing were not in agreement with their replies to thequestions put to them later on. Several scenesfrightened them. Some children began to cry andwanted to go home; others stayed near the teachers.Some disregarded the film and began to play. In afairly disciplined infant school the children re-mained comparatively quiet during the film, butafterwards several children felt ill. Mrs. Siersted

59

111 /MIM.

feels that these anxiety reactions are dependent onthe liberty of the child to react freely. Only thechild who can express his fears can free himselffrom them; disciplined children express thesefears during a frightening film scene, by hyper-active behaviour.

249 .Sttickrath, F . Der Film als Erziehungsmacht.LThe film as an educational force Hamburg,Verlag der Gesellschaft der Freunde desvaterlandischen Schul- und Erziehungswesens,1953, 72 p. (Zur Hamburger Schulreformseries, 10.)

Twelve articles already published elsewhere. Thestrong emotional effect of films on young people ispointed out and the author is convinced that scenesof violence and cheap eroticism react unfavourablyon juvenile audiences. The problems of identifica-tion and "escape" are dealt with, and cinema-going habits are compared with habits of museum,library and theatre attendance.

250 .Tarroni, Evelina. Sul cinema ricreativo perragazzi. (Entertainment films for childrenjIn: Bianco e Nero, Rome, X, October 1949,p. 50-54.

Some remarks in connexion with the importanceattached to the harmful effect of the cinema onchildren, in comparison with the formative in-fluence of certain films on the child's psychology.The author observes that any film, even the mostseemingly harmless, may provoke adverse reac-tions according to the psychological state of theyoung spectator. It is thus necessary for theteacher to observe and supervise the differentreactions of each child.

251 .Wall, William, D. and Simson, W.A. LThe/Effects of Cinema Attendance on the Behaviourof Adolescents as seen by their Contempo-raries. In: British Journal of EducationalPsychology, London, February 1949, p. 53-61.

A study of the influence of films on 1,261 boys and899 girls between 13 and 17 years of age by meansof a questionnaire concerning behaviour in filmswhich they believe to have been imitated by theircontemporaries . The following aspects were citedmost frequently as giving rise to imitation: mannerof dress and hairdress, courtship techniques,style of dancing, relaxing, walking. It was con-cluded that imitation inspired by films was morewidespread among girls than among boys, and thatat least one-third of the girls copied their mannerfrom films they had seen. The opinion of bothboys and girls is that at least one-third of theircontemporaries imitate courtship techniques seenin films.

60

252.Wall, William, D. and Simson, W.A. ti'hilEmotional Responses of Adolescent Groups tocertain Films. Part I. In: British Journalof Educational Psychology, London, (20), 1950,p. 153-163.

Responses to 12 films seen under conditions ofhabitual attendance by groups of 38 or more boysand girls aged 13-16 were analysed in terms oftheir effects upon the subjects' emotional beha-viour. Among the broad response categories, thatof "lasting emotional effects" showed relativelyhigh mean percentages of positive responses,while comparatively few reported any effect ontheir attitude to others. The remaining threecategories - "immediate emotional effects","identification" and "values and attitudes" - re-vealed averages closer to the general mean of30 per cent for boys and girls respectively.

253 .Wall, William, D. and Simson, W.A. LThfEmotional Responses of Adolescent Groups toCertain Films. Part II. In: British Journalof Educational Psychology, London (21), 1951,p. 81-88.

Qualitative analysis of the responses of boys andgirls, aged 13-16, to a group of 12 films recentlyviewed, reveals evidence of fantasy, shock andidentification stimulated by the films, The contentof the film largely, but not exclusively, determinesthe nature of the response made. Erotic fantasyappears prominently, especially among boys, inthe reactions to certain films. Shock is reportedchiefly as responses of outraged modesty and vio-lated ideals, with minor evidence of genuine fright.About one-third of the group report identificationmainly with the leading character of the same sex.Among girls, physical characteristics and perso-nality qualities are the determining factors, whileboys cite the capacities of the star or the prestigeof the part itself.

254.Wiirth, Elisabeth. Der Kinderfilm. Filmsfor childrenj In: Gloria Dei, Zeitschriftftir Theologie und Geistesleben, Vienna, VIII(1), 1953, p. 53-60. (Special number.)

Discusses the suitability of film screenings forchildren of different age-groups. Children between5 and 6 years are physically not yet sufficientlygrown up to be exposed to films without detrimentto the development of their personality. Only atprimary school age is the child sufficiently "ma-ture" for film experience; a maturity which deve-lops gradually as he grows older. The filmswhich are to be shown to children must take thispsychic "maturity" into account, if they are to beof positive value for the child.

The author enumerates a number of factorswhich must be considered, and lists several re-quirements which the film must meet in relationto different age-groups. Films which portray

social reality and child life truthfully offer goodpossibilities for identification and can developsocial qualities in the child. The film can meetthe children's urges for physical performance bychoosing subjects which can awaken in the childthe desire for sport and play and activity. Filmsshowing travel, adventures, discovery, and heroicdeeds have great power of attraction for childrenof secondary school age. But the film must hereremain on the firm ground of reality.

255 .Zazzo, Bianka. Le cinema a l'ecole mater-nelle. LThe cinema in the infant schoolj In:Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris,III (9) , January-March 1952, p. 81-88.

To study the importance which the cinema canhave in the education and development of infantschoolchildren, a questionnaire was sent out to anumber of headmistresses of those schools, con-taining questions on whether films had alreadybeen shown to the children, the age of the children,which films had been screened, the children's re-actions, and whether a magic lantern or filmstripprojection had also been used. A survey of thereplies is listed, from which it can be concludedthat favourable answers were mainly based on thefavourable emotional response of children, where-as unfavourable answers often resulted from con-siderations on the part of the headmistresses con-cerning the effects of the film on intellectual life.

See also: nos. 13, 31, 37, 56, 65, 69, 80, 81,85, 93, 95, 100, 104, 136, 147, 161, 165, 169,170, 181, 184, 192, 193, 198, 261, 306, 387, 404,423, 457, 461, 462, 463, 465, 466, 468, 469, 475,478, 483, 487, 489, 491.

(c) WHAT DO CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLERECOLLECT FROM FILMS?

256 . Bruce, D.J. Rememoration du materielfilmi ue. Etude ex erimentale. (The recallof filmic material: an experimental studyjIn: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris,IV (12), January-March 1953, p. 21-38.

How is a scene from a film remembered? Whatgeneral form does the recollection take and whaterroneous sequences can be included in it? Whatis the influence of the sudden interruption of a per-ceived action on recollection? These questionswere investigated by means of a short film inthreedifferent versions, with three groups of test per-sons. It can be concluded that the process ofabstraction plays an important part in recollection;that test persons seek out the salient points of theaction in order to create a recognizable frameworkinto which the characters' actions can be fitted.In addition, if a gap has deliberately been left inthe story, the viewer tends to reconstitute a

plausible sequence; this tendency influences theway in which 'the test person recollects the imagesperceived. The result is the formation of a moreor less independently recognized framework whichdictates the way in which the remaining materialis fitted together.

257 .Fraisse , P. and Montmollin, G. de. Sur lamemoire des films. LThe recollection offilms In: Revue internationale de filmo-logie, Paris, III (9), January-March 1952,p. 37-69.

An experiment conducted with 100 students todetermine what they had recollected from a film.Immediately following the screening of severalshort films, they were asked to write an accountof what they had seen and heard. The followingconclusions were drawn: general and already ex-tensively studied precepts relating to memoryseem to be applicable to the recollection of films.The recollection of a film is not a question of re-production, but implies, on the part of the spec-tator, a certain measure of activity. The specta-tor is not passive during a viewing of a film, buthe selects from what he sees and hears the ele-ments he needs to understand the action.

258.Garrido Lestaches_Juan. La infancia y elcinematografo. (Childhood and the cinemaMadrid, Direcci6n General de Sanidad,December 1940, 20 p. ("Al servicio de Espaflay del nano espafiol" series, 34).

The author, clinical director at the Hospital of theChild Jesus, Madrid, outlines the dangers for thechild in contemporary cinema and indicates thenecessary conditions for a production favourableto mental and moral education of children. Thelast four pages contain a list of works in thisseries.

259 .Holaday, P.W. and Stoddard, G.D. GettingIdeas from the Movies. New York, MacMillan,1933, (Payne Fund Studies).

Two American educationalists have given their at-tention to the question of children's recollectionof films. Seventeen commercial films were shownto more than 3,000 children, divided into differentage-groups. After seeing these films ("TomSawyer", "Stolen Heaven" , "Passion Flower","Fighting Caravans", etc.) the children were ad-mitted to various tests . The investigations wereconcerned with finding out (1) what remained ofthe film content in the minds of the children - ac-tions and the utterances of the actors - and (2)what knowledge of history, geography and tech-nology the children had acquired. The followingresults were obtained: (1) Children aged 8 recallthree out of every five facts which an adult re-members. Childrkn of 11 or 12 years of ageremember three of every four facts; children of

61

15 and 16 years, nine of every ten facts. (2) Whenquestioned again after six weeks, the first groupseemed to have remembered 90 per cent of thefacts known one day after the screening, and threemonths later this figure was still 90 per cent. Insome cases they remembered more after six ortwelve weeks than at first. (3) Very young childrenremembered 60 per cent, but this does not meanthat they had not absorbed 40 per cent. It frequent-ly happens that they do not understand certainthings and are therefore unable to react positivelyto this test. (4) Children of all ages tend to accepteverything they see as authentic, including eventswrongly shown in the film, and mistakes are takenfor facts. (5) Facts relating to sport, generalconversation, crime and fighting, with a highlyemotional element and occurring in familiar sur-roundings, such as at home or in school, are re-membered best. They were least well understoodif they concerned business life, had practically noemotional impact, and took place in unfamiliarsurroundings.

260.Paulsen, Kithe. Was bleibt? Kinder be-sinnen sich auf einen Film. LWhat remains?Children recall a filmj In: Film-Bild-Ton,Munich, VII, October 1957, p. 8-13.

After a certain lapse of time, can certain thingsstill be observed in the child' s memory of a filmwhich was carefully selected according to peda-gogic criteria and which had a favourable influence,or has this memory been affected by the greatnumber of unsuitable films which the child hasmeanwhile "consumed"? A small investigationwas carried out among eleven-year-old childrenin a primary school in Hamburg, where monthlyvisits to the cinema averaged 4.3. Twenty-twomonths after the screening of the film "Peppinand Violetta" (the children had meanwhile seen anaverage of eighty other films) an examination wasmade of how much of this film remained in thememory of the twenty-eight children left of theoriginal group. It was seen that in the resume ofthe film content, which the children had to makein the form of a composition, the main points werebetter reproduced than immediately after thescreening of the film. Nearly 60 per cent of thechildren reproduced the plot fully. This abilitydid not appear to be correlated with their level ofintelligence or with the frequency of their visits tothe cinema. For purposes of comparison adultswere given a similar test, which indicated thatchildren remembered more of a film than adults.The general conclusion is that children see andexperience a film in a different way from adultsand, in consequence, remember other things.

261.Rebeillard, Monique. Le cinema et l' enfant.LThe cinema and the child) In: L lecole desparents, Paris, (4), February 1957, p. 30-38.

Increased cinema-going by young people and the

62

comparative dearth of good films for them to see,frequently observed mental instability amongschoolchildren, the growing appeal of visual in-formation media and the high rate of juvenile de-linquency (for which the cinema is often blamed)necessitate a close study of the relations betweenthe cinema and individual and collective psychology.The author examines those elements of films whichchildren understand and retain, and the emotionalaspect of cinematographic experience in relationto children, and draws a number of conclusionsfor the teacher.

262.Tarroni, Evelina. I bambini guardano.LChildren watchd In: Almanacco del cinemaitaliano, Rome, 1952.

Results of an inquiry involving approximately2,000 compositions by children between 10 and 16years of age, in which they freely record theirimpressions and judgements of a film which hasparticularly affected them. This analysis made itpossible to collect some very important observa-tions concerning the duration of memories and thepoint at which the child's attention passes from thecharacter to the actor.

263 .Tarroni, Evelina. La memoria del film.LRecollections of a film.] In: Cine-Gioventa,Rome, (2), May 1954.

A number of drawings made by children afterwatching a film enabled the author to undertake aresearch project which throws light on some ofthe least known aspects of delayed reactions bychildren to various cinematographic experiences.

See also: nos. 24, 51, 85, 192.

(d) FILMS AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

264.Alberola Such, Ramon. Factores influyentesde la delincuencia infantil. ,Factors influen-cing juvenile delinquencyj Santander,Tribunales Tutelares de Menores, 1944, 20p.

Text of the report presented to the Sixth NationalCongress of Pediatrics, in which the authorexamines environmental factors influencing juve-nile delinquency. Among social factors, he devotesabout fifty lines to the cinema (p. 15 and 16), towhich he attributes a considerable influence ondelinquency, together with supporting statisticswhose source he does not indicate.

265.Alberola Such, Ram6n. Los ratios en losespecthculos como factor influyente en ladelinquencia infantil. LChildren in publicentertainment as a factor influencing juveniledelinquency,) Valencia, Tribunales Tutelaresde Menores, n. d. , 32 p.

Text of a report presented by the Children's Couto the XIIIth Assembly of the National Union ofChildren's Courts. With a forword, four chapteand conclusions . (See no. 267)

266.Blumer, Herbert and Hauser, Philip M.Movies, Delinquency and Crime. New York,MacMillan, 1933, 233 p., (Payne FundStudies).

rt

rs

An inquiry into the r8le of the cinema in the livesof young delinquents and offenders, carried outwith the help of a variety of material: filmsequences recreating the lives of 90 boys from a"bad" district, of 40 residents in a House ofCorrection for Boys, of 20 pupils from a schoolfor educationally backward and delinquent girlsand of 55 ex-convicts; a shorthand record of inter-views with 42 delinquent boys and 18 girls;short essays written by 258 convicted boysand 118 convicted girls. The authors consider thatthe influence of the cinema is noticeable in about10 per cent of delinquent boys and 25 per cent ofdelinquent girls. This influence is frequentlyunconscious; in fact, the delinquents and offenderswho acknowledge the influence of the cinema aremuch more numerous than those who, themselvesestablish a relation between this influence andtheir behaviour. Films which exercise this in-direct influence on boys are those which show theactivities and behaviour of criminals, whicharouse a desire for wealth and luxury and indicateundesirable means of satisfying this desire, whichcreate a mentality of "toughness" and the spirit ofdaring and adventure, which induce violent sexualdesires and encourage young people to dream of agangster's future. As far as girls and youngwomen are concerned, the cinema plays a more orless important r8le in awakening sexual passions,stimulating the desire for a gay, adventurous andinteresting life, the taste for luxury and smartclothes, whilst suggesting undesirable ways ofgratifying these desires; or by inciting them tocoquetry and flirtation through a description of allthe possibilities for misconduct open to girls andyoung women and, finally, by occupying a large placein their life to the detriment of home and school.

On the other hand, films may also exercise afavourable influence on delinquents and offenders,providing them with examples of socially acceptableconduct or frightening them. Such are those filmswhich reveal the unpleasant and dangerous aspectsof crime, which portray punishment in a concreteform or show that, as a rule, crime does not pay.But these films do not always have the desiredeffect; many factors weaken their positive influence,for example, the sympathy aroused for the crimi-nal, familiarity with the punishment portrayed andthe feeling that one would not have let oneself becaught so easily. The positive elements of thesefilms are also often overshadowed by scenes whichdepict in an attractive fashion a life of luxury andgaiety, of adventure and easy gain.

267.Casso y Romero, Domingo de. Influence ducinema dans la delinquance juvenile. anfluenceof the cinema on juvenile delinquencyj Paperread at the Second International Congress ofFilmology, Paris , 1955.

There are two types of influence exerted by film -external or formal and internal or content influence.The former is immediately derived from an openlyimmoral or subversive film, but a film of this typeis considered less dangerous than a film which,while professedly moral in intention, actuallydisorients the conscience and introduces immoralleanings. Mysteries of the hereafter, horror,crime, war, etc . impress children most. Obser-vations of the Spanish Guardianship Tribunalsduring 1944-1953, claiming that 37 per cent of theboys who committed offences had been influencedby unsuitable films, are also quoted.

268.Clostermann, Gerhard and Preuss, K.Abhandlungen zur Jugend-Filmpsycholgie.(Discussions on juvenile film psychologyPublished by Stadtisches Forschungsinstitutfur Psychologie der Arbeit and Bildung inGelsenkirchen. Minster, Westfalen,Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchandlung, 1952,47 p. (Publication, 3).

A study on (1) films and juvenile delinquency and(2) the entertainment film as seen by pupils inupper primary school grades. The first part is ananalysis of the case histories of 342 juvenile de-linquents . Only 16 of them visited the cinema veryfrequently. Those of the 342 delinquents who werecinema-goers had been convicted for petty infrac-tions of the law (theft, vagrancy), not for acts ofviolence, and in all those cases from two to tenfactors having nothing to do with cinema attendancecontributed to the delinquent behaviour. It is con-cluded that the film, important as an educationaland cultural factor, is not a primary factor indelinquency.

The second part is a study conducted in a numberof schools, of the reactions of 86 boys and 60 girlsaged 10 to 15 years to the film "Nanook of theNorth". 90 per cent of the children understood thefilm content; 98 per cent liked the film, havingfound it interesting, thrilling and educational. 30per cent mentioned that they liked it because itshowed the customs and morals of another race.Questioned regarding their preferences among thefilm characters, 69 per cent stated that they likedNanook best; 40 per cent preferred the Eskimochildren. 96 per cent of the children said that theywould like to see the film a second time.

269.Corradini, Umberto. ll ragazzo al cinema .the child at the cinemaj In: Lumen,Brescia, February 1955, p. 46-50.

The commonest attitude towards the problem ofthe cinema is to make it responsible for every

63

adolescent crisis, but the question calls for aserious critical spirit and an objective examina-tion which make it possible to form a correctassessment of the influence of the cinema on thedevelopment of the child, and to find a solution.

270 Council of Motion Picture Organizations.Exploding a Myth: Motion Pictures are notResponsible for Juvenile Delinquency. Opinionsexpressed by noted psychiatrists, psycholo-gists, educators, jurists, and criminalsociologists. New York, September 1950,23 p.

A selection of quotations from documents andstatements by 54 well-known authorities on juveniledelinquency, from which the following conclusionsmay be drawn: (1) the influence of films on youngpeople cannot be isolated from other social factors,(2) it cannot be scientifically measured, nor is itpossible to determine, whether a certain film canreasonably be expected to contribute to juveniledelinquency.

This is the printed edition of an almost identicalpublication: "Motion picture association ofAmerica: Juvenile Delinquency and DramatizedEntertainment", New York, March 1950.

271.Cressey, Paul G. , and Thrasher, FrederichM. Bays, Movies and City Streets. New York,MacMillan, 1933, n.p. (Payne Fund Studies).

949 boys from New York (about one-quarter behindin their studies and one-quarter ahead) were exa-mined. Of those who visited the cinema four timesor more a week, 19 per cent were ahead, 24 percent normal and 57 per cent behind in their studies.Of those who went once or less, 35 per cent wereahead, 33 per cent normal and 32 per cent behind.109 boys were delinquents, among whom 22 percent visited the cinema three times or more aweek, and 6 per cent less than once, whereas 14per cent of the non-delinquents went three timesor more a week, and 6 per cent less than once.

These figures indicate that a correlation existsbetween truancy and delinquency, and frequentattendance at the cinema. Does excessive cinemaattendance lead to bad behaviour, or do badly be-haved children go often to the cinema? The authorsconclude that it is not generally possible to holdfilms solely responsible for anti-social behaviourand delinquency. It is also wrong to claim thatdelinquents who often go to the cinema are notinfluenced by it.

272.Di Majo, Carlo. Criminalita e film. (Crimeand the cinemaj In: La Difesa del Ragazzo,Rome, (3-4), May-August 1956, p. 119-121.

The author envisages the need for discipliningcinematographic activity because of its undeniableinfluence on youth, and furnishes proof that juve-nile crime is on the increase in technically

64

advanced countries, where the cinema enjoys widepopularity. He quotes several cases of juvenilecrime in Italy. Psychological investigation shouldbe widely used, at least in connexion with the psy-chological aspect o1 child development. Co-operation with parents is indispensable, as is theimplementation of measures to ban the cinema foryoung people below the age of 18. An analysis ofthe behaviour of young people in regard to filmsspecially designed for them. The author urges theestablishment of an international centre for thecollection of films for children and young people.

273.Flesch, Gislero. Liinfluenza sui ragazzidella stampa e del cinema a carattere crimi-nale . LThe influence on children of news-papers and films dealing with crimeThe record of a course of comparative studiesof delinquency among minors, organized bythe Ministero di Grazia e Giustizia and by theAdministrazione Aiuti Internazionali, in co-operation with the United Nations, Rome,3-9 December, 1950, Rome, Tipografia dellaMantellata, 1952.

The press and the cinema have in many instancesa power of suggestion which may lead to crime.This power may take various form s and may in-fluence anyone, but more particularly children,either individually or collectively.

274.Flik, G. Untersuchungen Ober den Einflussdes Film: auf kriminell gewordene Jugend-liche (Inquiries into the influence of thecinema on young delinquents' In: Psycholo-gischeRundschau, GOttingen, 6(1), 1954, p. 1-21.

An inquiry carried cut among 179 young prisoners,which reveals that before conviction they went tothe cinema on an average twice each week. Theirfavourite films were those dealing with love, ad-venture and crime; religious films took last placein the list. Only 14 per cent of the older boys and24 per cent of the younger acknowledged the in-fluence of the cinema on their criminal behaviour.74 per cent of the olt!er boyo and 82 per cent of theyounger consider the cinema to be dangerous foryoung people under sixteen.

The author points out that juvenile delinquencywas as common in the past as it is today, and thatthe influence of the cinema may also be a positiveone.

275.Giacomelli, Ferruccio. 11 film e la delin-quenza Jtiovanile. The film and juvenile de-linquency/ Perugia, Thesis presented at theFaculty of Medicine of Perugia, 1956.

On the basis of considerable bibliographical mate-rial, together with his own studies, research andexperiments, the author shows that the influenceof the cinema on crime has not yet been clearlyestablished.

276 .Japanese Central Council on Youth Problems(ed.). Research on Reactions and Behaviour:Film and Juvenile Delinquency. In: SeishonenHakusho-Showa-32-nen Ban. LWhite Paper onYouth 195V, Tokyo, Seishonen-MondaiKenkyukai, 1957, p. 482-500.

Deals with:1. Youth and harmful publications, films, etc .2. Dissemination of good films, publications, etc .

277 .Jimenez de Asua, L. Cinematografo y delin-cuencia . (The cinema and delinquencyj In:Revista de Criminalogia, Psiquiatria y Medi-cina Legal, Buenos Aires, May-June 1929,p. 377-384.

Earlier studies of the influence of literature andart upon delinquency, especially of the young,began to be extended to the field of the movies soonafter 1910. Such studies were undertaken in theUnited States of America and later in most leadingcountries of the world. The general conclusion isthat the cinema is widely effective in suggestingcrime. Various prophylactics have been attempted,of which public censorship has been most common-ly and widely applied.

Pedro Casablanca has agitated for the inter-national censorship and control of films, but theplan is scarcely practicable. The Brussels Con-gress for the Protection of Childhood (1921) soughtto stimulate the production of a more educationaltype of picture. The only legitimate control overfilms must be in the interests of children andhere considerations of health are more importantthan morals.

278.Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm. Film und Jugend-. Eine Betrachtung zu einer

Umfrage an Deutschen Jugenderichten. Zpilmand juvenile delinquency. Observations on asurvey among juvenile courts,/ Wiesbaden-Biebrich, Deutsches Institut fur Filmkunde,November 1954, 173 p. (Jugend und FilmLFilm and Youth/ series, III (4)).

The results of an inquiry among all children's courtsin the Federal Republic of Germany in towns of morethan 10,000 inhabitants . Of 320 forms sent out, 200were returned duly completed. Critical commentsare presented on a large number of criminal cases,with summaries of the court's judgement concerningthe part played by films in each case.

The preconceived ideas generally held bychildren's magistrates concerning the film as afactor in juvenile delinquency are outlined. It ispointed out that in a very small number of casesonly was a direct causal relation between visits tothe cinema and criminal behaviour established bythe magistrates, but that press and radio reportershad wrongly given the impression that the magis-trates attributed considerable importance to theinfluence of the cinema.

The influence of films on criminal behaviourof young people must be carefully reviewed fromcase to case. Some magistrates feel that certainjuveniles, i.e. those with criminal tendencies, orwho are harmfully influenced bytheir environmentand have unstable characters, have an inherentdisposition to criminal behaviour, influenced and"activated" by frequent viewing of crime films.Juvenile delinquents often attempt to use as anexcuse the influence which the film is supposed tohave had on their behaviour.

279.Le Moal, P. and Lalande, Helene de. Actiondu cinema sur les mineures delinquantes.LThe influence of the cinema on delinquentgirls,/ Paper read at the Second InternationalCongress of Filmology, Paris, 1955.

A study of the influence of the cinema on 150 de-linquent girls between 13 and 19 years of age in anobservation centre at Chevilly-Larue. One-fifthof the girls had been arrested for theft, four-fifthsfor vagrancy. 20 per cent of the latter categorywere prostitutes . Favourite recreational activitieswere reported to be the cinema (35 per cent),dancing (25 per cent), sports and camping (21 percent) and reading (7 per cent). Investigation ofthe extent to which the girls' attitudes to thecinema differed from those of normal girlsrevealed the following.

Keen enthusiasm about the

Chevilly Normalgirls

cinema 5%Great interest 30% 62%Moderate interest 35% 17%Little interest 7% 17%No interest 22%Active dislike 1% 4%

Concerning the frequency of cinema attendance,the following figures were obtained:

Chevilly Normalgirls

1-4 times per month 73% 82%8-12 times per month 27% 17%

The Chevilly girls preferred love and adventurefilms (24 per cent), followed by crime and "sad"films (14 per cent). Comic films were preferredby only 5 per cent. Additional data related tofilms which were best remembered, and to thenumber of girls who dreamed about sequencesfrom films which they had seen, and who wept orwere frightened in the cinema.

280.Lindsey, Ben B. The Movies and JuvenileDelinquency. In: Perlman, William J.:The Movies on Trial, New York, MacMillan,1936, p. 50-63. (See No. 17.)

The author, a judge, feels unable to ascertainfrom his own experience with thousands of juveniledelinquents whether the cause of crime can be found

65

in the influence of the cinema. Inasmuch as itkeeps young people from the streets, the cinema isprecisely the best means of preventing crime, andit achieves more than many other means in thefight against the greatest of all crimes: war. Thecinema is considered to be the greatest educatorwhich the world has ever known.

281.Michard, H. Cinema - delinouance juvenileet reeducation. LCinema - juvenile delin-quency and re-educationj In: Revue de1' education surveillee, Paris, (8), May-June1947, p. 61-67.

The power of suggestion of the cinema is greaterthan that of books. It is certain that its effect ismore clearly marked on young people who are so-cially maladjusted, but the exact nature of itsaction has yet to be determined. How may itsharmful influence be combated, and how may thecinema be used for educational purposes, inparticular in re- education centres?

282.Morris, Norval. Films, comics, anddelinquency. In: Visual Aids Review,Melbourne, 1 (4), March 1953, p. 4-8.

The problem of the crime-provoking action of filmis often presented in far too simple a manner.Little or nothing is known of this question, orwhether the representation of violence and crimehas a good or bad effect on children. But, in anycase, there is no point in simply banning filmsand comics.

66

283 .Redano, Ugo. 11 cinemne xToblemaeducativo. LThe cinema, an educationalproblem 2 In: La Difesa del Ragazzo, Rome,XXV (3-4), May 1956, p. 103-114.

The author stresses the correlation between crimeas represented on the screen and as it occurs inreal life, particularly where young people areconcerned. A list of the problems which shouldbe studied "in addition to and independent of thebill presented to Parliament".

284.Sinoir, Guy M. Les correlations entre lecinema et la delinquance Juvenile. LCor-relation betvieen the cinema and juveniledelinquency] In: Actes du Congres inter-national sur la presse periodique, cinema-tographie et radio pour enfants, Milan,(19-23), March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953,p. 195-203.

Report on three surveys carried out in France in1948 to determine the r6le of the cinema in juve-nile delinquency. The first survey compares thecinema-going habits of delinquent children withthose of normal children. In the second survey,juvenile delinquents were asked to draw a cinemaposter and a scene from a film. The third inquiryaimed at discovering to what extent children'smagistrates believed that films had an influence onjuvenile crime. It was concluded from these threesurveys that the direct influence of film on juveniledelinquency is difficult to establish.

See also: nos. 13, 60, 66, 69, 103,232,475,

106,243,482,

107,261,483.

289,136, 192, 210, 213, 219, 229,387, 409, 423, 457, 460, 466,

6. EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS AND PRACTICAL MEASURES

(a) THE USE OF FILMS IN THEDEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

285 .Albright, Roger. Education from theTheatrical Screen. In: Elliott, Godfrey M.:Film and Education, New York, PhilosophicalLibrary, 1948, p. 407-424.

Many feature films have acquainted the generalpublic with literary works they might otherwisenever have known. Examples are given of filmswhich have stimulated interest in literary andmusical works. The contribution of the shortcultural and historical film to general education isalso discussed. In the schools, the feature film isbeginning to be recognized as an educational me-dium, and instruction in film appreciation is beingintroduced. The film industry is taking a growinginterest in the possibilities of the feature film asan educational aid, and a considerable number offilms have been made available for educationalpurposes.

286.Calb, Giovanni. Le cinema et l' educationintellectuelle. (The cinema and intellectualeducation. in: Actes du Congres inter-national sur la presse periodique, cinema-tographie, et radio pour enfants, Milan, 19-23March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953,p. 158-16C.

A discussion of the r8le of the cinema in the moraland intellectual development of children. Filmsshown to children should be suited to the emotionalmaturity and intellectual capacity of the age-groupfor which they are intended. The rhythm of thefilm, its action and plot must be adapted to thechild audience's capacity for comprehension. Thechild should be able to see the film with a certaindegree of objectivity. Failing this, disturbancesin the child's development are to be feared. Acategorical distinction should not be made betweenchildren's films and films for adults, particularlywhen considering children of 12 years and over.From this sage the normal child begins to attain adegree of comprehension comparable to that ofany adult. The establishment of film clubs wherechildren can see suitable films is advocated.

287. Cotton, Carmelo. Cinema educativo o no.(The pros and cons of educational cinemajRome, A. Signorelli, 1953,96 p. ("Bibliotecadel Maestro" series) .

The first three chapters of this work on the cinemaand youth deal with the following problems: (1) thepros and cons of educational cinema; (2) childrenin the cinema; (3) banning of minors. The bookalso contains some comments on the educationalfunction of thu cinema, together with the texts ofrelevant Italian laws.

288. Cottone, Carmelo. Didattica e cinema.(Didactics and the cinema`/ In: Cine-didattica, Rome, (1), April 1950, p. 7-10.

The author makes a distinction between educationaland instructional films, and accords greater im-portance to the former. When they end with thetriumph of good over evil, even adventure filmsmay have positive value. On the other hand, froman educational point of view, historical films dis-tort history through the fictionalized portrayal ofevents.

289.Crisanti, Pina. Arte e cinema nella lorofunzione sociale. (The social functions ofart and cinema...7 Rome, Ed. Auia, 1954,

156 p.

A study of the relationship between art and cinemaand an analysis of the cinema's social function.The last chapter of work deals with the educationalinfluence of the cinema on children, and containsextracts from articles by eminent jurists onjuvenile crime and the cinema.

290 .Diaz-Plaja, Guillermo. Cine adolescenciaen "el a: t` de quedarse solo y otros ensayos".TertiTima and adolescence, in "The art ofremaining alone, and other essays"2 In:Juventud, Barcelona, 1936.

Pages 155-168 contain "a Pedagogical Essay:Cinema and Adolescence" in which the authorexamines the specific conditions for educationalcinema in secondary schools. Six main points aredistinguished, the third of which deals with censor-ship problems in relation to juvenile mentality.This essay was included in the publications of theLeague of Nations International Institute of Educa-tional Cinematography, Rome, in 1934.

67

291. Di Tullio, Benign°. Dell' influenza educativadel cinema sui minorenni traviati e delinquenti.ZOn the educational influence of the cinema onyoung offenders and delinquents.] In: Revistainternazionale del cinema educatore, Rome,V (3), March 1935, p. 189-192.

The cinema is a possible source of re-education,since it may serve either to change and graduallyimprove the instinctive expressions and emotionalattitudes which make up the "primitive psyche", orto reinforce the powers of inhibition and the re-sistance offered by acquired mental habits, thusdeveloping the individual's capacity for adaptationto social life.

292.Foerster, Oskar. Film, Bild und Ton in derErziehung zum euroi.N;ischen. Bewusstsein.LThe role of the cinema - image and sound - inthe formation of a European mentality.] In:Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, VII, September 1957,p. 12-15, 48.

A study of the r8le which might be played by thecinema in the formation of a European mind. Theimage of the world presented by the cinema is, incontrast with traditional school education, con-crete, dynamic and immediate. The film presentsreality in the round, instead of breaking it downinto its components, and places the spectator inreal life situations; it enables the spectator toparticipate in the lives of other people. Suchmasterpieces of the cinema as "The Winslow Boy","It is Midnight, Dr. Schweitzer", "From Man toMan", "Forbidden Games" - may moreover makea powerful contribution to diffusion of the greatprinciples of humanity, democracy, liberty, humandignity, tolerance and justice.

293 .Forter, Adolf. Le documentaire dans la re-education spirituelle de la jeunesse LThedocumentary film in the spiritual re-educationof young people) In: Bachlin, Peter: Cinemad'aujourd' hui. Congres international du cine-ma a Belle. Geneve-Paris, Editions TroisCollines, 1945, p. 201-208. ("Cahiers deTraits" series).

A deep gulf separates the post-war generation fromits predecessor. Young people today are no longerconcerned with spiritual values, and this indif-ference is dangerous. Their elders must conse-quently re- establish contact with them, and comewithin their reach; in this respect, the document-ary film may be a powerful aid. But documen-taries should conform to reality (otherwise youngpeople lose confidence in the teacher who presentsthem), and they should have artistic merits.

294.Giraud, Jean. La jeunesse et le cinema.LYouth and the cinema (a Franco-Italian biblio-graphy)1 In: Ecole pratique de psychologie etde pedagogie, Bulletin, Lyon, (2), November-December 1954, p. 104-108.

68

Every year, in this review, Jean Giraud devotes aseries of articles to examining the problem of thecinema and its relation to adolescence and to youth.This series is concerned with seeking to definebetter conditions for instruction through the cinema.The present number comprises a Franco-Italianbibliography and the first part of a comprehensivesurvey of educational and cultural efforts in thisfield in France and a number of foreign countries;the author then examines the main problems en-countered, beginning with needs of children andadolescents.

295.Grigor ' eva, A.A. Kino vo vneklassnoj ivneNkolnoj rabote. LThe cinema and extra-curricular activity] In its: Use of films anddiapositives in and out of class for pupils be-tween 12 and 17 years. Moscow, 1952, p.414-431. (School education publications).

This article, written by an inspector of school filmlibraries in Moscow, describes extra-curricularfilm work in schools and establishes the relation -ship between films for children at school and theeducational syllabus and subjects.

On the basis of experience in Moscow schools,the author describes numerous ways in which filmsare used: ordinary cinema sessions; an eveningfilm programme or a cycle of such programmeson a particular educational theme or schoolsubject; film lectures; school centres for filmlectures; film festivals; relationship betweenfilms and reading; considerable use of the film in"Pioneer" activities in schools. The importantrole of the teacher and the active participation ofthe pupils in all phases of Min work are stressed.

Two characteristics mark the use of films inMoscow schools; the utilization of current full-length films (films for children and films for adults),popular science films and diapositives, and thecombination of film methods with the spontaneousactivities of the children. An analytical catalogueof films (some 100 titles), divided into 22 subjectgroups, is annexed.

296 .K3mpe, Fritz. Der Film in der Jugend undErwachsenenbildung. LThe film ,in youth andadult edtiCalc.731. Published by the Institut fiirFilm und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht,Seebruck am Chiemsee, Heering-Verlag, 1958,86 p.

survey of the characteristics of the main typeso ilm (scientific, educational, documentary, news-ree artistic, recreational, etc.) followed by astat merit on their use in factories, people's

universities, youth clubs, etc. The role whichmight be played by the recreational film in educa-tion and teaching, particularly in connexion withyoung people. Ways of achieving a better under-standing of the cinema through discussions, studysessions, introductory cinema courses, etc .

297.Kiselev, C.A. and Polowskij, M.M. Kino vu8ebnoi i vneklasnoj rabote Bkoly. LThe cinemaand class work and extra-curricular work inschools j Moscow, State Institute of ScientificSchool Research of the Narkompros of theRSFSR, 1940, 44 p. ("To help the teacher"series, 18).

The following chapters discuss problems of filmsfor children and their extra-curricular applicationin Moscow schools: Chapter 2: "The cinema andchildren". Chapter 3: "The role of films inschool educational work". Chapter 10: "Methodsof using films in extra-curricular work". Chapter11: "The cinema and the work of Pioneer Clubs".Chapter 12: "Film equipment for extra-curricularwork in schools". Annex 2 gives a list of 16 mm.films.

298.Laporta, Raffaclo. Cinema ed eta evolutiva.LThe cinema and the age of development./Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1957, 188 p.("Educatori Antichi e Moderni" series, 153).

A contribution to filmological research from apedagogical point of view, which shows how deeplythe film affects the experience of children andadolescents. The feature film today is educationalneither in character nor in content. Study of itsdifferent aspects will therefore be necessary beforeit can be used for educational purposes.

299.Meylan, Louis M. Le cinema et 1' educationmorale. LThe cinema and moral educationjln:Actes du Congres international sur la presseperiodique, cinematographie et radio pourenfants, Milan, 19-23 March 1952, Milan,A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 169-175.

A discussion of how the film can contribute to themoral development of young people. Many enter-tainment films are not adapted to the needs of thedeveloping juvenile personality and it is felt thatchildren should not be admitted to ordinary cine-mas but that the selection of films suitable forchildren should be left to educators. Documentaryfilms, feature films of good artistic quality inwhich social responsibility is portrayed, andpoetic films are considered to have moral value,and can contribute to the intellectual, social andaesthetic development of the child.

300 .Meylan, Louis M. Le film, moyen de culture.LThe film as a cultural medium./ In: Calderade pedagogie de l' University de Liege, 15 (1),March 1956.

Many children experience films as "real" life; itgives them ideas of good or bad behaviour. Parentsand educators must teach children to make gooduse of the film, by keeping a safe distance betweenthe child and the cinema. Films offer youngpeople the chance to enrich their imagination by

providing them with concrete illustrations of sub-jects which they have learned at school. Filmscan help them to understand different literarystyles, but this educational r8le can only be playedif the youthful spectator is capable of assimilatingpersonally what he has seen.

301.Mufioz Fernandez, Pedro. El cine en la mano,en "El evangelic) vivo". The cinema controlled,in "The Living Gospel" j Madrid, GraficasNebrija, 1951, 144 p. ("Editorial BibliografidEspanola" series).

This handbook, which deals with methods of cate-chism, evaluates the efficacy of the cinema ineducation; Chapter V "The Cinema controlled"(p. 47-59) is devoted to the cinema as a familyrecreation, and assesses the adaptation to thistype of presentation of the film "Cielo sobre elpantano" (p. 123 -126) .

302.Pelizzi, Camillo. Il cinema come strumentodi azione sociale. LThe cinema as an instru-ment of social action./ In: Bianco e Nero,Rome, (9), September 1949, p. 21-32.

An analysis of the pedagogic relationship betweenthe cinema and the spectator, with references tospecific problems concerning the adolescent orchild spectator.

303.ROssler , W.E. Miterzieher Film. Einepfidagogische Studie im Anschluss an denFilm "Das grosse Abenteuer". LThe film asan aid to education: a pedagogic study carriedout with the aid of the film "The GreatAdventure"2 In: Film, Jugend, Schule,Gelsenkirchen, (15-16), April 1956, 6 p.

The aim of this inquiry was to determine, with theaid of a selected film ("The Great Adventure" ofArne Sucksdorff), the contribution which a filmmay make to development of the emotional life andintelligence of children between the ages of tenand fourteen. 406 children were the subjects:some were asked, after the showing of the film,to provide a written answer to the question: "Whatwas Arne Sucksdorff trying to express in thisfilm? "; the others were interviewed immediatelyafter the showing of the film. Quoting extractsfrom the replies, the author shows that childrendo not gain purely aesthetic pleasure from a film,but that they see it partly as reality and partly asa symbol.

304 .Schiavi, Alessandro. 11 cinematografo e lagloventti. LCinema and youth./ In: La Difesadel Ragazzo, Rome, (3-4), May-August 1956,p. 95-102.

The cinema may constitute a real and cultural ex-perience capable of educating the child. But itscontent remains outside all educational control.

69

,11.11111,IslinyealIWTT,

It is thus necessary for individual persons to createbodies for the study, production and diffusion ofeducation films which should: portray thecharacteristic aspects of different countries, thecustoms and life of their inhabitants; induce a desirefor mutual assistance and fraternization between thechildren of different countries; stress the essentialelements of a social life based on work, solidarity andpersonal dignity; reveal the constant efforts of indi-viduals and groups to transform, improve and edu-cate society, inculcate the concept of rights andresponsibilities so that they maybe applied in dailylife; and portray the true stories of young heroes.

305 .Stiickrath, Fritz. Der Einbruch des Films indie Padagogische Provinz. LThe intrusion ofthe into the domain of pedagogyj In:.Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, V (9) , December1955, p. 9-11.

Film culture constitutes a transitional stage be-tween reading and seeing. Educators must not losesight of the fact that films affect the pupil's intel-lect and thus his development and education. Filmsoffer a means of apprehending reality that differsfrom verbal apprehension, thus making a newworld accessible to the spectator. We must con-sider whether the educational means and methodsused up to the present are still acceptable in anera where man's situation has changed completely.

306 .Sutermeister, H. Film und Psychohygiene.LMovies and mental hygiene] In: Gesundheitund Wohlfahrt, Zurich, (30), 1950, p. 249-278.

The film is here considered as an aid to a healthieremotional life. The cinema in the school and forthe people at large is a form of collective therapy,but it constitutes a certain danger for adolescentswho are particularly suggestible without havingsufficient experience to serve as a counterweight.It is perhaps not so much the erotic element in themovies which is dangerous, but rather the illusionswhich they foster of social ascension without effort,and the glorification of idleness and of the easy life.

307.Urickij N.Z. ZnaEenie kino dlja detejphesignificance of the cinema for children. In:Semja i Skola, Moscow, (7), July 1948, p.27-28.

Children react quite strongly to films because theyidentify themselves very readily with the characters.Such identification can be beneficial to character-building if the children' s cinema experiences areproperly directed. Children should be guided tosee films that are suitable for their age in contentand depth of emotional experience. Attendance atthe cinema should not be too frequent and should beselective. Older children should be afforded theopportunity of discussing films with adults so as todeepen their perception and understanding. Specialcare must be exercised in the case of pre-school

70

children since they tire easily and react emotionallyto cinema experience.

See also: nos. 15, 19, 76, 149, 155, 159, 212,233, 249, 254, 381, 474, 475, 478, 482, 485.

(b) EDUCATION TOWARDS BETTERAPPRECIATION AND CRITICALASSIMILATION OF FILMS (CINE-CLUBS)"FILM EDUCATION"

308 Arnsler, Roger and Cady, Jacques. Les reac-tions fficheuses du cinema sur les jeunesspectateurs sont evitables par une initiation.(Harmful influences of the cinema on youngspectators can be avoided through a processof initiationj A report presented to theSecond International Congress of Fihnology,Paris, 1955.

The authors, who examined the activity of a cinemaclub at Angers, are convinced that children whoattend such clubs no longer react in the same wayto films .

309.Boeck, A. de. Le probleme du film pourenfants. LThe problem of films for childreIn: Revue de droit penal et de criminologie,Brussels, 35 (9), June 1955, p. 789-796.

Belgian legislation on the admission of youngchildren to public cinemas is obsolete. Filmswhich may under the present law be shown to youngchildren too frequently contain potentially harmfulscenes of a violent or erotic nature. Many filmsexpose children to emotions which they are not yetcapable of assimilating, and instruct them in thetechnique of sexual relationships at an age whenthey cannot yet satisfy their erotic needs.

For this reason, in certain countries, Englandin particular, special sessions for children areorganized, in which attempts are made to combatthe harmful influence of films. In general, how-ever, there is a scarcity of films for children.Cartoons themselves often contain harmful elements.Moreover, various inquiries have shown that youngchildren are not yet able to understand the languageof the cinema, and lack the capacity for synthesiswhich would enable them to establish a relationshipbetween the different scenes of a film. It is there-fore necessary to produce films adapted to theintelligence of children. In this respect, Sovietfilms for children are particularly praiseworthy.

The author is convinced that entry to cinemasshould be strictly denied to young children.

310.Brinkmann, Donald. Zur Psychologie desJugendfilms (The psychology of films forchildrenj In: Der Psychologe, Schwarzenburg,Berne, (5), 1953, p. 89-93.

Films produced specially for children, howeverwell suited to the age of the audience, may giverise to an undesirably passive attitude. To combatthis tendency, group activities are recommended,such as participation in the singing or acting of thefilms, discussions, and carrying out projects sug-gested by the films. The negative aspects of thepopular film should be counterbalanced by recrea-tional activities and by documentary films suitableto the age-group and emotional maturity of theaudience.

311 .Brudny, Wolfgang. Filmerziehung.Education.] In: Mitteilungen des Arbeits-kreises "Jugend und Film", und desWissenschaftlichen Instituts fiir Jugend-filmfragen, Munich, 1955, 52 p. (Specialnumber).

A guide for teachers and youth leaders concerningthe part that film education can play in generaleducation and the manner in which the subject canbe introduced in the teaching of art appreciation,literature, religion, the social sciences andeconomics.

312. Buchanan, Andrew . Going to the Cinema.London, Phoenix House Ltd. , 1951, 160 p.

Fundamental concepts of cinematographic tech-nique, and a survey of various types of film,designed to enable young people to learn to judgefilms critically.

313.Biiring, H. and Eiland, K. Filmkritik einerLandschulklasse. Ein Erfahrungsberichtfiber den Film "Heimweh" . (Film criticismin a rural school: report on a presentation ofthe film "Heimweh".] In: Film, Jugend,Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (12-13), June 1955, 4 p.

A report on an inquiry into the ability of 36 school-children to appreciate a film from a formal pointof view . Criticism was above all directed againstemotionally unsatisfying scenes. Only one childmade a real criticism of form; most frequently,emotional reactions were involved. The author isnevertheless of the opinion that it is possible,when discussing these reactions, to lead childrengradually towards an interest in the form of thefilm.

314.Chevallier, Jacques (et. al.) Regards neufssur le cinema. LA fresh look at the cinema_Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1952, 508 p. ("Peupleet Culture" series).

A collection of essays on the cinema, seen fromdifferent points of view, and in particular on thework of film clubs (p. 361-404); mention shouldbe made, among others, of the article by J. Michel(Film clubs for young people), in which the author

indicates, on the basis of his own experience, theaims, methods and results of these clubs.

315.Chiarini, Luild.. Le cinema et 16ducationesthetique. (The cinema and aestheticeducation.] In: Actes du Congres inter-national sur la presse periodique, cinemato-graphie et radio pour enfants, Milan, 19-23March 1952, Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, p.175-176.

Film education is the principal condition on whichthe development of the cinema depends, and thebest method of protecting young people from itsharmful influences.

316. Cipriani Fagdoli, Maria Luisa. Cineclubsscolastici. (Film clubs for schools.] In:Cineclubs per Ragazzi, Rome, 1957, p. 99-105.

On the basis of experiments carried out with filmclubs for students, the author believes that it isimpossible to draw up an abstract pattern ofprogrammes for these clubs, and that individualconditions (environment, age, cultural level, etc.)must be taken into account.

317. Claude, Robert. Education cinematographigue(Education through the cinema.] Liege, Lapensee catholique; Paris, Office general dulivre, 1949, 63 p. ("Etudes religieuses" series,662-663).

The cinema requires a "constructive attitude" onthe part of the teacher. The Papal Encyclical"Vigilanti Cura" enjoins Catholics to adopt a posi-tive attitude to films. A study of the influence ofthe cinema and its determining factors. Ways ofteaching the public to select and judge films.

318.Clostermann, Gerhard. Musische Erziehungnach Filmeindriicken. Schglerzeichnun enbezeugen Bildungsmoglichkeiten der Filmer-ziehung. (Artistic education through films.Children's drawings reveal the cultural pos-sibilities of the educational cinema2 In:Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (6),September 1953, 6 p.

An analysis of drawings made by 112 boys and 83girls after a showing of the film "Lassie": mostfrequently chosen scenes, reasons for this choiceand differences noted between the drawings, byage-group and category of school. It seems thatcinematographic experience is calculated to im-prove drawing skill and that children need to dis-charge,through drawing and painting, the emotionsaroused by certain scenes. Children who cannotexpress themselves in words find a means of ex-pression in drawing and painting. In this way, thecinema would appear to contribute to the aestheticdevelopment of the child.

71

319.Clostermann, Gerhard. 'Nanuk der Eskimo':Oberstufenkinder urteilen fiber einen Film.L' Nanook of the North' : evaluation of a filmby secondary school pupils2 In; Film, Jugend,Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (11), January 1955,4 p.

Results of an inquiry carried out with 68 boys and60 girls between-the ages of 10 and 15, afterscreening of the film "Nanook of the North". Thequestions asked dealt particularly with the sharp-ness of auditory and visual perception, the subjectof the film, impressions produced by the film andits characters, landscape and scenes of nature,music; 90 per cent of the children were able tomake a satisfactory precis of the film. Theauthor, attempting to ascertain why the remainingchildren (10 per cent) could not follow the film,reveals, among other things, the influence oftemperamental characteristics. 99.1 per cent ofthe children replied (22.6 per cent with enthusiasm)that they enjoyed the film; 25 per cent of thechildren gave vague assessments (the film is ex-citing, instructive, amusing). The replies of theothers (75 per cent) made it possible, neverthe-less, to determine to what extent the film wasinstructive, exciting, etc. 30.5 per cent of thechildren, for example, declared that the film isinstructive because it taught them about the habitsand customs of foreign peoples.

320 . C ochin, Marcel. Recherche d lune pedagogie destine -clubs. Lin search of a pedagogical me-thod for film clubs.] In: Education et cine-ma, Paris, I (6), July 1956, p. 395-397.

If the organized discussion of a film is to be suc-cessful certain principles should be observed. Nocriticism of the film should be asked for as longas the audience is still under its spell. One shouldstart the discussion by asking what scenes oractors seemed particularly striking. In thesecond phase of the debate, the discussion leadershould explain why the scenes or persons men-tioned attracted the audience in a certain way.Following this he can analyse the film. The thirdphase opportunity should be offered for the spec-tator to formulate his own judgement.

321. Dale, Edgar. How to Appreciate MotionPictures: A Manual of Motion Picture Criti-cism prepared for High School Students. NewYork, Macmillan, 1938 (first published in1935), 243 p. (Payne Fund Studies).

Young people must be given all the informationnecessary to enable them to evaluate films con-structively. They must therefore be given objec-tive standards of aesthetic appraisal. The historyof the cinema and the process of making a filmare described in detail.

72

322.Decili filmski klub (Film club for children).Priru8nik saveta druiltava za staranje o deciomladini Yugoslavije. (Manual of the Federa-tion of Children's Welfare Organizations ofYugoslaviaj In: Savremena Skola (Modernschooj/, Belgrade, 1958, 61 p.

A handbook concerned for the most part with child-ren's film clubs in Yugoslavia. A survey of the maintype of films which young people may see, followedby a detailed study of the organization and ways ofrunning children's film clubs, and of the criteriaapplicable tothe choice of films. An article byDuaanStojanovia , entitled "Kinoklubovi mladih kodnas" ("Our young people's film clubs"). A list oftechnical terms in the cinema, summary of notablefilms inthe history of the cinema, notes on projec-tion apparatus and a short bibliography.

323.Deherpe, Raphael. Pour une pedagogie ducinemq. LA plea for film educationd In:Education et cinema, Paris, January 1954,101 p. (special number).

A detailed explanation of the psychological andsociological characteristics of the cinema and adiscussion of the aims of film education, i.e.learning to understand the film language, to appre-ciate films aesthetically and morally, and toassimilate their message. Various methods offilm education are examined.

324.Drillich, P.A. Een oeeen inrichting. LA study-group on the cinemain an institutionjIn: De Koepel, Rotterdam,November 1955, p. 386-390.

The record of an experiment aimed at inducingyoung girls to adopt a critical attitude towards thecinema. A single film was shown on five occasionsto subjects between the ages of 13 and 21, in ahostel for working girls. A few days later, adebate was organized, with the assistance of achairman from outside.

325 . Dus sardier , Maurice . L' education cinema-tographique a-t-elle sa place la colonie?(Does educational cinema have a place in the'Colonle'Y In: Vers 1' education nouvelle,Paris, (116), September 1957, p. 18-24.

This record of an experiment conducted at the"colonie de vacances" (holiday-home) atPuygirault (Vienne) shows how the production offilms by children themselves can help in introduc-ing them to the cinema.

326.Ekk, A.A. and Oskolskij, A.P. Zadaai, sistema imetody vnakolneikinoraboty s det'mi v 1933-1934 O. Godu. (Problems, systems and me-thods of extra-curricularfilm work with child-ren during the school year 1933-1934j Leningrad,Office of the Artistic Education of Children, 1933, np.

Directives concerning problems of method for usein all sectors of Public Instruction and all schoolsin Leningrad. The organization of extra-curricularfilm work in Leningrad is described: in each dis-trict, a specialist instructor prepares a generalwork plan and supervises its execution; in eachschool and trade union club, a children's filmspecialist is responsible for this work; he is as-sisted by a group of pupils representing the activemembers .

The book sets out the educational work requiredfor a film: (a) explaining to the children the fun-damental idea of the film; (b) acquainting themwith the period represented by the film; (c) deve-loping their ability to appreciate the artistic valueof the film. Educational work concerning a filmshould bear on a single problem only, that whichhas the most characteristic importance in thecontemporary situation. If a second screening ofthe same film is made, another subject may bedealt with. The aim of this book is to illustrate apractical achievement in centralizing the organiza-tion, methods and direction of film work withchildren for the city as a whole.

327. Fusellier,_E. Possibilites d tun enseignement ducinema ./Possibilities for teaching about thecinema.] In: Enfance, Paris, 1957, p.377-382 (special number) .

th. plan for the organization of teaching about thecinema in the second cycle of secondary education.This teaching should be given in close connexionwith the course in literature, which it would pro-vide with a much-needed stimulus.

328 .Garmendia de Otaola, A. Educaci6n cinema-tografica: Cine forum. (Educational cinema:Cine-forum.] In: Atenas, Madrid, (243),May 1954.

The activities of the Cine-Forum are without doubtexcellent in its choice of films for adults, butshould be extended to include a study of the pro-blem of education for young people and children inits entirety; i.e. it should take account of thesocial, technical, artistic, moral, religious, andhuman aspects of the cinema.

329 . Gel Mont, A .M . (Ed .) . Kino - Deti - Skola ./inema - Children - School.] Moscow,Publications on Cultural Activities, 1929,240 p.

A collection published by the "extra-curriculareducation" section of the Council of ScientificMethod (Moscow section of the Department ofPublic Instruction). The articles and informationcontained in this collection reflect characteristicexperiences concerning the use of silent films inextra-curricular activities with children duringthe first period of development of the Sovieteducational system.

The first part ("The cinema and education")explains general problems relating to the educa-tional and instructive r6le of the cinema, thesebeing mainly questions of film perception, andproblems of pedagogy, hygiene and health con-nected with the use of the cinema in work withchildren. The second part ("Film matinees forchildren") and the third part ("The cinema forchildren") describe the methods of organizationand work with children before, during and afterthe screening of a film, illustrated by examplesfrom practical experience. The methods citedhave been tried and proved by extra-curricularteachers. The fourth part ("The cinema andschool") explains problems of organization andmethods involved in setting up a cinema in theschool. It also gives information on educationalfilms.

At the time, this work played an important partin the development of the cinema for children andthe cinema for school purposes in the SovietUnion. It has also served as a manual for educa-tors who used the cinema in education.

330 .Gemelli, Agostino. Film per ragazzi.gilmsfor children.] In: Cinema, Rome, DI (1),1938, p. 9-10.

The author examines the problem of censorship,and comes to the following conclusions: "if a childknows that a film has been censored, his enjoymentor interest is lessened...to ban children from thecinema is impossible, raising the age-limit is abad solution which may have an opposite effect tothat intended. What is required are film producerscapable of reaching children, by telling themstories and educating without boring them".

331 .Greiner, Grace. Teaching Film. A Guide toClassroom Method. London, British FilmInstitute, 1955, 32 p.

A manual on film edUcation from kindergarten tosecondary school, based on practical experience.Examples of how children and adolescents can bebrought to a better understanding, appreciationand critical assimilation of films are given for eachage and type of school. Data on several organiza-tions working in the field of film education, and alist of aids, are given in three annexes.

332.GrOder, Ursula. Das Filmerlebnis and seinepadagogische Vertiefung "Erfahrungsberichtezum Film "Es est Miternacht Dr. Schweitzer"(Cinematographic experience and its educa-tional elaboration. A record of activitiesorganized in connexion with the film "It isMidnight, Dr. Schweitzer "j In: Film, Jugend,Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (14), July 1955, 4 p.

A survey of the comments and opinions of 17 teacherson activities which they organized on the theme ofthe film "It is Midnight, Dr. Schweitzer". Only

73

the children of 13 and 14 understood the moralcontent of the film, which had to be explained tothe 11 and 12-year olds. Indication of the methodsemployed by the teachers to secure a better under-standing by the children of the moral significanceof the film. Appreciations by the children of thecontent and form of the film.

333 .Haase, Ulrich. Filmerziehung im Kunstun-terricht . LFilm education in the art apprecia-tion class In: Film, Jugend, Schule,Gelsenkirchen, (14), July 1955, 6 p.

Does film education belong to the art appreciationclass in our schools? In aesthetic training it mustbe assumed that the good taste of young people isnot corrupted by films which seem to have "educa-tional" content, but which, in fact, are only senti-mental. The author gives an account of his ownexperience with young people who prepared aschool paper with lino-cut illustrations, based onfilm scenes which had attracted their attention.This type of a school bulletin is considered to be avery useful element in film education.

334.Hedden, C.G. Pin-up Girls in School: What toDo about Movies in the Classroom? In: TheEnglish Journal, Chicago, January 1946.

Describes experiences with a "two-week movieappreciation unit" in a New York junior highschool. Some of the questions raised were: "Howdoes one produce sound in a film?", "How does afilm camera operate?" . Following the discussions,pupils wrote film criticisms which clearly showeda heightened sense of discrimination. They alsotended to apply more valid criteria in theirselection of films.

335. Hills, Janet. Films and Children: The Posi-tive Approach. London, British Film Institute,n.d. 59 p.

A positive approach to the problem of the cinemaand youth is considered essential, and a plea istherefore made for film education. Possibilitiesof training "film teachers" are investigated and thework of the "Society of Film Teachers" is dis-cussed, as also are the results of experiencegained in England in teachers' training colleges.Suggestions are offered as to how film-educationalactivities can be incorporated into the curriculum,and how film clubs in schools and in young people'sassociations can be established. A brief survey isgiven of the activities of film education in othercountries (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)andUnited States of America) and a number of annexes(a bibliography, a list of media used instructionsfor guiding a film club, etc .) are appended.

74

336.Hochheimer, Rita. Motion Picture Discrimi-nation in Schools. A Consideration of theTheatrical Motion Picture and its Place inEducation. Wilmette, Ill., EncyclopaediaBritannica Films, n.d. , 7 p. (stencilled).

Contains a definition of "motion picture discrimina-tion" (film education) and consideration of themanner in which this subject can be integrated inthe school curriculum and teachers trained forthis purpose.

337 .Hodgkinson, A .W . Film Appreciation inYouth Clubs. Some Suggested Approaches.London, British Film Institute, 1955, 14 p.(stencilled).

A survey of the methods which can be applied infilm education in youth clubs . The following sub-jects are discussed: how to lead group discussionon a given film or a subject relating to it; choos-ing films which young people should see; how tocollect news clippings, photographs, critiques, etc. ,of these films; how to hold "sessions" concerninga given film in order to understand its qualities;the offer of an "Oscar" for the best film or per-formance in which young people are taught toformulate their judgement accurately; a "brainstrust" in which the participants must try to answervarious questions by way of a competition; shortlectures on film by young people themselves; thewriting of film critiques; the making of scenariosand short films; and the preparation of a shortstudy on a film subject.

338 .Hodgkinson, A.W. Twenty Films to Use inJunior Film Societies. London, British FilmInstitute and the Society of Film Teachers,1953, 55 p.

Twenty films suitable for screening and discussionin Junior Film Societies are cited and data givenwhich may be of use to leaders of such clubs.Technical details, principal actors and summaryof contents are given for each film. A number ofpress reviews are also listed. The main points,however, are suggestions for discussion arisingfrom each film.

339.Hodgson, Lena. Children as Film Makers.In: Sight and Sound, London, 26 (2) , Autumn1956, p. 100-102.

In some primary and middle schools, childrenmake their own films; in this way, they learn tolook more attentively and critically at films, andto develop their aesthetic sense. This cinemato -graphic education may be given in connexion withvarious subjects in the curriculum; the scenariois prepared during English lessons, illustrationsduring Art classes, etc. In addition to film makingthere are screenings and discussions.

340 .Inui, Takashni. Eiga no Kansho-shido.(Guidance towards appreciation of the cinema./Tokyo, Soryusha, Gendai Jido-Bunka Koza,1951, (Present-Day Children's Culture series,I).

The book deals (on p. 234-253) with the guidance,from the psychological point of view, of childrentowards appreciation of the cinema.

341 .Kimpfer, Winfried. Bildungsmaglichkeitender Filmerzeihun im Reli: onsunterricht derhoheren Schule. Educational possibilities ofthe cinema in religious instruction in second-ary schools In: Film, Jugend, Schule,Gelsenkirchen, (10), September 1954, 8 p.

The author, who is a secondary school teacher,has experimented with film discussions duringreligious instruction. His point of departure isthe contention that only really interesting filmsare worth examining. The discussion of filmsmakes it possible to deal both "intuitively" andsearchingly with spiritual and religious values. Adetailed outline of the methods applied in connexionwith three of the films studied: "The Edge ofDoom", "Don Camillo" and "Journal d tun cure decampagne".

342.Keilhackerj_Martin. Fragen der Filmer-ziehung. /problems of film educationd In:Zeitschrift fiir Pidagogik, Weinheim, III (4),1957, p. 253-270.

A systematic survey of different forms and me-thods of practical film education and the criticalstudy of them from a psychological and pedagogicalpoint of view. The choice of suitable films (espe-cially animal films) for different age groups is in-vestigated. By means of such films, the child canbe induced to acquire experiences which are abso-lutely necessary for his development, but which herarely finds in the outside world. In pre-pubertyan interest in technical aspects of the cinema isawakened; that of boys is directed towards film-making and trick photography, while girls look atthe movements of film actors. The question of thedesirability of "disillusioning" must also be asked.The author feels that such "disillusion" shouldhave a positive intention only, i.e. it should meetthe curiosity and the impulse to know how a film ismade. In puberty the behaviour of young peoplebecomes truly "polydimensional". Young peopleare interested in many facets of the film simulta-neously. Films are a gateway and a trainingground for life for children of this age-group.Education must not be restricted to aesthetic edu-cation only. Methods of film discussion, and thestudy of suitable literature on film, are alsodescribed.

343 . Kerstiens, Ludwig. Filmunterricht in derhoheren Schule. /Film education in the highschool. In: Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsen-kirchen, LX, December 1953.

Four stages in film education in secondary schoolscan be distinguished. For pupils between 10 and12 years of age, visits to the cinema should beconsiderably restricted; yet, when children wantto discuss a film they have seen, they should betaken seriously. When the need for cinema visitsbecomes greater, more attention is given to filmcontent, and therefore teaching young people tounderstand the content (e.g. by reproducing thefilm story) becomes imperative. Towards the endof this period, a beginning should be made withmoral evaluation of the film content. In the thirdperiod, the pupils also interest themselves in filmform, and the teacher must, at this stage, defineclearly methods of expression by photography andmontage. Children should be allowed to prepare ascript based on a literary story. In the advancedclasses of the secondary school, attention must begiven to aesthetic evaluation of the film as a whole,i.e. with regard to both form and content. Pupilsmust now learn to realize that the film can influencetheir outlook on life.

344. Kobayashi, Kaoru. Eiga no Kansho Shido.(Guidance in cinema appreciation./ Tokyo,Kofu Publishing Co. , Kofu Kyoiku Raiburari,1955, 91 p. (Kofu Educational Library series)

Contents: 1. The significance of guidance incinema appreciation. 2. Present conditions in thefilm world. 3. The cinema and schoolchildren.4. Merits and demerits of the cinema. 5. Choiceof films. 6. How to guide cinema appreciation.7. Examples of guidance in cinema appreciation.8. Various problems in guidance.

The book also includes an overall discussion ofguidance in cinema appreciation, children's filmpreferences, and statistics of film attendance bychildren and others.

345.Lanocita, Arturo. Cinema: Fabbrica di sojW./Cinema: a dream factoryj Milan, Ed.Signorelli, 1951.

A history of the cinema, written for children. Thiswork also contains some interesting statistics con-cerning cinema attendance and favourite actors, onthe basis of data provided by English children.

346 . Laporta, Raffaele. Che cosa a un cineclubper ragazzi: Problemi nsico-pedagogici./What is a children's film club? psycho-pedagogical problems_] In: Cineclub perRagazzi, Rome, 1957, p. 33-48.

Paper presented to a study session on film clubsfor children (Rome, 1956), dealing with the influ-ence of films on children and the functions of

75

organizers of film clubs, who "may improve,correct and even completely change" the differentreactions provoked in children by films.

347 .Laporta, Raffaele. Educazione morale edestetica attraverso it linguaggio cinemato-grafico nei giovanni dells scuole medicsuperiori italiane. Mora( 1 17E-------td.aesthetic edu-cation through the language of the cinema foryoung pupils in Italian upper middle schools,7In: Il nuovo cinema, Rome (7), November-December 1952, p. 13-14.

When, towards the age of 16, a young person iscapable of understanding the complex syntax offilm language, it would be appropriate for theteacher to "br'ng into the school itself the cinemawhich the child seeks outside". It is consequentlynecessary to develop in young people a criticaltaste for the language of the cinema, thus entailingas aesthetic and moral evaluation of films.

348 .Lehman, Margaret. Motion Picture Educationin a Small Suburban High School. In: Funda-mentals in a Democratic School, Philadelphia,University of Pennsylvania, 1938, p. 409-413.

A description of a ten-week course in film appre-ciation given at a Pennsylvania high school in1938. It includes an expose of the various phasesof film production, followed by practice in filmmaking, during which the students acquired ex-perience in scenario writing, film acting, andstage management.

Film critiques were studied with a view todeveloping the pupil's ability to select suitablefilms for children of various ages.

349 .Lehnemann, Heinrich. Vielseitige Film-Auswertung. Ergebnisse einer unterricht-lichen Behandlung des Films "Columbus"./Multilateral appreciation of films. Resultsfrom the use of the film "Columbus" inteaching_] In: Film, Jugend, Schule,Gelsenkirchen, (14), July 1955, 4 p.

The report of an experiment in film criticism inschool. In accordance with the practice of"Westdeutsche Schulfilm", the film "Columbus"was first shown to teachers and to a small groupof pupils who'were afterwards asked certain ques-tions about the film. The answers enabled theteachers to decide whether the film was suited toits intended purpose. The film was then screenedbefore all the pupils who were the subjects of theexperiment, and they were asked to write downtheir impressions. The author quotes extractsfrom these essays, which contain appreciations ofthe content and form of the film, its technicalqualities and its use in the teaching of history. Theextracts showed that films of this type are valuableteaching aids.

76

350 .Lensing, Adolf. Warum Filmerziehung in derSchule? LWhy film teaching is necessary.] In:Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (10),September 1954, 4 p.

The cinema meets a real and entirely acceptableneed of young people of all ages. It is true thatseeing too many films without supervision or con-trol has its dangers, but the teacher should not beblind to the fact that some films have a positiveeducational value. The film is a teaching aid thatcannot be controlled: it may be excellent or harm-fill. The school may play an important r8le byprotecting children from the dangers of the cinemaand exploiting its educational possibilities.

351.Lewin, William. Photoplay Appreciation inAmerican High Schools. New York, D.Appleton Century, 1934. 122 p.

Can the film habits of more mature children inAmerica be improved in the English lessons inschool; can certain ideals and attitudes be deve-loped by the showing of well-selected films fromcurrent production; can the local cinema serve asan "educational laboratory", and films for high-school pupils yield valuable and useful literaryexperience?

Film appreciation can be taught to normallyintelligent boys and girls in grades 9, 10, 11 and12, after which the pupils adopt the habit of seek-ing their teachers' advice in the selection of films.Class instruction leads also to appreciation ofhonesty, gallantry, devotion and self-sacrifice.Film appreciation can well begin by consideringthe work of the film director, and the importanceattached to his name. The pupils like to discussfilms and take an active part in these discussions.The use of films is also an aid to literaryappreciation.

352.Lewin, William and Frazier, Alexander.Standards of PhotoplayAppreciation. Summit,New Jersey, Educational and RecreationalGuides, Inc., 1957.

Intended as a textbook for junior and senior highschools. The approach is primarily informational.Production, screen writing, directing, screen act-ing, editing and cinematography are described andthe contribution of each-to the finished film is in-dicated. Names and notable achievements, bothpresent and past, of important figures in each fieldare discussed. Standards of performance in eachfield are given. A summary chapter on "How tobecome a better movie-goer" contains a ratingscale to be used in evaluating particular films. Aguide for the class discussion of the screen versionof "Julius Caesar" is also annexed.

The authors note in the preface: "It is futile toexpect any significant improvement in young people'smovie tastes unless the teaching procedure includesa series of at least fourteen class periods devoted

to the discussion of a minimum of sevenselected pictures".

353 .Liska, Miroslay. Le film artistique en tantque moyen de travail dans lee &oleo des Ieret Herne degree. LThe artistic film as a teach-ing aie in primary and secondary schools .JIn: Comenius, Prague, 96 (14, 1952, p.804-810.

The author analyses the opinions of psychologistsconcerning conditions for children's understandingof a work of art. He then deals with the prepara-tion of teachers and pupils for the showing of films,and evaluates the educational and instructional as-pects of the cinema. The work is based on anexample: "The brave schoolgirl".

354 .Liska, Miroslav, Beran, Jan and Brychtova,V. Le film artistique dans le travail educatifet instructif de l'ecole unique. LThe artisticfilm in the educational and instructional workof the comprehensive school) Prague, StatePublishing House for Education, 1953.

The authors quote examples of the use of artisticfilms for educational purposes in the compulsorygeneral school. They record in detail the trainingof teachers and the psychological and educationalpreparation of pupils, and also examine the ques-tion of discussions after the screening of films.The book concludes with six concrete examples,together with stenographers' notes on commentsmade by pupils.

355 .McCullough, Constance. A Preview of anInvestigation of Motion-picture Class and ClubActivities. In: The English Journal, Chicago,XXVIII (2), Part I, February 1939, p. 120-130.

The result of a survey on film education in schooland in youth organizations. The answers comefrom 40 classes and 40 clubs in 23 different Statesof the United States of America. Film courses,from one to six weeks in duration, are organized inmany schools (mainly in senior high schools).Teachers generally employ a book or film perio-dical as guide. (Edgar Dale 's book "How to appre-ciate motion pictures" is the work most frequentlycited (see no.321).) Most teachers are of theopinion that the subject "film" can better be dealtwith in class than in a film club, and severalexamples of suitable methods are noted.

356 .Maggio, Joseph B. A Guidance Programme inFilmA andTaste. New York, FilmEstimate Board of National Organizations,15 June 1956. (Joint Estimates of CurrentEntertainment Films - Green Sheets).

A film study course in a high school is described,t%t ld on the "Communication Arts Syllabus" .why are we less selective with regard to film

choice than book selection?" "Are young peopletaken seriously in motion pictures; are they real;are they given credit for intelligence?" Thesequestions were discussed by the pupils with theresult that they learned to judge a film criticallyand realized that they were able to exercise someinfluence on film distribution and production, i.e.by refusing to see a given film.

357.Makarenko, Anton S. Ekciii o vospitanil detej.(Lectures on the education of children) 8thlecture: The cinema. In its: Works, 2nd ed.Vol. IV. Moscow, Academy of PedagogicSciences of the RSFSR, 1957, p. 417-428.

The author considers that "in our time the filmrepresents a powerful factor of education, not onlyfor children, but also for adults". He also notes"the unpleasant side of children's infatuation forthe cinema. Often, the child does not pass thestage of simple unreasoned impressions; his ar-tistic impressions are superficial, they do nottouch his personality, do not awaken thought andpose no problems. Under these conditions, thefilm offers only very insignificant advantages andmay, at times, cause considerable harm".

For this reason, the author advises parents andteachers to prevent their children from visitingthe cinema more than twice a month, to discussfilms with them, and to direct their thoughts tothe deepest and most important aspects of films.He recommends that children should visit thecinema with their parents or with older brothersor sisters.

358.Marcus, H.L. Plea for the Movies. In:High Points, St. Albans, N.Y. , November1945.

An account of a lecture course on film held at theEastern District High School in New York exclu-sively for honour students . The course was dividedinto 19 "units" , among which figured: "standardsfor films", "validity and treatment of socialproblems", and "types of motion pictures" .Following the course, the pupils had a heightenedsense of discrimination, were more sensitive topropaganda elements in the film, and thereforebecame more critical of the treatment of socialproblems.

359.Marcussen, Elsa B., Germeten, Elsa, Ness,Einar. Rapport am forsoket med filmunder-visn pa Ruselokke Skole, 1956. (Report on anexperiment with film teaching in RuselokkeSchool, 19562 Oslo, Norm Almenviten-skapelige Forskningsrad,LNorwegian PopularScience Research Council), 1957, n.p.

A report on an experiment in film teaching among300 pupils aged 12-13 in an Oslo elementary school.After an introduction about film education abroad,the report describes the pedagogical methods and

77

the materials used in the experiment. It gives theevaluation of two film experts and a group ofteachers as to the methods and the results. Theresults of two questionnaires issued to the childrenduring the experiment are also published, givingan indication of the extent of cinema-going amongthe children, their film preferences, and theirattitudes before and after the film teachingexperiment.

360.Menlinskaja, Ju. Kino kak vid massovojraboty s det mi. LThe cinema, as an aspectof collective work with children] PedagogicalEncyclopaedia, published under the directionof A.G. Kalahnikov, with the assistance ofM.S. Eplitejn, vol. II: The Cultural Worker .

Moscow, 1928, p. 542 -548.

The article consists of four parts: (1) the educa-tional r8le of the cinema and the immediate pro-blems concerning work with children in the field ofthe cinema; (2) the organization of film sessionsfor children; (3) preparatory work and (4) thespectacle and the repertoire.

Mention is made of the extra-curricular me-thods of using the cinema for educational purposesemployed during the early stages of the system ofSoviet public instruction, when special children'sperformances were organized with the aid of spe-cialized educators. The latter advised on thechoice of the most suitable films from an educa-tional point of view, bearing in mind the topicalinterest of the subjects. They then collectedmaterial likely to illustrate the subject of the filmto be screened(posters, drawings, photographsand printed material) for display in the foyer of thecinema and as a basis for games, songs and reci-tations with children before they were shown thefilm. In front of the exhibition stands they helddiscussions with the children in order to preparethem for better assimilation, feeling and under-standing of the film content. In the cinema itselfthe projection of a silent film was accompanied byan explanation or a recitation given by a suitablytrained educator .

The distribution of tickets for these educationalsessions was made in a systematic way by theschools, children's organizations, and "Pioneer"groups. The school groups attended cinema per-formances under the direction of their teachers,instructors or parents. The most active elementsamong the young spectators became the voluntaryhelpers of the organizers.

361 .Mikakawa, Kikuyoshi, and Hoshino, Choshaku.Eiga Kyoiku no Riron to Jissai. 4Principlesand practice of film education2 Tokyo,Koseilcaku, 1931, 373 p.

Part I: A view of the Cinema Era

1. Movement towards a "cinema civilization".2. Education and mechanical aids.

78

3. Strength of the motion-picture industry.4. Reliance of education on the motion-picture

industry.5. Practical measures against harmful film-

vidwing.

Part 2: Principles of Film Education

1. What is the educational film?2. The field of film education.3. School education and films shown at school.4. Social education and problems of the cinema.5. Present conditions of film education in Japan.6. Film education in the future.7. The cinema and children's health.8. The bad cinema and educational counter-

measures.

362.iVtilieirwh.amosieGFoarnrdonn.

Family_.Doctor, Auckland,p. 28-30.

More Movies Suitable forIn: New Zealand Family

3 (1), January 1959,

The author, who has served as Film Censor forNew Zealand, shows how official censorship selectsfilms suitable for children. Such films include, inparticular, British productions by "Children'sEntertainment Films" and by the Children's FilmFoundation, as well as an increasing number offilms in which cuts have to be made to eliminatescenes and shots which might bore or frightenchildren. With the aid of various examples, theauthor shows how certain scenes, which could beconsidered harmless for adults, cannot be screenedbefore children as they were produced. It is ne-cessary to set up in New Zealand a centre forchildren's films (in accordance with the recom-mendations of the International Centre of Filmsfor Children in Brussels), which would perform agreat service to the production, import and distri-bution of good children's films, and to study andresearch in this field.

363 .Mohrhof, Siegfried. Die Filrndiskussion unddie Jugendgruppe. ZPilm discussion groupsand youth clubs.] In: Film-Bild, Ton, Munich,V (8), November 1956, p. 33-47.

Some considerations on film discussion groups foryoung peop1P: educitional needs, themes for dis-cussion (lack of realism, the pseudo-problems andaesthetics of the cinema), and factures of collectivepsychology which the organizer should take intoaccount; practical problems to be solved in theinterests of well-organized discussions.

364.Mohrhof, Siegfried; Haase, Ulrich; Winkler,Gerd and Brudny Wolfgang. Filmgesprachemit Jugendlichen. Beitrgge zur Methodik undPraxis der Jugendfilmarbeit. LFilm discus-sions with young people. A contribution tomethods and practice in youth film activities,.]Munich, Institut fur Film und Bild inWissenschstft und Unterricht, 1957, 52 p.

Considers the value of organizing discussionsamong young people and the methods likely tobring the best results . Well directed discussionsenable the participants to acquire more objectivestandards of film appreciation and stimulate think-ing about problems treated in films. Haase sum-marizes the principles of good film discussion andoffers suggestions for advance preparation by dis-cussion leaders. Several pedagogical points ofview are considered.

Winkler explains how a film can be analyseddramatically and cinematographically. Mohrhofreviews the various types of persons who take partin film discussions, the difficulties of getting adiscussion started, and the aids available to thediscussion leader. Brudny discusses how youngpeople experience a film at different ages, andlinks this with his ideas on the importance of filmdiscussion among young people. A short biblio-graphy onthe art of leading a discussion is included.

365 .Mura, Antonio. Il film nell'educazione deigiovani. LThe film in education for youngpeopled In: Ufficio Cattolico della Educa-zione, Bolletino, Rome, X (7), July 1958,p. 249-253.

A synthesis of problems related to the cinema andchildren. The artistic taste and poetic sense ofthe child are not sufficient to enable him to judgea film correctly. The task of the teacher is toprepare the child to judge a film "firstly by edu-cating him morally and aesthetically, then, if itshould be necessary, by keeping him at all costsaway from harmful films" .

366 .0ietti, Pasquale. Immunizziamo i ragazzidal cinema. LLet us immunize childrenagainst the cinema; In: Maternith e infanzia,Rome, (5-6), May-June 1951, p. 37-39.

A summary of discussions. The author advocatesfilm education for children, i.e. a psychologicalsolution to the problem rather than one involvingsuch external methods of coercion as censorshipor restrictive legislation.

367.Peres, B. Revang 1930. LitevengejKandirin, B. Palika 1931. Lpachka2Muarav' ev,, I. Ja ne lament LI am notsmallKister, G. Othajanyl betel' on 1934. if hebrave batallionjMoscow, Directorate of CinematographicInstallation Services of the Sovnarkom of theRSFSR. (Monographs on Children's Films) .

These brochures concerning the above children'sfilms were published at the time the films wereissued, for use by children's cinemas and schools.

Each brochure gives: (1) the credit titles ofthe film; (2) the subject; (3) the content; (4) anevaluation of the film; (5) suggestions for the

arrangement of the foyer of the cinema (in accord-ance with the title of the film), slogans, posters,photographs from the film; (6) documentation forthe reading rooms: a list of books relating to thefilm, ideas for work concerning these books; (7)ideas for the organization of children's collectivegames related to the subject of the film; (8) docu-mentation for the educator and his work for andwith the children: poems, songs, ideas for play-lets on the subject of the film; (9) a subject dia-gram of the educational work with children priorto screening; (10) general subjects for lecturesor discussions before the presentation of the filmto the children; (11) characteristics of the com-mentary accompanying a silent film; (12) sugges-tions for work following the screening of the film.

Such brochures were published regularly forseveral years.

368.Peters, Jan M.L. Experiences and Ideas onFilm Teaching n En landgA Western Germany,France the United States of America and theNetherlands. The Hague, Institut Film enJeugd, 1957, 63 p. (stencilled).

A report prepared for an international conferenceon film education (Amsterdam, November 1957),which examines in detail the principles applied infilm education in each of the countries concerned,namely; main considerations on which the needfor film education is based; the concept of filmeducation; the age at which such education shouldbegin; the advisability of film education as a schoolor out-of-school activity. A study of methods andaids utilized in film education, in connexion withthe age of the pupils, the place which such educa-tion may be accorded in the curriculum, etc , Anindication of the methods used in various countriesto train the necessary teaching staff. A shortbibliography.

369. Peters, Jan M.L. The necessityof learning,how to see a film. In: Audio-Visual Commu-nication Review, Los Angeles, III (3), Summer1955, p. 197-205.

Film may be considered a language in the sense ofa linguistic system. The potentialities of thevisual language to stimulate perception, imagina-tion, ideas, thought, feeling and desire are dis-cussed. It is pointed out that to experience thesebenefits, the spectator must learn to understandthe film language. The film can be a valuable aidto the teacher in helping pupils to experience andvisualize the world and to familiarize themselvesWith given subjects.

370 .Reed, Stanley. Film Appreciation as a Class-room Subject. London, British Film Institute,n.d., 11 p. (stencilled).

The necessity for film education and the difficultiesto be overcome (e.g, the training of teachers) are

79

stressed. A plea is made for the introduction offilm lessons in school, and different methodswhich could be applied are proposed; the discus-sion method, instructions on film technique, writ-ing of scenarios, and the making of short filmsby the children themselves. Several practicalhints on how to obtain suitable films and other aidsare given.

371 Rosenthal, Newman H. Films in our Lives: AnApproach to Film Appreciation. Melbourne,F.W. Cheshire, 1953, 68 p.

The film can be said to have a real future only ifthe public receives satisfactory film education.The need for film education is stressed, and asurvey of film history, principles of film tech-nique and the process of film production are pre-sented, as well as several suggestions about theteaching of critical film appreciation in school.

372 . Santinello, Giovanni. Il cinema nella scuolacome mezzo didattico ed educativo. LThecinema in school as a didactic and educa-tional aidj In: Cinema e Scuola, Treviso,12 June 1952, p. 21-26 (special number).

A study of the possibilities of didactic cinema andof the use of fictional films as elements in theeducation of children and adolescents. If theteacher prepared the child to see, understand andjudge a film, it would considerably reduce thedisadvantages caused by the passive nature of filmentertainment.

373 . Schubert, Klaus. Das Filmgesprach mitJugendlichen: Grundsitliches and Prak-tisches. LA theoretical and practical guideto the organization of film study circles foryoung people Munich-13asle, ErnstReinhardt Verlag, 1957, 44 p.

This work is intended for the organizers and pro-moters of film study groups, particularly thosein schools and youth clubs. The introduction dealswith the theoretical importance of film discus-sions as teaching methods, and is followed byobservations on the choice of films to be studied,and the preparation and organizations of discus-sion. The discussion should lead to a criticalappreciation of the relationship between the filmand reality and of its technical and aestheticqualities. Suggestions for the conduct of discus-sions, and an account of the general educationalvalue, the dangers and the limits of filmdiscussions.

374 .Sciascia, Ugo. La nostra azione. Louraction./ In: Stampa, cinema, radio perragazzi, Rome, n.d., p. 79-83.

Contact between young people and the moderncinema is responsible for increasing mental and

80

moral unrest. Consequently, it is necessary todevelop in children a suitable critical sense, andto take steps to provide them with special filmsand cinemas.

375 .Sekino, Yoshio. Eigo Kyoiku no Riron.LPrinciples of film education, Tokyo,Shogakkan, 1942, 430 p.

1. Principles of cultural films.2. Principles of film education

Chapter 1: Tracing the development of filmeducation.

Chapter 2: The advance of film education.Chapter 3: Problems of learning through films,

and films for school subjects .Chapter 4: Problems of film education outside

schools, and screenings in the schoolauditorium.

Chapter 5: The establishment of children's films.Chapter 6: The place of film appreciation in the

field of education.

376 .Seton, Marie. The Film as an EducationalForce in India. New Delhi, Ministry of Education,1956, 41. (Culture in Education series, 3).

A series of lectures:1. The subjects and the films.2. General reactions to film appreciation.3. The educational value of specific films.4. Experiments with children and villagers.

377. Shoemaker, Francis ed. Communication Artsin the Curriculum. In: Communication andthe Communication Arts, ed. by FrancisShoemaker, New York, 1957, p. 111-119.

An analysis of the pedagogical implications ofSusanne Langer's theories ("Philosophy in a newkey" and "Feeling and form"). Man conquers theworld through symbols which complete the blanksin his experience and through which he assimilatesother people's experiences. Susanne Langermakes a distinction between discursive and non-discursive symbols, both of which are essentialin the child's education towards adulthood. Filmsshould belong to the syllabus of schools as theybring us in contact - along the non-discursive way -with aspects of life which cannot be approachedthrough other symbols .

378 .Society for the Study of Film Education inJapan. Eiga Kyoiku no Kiso Chishiki.(Fundamental knowledge on film education:7Osaka, 1930, 348 p.

Part I deals with Problems of Film Education.Chapters include Furyoji to Eiga tono Kankei

(Relations between delinquent children and thefilm/ by Seisuke Fujimura; and Jido no Kogyo-eiga Kanran Mondai to Eiga KyoikuLProblems ofchildren's film-viewing at theatres, and educationby the fills/ by Tatsuo Inada.

379 .Stiickrath, Fritz (et al.) Arbeitshinweisefur Jugendfilmclubs. (Suggestions for filmclubs f Achen, Verband der deutschenFilmclubs e. V. - Jugendreferat, (1),September 1956, 56 p.

A series of directives and practical suggestionsconcerning film education. Articles,by FritzStiickrath (Der Film als Bildungserlebnis derJugend); Siegfried Mohrhof (Die Arbeit in derBundesrepublik). A list of recommended films,film criticisms, remarks on the programme of acourse in film appreciation, etc.

380 .Tarroni, Evelina. Spettacolo, tipo, emetodologia dei cineclubs per ragazzi.ZProgrammes, type and methodology of filmclubs for children." In: Cineclub perragaze, Rome, 1957, p. 73-80.

A paper presented during the study session onchildren' s film clubs (Rome, 23-25 April, 1956).

The methodology of children' s film clubsshould differ from that of clubs for adults. Refer-ring to results of an inquiry carried out for thePedagogical Institute on the tastes and behaviourof children with regard to the cinema, the authordistinguishes two groups of spectators (8-12 year-olds, and 12-17 year-olds), for which he outlinesa methodology to be used in discussions and inthe selection of films.

381 .Tol' , B.H. Primenenie kino vo vneklassnojrabote lkoly. LThe cinema and extra-curricular school activities.] In: GercenInstitute of Pedagogy, Scientific notes,Leningrad, VIII (1), 1953, p. 46-82.

In the introduction, a general view of the roleplayed by the cinema for young people in the lifeand education of children and adolescents is given.Important documentation is presented, based onthe Soviet and foreign press . Using extracts fromthe American, English and Greek press, the authorpresents a critical examination of the influence ofHollywood film production on young people.

The author stresses that it is important forteachers and instructors among the "Pioneers" tobe initiated into film work at school and to haveassimilated the principles of film "grammar".

Descriptions of the different types of filmactivity at school demonstrate the varied natureof this work as carried out in Leningrad. Filmsare used in conjunction with touristic and sportingactivities of young people. Films also facilitatetheir understanding of all aspects of art: theatre,painting, sculpture, music, etc.

The question of integrating film into the syl-labus is raised: pupils must learn to know thefilm classics in the same way as the classic worksof literature.

Different extra-curricular ways of using filmsin Soviet schools are described.

382. Troger , Walter. Beispiel einer Filmanalysefiir Ju endliche:"Das Geheimnis der SchwesterAngelikd'. LAn example of film analysis foryoung people: "The Secret of Sister Angelica'In: -Jugend and Film, Munich, (2), 1957,p. 17-28.

An analysis of a thought-provoking film, indicatingquestions which might serve as subjects for a filmdiscussion with adolescents In each instance, theauthor endeavours to explain what it praiseworthyor reprehensible in the actions and motives of thefilm's main characters.

383 .Urickij, N.Z. Kino vo vnEklassnoj rabote.The cinema and extra-curricular activities.'

Moscow, Utchpedgis, 1954, 120 p.

A manual of methods for the educational use offilms with State school pupils between 12 and 17years of age.

Chapter 1 gives a general view of non-documen-tary films and discusses films preferred by youngpeople.

Chapter 2 explains the r8le and range of Sovietfilms in the political education of the young. Ob-sErvations made by teachers, and the pupils' view-point concerning the place of the cinema in theirexistence, are presented. The material collectedgives concrete and abundant information on thetastes and interests of Soviet pupils with regard tofilms.

Chapter 3 describes different ways of utilizingfilms in extra-curricular activities and shows towhat extent the role of the teacher is varied andresponsible. He must control the children'scinema-going habits, organize collective outings,and prepare school cinema performances. Hemust familiarize himself with the films prior toscreening in order to be able to arrange film pro-grammes according to the age of the spectators.A school film performance is not limited to asimple screening, but a whole series of educa-tional activities are attached to it, and meetingswith well-known personalities have here animportant place.

Finally, the activities of cinema clubs, whichenable pupils to familiarize themselves with filmtechniques and art, are described and programmesof cinema clubs are also given.

This work, which describes actual experiencein Moscow schools, is intended for a wide rangeof educators. The annex includes a catalogue ofthe children's film library up to 1 January 1954,and a bibliography of works relating to films .

384 . Verdone, Mario. Alcune esgerienze al estero.(Some foreign experimentsd In: Cineclubper ragazzi, Rome, 1957, p. 125-133.

A paper presented during a study session on filmclubs (Rome, 23-25 April 1956), dealing withforeign experiments in the screening of films for

81

7.1111111.1.3111.011.1.11nwRinMS

children; some useful comments on the directionof Italian activity in this field.

385 . Zochbauer , Franz. Kontrolluntersuchungenfiber den Erfolg filmischer Erziehung.LControl investigation of the success of filmeducationj In: Jugend and Film, Munich,December 1956, p. 1-8.

A questionnaire on the cinema was given to 3,000pupils of a boys' primary school in Salzburg, someof the questions being repeated one year later to165 pupils of the highest grade inthe school. Thesepupils had meanwhile receivedfilm education;several suitable films had been screened, and hadbeen expertlyintroduced and then discussed. A com-parison of the two inquiries showed that film educa-tion appears to have had some influence onthe fre-quency of cinema attendance, hero-worship of filmstars, critical attitudes vis-à-vis the film contentand interest therein.

In the first survey, 85 per cent of the childrenstated that the cinema had taught them how to be-have when with other people; only 55 per centcorroborated this statement during the secondsurvey. At the time of the first investigation, thefrequency of the children's visits to the cinemaamounted to 2.1 per month; it rose to 3.2 at thetime of the second inquiry (including additionalvisits to specially organized school film perform-ances). In the first survey, 60 per cent statedthat they went to the cinema to see a certain actor;in the second inquiry this figure had dropped to 26per cent. At the beginning only 33 per cent wereguided in the selection of films by critiques; thisfigure rose to 63 per cent in the second survey.

See also: nos.13, 15, 19, 37, 41, 56, 58, 65, 66, 71, 96,106, 127, 150, 177, 193, 212, 220, 233, 237, 241, 250,296. 300, 304, 307, 392, 398, 414, 415, 447, 448, 453,456, 460. 461, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 472,473, 474, 475, 477, 478, 481, 482, 483, 487, 490.

(c) PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OFCHILDREN'S FILMS: SELECTION OFSUITABLE PROGRAMMES FOR CHILDRENAND ADOLESCENTS

386. Basdevant, Andre. Cinema et education.LCinema and education.]A paper i.resented at the Second InternationalCongress of Filmology, Paris, 1955.

Some considerations on the technical, adminis-trative and financial problems posed by the use ofrecreational films for educational purposes.

387 . Bauchard, Philippe. The Child Audience.Paris, Unesco, 1952, 198 p.

A survey of the influence of press, film and radio

82

on children in: Belgium, France, Germany,Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Sweden,Switzerland, Turkey, the United States of Americaand Uruguay.

Chapter 2, dealing with "Films for Children,includes the following sub-headings: Production;Organizing performances for children; Children'sreactions; The film and juvenile delinquency.The author concludes that in the few countrieswhere an effort has been made to produce filmsspecially intended for children and to organizecinema clubs and performances for children, re-sults appear to have been most encouraging. Thisdoes not alter the fact that enterprises such asthese at present affect only a very small percentageof children, and that even the children who attendthe special performances continue to see a largenumber of films for adults. Inadequacy of produc-tion and impediments in the way of free trade infilms are two of the main current obstacles to thedevelopment of films for children.

388.Bertin, Giovanni M. Cinema et educationsociale. LCinema and social education.]A paper presented at the Second International.Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955.

Some brief considerations on the social and psycho-logical aspects of the cinema, followed by an out-line of influential conditions which education filmsshould meet. A pedagogical criticism of the neo-realist film.

389.Boldyreva, L.A. Kinoiurnal "Pioner" i egorol' v komunistieeskom vospitanii detej.LThe cinema journal "Pioner" and its role inthe communist education of children)Diploma thesis prepared under the directionof Professor G.M. Boltjanskij, 1949,(manuscript).

The problems facing the Soviet people in the edu-cation of the young generation.

The r8le of the documentary cinema-journal"Pioner" in the education of children.

Characteristics of its contents: variety of sub-jects drawnfrom life, political topicality and perti-nence and a gradualtendencytoward deeper sub-jects. The journal deals with children's studies andwork, their leisure and games, travel, and their mostinteresting artistic activities. It also includes aseries of studies deVoted to the great men of theSovietUnion, and other series devotedto popularscience, art, and general knowledge. Each series isbased on a clearly defined selection of subjects.

A detailed examination of the various stages inthe growth of "Pioner" and its operation before,during and after the war (e.g. special programmecharacteristics during the war: sequences showingpatriotic activities of children during the lastWorld War, and the r8le played by the Pioneerorganizations.

Analysis of technical problems: rules andprinciples for the production of a documentarycinema-journal for children. The subjects aretreated in the most accessible forms, i.e. essaysand short stories.

There is a detailed study of the art of prepar-ing a film commentary.

390 .Caldana, Alberto. II film per ragazzi alfestival di Venezia. (Children's films at theVenice Festival.] In: Ragazzi Aspiranti,Rome, (9-10), 1950, p. 399-403.

An account, with commentaries, of the VeniceFilm Festival for Children. Analysis of the filmspresented.

391. Ciampi, Antonio. Aspetti economici dellaproduzione di film per ragazzi. (Economicaspects of the production of films forchildren.] In: Lo Spettacolo, Rome, VI (4),October-December 1956, p. 19.

The positive solution to the problem of the "youth-cinema" relationship lies in the production of filmswhich meet both cultural and recreational needs atthe same time, because these films are seen notonly by young people but also by adults of littleeducation who wish to improve themselves. Thefuture depends on the spirit of initiative and theelement of risk taken by private firms, which needfinancing over longer periods and on better terms,a guarantee of wide distribution over the mainItalian circuits, and foreign exploitation, since theItalian market cannot support the cost of films ofa certain artistic standard.

392 .Cochin, Marcel. Etude d'un programme defilms pour Ia jeunesse miniLre. (Study of afilm programme for young miners.] In:Education et cinema, Paris, I (6), July 1956,p. 385-390.

The young miner between 19 and 20 years of agevisits the cinema frequently and prefers filmsabout cowboys, Tarzan, crime, and films with apronounced erotic element. The programme ofcine-clubs is too intellectual for this type of public.Because of their modest intelligence, emotionaldeprivation and life of hard work, they seeksecurity in the cinema in the anonymous mass oftheir companions. The film interests them in sofar as it demands neither physical nor mentaleffort, and to the extent that it affords oblivion,escape and amusement - the fulfilment of theirdream life. But their film appreciation can bedeveloped, first of all by helping them to recognizethe more positive aspects of the films whichappeal to them.

393.Dawson, Marjorie Granger. The Children'sFilm Library and Special Children'sProgrammes. New York, National Children'sFilm Library, n.d. 38 p.

A survey of the activities and working methods ofthe Children's Film Library in New York, contain-ing a list of films suitable for children. A shortdescription, and the result of the "Wiggle Test",is given of each film.

394.Edinburgh Film Festival, 1955. Making Filmsfor Children. (A report on the Conferenceheld during the 1955 Festival) Edinburgh,Edinburgh Film Festival, 1955, 31 p.

Addresses delivered at the Conference by MaryField, Patricia Latham, Brian Salt, Jan Choyce,Ernest Welton, George Singleton, J.K. StaffordPoole and M. McIntosh, with summaries of thediscussions which followed the addresses.

Topics included "General Principles of Pro-duction", "Scripting", "Direction", "Selection","International Distribution and Exhibition".

395 . Field, Mary. Good Company. London,Longmans, Green& Co., 1952, 192p. (Italianedition: II film per ragazzi in Gran Bretagna,Rome, Ed. dell'Ateneo, 1952).

Describes the development of the production ofchildren's films in the United Kingdom and dis-cusses the requirements of such production. Thisdemands, among other factors, special film tech-niques; particularly simplicity and clearness.Details of the reception accorded these filmsabroad and of the economic aspects of production,and a list of all films produced, are given.

396.Gastaldi, Enrico. Caratteristiche del filmper ragazzi. LCharacteristics of the film forchildrenj In: Rivista del Cinematografo,Rome, XXV (4), 1952, p. 6-8.

The author argues that the children's film shoulddivert without prejudicing education, captivatewithout distortion and instruct without boring. Thechild is full of imagination and curiosity: conse-quently the most suitable films for children wouldbe on the one hand fairy tales - to meet his ima-ginative needs - and on the other hand films ofhuman character and documentaries, to satisfyhis curiosity about life.

397.Gastaldi, Enrico. II cinema e i ragazzi.(Cinema and children) In: Rivista delCinematografo, Rome, XXIII (1), January1950, p. 12-13.

It is necessary to produce films adapted to the ageof the spectators, and to show them in specialcinemas.

83

398.Gel'mont, A. Kino kak Faktor Vospitanifa.LThe cinema as a factor in education) In:Courier of Culture, Moscow, (5), 1927,p. 9-21.

This article was written at a time when the cinemafor children in the Soviet Union was in its earlystages. Few films for children were in existenceand children saw mainly films for adults whichtaught them little, if they were not actuallydangerous.

Details are given of measures taken to mitigatethe harmful influence of the cinema by (1) limitingthe admission of children; (2) educational censor-ship of films, entrusted to Public Instructionbodies; (3) the organization of collective visits tothe cinema for children under the direction of theschool or "Pioneers" organization; (4) day nur-sery and activities for children in the foyer of thecinema while adults attended the screening; (5)organization of special children' s matinees.

At the same time production of a cinemato-graphic repertoire of good educational value wasstarted and the bases of cinematographic workingmethods with children were seriously studied. Thework plan included (1) the study of the young spec-tator; (2) the training of educators specializing inthe cinema; (3) the organization of an experimentaleducational cinema.

399 .Gerstenberger,, Magdalena. Jugendfilm-stiftung. Ein praktischer Versuch. LA pracz.tical experiment in film-making for children2In: Jugend and Film, Munich, (2), 1957,p. 29-36.

Faced with the shortage of good films for children,an attempt was made to adapt an adult film by thedeletion of certain scenes, the addition of newscenes and the substitution of a narrative com-mentary for parts of the original dialogue.

400 .Giraud, Jean. Les festivals mineurs deVenise en 1953. /Children' s films atVenice, 19532 In: La sauvegarde de l'en-fance, Paris, IX, September 1954, p. 669-679.

A study of the results of the Fifth Festival ofChildren's Films and the Fourth Festival of Docu-mentary and Short Films, organized in Venicefrom 11-19 August 1953. Criticism of the filmspresented, together withflome considerations onthe conditions which shodld be met by children'sfilms, and criteria for appreciation.

401 .Giraud, Jean. Les festivals mineurs deVenise en 1954. (Children's films atVenice, 19542 In: La sauvegarde de l' en-fance, Paris,X, April 1955, p. 337-345.

Criticism of the children's films, documentariesand short films presented at the Venice Festival,from 6-17 July 1954. It is difficult to classify

84

films as "didactic", "cultural" and "entertainment".Production of films for children remains stationary;comparison should be made between those producedin the West with those made elsewhere, and moreaccount -should be taken of the results of scientificsurveys.

402.Graziani, Cesare. 11 cinema e teatro perragazzi. (Cinema and theatre for children./In: I Servizi dei Ragazzi, Rome, n. d. ,

p. 52-59.

What should be the attitude of teachers towardsfilms for children? There is a need for specialchildren' s films .

403 .Hills , Janet . Children' s Films . In: Sightand Sound, London, 21 (4), April-June 1952,p. 179-181, 185.

Published as a consequence of Henri Storck's "TheEntertainment Film for Juvenile Audiences", (seeno. 423). The merits and shortcomings of anumber of children's films produced in the UnitedKingdom are discussed, and views on the desira-bility of the production of special children' s films,the aesthetic value of a film in the eyes of a child,the representation of good and bad characters, theappearance of children and adults as leadingactors, etc . are developed.

404 .Hoel, N. Barn og film. LChildren and film,Oslo, Tiden Norsk Forlag, 1938.

This is a study of the films shown to Norwegianchild audiences in the nineteen-thirties, an analysisof the various types of films, examples of theireffect on the children, and suggestions for betterprogrammes for children.

405.Juez Vicente, Julian. La produccidn depeliculas para nirios. LThe production offilms for children2 Madrid, ConsejoSuperior de Investigaciones Cientfficas, 1951,24 p. and: Revista Espaflola de Pedagogfa,Madrid, (34), April-June 1951, p. 341-359.

A systematic and well-documented study, in sixchapters, of the characteristics and conditions ofcinema for children. Concludes with an examina-tion of European production of this type, withparticular reference to six countries.

406 .Kister , G.A. Detskii kino-teatr. (Cinemafor children2 Moscow, Publication of theCentral Office for the Artistic Education ofChildren, 1936, 55 p.

This work reflects the results of experiences dur-ing the nineteen-thirties, concerning the function-ing of the cinema for children. Forty-six suchcinemas, catering for 30,000 children per month,existed in the Soviet Union at that period.

Chapter 1 discusses fundamental principles forthe functioning of a cinema for children.

Chapter 2 defines the film repertoire forchildren, i. e. mainly films on the life of children,plus a certain number of films for adults, suitablefor children.

Chapter 3 attempts to show the characteristicsof publicity for children's films (posters, hoard-ings, trailers, broadcasts, etc.).

Chapter 4 describes the setting-up and theequipment of a children's cinema.

The book gives details of a preparatory workprogramme with children prior to the projectionof the film: music, sketches, exhibitions, etc.

Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 explain to children howa film is made, thus awakening their interest infilm art.

Chapter 12 lists methods of presenting a filmto children.

A list of songs and recitations, relating to givenfilms, as well as different texts on the cinema,are included in an annex.

407.Kulik, Adam and Wr6blowa-Koblewska, Janina(rapporteurs). Deuxierne concours inter-national du film recreatif pour enfants.Compte-rendu et premieres deductions.Second international competition of children's

entertainment films. Report and preliminaryfindings:7 Warsaw, Polish Head Office ofCinematography, 1957, 27 p. (stencilled).

This competition was organized in Warsaw fromthe middle of February to the first week in June1957, by the Polish Head Office of Cinematographyin collaboration with the International Children'sCentre and Rene and Bianka Zazzo who had con-ducted a similar competition in Paris during1953-1954 (see no. 432). Answers were sought tothe following questions: Which films pleasechildren and why? Are preferences related to ageand sex and if so, how? What are the typicalreactions of children to films which they like andwhich they dislike? 121 films from 19 Europeanand 2 Asian countries were received from which60 were selected and shown to 1,500 primaryschoolchildren divided into two age-groups (7-9and 10-12 years). Each of these contained appro-ximately 55 per cent boys and 45 per cent girls.Their votes were cast immediately after eachperformance. By means of special equipment thechildren' s reactions were registered.

The preliminary findings largely confirmed theresults of the Paris experiment. However, duringthe latter it was found that differences in filmappreciation between children of the two sexes de-crease with rising age, whereas the Warsaw ex-periment indicates a contrary tendency.

408.Lahy-Hollebecque, Marie. L 'enfant auroyaume des images: essai sur le cinema etles "eunes. LThe child in the kingdom ofimages: Essay on the cinema and children./Paris, Union rationaliste, 1956, 187 p.

A description of a 35-year-old struggle to arriveat good recreational films for children, and therequirements such films should meet in relationto the age and maturity of the child. Severalsuggestions regarding the production of children'sfilms are made. A scenario of a typical children'sfilm is given as an illustration.

409.Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm. Ergebnisse deramerikanischen Untersuchungen: Film undJugend. Part I: Unesco Fragebogen iiberUnterhaltungsfilme far Jugendliche; Part U:Jugendliche Straffilligkeit und dramatischeUnterhaltung. (Results of American inquiriesinto cinema and youth: Part I: Unesco ques-tionnaire on recreational films for youngpeople; Part II: Juvenile delinquency anddramatic entertainments2 In: DeutschesInstitut fiir Filrnkunde, Mitteilungen, Wiesbaden-Biebrich, (17), January 1953, 36 p. (stencilled).

The first part is devoted to the work of the NationalChildren's Film Library Committee in the UnitedStates of America. Detailed exposition of thefollowing points: conditions which should be metby a film for children; the need for speciallyproduced films for children; principles to beapplied to the production of films for children; isit necessary to take into account the fact thatchildren cannot understand certain technicalprocesses; the financing of the production ofchildren's films; organization of film shows, etc.

The second part contains the German transla-tion of Motion Picture Association of America."Juvenile delinquency and dramatic entertainment",1950.

410 . Lhotsky, Jaromir. Moglichkeiten undGrenzen des Mirchenfilms. LPossibilitiesand limitations of films based on children' stales) In: Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsen-kirchen, July 1954.

A study of the educational possibilities and of thedisadvantages of films based on tales. On thebasis of inquiries carried out by Charlotte Beier,the author examines how the child's reasoningand imagination may be linked to the characteristicpossibilities of the cinema. The author analysesthe commonest objections to films of this type,and categorically rejects films based on children'stales, interpreted by actors in costume.

411. Liehm, A . J. "Des amis inseparables" etcertains problemes du film pour enfants.L"Inseparable friends", and some of theproblems of films for children.] In: Lesnouvelles litteraires, Paris, IV (2), 1954.

85

In an article written on the occasion of theshowing of the Soviet film for children "InseparableFriends", the author says that this film has cer-tain positive aspects from which the producers ofchildren's films might draw inspiration: its actua-lity, its illustration of the mutual bonds betweenthe child's and adult's worlds, and its ideologicaldepth. But it also has certain artistic shortcom-ings - in particular, an insufficiently developedscenario - which should be avoided.

412 . Menzel, Josef. The Writer andthe Children' sFilm. In: Film et 1)oba (Film in our timedPrague, 113-115 (3-4), 1955.

The author, who works in the Czechoslovak Studiofor Children's Films, relates his experience incollaboration with novel-writers and scenariowriters.

A scenario intended for children should bebased on real life, the heroes should be humanbeings.

The defects of films for children are not alwaysattributable to the shortcomings of their authorsbut also to the actions of the supervising authori-ties of the producing organization which oftentransform the works of authors into amorphousand lifeless products.

It is necessary to find new themes and newscenario writers for children' s films .

413 .Mirams, Gordon. Films for Children.In: Education, Wellington, New Zealand, (1),February 1956, p. 59-65.

A critical inquiry into the New Zealand project oforganizing regular cinema programmes speciallydesigned for the entertainment of children, basedlargely on the work and experience of the Child-ren's Film Foundation, London. Particularreference is made to the unusual censorshipcertificate employed in New Zealand whereby theGovernment Censor officially recommendsselected films as being "particularly suitable asfamily entertainment".

414 .Municipal Council of Deputies and Workersof Kiev. Iz opyta raboty kino- teatra di adetej im . Capaeva. (Experimental dataconcerning the functioning of the Kiev child-ren's cinema...7 Kiev, Executive Committeeof the Municipal Council of Deputies andWorkers of Kiev, 1956, 18 p.

A report of the functioning of a children's cinemaat Kiev, opened in 1943, with seating for 218persons in winter (630 in summer). In 1955 some1,500 performances were organized and wereattended by 215,000 children. The work is illus-trated by numerous photographs giving an idea ofthe installation of the cinema and the differentaspects of work with children.

This work was done in close co-operation with

86

the schools; teachers belong to the cinema counciland participate in the preliminary work with thechildren and at school following the screening.Active elements among the children take part inthe organization of the matinees.

The aim of this book is to show a typical formof extra-curricular film work organized by acinema, with the active participation cf teachers.

415.Nath, Mahendra. Clean Slates. New Delhi,Children's Film Society, 1959, 20 p.

A report on the development of the children's filmmovement in India. It gives a brief chronologicalaccount of what has been accomplished in variousStates as well as in the capital, and includes a listof the films which have been produced, adapted,and "dubbed" .

416.Paramonova, K. Nekotorie v2prosy razvitijadetskoj kinematografii. (Several aspects ofchildren' s filmsdV Zanitu Romantiki. (Defence of romanti-cismdIn: Cinema Art, Moscow, (9), 1952; (5), 1953.

The author discusses the problems which sheconsiders the most important in the field of child-ren's films in the post-war period. The articledeals with the traditions of Russian children'sliterature and its relationship to the children' scinema. The author feels that the two most im-portant elements in these two fields are the au-thenticity of conflicts, the vitality of the charactersand the clearness of the subject and composition,not forgetting questions of immediate interest andentertainment value which are of equal importance.Numerous examples of recent successes anderrors in children's films are cited. In thesecond article, it is stated that one of the mostimportant educational tasks is the initiation ofchildren into the romanticism of brilliant feats inthe service of the people. To enable the childrento become true builders of the future, their facultyof drama and fantasy must be cultivated and theymust be taught to transform this dream into realityby means of examples from life.

On the basis of this conception of children'sfilms, the author analyses and criticizes the faultsof Zuravlev' s film "The Inseparables" as beingfaults which are typical of a whole series ofchildren's films, e.g. limited psychology, lackof initiative in children, excessively didacticmanners, etc.

Braun's film "Maksimka" is cited as an exampleof a successful film, with "complete" and interest-ing characters . Conclusions arrived at are thatfewer words and more vivid action are needed toshow the character of the protoganists, thatgreater clearness is required in the statement andsolution of important educational problems, andthat care should be taken to avoid excessivedidacticism which renders a film tiresome.

417 . People' s Commissariat of Instruction of theRSFSR. Detskoe kino. LThe cinema andchildren) Moscow, Teakino Press, 1930,80 p.

Realizing that the cinema is a powerful means ofeducation, the Direction of Social Education of thePeoples' Commissariat of Instruction publishedthis collection with a view to drawing the attentionof teachers, extra-curricular workers and thegeneral public to the usefulness of developing thecinema to the maximum in the education and in-struction of children, and with a view to stimulat-ing specialists of children's educational and schoolfilms in the production of good films for thesepurposes.

The collection contains instructions and direc-tives (in use at the time of publication) concerningthe organization, theory and methods governingthe setting-up of school cinemas in the RSFSR;rules concerning the scenario and the presentationof school films; educational analysis and evalua-tion of a certain number of existing children'sfilms; information concerning problems of tech-nique, and 16 mm. films for children in the SovietUnion and abroad.

418 .Petrucci, Antonio. I film educativi e i filmper llinfanzia. /Educational films and filmsfor childrend In: Actes du Congres inter-national sur la presse periodique, le cinema,et la radio pour enfants, Milan, 19-23 March1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 117-120.

It would be appropriate, though difficult, for thedifferent types of spectacle to correspond to thedifferent phases of the child's evolution; theeffectiveness of legislative measures which arepurely repressive is called in question; the Govern-ment should take actionto promote the productionand import of films specially addressed to children.

419 . Pradella, Giulio. It film per ragazzi LThefilm for childrend In: Venezia 1950, Rome,Directorate of the Venice Festival, 1951,p. 35-72.

A country-by-country history of film productionfor children, followed by a list of children's films.

420 .Rondi, Gian Luigi. ll cinema e i ragazzi.(The cinema and childrenz/In: Ragazzid'Oggi, Rome, Ill (3), May, 1951, p. 13-18.

The important influence of the cinema upon child-ren. Collection of the laws of various countrieson children's films. Preventive and legislativemeasures to be adopted in Italy with regard to theproduction of children's films.

421 .Sacchetto, Aleardo. B. cinema e la scuola.LThe cinema and the school, i Rome, ARTE,1951, p. 23.

Children's cinema, without overtly moralizing,should set before the child a life which is optimisticand calm, governed by the high concepts of honour,knowledge, patriotism, the family and God.

422.Sailii, Giovanni. Ragazzi al cinema.(Children at the cinema) In: Cinema, Rome,(108), 30 April 1953, p. 221-223 (new series).

The author refers to an experiment in children'scinema carried out in the first months of 1953:"Children's Film Week", in which the participantsshowed particular interest in films specially in-tended for children.

423 . Storck, Henri. The Entertainment Film forJuvenile Audiences. Paris, Unesco, 1950,252 p.

A survey of the production and distribution andexhibition of films for children in a number ofcountries, and a study of the composition, needs,and tastes of the juvenile audience. The influenceof films on young people' s sexuality and on juveniledelinquency and the extent to which the film stimu-lates fear are considered; it is felt that children'sfilms should not attempt to conceal all violence,but should portray it with moderation. Children'sreactions to films should be studied by directobservation, through discussions, interviews,questionnaires, letters, intra-club bulletins,exercises, drawings, stories, collective games,and memory and opinion tests. The need for care-ful interpretation of results is stressed. The re-quirements to be met by films in relation tochildren's interests are considered, as well astechnical problems of film production for youngpeople, and the financing of such productions.Includes a list of specialists and associations, listsof films suitable for children, and a bibliography(53 references).

424.Tarroni, Evelina. ll film ricreativo perllinfanzia. LThe recreational film forchildren2 In: Indice d' Oro, (10), October1953, p. 300-303.

The problems of children's literature and the pro-duction of children's films compared. The diffi-culty lies in finding producers who not only under-stand the world of children but who also know howto give aesthetic value to the expression of thisworld.

425 . Tavistock Clinic, The. A Psychological Studyof Film Production for Child Audiences;London, Petroleum Films Bureau, 1952, 36 p.

An investigation, carried out by the staff of theTavistock Clinic, of the effect of three films onroad safety on primary schoolchildren. The filmswere viewed with considerable interest and appre-ciation by the children. However, those passages

87

in which adults were too obviously trying to givechildren a lesson were much criticized. The ex-periment clearly showed that, in the production ofchildren's films, it is desirable to maintain closecontact with the children themselves. The successof a film seems to depend largely on whether child-ren can enjoy it in liberty, can discuss it and voicetheir criticism afterwards. A second investiga-tion was devoted to the result of the collaborationof children in the preparation and criticism of thescenario of a new road safety film. The childrenwere evidently absorbed in finding solutions todifferent problems posed by the scenario. Boysliked to identify themselves with drivers of fastcars and fire engines, police, smugglers, etc.;girls with nurses, ambulance drivers and adultwomen who behaved sensibly and courageously.

426 .Verdone, Mario. 11 cinema per ragazzi e lasua storia. LCinema for children and itshistoryj Rome, Edicine, 1953, 84 p.

A history of the cinema, from which it emergesthat the recreational film for children is still inits early stages. This work deals, inter alia,with the educational need for films for children.

427 .Verdone, Mario. I film per ragazzi aVenezia. (Children' s films at VeniceIn: Cinema, Rome, (115), 15 August 1953,p. 62-65 (new series).

An analysis of the films presented at the Inter-national Festival of Children' s Films in Venice,1953, preceded by a commentary. "The child-ren's film - according to the author - has not yetfound its path. Its language is in process ofdevelopment". "In this age of research andawareness, the aesthetic problem, importantthough it may be, is not the main concern. In fact,teachers and parents should be not so much con-cerned with knowing whether the film is artisti-cally satisfactory (though this should obviously notbe neglected), as with knowing whether it isadapted to the child" .

428 . Verdone, Mario. Realizzazioni e problemedel cinema per ragazzi. LAchievements andproblems of children's cinemaj In: Stamps.,Cinema, Radio per Ragazzi, Rome, 1952,p. 63-68.

The development of production and of legislationin Italy and elsewhere, with regard to films forchildren.

429.Vicente Gelabert, Enrique de. Cinemato-grafo pro infantia. ginema for children.Madrid, Consejo Superior de Protecciofi a laInfancia, 1926, 14 p.

The author, a lieutenant-colonel of artillery, out-lines a plan for the creation of a children's cinema

88

which would counteract the damage caused byharmful films. He recognizes that, appropriatelyemployed, the cinema is a valuable instrument inthe servic.e. of childhood and civic education; heexamines the possibilities of selecting usable ma-terial from the commercial, cinema, the productionof special films for children and the exploitation ofchildren' s cinema. The work ends with a conclu-sion, presented by Maria de la Rigada and CarmenIsern to the International Child Welfare Congress,and which was unanimously adopted.

430.Vinokurov, J. Po puvodu detskogo hudoest-vennogo films. LThe film for childrenjIn: Cinema Art, Moscow, (7), 1954, p. 117.

The author sets out a certain number of essentialproblems arising from the struggle to producechildren' s films that possess real ideological andartistic qualities. After mentioning a number ofrecent children's films, he goes on to discuss theessential problem: "the hero".

With regard to the film subject, the authorconsiders that it is undesirable for the contents ofchildren's films to be simplified or adapted fortheir use. Serious subjects, such as work, thecommunity, one's native land, must appear inchildren' s films. But such subjects must betreated in accordance with the age of the audience.The different conceptions of the subject cycle mustpenetrate the consciousness of the child as soon aspossible; as the child gets older, his conceptionsbecome wider, thus widening his horizon. Prin-ciples, system and selection are indispensable inthe choice of subjects. There must inevitably bea gradation in the knowledge of the world, butserious subjects are necessary right from thebeginning: this is the specific characteristic ofchildren's films. In presenting this idea theauthor contests Malcarenko's thesis, according towhich the specific characteristic of children'sliterature does not lie in the choice of the subject,but in the manner of telling it.

The problem of the artistic treatment of a sub-ject cannot be separated from the problem of play.Referring to Makarenko; the author states thatthe child, who first becomes conscious of the worldthrough play, passes gradually from play to seriouswork. For this reason the author condemns theattitude of adults who regard children's play withcondescension and who consider play as somethingnon-authentic.

It is felt that it is this erroneous conception -i.e. considering that it is the artistic processesinvolved and not the choice of subjects that cha-racterize children' s films as such - which isresponsible for the standard of certain films, suchas "The Mysterious Treasure", "Fire over theRiver", "Our Street Gang" and several others.

Life offers enough heroic or romantic situa-tions to make it unnecessary to invent artificialplots.

431 .Vojtolovskaja L . and Amasovie, A. (ed.)Deti i kino. (Children and the cinema./Collection published under the literarydirection of L. Vojtolovskaja and A. Amasovic,Moscow, State Film Publications, 1940, n.p.

This collection includes articles by nine authors,mainly film directors with experience of children'sfilms. The object is to define several importantproblems connected with children's films: prin-ciples of interpretation, the composition of ascenario for children, the influence of the cinemaon children, etc.

G. Rodal - "Film Art for Children". Theauthor considers that children's films, whatevertheir subject, must be absolutely accurate in rela-tion to age and education. Each age has its pecu-liarities. Films for children at pre-school agemust be very simple if they concern a fable, butfully documented if they relate to animals or na-tural phenomena. Films for older children mustbe heroic and romantic (e.g. "A white sail on thehorizon" by Legogin and "A personal affair" byRazumnij). With films intended for young peopleone should not be afraid to tackle great moralproblems (e .g. the Gorki trilogy by Donskoj). Theworld's classical heritage may be drawn upon(Schiller, Shakespeare, etc .) . Baal feels thatpermanent companies of child actors should beorganized; they would go on from one film toanother without assuming a professional charactertoo early.

A. Razumnij - "Preferred r8les". This articlegives a general description of the authors s experi-ence with child actors. He feels that for children' sr8les child actors should be used and that workwith them should be carried out according to a"combined method": the children should first beentrusted to specialist educators to learn rhyth-mics, plastic arts and elocution; they should thengo on to rehearsals which should always containan element of play and improvisation by thechildren.

T. Lukadevid - "A five-year-old actress".Using the films "Gavroche" and "The foundling"as examples, the author describes an "associa-tion" method for work with child-actors. Childrenhave the ability to pass from real life to imaginarysituatiems which they "live" and take seriously.From this starting point, a method can be evolvedwhich consists of "provoking" associations of sen-sations during rehearsals - these always remainplay.

V. Jurenev - "The young cinema actor" .Analysis of experience acquired during the makingof the film "Spring Torrent". The author conteststhe necessity of creating permanent groups of childactors. He feels that such methods lead to uni-form interpretation. It is essential to arouse asense of humour, in keeping with the work in hand,and to preserve a spontaneous approach.

A . Ovanesova - "Pioneers" . The author gives anaccount of the organization of the cinema journal

for children "Pioner". The principle: authenticityof subject-matter. Function: to deal comprehen-sively with the life of all children in the Union.Contents: (1) general knowledge; (2) school andpioneer. activities; (3) discussion of experienceacquired by children in creative work. Particularinterest has been adaed since the journal has beenproduced with sound. There is no lack of subjects:heroism, biography, etc.

T. Arusinskaja - "For the little ones" . Analysisof experience of film production for children at pre-school age; a plea for the system of "rehearsalplay" .

L. Vojtolovskaja - "A hero to come". An ac-count of work on Razumnij, s film ("Timour andhis team"). A children's film scenario must bedrawn from life and be close to the world of thechild. There are different points of view aboutthe way to direct child actors. Like Razumnij theauthor favours the "combined method".

A. Amasovic - "Children and the camera": Theauthor discusses young amateur film-makers fromthe Pioneer House at Zagorie and from PioneerHeadquarters. It should be noted that certainchildren mentioned in the article as amateurs havesince become cinema professionals: L. Sagalovaand L . Dranovskaja (actresses) and S. Rastockij(Director).

A. Maksimova - "After the screening". A dis-cussion of the influence of the cinema on childrenat different ages. Examples are shown of howchildren's impressions are reflected in theirpersonal activities: drawings for pre-schoolchildren; letters, public reports and scenariosfor schoolchildren.

432.Zazzo, Rene and Bianka. Le concours inter-national du film recreatif pour enfants. LTheinternational competition for a recreationalfilm for children./ In: International Child-ren's Centre, Courier, Paris, IV (5), May1954, p. 235-258.

An account of the International Competition for aRecreational Film for Children held in Paris fromNovember 1952 to March 1954. The purpose ofthe competition was to encourage the productionof films suitable for children and to define thecriteria of such suitability. Producers from 16countries replied to the announcement of the com-petition issued by the International Children'sCentre in November 1952. Out of the 90 filmsentered, 50 were retained for consideration by anInternational Working Committee composed ofchildhood and cinema specialists. These fifty filmswere assessed for two age-groups (children aged7 to 9 and children aged 10 to 12) and presented to1,473 schoolchildren in groups of some 150 child-ren of the same age and sex. The votes of thechildren cast immediately after each performancewere the only criteria taken into account in draw-ing up the prize list of the competition. Children'sreactions during the screening were registered

89

with apparatus specially designed to record thesounds, comments, and kinesthetic movements ofthe spectators. Mimic reactions were recordedby means of ultra-violet photographs. The voteswere analysed by means of conversations with thechildren. The degree of silence and stillness dur-ing the screening is an indication of a favourableimpression, while the degree of chattering andrestlessness is indicative of a negative impres-sion. The degree of excitement, more difficult tointerpret, is likely to be a favourable sign on thepart of boys and unfavourable on the part of girls.The comparison of the reactions with the pictureswhich brought them forth is made possible by theparallel graphic record of the continuous reactionsand the sequence of all the pictures of the film.All these documents (votes, reactions, etc.) areclassified by sex and age. For testing purposes,40 adult persons were requested to express theiropinion on the value of the films. A remarkabledegree of agreement between the choice of thechildren and that of the adults was noted withregard to the films topping the list.

See also: nos. 4, 10, 13, 56, 65, 66, 69, 71, 96,103, 143, 150, 169, 171, 193, 210, 212, 216, 229,231, 233, 235, 258, 304, 362, 442, 447, 456, 458,462, 464, 465, 466, 468, 471, 474, 475, 478, 479,481, 484, 485, 487, 490, 491.

(d) CENSORSHIP AND LEGISLATION

433 .Administrative Standing Commission on a Codeof Ethics for the Motion Picture Industry,Censorship and Legislation. Tokyo, EirinKanri Iinkai Hokoku: Showa-32-nen Kamihanki,Shimo Hanki.LReport of the Commission: firstand second half-years, 1957,../ 1957-1958,2 vols.

In the chapter on "Measures for Youth" (p. 14-23of vol. 1 and p. 10-17 of vol. 2) this report re-counts the activities of the Council of MotionPictures for Youth and the Special Study Committeeon Measures for Youth; and describes the recom-mendations concerning juvenile films, the designa-tion of adult films, and contacts with the filmindustry.

434 .Andreotti, Giulio. Censura e censure.Censorship and censured In: Rivista del

Cinematografo, Rome, XXV (12), December1952, p. 2-5.

An account of the problems involved in films forchildren. The Government's acceptance of billson the children's cinema, and positive aspects ofthese bills.

90

435 .Castejon, Federico. La reglementation juri-dique des films pour Penfance. LLegal regu-lations for children's films) In: Actes duCongres international sur la presse periodique,cinematographie et radio pour enfants, Milan,19-23 March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953,p. 176-183.

A comparison of Spanish legislation governingadmission of children to the cinema with similarlegislation in other countries. The cinema has astrong hypnotic effect on children and may be acontributing factor in juvenile delinquency. It isrecommended that censorship bodies should definetheir criteria for the establishment of age limitsregarding admission to cinemas and to culturalevents in general. Special censorship bodiesshould be established, composed of representativesof the church, schools, and civil government, toban film scenes which are unsuitable for children.Bodies for the protection of morals, such as theLegion of Decency in the United States of Americaand the Roman Catholic Film Selection Board inHolland, should also be established.

436.Cimatti, Leone. I ragazzi al cinema.(Children at the cinema./ In: AggiornamentiSociali, Milan, (3), March 1952, p. 99-106.

Analysis of the figures and data provided by P.Le Moal (see no. 81), and by an inquiry carriedout in Italy with 1,374 children between the agesof 7 and 16. Negative conclusions. An account oflegislative and practical activity abroad and com-ments on the bill laid before Parliament by Mrs.Dal Canton.

437.Garcia Yague, Juan. La Juventud y el pro-blems de la censura cinematografica. Lyouthand the problem of film censorship) In:Revista de Educaci6n, Madrid, (53), December1956, p. 68-70.

The author re-examines this very controversialproblem, which - as inquiries prove - has notbeen satisfactorily resolved, arguments in favourof censorship being frequently contradictory. Theauthor gives his definition of film censorship, andreplies to three important questions: to what ex-tent is censorship justified? What factors shouldbe taken into consideration? Is censorshipeffective?

438.Keilhacker, Margarete. Berechtigung undWirksamkeit des Jugendverbotee in der Sichtder Jugend. LYouth expresses its viewpointon whether the exclusion of young people fromsome films is justifiable and effectivej In:Jugend und Film, Munich, January 1956, p. 1-8.

The opinions of young people were sought regard-ing the harmful influences of film and the regula-tions which they believe necessary. This is the

report of an investigation among a number of youngmembers of a Film and Youth group in Munich andan inquiry in I beck. The children generally be-lieved that sc. 1 , films could be harmful for themand agreed that protective regulations were neces-sary. The general reason given was that gangster,adventure, and immoral films might lead to animitation of criminal behaviour and,to moral andsexual depravity. Some "bad" films mentionedwere: "Lucretia Borgia", "The Sinner", "TheCabinet of Professor Bondi" Lad "She Danced onlyone Summer" .

439 .Keir , Gertrude. Le rele, la necessity et lavaleur d'une censure cinematographioue.LThe r8le, necessity and value of cinemacensorship./ In: Revue Internationale defilmologie, Paris, IV (14-15), July-December1953; p. 179-198.

A consideration of the question of film censorship,with special regard to the youthful cinemagoer.The situation in England, where parents are prin-cipally responsible for deciding what films child-ren may see, is discussed. With reference to areport by an official commission which recom-mended that expert committees be set up to selectfilms for children, it is considered that the valueof such action is questionable as long as so littleknowledge is available on the influence of films onchildren. Continued research by psychologistsand sociologists to test prevailing hypothesesabout the influence of film on children seems morepertinent at this stage.

440 .Lavies, Hanna -Wilhelm. Beitrage zur Frageder JugendfreiKabe von Filmen far BestimmteAltersstuffen. ZProblems concerning theapproval of films for children in relation toage-groups.7 Wiesbaden-Biebrich, DeutschesInstitut fur Filmkunde, 1958 98 p. (Filmand Jugend gilm and Youth series, (4) .)

Contains contributions by university professors,jurists, psychiatrists. Suggestions for moresuitable age limits than those in force in theRepublic of Western Germany are made and infor-mation on age limits in 19 European countries isgiven. The general opinion is that the harmfulinfluence of the cinema has not yet been proven;on the other hand, attention is drawn to the posi-tive aspects of its influence .

441.Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm. Die Jugendzensurenin Europlischen Landern. (Censorship offilms for children in European countriesjIn: Deutsches Institut far Filmkunde,1Viitteilungen, Wiesbaden-Blebrich, (22),September 1953, 18 p. , (stencilled).

A comparative survey of the criteria used in 18European countries to judge the suitability of filmsfor young people, an4 a tabulation of censors'

decisions in each of these countries on a largenumber of feature films.

442.Lo Savio, Giulio. La censura cinematograficain Italia. (Film censorship in Raly..../ In:Records of the Congress organized by CIDALC,Florence, 6-11 June, 1950.

An account, with notes, of legislative provisionsconcerning the cinema for children. In order topromote the production of films for children,financial and legislative advantages should beaccorded.

443 .Lox, Florimond. La legislation cinemato-graphique a propos de la jeunesse. (Cinema-tographic legislation with regard to youngpeople.7 In: Reeducation, Paris, (101-102),July-September 1958, p. 1-12.

After the First World War, many countries adoptedlaws regulating the admission of young people tocinemas. Some of these provisions were influencedby over-hasty conclusions regarding the correla-tion between the cinema and juvenile delinquency.An outline of the most characteristic legislativeprovisions and criteria.

444.Lox, Florimond. La prevention legale et lecinema. (Legal prevention and the cinemajIn: Revue Internationale de defense sociale,Paris, 10 (3-4), July-December 1956.

This study outlines the boards of control of variousEuropean countries, together with criteria adopted.The :author insists on the necessity for legal pre-vention, which should take into account the psy-chological differences between childhood, adoles-cencc, and adulthood. He recommends that thereshould be two levels of censorship, for the agesof 14 and 18.

445 .Lox, Florimond. Problemes d lune legisla-tion specialisee riroblems of specializedlegislation./ Reports - International Meetingof Experts to consider the psychological,technical and social aspects of problemsconcerning the cinema and young people,Geneva, World Brotherhood, 1955, 11 p.(stencilled).

A survey of regulations in force in differentcountries concerningthe protection of children andyoung people against the harmful effects of thecinema. Subjects dealt with include: the examina-tion of films prior to screening; government filmcensorship; self-regulation bythe industry; co-operation between authorities and private bodies;the functioning of film censorship boards; criteriaof censorship; age limits; control with regard tothe censor's decisions; sanctions; regulationsconcerning the selection of films suitable forchildren, and special children's screenings.

91

446 . Lublinskij , P.I. Kinematograf i deti. (Thecinema and childrend Moscow, Law andLife, 1925, 122 p. ("For the Protection ofChildren" series).

This work, written by a lawyer and educator, re-flects a feature which was characteristic of theyears 1920-1930, but which has still lost none ofits importance: the concern of educators, parentsand a large section of public opinion, regarding theharmful influence of many films and much cinemapublicity on the morality of young spectators.

Studies of the measures likely to protect child-ren against the bad influence of the cinema, andalso of legislation and the use of censorship in anumber of Western European countries and theSoviet Union since the October Revolution, arecited.

447.Marcussen, Else Brita. Films for Childrenin Scandinavia. In: American-ScandinavianReview, New York (1), 1957, p. 22-34.

A survey of the situation regarding: children andfilms in the Scandinavian countries, censorshipregulations, cinema perfoxmances, production ofchildren's films, and efforts to interest parentsand teachers in the problem.

448 .Mirams, Gordon. The New Zealand FilmCensorship Regulations. In: Education -Wellington, New Zealand, 6 (1), February1957, p. 15-18.

This article by the New Zealand Government filmcensor describes marked innovations in censor-ship legislation and practice, brought about by newregulations which came into operation at the end of1956. The writer contends that these changesshould be of particular interest to teachers, pa-rents and all others who have any influence over .

film-going by children, because the basis of theNew Zealand censorship system is that primaryresponsibility for deciding what films should beseen by children is assumed, not by the Govern-ment, but by parents and teachers. Suppression,in whole or in part, which once constituted the solework of censorship, has been relegated to a com-paratively minor place, the emphasis being muchmore on the new function of "guidance" and theclassification of films according to the type ofaudience for which they are considered suitable.This change has come about through the legislativeprovision of a wide range of "recommendatory"certificates.

449.Mirams, Gordon. What do we Expect fromthe Film Censor? In: New Zealand FamilyDoctor, Auckland, 2 (1), 1958, p. 12-14.

A discussion on the part played by the modern filmcensor in reconciling the needs of children withthe tastes of adults. The writer, who was New

92

Zealand Government film censor, argues thatprovided there are adequate safeguards to protectyounger and weaker members of the community,censorship should not hamper the film-maker anymore than it hampers the writer, the painter, thesculptor, the dramatist or other creative workerfrom developing his medium and expressing him-self freely.

450 .Mohrhof, Siegfried. Bewertung von Jungend-filmen unter der Lupe. LA criticism of thechoice of films for children) In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, VI (1), April 1956, p. 28-30;47-48 .

Comparison between the results of a survey carriedout at Flensburg among 2,000 schoolchildren be-tween the ages of 12 and 15, concerning the filmsubjects they would enjoy, and the norms appliedby the official censors to the choice of films foryoung people. The norms by no means correspondto the tastes of the public.

451.Peretti Griva, Domenico Ricardo. La reale-mentation juridique des films pour l'enfance.(Legal regulations for children' s films,In: Actes du Congres international sur lapresse periodique, cinematographie et radiopour enfants, Milan, 19-23 March 1952. Milan,A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 183-189.

A survey of Italian legislation governing the admis-sion of children to the cinema and a brief discus-sion of legislation in force in other countries . Atthe time of writing a bill had been placed before theItalian parliament which would authorize the crea-tion of a national council for film and youth. Thecouncil was to be composed of representatives oforganizations for the protection of the family,educators, a psychologist, an author of children' sbooks, a film director and a film critic, and itwould have authority to decide on the suitability offilms for children. Provision was to be made forrestricting admission to cinemas of children under14, or even under 18. Certain privileges wereproposed for theatres showing films exclusivelyfor children.

452 .Portugal. 0 regime da assistencia de menoresa especticulos publicos. (Regulations govern-ing the admission of minors to public enter-tainments.] In: Infancia e Juventude, Lisbon,April-June 1957, p. 12-16.Spanish edition: Nueva ley sobre espectdculosy literature Para menores en Portugal (Thenew law on entertainment and literature forchildren in Portugalj In: Revista de la Obrade Protecciofi de Menores, Madrid, May-June1957, p. 57-62.

Text of the decree-law adopted by the PortugueseGovernment, dealing with the attendance at publicentertainments by minors, and setting up the

"Committee for the Examination and Classof Entertainments", as well as the "ComLiterature and Entertainments for Minor1957.

ificationmittee ons" , 1 April

See also: nos. 10, 15, 58, 71, 106, 155, 193, 211,212, 229, 232, 233, 237, 240, 283, 287, 290, 309,330, 362, 398, 413, 415, 428, 458, 460, 469, 471,475, 485, 487, 490, 491.

93

7. MISCELLANEOUS

(a) SPECIAL NUMBERS OFGENERAL PERIODICALS

453 .Les eine-clubs de jeunes. (Cinema clubs foryoung people] In: Enfance, Paris, 1957,p. 195-419, (special number).

Preface by Henri Wallon; articles by: Henri Ageland Jean Delmas (Hommage a Jean Michel); JeanMichel (Les cine-clubs de jeunes; Pour la crea-tion de cine-clubs d' enfants) . Reports on theactivity of cinema clubs. Article by HeleneGratiot-Alphandery (Sur les reponses au question-naire). Interviews with: C. Autant-Lara - A.Bazin - G. Charensol - Christian Jaque. - G. Cohen-Seat - L. Daquin - M. Delafond - J. Gremillon -H. Jeanson - Albert Lamorisse - R. Regent -G. Sadoul. Articles by: Etienne Souriau (Cultureet cinema); Etienne Fuzellier (Possibilites d'unenseignement du cinema); Andre Be ley (L 'hygienementale au cine-club de jeunes); Bianka Zazzo(Une enquete our le cinema et la lecture chez lesadolescents). Appendices: Administrative informa-tion; Examples of model statutes for a cinema clubfor young people; addresses of the main groups ofyoung people's cinema clubs.

454.11 cinema e i bambini. (The cinema and youngchildren.] In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, III (8),August 1939.

An issue devoted to the results of an inquiry carriedout among children at a Rome schooL This number,which has an introductory note by Giuseppe Bottaiand a foreword by Luigi Chiarini, contains the im-pressions of the children after the screening of thefilm "Scipio Africanus", presented in the form ofschool compositions.

455 .(I1) Cinema e i dovani. Lille cinema andyoung people.] In: Bianco e Nero, Rome,XVI (1-2), January-February 1955.

A collection of articles: Justice for young people,by Giuseppe Sibilia; Those who are not young andthe cinema, by Sergio Frosall; Why is middle-class youth in Italian films so featureless? byLuciano Santitale; The university at the cross-roads, by Giancarlo Tesi. An issue devotedmainly to the portrayal of youth in films.

94

456./Le/cinema pour enfants. Linema forchildrenj In: Tele-Cine, Paris, 8 (39),December 1953, 32 p. (special number).

This special number contains contributions by:(1) Macke, Claude - L 'enfant a-t-il droit aucinema? Ls the child entitled to the cinemag(2) Salachas, Gilbert - Prehistoire du cinema pourenfant. (Prehistory of the cinema for children)(3) Marroncle, G. - L 'animation des seances decinema pour enfants. (Directing cinema perform-ances for children) (4) Pialat, Henri -_Problemeseconomiques du cinema pour enfants . (Economicproblems of the cinema for children j5) Calvet,Jean - Cinema, moyen do education. The cinemaas a means of education) Anonymous: 16) Cinemapour enfants et perspectives d'avenir. (The cine-ma for children - the outlook for the future2. (7)Comment creer un eine-club. Li-lbw to start acine-club.]

457./Le 7 cinema pour la jeunesse. (Cinema foryoung people.] In: Pour 1' enfance, Paris,(13-14), May - August' '956, p. 1-61.

This special issue contains a detailed report onthe Journee Nationale du Cinema pour Enfants,organized at the Musee Pedagogique in Paris, on18 March 1956, by the Mouvement national pour ladefense de 1' enfance. It includes articles on psy-chological and educational problems (dangers ofbad films, juvenile delinquency, cartoon films),accounts of exchanges of views between the variouscommittees, monographs and suggestions.

458 ./Le / cinema pour les jeunes en URSS.(Cinema for young people in the USSR.] In:Cine-Jeunes, Paris, (12), 1957, p. 1-30.

Members of the "Comite frangais pour la jeunesse"took advantage of their visit to Moscow during theSixth World Youth Festival, to ascertain the stateof children's cinema in Russia. This publicationcontains the results of their inquiries concerningthe place of the cinema in Soviet education, thetypes of films shown, the production of films, theorganization of studios, cartoons and puppet films,the documentary series "Central Journal of thePioneers", the distribution of films, young people'scamera clubs and educational cinema. This pano-rama is completed by reproductions of scenes froman excellent Soviet film for children, "Cuk and Guek",and by some young people's opinions.

459 . Communication and the Communication Arts.In: Teachers College Record, New York,57 (2) , November 1955, p. 59-149, (specialnumber).

Although none of the twelve contributions deals spe-cifically with the cinema and youth, many pointsof contact with this subject are found. Contribu-tions by: Klapper, Joseph T. (Studying effects ofmass communication), Schoemaker, Francis (Com-munication arts in the curriculum), and Forsdale,Louis (Helping students observe processes ofcommunication).

A comprehensive bibliography is added.

460 . Connaissance du cinema. (Understanding thecinema] In: Educateurs, Paris, (26), 1952,p. 3-14, (special number).

Contains contributions by (1) Agel, Henri - Letine -club au Lycee LThe film club inthe GrammarSchool/. (2) Chazal, Jean - Cinema et delinquencejuvenile LThe cinema and juvenile delinquency/.(3) Sinoir, Guy -A propos de l'influence du cinemasur la delinquence juvenile; quelques idees surune enquete Lon the influence of the cinema onjuvenile delinquency; some ideas on a survey].(4) Meinrath, Jacqueline - Le controle des filmset la protection de la jeunesse LFilm control andprotection of young people/. (5) Legeais, Jean -Une experience de tine -club en Algerie: Studiojeunesse LA film-club experiment in Algeria:Youth Studio'.

461 .Die Deutsche Schule. LThe Germans schools.'Arbeitsgemeinschaft deutscher Lehrer-verbande , Hanover, Herman Schroedel,50 (2), February 1958, 45 p., (special number:Film-Funk-Fernsehen)

A special number devotedtothe cinema, radio andtelevision. An article by Johs. Gerhard ("Geden-ken zu einer erziehungswissenschaftlichen undschulpraktischen Auseinandersetzung mit denmodernen Massenmedien") on the educationalproblems of modern means of information; anillustrated account of the negative and positiveeffects which the cinema may have upon childrenand adolescents by its very nature and because ofthe content of films; a series of practical sug-gestions for teachers, whose task is summarizedunder three headings: (1) since the uselessnessof banning needs no further demonstration, theonly reasonable and useful attitude on the part ofteachers is to accustom children to use informa-tion media in moderation; (2) since the influenceof information media on children begins at a veryearly age, the educator should take steps as earlyas possible to teach childrento understandthem andto form their owntastes inthis field; (3) it is not al-ways necessarytotake information media as a pointof departure or to be restrictedtothem when teach-ing childrento understand what they see and hear.

Paul Heimann indicates the conclusions whichmay be drawn by educators and teachers from thecurrent r8le of the cinema in society ("Die Funk-tion des Films in der heutigen Gesellschaft.Folgerungen fur Erziehung und Unterricht"). Thetask of-the school is to familiarize young peoplewith the language of the cinema, in view of itssocial and cultural importance at the present time.Teachers should adopt a positive attitude towardsrecreational films, which constitute a very in-teresting source of experience for young people.

A detailed critical bibliography by KarlHeinrich on "the cinema and young people"("Literatur zum Thema 'Jugend und Film '") ,dealing particularly with German publications.

462.L leducateur chretien en face du cinema. (TheChristian teacher and the cinemad In:Educateurs, Paris, January-February 1952,132 p., (special number).

Articles by Claude Macke (Is there a children'scinema? ) and by Paul Le Moal (The cinema andthe physical and mental health of children).

463./Der/ Film als Erzieher. LThe film asteacher.] In: Filmkunst, Vienna, (21),1957, 38 p. , (special number).

Papers presented at the Second InternationalFilmology Week (Vienna 1956) on the theme "TheCinema as Teacher": Wolfgang Brudny: "DieForderungen des Erziehers an den Jugendlichen"(What the teacher requires of young people);Albert Sicker: "Der Einfluss des Films auf dasSeelenleben des Kindes" (Influence of films onthe psychological life of children); EllenSierstedt:"Untersuchung fiber die Wirkung des Films aufKinder" (An inquiry into the influence of films onchildren); Ludwig Gesek: "Die Bedeutung desFilms fiir den Einzelnen. Ein Bericht" (Influenceof films on the individual: a report); PeterSteigerwald: "Lohnt rich ein Kulturfilm?" (Doesa cultural film pay?); Franz Z8chbauer: "HatFilmerziehung durch die Schule Erfolg" (On thepotential success of film education in schools).

464.Filmdebatt. Spesialnummer om barn og film.(Debate on films . Special number on childrenand filmj In: Filmdebatt, Oslo, (4-5),October 1954, 37 p.

Contains contributions relating to children's filmsin the four Scandinavian countries: articles by-(1) Germeten, Else - Nordisk barnefilmkurs LAScandinavian film course. (2) Marcussen, ElsaBrita - Superman, Tarzan, and children. (3)Siirsted,_ Ellen - Med 1,000 danske bArn i bio-grafen LWith 1,000 Danish children in the cinema.A concise bibliography and a list of films suitablefor children under 12 years of age are included.

95

465 . Jugend und Film. tYouth and the cinemajIn: Filmkunst, Vienna, (19), 1956, 38 p.,(special number).

Papers on the subject of "Youth and the Cinema",presented at the International Filmo logy Week(Vienna, 1954): Martin Keilhacker: "Grundziigedes Filmerlebens der Kinder und Jugend lichen inder ausgehenden Kindheit und beginnendenPubertit"; (The fundamentals of cinematographicexperience of children and adolescents at the stageof puberty/; J.M.L. Peters: "Ziel und Wege derFilmerziehung"; LThe goal and methods ofcinematographic education ; Edith Rauser: "WiensJugend und der Film" (Viennese Youth and theCinemil; Mary Field: "Die britische Jugend-filmarbeit" LFilma made by British youth); AloisEder: "Filminteressen Elf-bis Vierzehnjahriger"LThe interest of the cinema for young people from11 to 14/; Karl Eiland: "Der Westdeutsche Schul-film" LFilms for schools in West Germany/.

466 .Jugend und Film/Jeunesse et cinema/Gioventfte cinematografia. LYouth and cinema) In:Pro Juventute, Zurich, maw (2-3),February-March 1953, p. 41-128, (specialnumber).

Contains the following articles: Edwin Arnet:Film und Jugend LYouth and the cinema./ (p. 45-46); B. Neidhart: Film und Jugendschutz LThecinema and the protection of youth (p. 46-50);Herbert Fischer: Film und JugendkriminalitatThe cinema and juvenile delinquency] (p. 51-54);

Hans Zulliger: Der Einfluss des Filmes auf diekindliche Seele /Influence of the cinema on themind of the chilg/ (p. 55-57); D. Brinkmann:Richtlinien ftir gute Kinder und Jugendfilme LHowshould good films for children and adolescents beproducedY (p. 58-62); Fritz Bachmann: Filmund Schule LThe cinema and the school/ (p. 63-65);Albert Schwartz: Kinder im Kino (Children at thecinema/ (p. 66-69); Bruno Knobel: Warum gehtder Jugendliche ins Kino? (Why does the adoles-cent go to the cinema/ (p. 70-73); HeinrichFueter: Jugend und Film: Eine StellungnaluneLYouth and the cinema: A standpoint./ (p. 74-75);J.R. Schmid and Hans Chresta: Pro und kontraJugendfilme LThe pros and cons of films forchildreW (p. 76-82); Hans Chresta: Tatigkeit derArbeitsgemeinschaft fur Jugend und Film in derSchweiz (The activities of the "Youth and Cinema"working parties in Switzerland) (p. 88-90); Variousauthors: Stimmen aus Eltern-, Lehrer- undErzieherkreisen (Opinions of parents, teachers,and educational circles/ (p. 83-87)1 GeorgesPanchaud: Les jeunes au cinema (Young people atthe cinema/ (p. 97-102); Jean Brocher: De 1' en-fant sur 1, &ran l' enfant dans la salle LFrom thechild on the screen to the child in the audience/(p. 102-108); Sergio Jacomelia: Cinematografoe delinquenza minorile LThe cinema and juveniledelinquency/ (p. 109-117).

96

467./Lesi Journees d' etudes de Madrid sur1' education cinematographioue. (Study ses-sions on cinematographic education, Madrid.]In: Revue internationale du cinema, Brussels,4 (13), 1952, 72 p.

An issue devoted to the study sessions on filmeducation organized in 1952 in Madrid by theInternational Catholic Film Office. The first partconcerns film education for youth (Agel, Claude,Peters, Souren, Laspina, Lindsay and Fagan);the second part concerns the education of the elite;and the third part, that of the masses. The officialconclusions of these study sessions are, in parti-cular, the following: a place must be made for thecinema in the teaching of the humanities; filmeducation lessens the moral risk of cinema at-tendance; experiments carried out up to now showthat it is possible to reduce the frequency ofcinema attendance by young people by arousingtheir critical sense.

468.Kind und Film. (Child and film.../ In:Pidagogische Welt, Donauwarth, (7), July1955, p. 337-390, (special number).

Contributions by Keilhacker, M_- Der Film alsErzieher LThe film as educatorf; Heinelt, Gottfried -Zur Ausdrucks - und Eindrucksqualitit der FilmsLThe expressive and impressive qualities of film;and Aibauer, Rosa_- Film und Filmschaffen sozial-kundlich gesehen LFilm and film production froma sociological point of view/.

Professor Keilhacker discusses both the nega-tive effects and the educational possibilities offilms. Among the negative effects he mentionsthe fact that certain films confront children withsituations which they are too young to assimilate,that the uninterrupted stream of sensational eventsand the superabundance of accoustical and opticaleffects usually present in films renders childrenincapable of appreciating descriptive passagescalling for concentration and mental activity, andthat young audiences are often exposed to a por-trayal of reality which may be distorted or evencompletely false. Heinelt compares French andAmerican films, with a view to determining towhat extent the film expresses the spirit of theage, national character and a philosophy of life.Rosa Aibauer discusses, on the basis of her ex-perience, how film education can be integratedwith social studies.

469.Mass Media and Education. In: NationalSociety for the Study of Education, Yearbook(53) Part II, ed. by Nelson B. Henry, Chicago,The University of Chicago Press, 1954,290 p.

Dr. Edgar Dale introduces this three-section year-book dealing with the purpose, scope, effects,group responsibility and r8le of the teacher inmass media. Section I consists of a discussion

by Fred S. Siebert of "The Role of Mass Commu-nication in American Society" , delimiting authori-tarian, libertarian, communist and social respon-sibility theories of mass media functions. R.W.Wagner ("Motion Pictures in Relation to SocialControls") discusses content, social responsibilityand censorship. In Part II, W. Schramm ("Pro-cedures and Effects of Mass Communication")outlines the elements of, role of, experience in,conditions for, and effects of mass communication.F. Fearing ("Social Impact of the Mass Media ofCommunication") discusses theories of communi-cation, the situational factors, reinforcement andtransmission of existing value 'systems, problemsolving and acquisition of new experiences, eva-sion of content, and lists generalizations. InPart III, E. Dale writes on "Teaching Discrimi-nation in Motion Pictures"; B.J. Blakely outlinesthe interaction of "The Citizen and the MassMedia" . Bibliographies are appended to eachchapter.

470 .Psychologische bijdragen tot de filmpro-blematiek. (Psychological contributions_towards solving problems of the cinema.]In: Nederlands tijdschrift voor de psychologieen haar grensgebieden, Amsterdam, VIII (2),1953, p. 83-200 (special number).

Papers and psychological studies by: A. Querido:"De dadels van Hassan" (The dates of Hassan);Rene Micha: "De cinematografische waarheid"(Cinematographic truth); P. Th. Hugenholtz: "Hetmodern cultuurproduct: De Film" (The cinema,product of modern culture); J.M.L . Peters:"Psychologische processen bij het zien van eenfilm" (Psychological processes of watching a film);S.J. Popma: "In de ban van de bioscoop" (Theobsession of the cinema); W.A. Hart: "Eeninleidend onderzoek tot het probleem film en jeugd"(Introduction to the problem of the cinema andyouth).

471.Regard de Penfance. LThe gaze of chilcihooWIn: Cine Club, Paris, (5-6), March-April1951, 26 p. (special number).

Contains contributions by: (1) Agel, Henri - Cesenfants These childreW. (2) Chantry, Marcel -L &ran est un miroir LThe screen is a mirror].(3) Chanois, J.-P. - Une featre magiquemagic windoyij. (4) Rave, A. -L'ecole buisson-Mere ou Pecole des parents (Playing truant, orthe school for parentig. (5) Delmas, J. -Alice aupays des merveilles ou les chemins de la vie(Alice in Wonderland, or the paths of life/. (6)Storck, H. -Les kroblemes de la production (Pro-duction problems/. (7) Chazal, J. and Chargelegue,J. - Le cinema influence-t-il l'enfance delinquante?LDoes the cinema influence delinquent youthyj (8)Gratiot-Alphandery, H. -L 'enfant devant le &ranLThe child before the scree.Y. (9) Lambert -Experiences etrangeres L Foreign experiences/.

(10) Sonika Bo -L 'enfant a-t-il besoin de cinema?LDoes the child need the cinema) (11) Michel, J.Quand les enfants disent ce au ' ila pensent ZWhenchildren say what they thinlg. (12) Chantry, M. -Pour un.publicjeune et populaire (For a young andpopular public/. 113) Michel, J. - 11 n'y a pas defilms d'enfants (There are no films for children/.

472.Spielfilm und Unterricht. Zihe entertainmentfilm and education.] In: Filmkunst, Vienna,(11), 1953, 49 p. (special number).

Articles on the relationship between the entertain-ment film and education, by Ludwig Gesek: Wiesieht der Jugendliche den Film und wie soil er ihnsehen? (How does an adolescent look at films andhow should he look at them _/; Adolf Huebl: WelcheLehrgegenstande sollen und konnen sich mit demSpielfilm beschaftigen? (Which branches of edu-cation could and should be concerned with enter-tainment films? j; Walter Hillis: KritischBewertung und Verwertung der Spielfilme imUnterricht (Appreciation and utilization of the en-tertainment film in education/: Edith Hauser:Erfahrungen mit den Filmdiskussionen fur dieJugend (Experiences with the discussion of filmsfor young people/; Franz Haussler: Filmdiskus-sion zum Film "Der Schatz der Sierra Madre"(Discussions of the film The Treasure of SierraMadrpj; Gertrude Behringer: Die pidagogischeBegrundung des Filmverbotes fur Jugendliche(Educational grounds for the prohibition of filmsto young spectators/.

Bibliography on "The entertainment film andyouth".

473 .Temoignages sur le cinema et lleducation.(Opinions on the cinema and education"In: Cinema educatif et culturel, Rome,(10-11), July-October 1955, 58 p. (specialnumber).

Contains contributions by: (1) Basdevant, Andre -Temoignages sur le cinema et 1' educationOpinions on the cinema and educatiog. (2)

Deherpe, Raoul - Necessite d'une culture cinema-tographique LThe need for cinematographic cul-ture/. (3) Rave, A. - Cine jeunesse ZCine-YoutW.(4) Bourges, Maurice - L 'education cinemato-aaphique dans les milieux des jeunes ouvrieraLThe cinematographic education of young workers/.(t) Tienda, Henri de - Film et culture aux prisons(Films and culture in prisons/. (6) Feraud, P. -Lea long metrages en version originale et la con-naissance de 1' stranger (Full- length films in theoriginal version, and knowledge of foreigncountries/. (7) Georgin, B. - L 'activite culturelledu cinema scolaire & l'Academie de Paris LThecultural activity of the school cinema at the Aca-demy of Paris/ (8) Moguy, Leonide - Le role ducinema social LThe part played by the socialcinemil.

97

474.iurnal, "Iskusstvo Kino". (Cinema ArtziIn: Cinema Art, Moscow, (10), 1935,(special number).

This nt'mber is entirely devoted to children's films.The first article "A great art for small spectators"takes into account the importance of the films forchildren in Soviet cinema art, and its independentcharacter.

E. gvarc 's and Olejnikov's scenario "Lenakaand the grapes" is also published, as well as anextract from Pagnol's scenario "Merlusse", anarticle by S.S. Gincburg, devoted to Pagnol'swork, and a series of articles on theoretical andpractical problems of Soviet children's films.

In "Art and Play", G. Roaal is concerned withcertain problems of pre-school cinema: thescientific use of films already in existence, a studyof the child at play and a definition of the dramaticart problem. The possibilities offered by thetheatre and pre-school cinema are compared. In"Looking for a hero", Novogrudskij notes that thecinema has a more powerful influence on childrenthan any other form of art. Children have a veryacute sense of any deficiency in the representationof a character, and thus the more competentperformance of an actor playing a "bad" role mayexert a stronger emotional influence than theperformance of a "good" character. The author in-sists onthe necessity of creating expressive cha-racters for the children's cinema, and of ensuringthat the interpretation of the character is beyondreproach. He considers that child characters shouldbe played by child actors. The art of the actressZejmo is cited as the exception that proves the rule.

The problems discussed by R. Katzman in thearticle entitled "A great educator" - on the neces-sity of teaching the history of the cinema inschools - are still valid for the present day. Suchinstruction has a direct value in that children whoare unacquainted with the historic past can learna great deal from films such as "BattleshipPotemkin" (Eisenstein), "The Mother" (Pudovkin)etc . The study of the history of the cinema inliterature classes plays an equally important part.Instruction may take different forms; courses,questionnaires, etc. The best films should be in-cluded in the syllabus just as literary works are.All these measures will serve to reinforce theeducational scope of the cinema.

In "Films for children", I. Popov contests thethen current definition of the specific character ofchildren's films, based mainly on the specificcharacteristic of form of perception. The authorbelieves that one should consider first of all theartistic value of films and that the particular formsof perception involved should be of secondary im-portance. With regard to the adaptation of factualtopics in children's films, the author, referringto the example of popular art, stresses the neces-sity of bringing out a positive feature of the hero'scharacter. Dramatized characters must be simple,but strong in their simplicity.

98

The issue also contains a report of a surveycarried out among children of pre-school age, witha view to selecting young film actors. K. GevrjuSinfsarticle "Be prepared" tells of experience with thedocumentary film-journal for children "Pioner".In "Stories in images on the screen", V. Solevdiscusses the use of filmstrips in work with child-ren and the similarities between filmstrips and films .

See also: nos. 53, 254.

(b) CONFERENCE REPORTS: HANDBOOKSOF ORGANIZATIONS, ETC.

475.Actes du Congres international sur la presseperiodique, cinematographie et radio pourenfants, sous le haut patronage de l'Unesco,Milan, 19-23 mars 1952. ,Records of theInternational Congress on the periodical press,cinematography and radio for children, underthe patronage of Unesco, Milan, 19-23 March19522 Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, 329 p.

The part of this report devoted to film includes thefollowing lectures and reports: (1) Petrucci,.AItonio (Films educatffs et films pour l'enfance/Educational films and films for children); (2)Wohlrabe, Willy (Problemes techniques et artis-tiques du film pour enfants et 1' experience alle-mande/ Technical and artistic problems of filmsfor children, and the German experience); (3)Banfi, Antonio (L 'aspect social du cinema en tantque spectacle/ The social aspect of the cinema,seen as spectacle); (4) Lunders, L. (Les condi-tions d'une enquete sur 1' influence des films sur1' enfance / Conditions of a survey on the influenceof films on children); (5) Mergen, Armand (Cine-ma et hygiene mentale / The cinema and mentalhygiene); (6) Zazzo, Rene (Le niveau mental etla compreheniion du cinema/Mental level andunderstanding of the cinema); (7) Musatti, CesareLes processus psychiques actives par le cinema/Psychic processes activated by the cinema); (8)Calo, Giovanni (Le cinema et l' education intel-lectuelle / The cinema and intellectual education);(9) Meylan, Louis (Le cinema et l' education mo-rale/The cinema and moral education); (10)Castejon, Federico (La reglementation juridiquedes films pour llenfance / Legislation concerningfilms for children); (11) Griva, Domenico RiccardoPeretti (La reglementation juridique des filmspour 1' enfance/ Legislation concerning films forchildren); (12) Caparros, Morata J.B. (Cinemaet education morale/The cinema and moraleducation); (13) Sinoir, Guy (Les correlationsentre le cinema et la delinquance juvenile/ Cor-relations between the cinema and juvenile delin-quency); (14) Chazal, Jean (Les correlationsentre le cinema et la delinquance juverdle/ Cor-relations between the cinema and juveniledelinquency).

476 .Albiero, Giuseppe. Si sta facendo ualcosaPer la nostra gioventa? Is anything beingdone for our youth?_/ In: Il Regno, Bologna,(12), December 1956, p. 18-20.

A record of seminars organized by the experi-mental centre for cinematography in collaborationwith the production company "Titanus" . Commentson the present state of the problem of cinema andyouth in Italy.

477.Cain, C. and Vannoey, R.C. The FilmTeacher' s Handbook 1957-1958. AnnualJournal of the Society of Film Teachers.London, Society of Film Teachers, 1957,115 p.

This yearbook and handbook of the "Society ofFilm Teachers" in England (a teachers' organiza-tion for the promotion of film education, mainly inschools) gives a programme of film education forprimary, secondary modern and grammar schools.It includes a list of films suitable for discussionin the classroom, with suggested themes fordiscussion.

A bibliography of works about films for youngpeople, a list of films made by young people, aguide for discussion of certain types of film, amembership list, and other information, completethis handbook.

478 .Children' s Films: A Symposium. New Delhi,Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,Government of India, June 1955, 39 p.

A summary of the papers presented during a sym-posium on children' s films organized at New Delhion 11 October 1954 by the Indian Ministry of In-formation and Broadcasting. Also contains thetexts of various talks, some of them broadcast, onthe same subject. S. Radhakrishnan underlines inan "Inaugural. Address" (given on 24 December1953 at New Delhi, on the occasion of the secondexhibition of films for children) the influence whichthe cinema may exercise on the child by offeringexamples of strength of character, bravery,heroism and nobility.

R.R. Diwakar examines the influence of thecinema on the mind of the child (Films and thechild mind), M.V. Krishnaswamy points to experi-ments made in England in children' s films (Britishexperiment in children's films). P.K. Atre (Whatare children's films? ) stresses that the most dan-gerous films are those which give a false pictureof life . Films for children should accord a largeplace to spiritual values. J.S. Bhownagary(Social importance of children's films) examinesexperiments carried out in England, the SovietUnion, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, etc. , and drawsconclusions concerning the way of approaching theproblem of children' s films in India. Lastly,Mary Field makes one or two brief comments onchildren' s films.

479.Cinema e gioventb: dodici convegni di studionelle citta italiane. ,Cinema and youth:twelve study sessions in different ItaliantownsjIn: Bianco e Nero, Rome, XVII (11-12),November-December 1956.

An introduction devoted to the organization of thesesessions is followed by papers delivered by MicheleLacalamita, President of the Experimental Centrefor the Cinema, at the opening session of the RomeCongress, at the Campidoglio, on the relationshipsbetween the cinema and youth, and by AntonioCiampi, Director of SIRE, on economic problemsand on specialized production for young people;these papers illustrate the problems which emergeat the national and international levels. This publi-cation also includes an analysis of two works onthe same subject by Henri Storck and Edgar Dale,together with a bibliography.

480.Colini Lombardi, Pia. Inchiesta sulla cinema-tografia er ragazzi. (Inquiry into cinemafor children.] In: Ragazzi d'Oggi, Rome,(1), December 1950, p. 17-19.

A general survey of the studies carried out inconnexion with this problem at the InternationalStudy Conference (Venice, August 1950). Pointersand suggestions concerning the solution of theproblem of cinema for children at the nationallevel.

481. Film Education of Youth. Report of an inter-national conference on film education of youthunder the auspices of World Brotherhood,Amsterdam, 22-24 November 1957, 28 p.,(stencilled).

The report of a conference of experts on film edu-cation of youth. Papers by L. Lunders: "L 'educa-tion cinematographique et les relations inter-humaines"; Lfilm education and human relationil;J.M.L. Peters: "The domain of film education;Stanley Reed: "Film education in schools";B. Alexandre: "Education cinematographique_extra-scolaire" (Out -of- school film educatioil;Siegfried Mohrhof: "Maglichkeiten der Produktionand des internationalen Austausches von film-kundlichen Arbeitsmaterial" ZPossibilities of theproduction and international exchange of filmolo-gical material/. At the end of this conference,various resolutions were adopted, regarding theusefulness of film education, its content, the r8leof the school, and the training of teaching staff.

482.Film i omladina. (The cinema and youth..7Lectures and discussions held on 3, 4 and 5December 1956, at Novi Sad, Yugoslavia.Belgrade, Novi Dani, 1957, 229 p.

Includes contributions by Afrie, Vjekeslav (Filmculture and youth); Vasa, Zivorad (Favouriteheroes and actors with children between 10 and 14

99

years of age); Dordevic, Jovan (The attitude ofparents to their children's visits to the cinema);Makavejev, Dugan (The popularity of special typesof film with children); Brenk, France (Fourmethods of investigating the influence of film onyouth); Sebek, Levin (Which films are preferredby delinquent and non-delinquent youths?); Vrabec,Miroslav (The film image and the visual culture ofpupils); Foht, Ivan (The possibility of aestheticeducation through film); etc.

483 .Filmska kultura mladih. LFilm culture andyoung people2Savet drugtava za staranje odeci i omladini Jugoslavje (Federation ofChildren's Welfare Organizations ofYugoslaviad In: Savremena gkola (Modernschool), Belgrade, 1958, 178 p. (With list ofcontents annotated in English and French.)

Includes the following articles: Vladimir Petrie(Film culture as a part of general education andknowledge of the arts); Blagenka Mimica (Cinema,school and the free time of children); FranceBreak (Problems of film education and instruction);Miroslav Vrabec (Some problems of identificationamong filmgoers); Dugan Makavejev (The film andthe dream-world of childhood); Baja Baji6 (An in-quiry into the way in which children from ruraland urban districts understand children's films);Jovan Dordevie (Favourite films of rural children);Velibor Urosevie (Teachers' attitudes to films);Lepa livanovie (How do rural children between theages of 12 and 14 understand films?); MilenkoKaranovie (What do rural parents think of films?);Niko la Kovaeevie (Use of the film in the familyand at home); Radomir Makarie (An inquiry heldamong children after the International Film Fes-tival at Voyvodina); Radovan Ivaneevie (Is itdangerous for children to see cowboy and gangsterfilms?) .

484.IV festival dei film per ragazzi. 5VthFestival of films for children./ In:Ragazzi d'Oggi, Rome, (9), September 1953,p. 17-21, 24.

Report of the meeting of children's film expertsheld on the occasion of the IVth Festival of Filmsfor Children (Venice, August 1952), and whicharrived at the following definition: a film adaptedto the mentality and to the healthy needs of child-ren, conceived and executed specially for a childaudience.

485 .Katholieke filmactie, Beige: Handboek vande film voor kinderen. (Handbook on filmsfor children2 Brussels, Dienst "CEDOC",n.d.,46 p.

An examination of the criteria applicable to thechoice of films for children and the organizationof film shows for young people. An outline ofregulations governing children's film shows and

100

an examination of the legislative provisions in thisfield. A list of films for children.

486.Petrucci, Antonio. IlAyrnposiurn per lostudio della "Miranda Prorsus". (Seminarfor the study of "Miranda Prorsus".In: Rivista del Cinematografo, Rome, XXXI(5), May 1958, p. 148-155.

A summary of the study sessions organized by the"Ente delle spAtacolo" and the "Istituto univer-sitario Mendel" (Rome, April 1958), on the ency-clical "Miranda Prorsus". Papers read byeminent specialists on the cinema and youth, fromthe educational, psychological and social points ofview.

487 .Rencontre internationale d' experts sur lesaspects psychologiques, techniques et sociauxdes problemes du cinema et de la jeunesse.(International Meeting of Experts on the psy-chological, technical and social aspects ofproblems concerning the cinema and youthz/Luxembourg, 31 May-4 June, 1955.Geneva, World Brotherhood, 1955, n.p.(stencilled).

Aspects psychologiques (Psychological aspects)(1) Rev. P. Valentini, S.J., Rome: Action imme-diate du film sur les jeunes iImmediate effect offilm on youth/. (2) Siersted, Ellen, Copenhagen:Influence immediatement decelable au-dessous de10 ans (Immediately discernable influence under10 yeare/. (3) Heuyer, Georges, Paris: Influenceimmediatement decelable au-dessus de 10 ans(Immediately discernable influence over 10 years/.(4) Keir, Gertrude, London: Influence lointainedecelable du film sur les jeunes (Remotely dis-cernable influence of film on young people/.

Aspects techniques (Technical aspects) (5)Pront, John, The Hague: Selection dans la pro-duction courante (Selection from current produc-tioW. (6) Rev. P. Lunders, Leo 0.P., Bruxelles:Utilisation des films adaptes aux differents niveauxdlagefUtilization of films adapted to different agelevels .

Aspects sociaux (Social aspects) (7) M. l'AbbeBernhard Alexandre, Paris: Formes dlapplica-tion pratiques LForms of practical application ;(8) Keilhacker, Martin, Mfinich: Education cinema-tographique aux divers niveaux cilRge CFilm educa-tion at different age level]; (9) Lox, Florimond,Bruxelles: Problemes cillme legislation specia-lisee (Problems of special legislation.

488.Sciascia, Ugo. I film per ragazzi. (Filmsfor children) In: Indice d 'Oro, Rome,November 1951, p. 25-30.

A report and commentary of the international studysessions on children's films, and on national andinternational activities in this field.

489 .Vortrige und Berichte der 2. Jahrestagungder Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Filmwissen-schaft. Der Film als Beeinflussungsmittel.(Papers and reports of the 2nd AnnualCongress of the German Association for FilmScience. Film as influencing medium:"Emsdetten, Verlag Lechte, 1955, 118 p.

Several of the papers deal with the cinema andyouth: Keilhacker, Martin ("Die Filmeinflfisse beiKindern und Jugend lichen und die Problematikihrer Feststellung" /Influences-of the cinema onchildren and adolescents and the problems con-nected with their determination;) Feldmann, E.("Der Film als Kulturfaktor"/ The cinema as acultural factor.)

490.Winkler, Gerd. Handbuch Film und Jugend.glandbook: Film and Youthi Munich,Juventa-Verlag, 1956, 125 p.

Data on the activities of organizations in theFederal Republic of Germany which deal withquestions of the cinema and youth; the maincensorship regulations with reference to the pro-tection of young people; a list of distributors ofchildren's films, some practical hints; and abibliography of some 60 titles relating to: historyof the cinema, filmology, film language, thecinema and youth, the cinema and education, theprotection of children against the danger of thecinema, and legislation.

491.Wissenschaftliches Institut fur Jugendfilm-fragen Film - Jugendpsychologisch Betrachtet/The cinema from the viewpoint of youthpsychology] Munich, Ehrenwirth Verlag,n.d., 76 p.

Contains contributions by: (1) Keilhacker, Martin:Der gegenwfirtige Stand der Deutschen und aus-lindischen Forschung fiber Wirkungsweisen undEinflfisse des Films auf Kinder und JugendlicheThe present state of German and foreign research

on the effects and influence of films on childrenand adolescent]; (2) Stfickrath, Fritz: Die Rolledes Films im Leben der Jugend LThe r8le playedby the cinema in the life of young people"; (3)Luxenburger, Hans: Psychiatrische und heil-pidagogische Fragen des Films (Psychiatric andtherapeutic-educational questions concerningfilms"; (4) Krause-Ablass, Margarete: Entwick-lungs-psychologische Gesichtspunkte und prak-tische Erfahrung als Grundlage ffir die Beurteilungvon Filmen far Kinder und Jugendliche (Psycho-logical considerations concerning development andpractical experience as a basis for the evaluationof films suitable for children and adolescent;(5) Speidel, Edmund: Kurzreferat zum Paragraph6 des Gesetzes zum. Schutze der Jugend in derOffentlichkeit, Forderungen und Beschlfisse derJugendschutzbeauftragen der Lander und Vergleichmit dem gegenwartigen Stand /port reportconcerning paragraph 6 of the law relating to theprotection of youth in public places; proposalsand conclusions of the youth welfare delegatesfrom the Lander, and a comparison with thepresent state of affairs]

101

INDEX OF AUTHORS

the References are to items in the bibliography/

Adler, Mortimer, J. 18 Cain, C. 477Administrative Commission on Motion Caldano, Alberto 390

Picture Code of Ethics 433 Ca16, Giovanni 286Agel, Henri 96 Canestrari, Renzo 14, 154Aibauer, Rosa 129 Canestrelli, Luigi 155Alberola Such, Ramon 264, 265 Capriolo, E. 108Albertini, Laura 130 Caruso, Ada P. 130Albiero, Giuseppe 476 Casso y Romero, Domingo do 267Albright, Roger 285 Castejon, Federico 435Altavilla, Enrico 201 Centro Ita liano Femminile 211Amasovie, A. 431 Charters, Werrett W. 2Amsler, Roger 308 Chevallier, Jacques 314Andreotti, Giulio 434 Chiarini, Luigi 315Association nationale du cinema Cresta, Hans 58

pour 11 enfance 202 Ciampi, Antonio 391Ayfre, Amedee 115 Cimatti, Leone 436

Cipriani Faggioli, Maria Luisa 316Bailyn, Late 51 Civardi, Luigi 212Bann, Antonio 149 Claude, Robert 317Basdevant, Andre 386 Clostermann, Gerhard 268, 318, 319Bauchard, Philippe 387 Cochin, Marcel 320, 392Begak, B. 1 Cohen-Seat, Gilberrt- 3Behringer, Gertrude 52 Colini Lombardi, Pia 480Be ley, Andre 150 Commission on Educational andBellingroth, Friedhelm 203 Cultural Films 4Beran, Jan 354 Corbel, F. 107Bertagna, L. 228 Corradini, Umberto 5, 269Bertin, Giovanni M. 388 Cotton, Carmelo 287, 288BillstrOzn, J. 204 Council of Motion PictureBias, W.E. 54 Organizations 270Blumer, Herbert 205, 266 Cressey, Paul G. 189, 271Boeck, A. de 309 Crisanti, Pina 289Boldyreva, L.A. 389Bosio, Luigi 55 Dale, Edgar 41, 59, 116, 321Bossard, Robert 56 Dawson, Marjorie Granger 393Bouman, J.C. 151 Debesse, Maurice 156Bower, Robert (Mrs.) 206 Decaigny, T. 213Box, Kathleen 57 Decji Filmski Klub 322Brandt, Herman P. 131 Deherpe, Raphael 323Bricker, Harry 127 Department of Social Welfare andBrini, A. 207 Community Development in Accra 60Brinkmann, Donald 132, 310 Deprun, Jean 157Bruce, D.J. 256 Descamps, J. 97Brudny, Wolfgang 152, 170, 208, 311, 364 Diaz-Plaja, Guillermo 290Bruel, Oluf 209 Di Majo, Carlo 272Bruner, Jerome S. 188 Di Tullio, Benigno 291Brychtova, V. 354 Dolinskij, I.L. 6Buchanan, Andrew 312 Driel, A .A .E . van 122Buhr, Wolfgang 210 Drillich, P.A. 324Miring, H. 313 Dussardier, Maurice 325

Dysinger, Wendell S. 214Cady, Jacques 308Cahn, Paulette 153 Edinburgh Film Festival 394

103

Elck , A .A . 326 Heinrich, Karl 10, 46, 223, 224Eiland, K. 313 Heisler, Florence 225Eiserer, Paul E. 158 Helier, Daniel 69Emery, Frederick E. 215 Henshaw, S. 226Evans, Frederick 190 Heuyer, Georges 135, 136, 151, 227, 228

Hills, Janet 229, 335, 403Faugere, M.M. 81 Hiroshima Association ofFederation of Children's Welfare Juvenile Correction 70

Organizations of Yugoslavia 7 Hochheimmer, Rita 336Feldman, Erich 19 Hodgkinson, A.W. 337, 338Feo, G. de 61, 191 Hodgson, Lena 339Field, Mary 20, 395 Hoel, Nic. 404Flesch, Gislero 273 Hoffmann, Hermann 230Flik, G. 274 Holaday, P.W. 259Flores d'Arcais, Giuseppe 159 Home Office 71Foerster, Oskar 292 Hoshino, Choshaku 361Ford, Richard 8Forman, Henry J. 192 Indian Film Inquiry Committee 231Forter, Adolf 293 Inui, Takashni 340Fowler, George 188 Irgens, Hans Rutger 24Fraisse, P. 257 Itkyal, N.L. 72Frazier, Alexander 352Frontali, Gino 216 Japanese Central Council onFulchignoni, Enrico 133, 160 Youth Problems (ed.) 276Funk, Alois 161 Japan - Ministry of Education 73, 74, 75, 76Fusellier, E. 327 Jessel, Oskar R. 77

Jimenez de Asua, L. 277Gaddini, Renato. 217 Jones, Dorothy B. 117Galletto, Albino 162, 218 Juez Vicente, Julian 405Galliard, Olpho 219Garcia Yague, Juan 220, 437 Kahnert, M.E. 232Garmendia de Otaola, A. 328 Kiznpfer, Winfried 341Garrido Lestache, Juan 258 Kandirin, B. 367Gastaldi, Enrico 396, 397 Karsten, Anitra 78Gel' wont, A.M. 21, 329, 398 Keilhacker, Margarete 79, 101, 169, 233, 438Gemelli, Agostino 163, 164, 330 Keilhacker, Martin 11, 25, 166, 167, 168Gerhartz-Franck, Ingrid 134 169, 170, 233, 342Germeten, Elsa 359 Keir, Gertrude 26, 439Gerstenberger, Magdalena 399 Kejlina, I. 12Ghilardi, Agostino 484 Kempe, Fritz 296Giacomelli, Ferruccio 275 Kerstiens, Ludwig 343Gibson, Harold J. (Mrs.) 62 Kiselev, C.A. 297Giraud, Jean 22, 63, 64, 226, 294, 400, 401 Kister, G. 367, 406Glastra van Loon, F.H. 222 Klapper, Joseph T. 27Glogauer, Werner 23, 165 Kobayashi, Kaoru 344Gongalves, S. 9 Kubenka, Max 234Grail, Xavier 98 Kulik, Adam 407Graziani, Cesare 402Gray, Barbara 65, 66 Lacis, A. 12Greiner, Grace 331 Lahy-Hollebecque, Marie 408Grigor'eva, A.A. 295 Lalande, Helene de 279Groder, Ursula 332 Lammers, Paul 170Gromov, J. 1 Lanocita, Arturo 345Guitton, R. 107 Lanoux, Armand 235

Lanz-Stuparich, Maria 80Hasse, Ulrich 333, 364 Laporta, Raffaele 298, 346, 347Hagemann, Walter 19 Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm 278, 409, 440, 441.Handel, Leo A. 99 League of Nations AdvisoryHansen, H. Lund 248 Committee on Social Questions 193Hart, W.A. 't 67, 68 Lebovici, S. 151, 226, 227Hauser, Philip M. 266 Lehman, Margaret 348Have, Tonko, T. ten 100 Lehnemann, Heinrich 349Hedden, C.G. 334 Leites, Nathan 128

104

nrorma.o.WW07#1,,TrIww,

Le Moal, P. 81, 279 Oietti, Pasquale 366Lensing, Adolf 350 Osaka Prefecture Association ofLercaro, Giacomo 171 Juvenile Correction 83Leroy-Bousson, A. 172, 173 Oskolskij, A .P . 326Lewin, William 351, 352Lhotsky, Jaromir 410 Paderni, S. 34, 89Liehm, A .J. 411 Paramonova, K. 416Lindsey, Ben B. 280 Parrot, Philippe 107

LiNka, Miroslav 353, 354 Patel, A.S. 84Lo Savio, Giulio 442 Paulsen, Kfithe 260

Lox, Florimond 236, 443, 444, 445 Pelizzi, Camillo 177, 302Lublinskij, P.I. 446 People's Commissariat ofLudman, Rene 237 Instruction of the RSFSR 417Lunders, Leo 13, 28 Peres, B. 367Luxenburger, Hans 238 Peretti Griva, Domenico Ricardo 452Lyness, Paul I. 102 Perlman, William J. 17

Perron, Roger 178McCullough, Constance 355 Peters, Charles C. 123

McIntosh, Douglas M. 82 Peters, J.M.L. 122, 368, 369Maggi, Raffaello 239 Peterson, Ruth C. 194, 195Maggio, Joseph B. 356 Petrucci, Antonio 418, 486Makarenko, A.S. 357 Philippon, O. 244Manvell, Roger 103, 240 Pitta, A. 108

Marcus, H.L. 358 Polonskij, M.M. 297Marcussen, Elsa Brita 359, 447 Ponzo, Ezio 138

Marquis, Donald 226 Portugal 452Martin, David 215 Pradella, Giulio 419Marzi, Alberto 14, 174 Preston, M.I. 245

Maucorps, P.M. 175 Preuss, K. 268May, Mark A. 198Mayer, Jacob P. 104, 241 Raths, L.E. 196

Me lies, M.C. 137 Rebeillard, Monique 85, 261Menzel, Josef 412 Redano, Ugo 283

MenEinskaja, Ju. 360 Redslob, E. 207

Metzger, W. 242 Reed, Stanley 370

Meylan, Louis M. 299, 300 Rey, Andre 139

Mialaret, G. 137 Reymaker, J. de 31

Michard, H. 281 Roessler, E. 140, 303Mikakawa, Kikuyoshi 361 Roessler, W. 140, 303Miller, V .L . 226 Rondi, Gian Luigi 420

Mirams, Gordon 15, 118,362,

119,413,

120,448,

121449

Rosen, I.C.Rosenthal, Newman H.

197371

Mizutani, Tokuo 16 Ruckmick, C.A. 214

Mohrhof, Siegfried 363, 364, 450Montmollin, G. de 257 Sacchetto, Aleardo 421

Morin, Edgar 105, 243 Salvi, Giovanni 422

Morris, Norval 282 Santinello, Giovanni 372

Morrison, John 41 Schiavi, Alessandro 304

Moss, Louis 57 Schottmayer, Georg 181

Muarav'ev, I. 367 Schubert, Klaus 373Muller, H.S. 122 Sciascia, Ugo 374, 438Municipal Council of Deputies Scott, W.J. 86

and Workers of Kiev 414 Sekerak, Robert M. 87

Mugoz Fernandez, Pedro 301 Sekino, Yoshio 375

Mura, A. 365 Seton, Marie 376

Musatti, Cesare 176 Shoemaker, Francis 377

Muth, Heinrich 29 Shuttleworth, F.K. 198Sicker, Albert 245

Negaki, Teiichi 106 Siegel, Alberta Engvall 246

Nahabedian, Vaskey (Mrs.) 62 Siersted, Ellen 247

Nath, Mahendra 415 Sijmons, A .H. 122

Ness, Einar 359 Simson, W.A. 251, 252, 253Nozet, Hugues 30 Sinoir , Guy M. 284

105

Skoleinspektoren i Hamar 88 Verdone, Mario 384, 426, 427, 428Smith, E.M. 93, 110 Vicente Gelabert, Enrique de 429Snejder, M. 141 Vincent, Carl 49Society for the Study of Film Vinokurov, J. 430

Education in Japan 378 Volpicelli, Luigi 92Soriano, Marc 142 Vojtolovskaja, L. 431Spinat, P. 107Stoddard, G.D. 259 Wagner-Simon, Th. 184Storck, Henri 423 Wall, William D. 93, 110, 251, 252, 253Stackrath, Fritz 32, 17 9, 180, 181, 249 Wallon, Henri 185

305, 379 Ward, J.C. 94Sutermeister, H. 306 Warshow, Robert 125

Wasem, Erich 36, 37, 126Tarroni, Evelina 33, 34 , 89, 109, 143, 182 Wieringen, H. van 122

183, 250 262, 263, 380, 424 Winkler, Gerd 364, 490Tavistock Clinic, The 425 Witty, Paul 127Thrasher, Frederick M. 271 Wolf enstein, Martha 128Thurstone, Louis L. 194, 195, 199, 200 Walker, Herbert 186Tol' B.H. 381 Wrablowa-Koblewska, Janina 407TOnnessen, H.A. 90 Wirth, Elizabeth 254Trager, F. 196 Wyeth, Ezra R. 111Traversa, Carlo 91Trager, Walter 35, 382 Zanotti, Milena 112

Zazzo, Bianka 95, 113, 144, 145Urickij, N.Z. 307, 383 146, 255, 432

Zazzo, Rene 95, 113, 146, 147, 148, 432Vandromme, Pol 124 Zieris, Franz 187Vannoey, 477 Zochbauer, Franz 114, 385

106

Vie should like to draw the attention of our readersto the Unesco Coupon Scheme,

which may enable them to purchase materialslisted in this periodical.

Because it is often difficult to send moneyfrom country to country for the purchase of books,

films, laboratory equipment, etc.,Unesco has created a sort of international currency,

the UNESCO COUPON.These coupons enable schools,

universities, teachers and studentsin many parts of the worldto buy freely the materials

which they need for study and research.

UNESCO COUPONS are on salein most Member States

which have currency restrictions.If you do not know where to obtain coupons,

please consultyour National Commission for Unesco

or write to Unesco, Paris,for the information.

The TRAVEL COUPON SCHEME,which is designed

to overcome the currency barriersto educational and cultural travel,

is an extension of the Unesco Coupon Schemedescribed above.

Travel Coupons are a formof international travellers' cheque.They provide the foreign exchange

needed to enable travellers such as students,teachers and research workers

to spend time abroad for study or research.

For full details,please refer to the following explanatory leaflets:

UNESCO COUPONS

with separate addenda on BOOK COUPONS, FILM COUPONS

COUPONS FOR SCIENTIFIC MATERIAL

INTRODUCING THE UNESCO TRAVEL COUPON

(containing the addresses of the national agencies responsible

for the allocation and issue of coupons, and the banks wherethey may be cashed)

'*44

unescocoupons

UNESCO COUPONScan be used to buy :

books, periodicals,photocopies,microfilm copies,art reproductions,charts, globes, maps,sheet music,gramophone records,the following categories ofeducational films :(a) screening prints and

duplicate prints,(b) original negatives and

duplicate negatives ;as well as(c) 16 mm. raw film for printing

the above categories of films;various categories of scientificmaterial for education andresearch, such as :optical instruments,balances and weights,laboratory glass-ware,electrical measuring instruments,analytical and clinical testingapparatus, etc.

which may be obtainedupon request from the:

UnescoCoupon OfficePlace de FontenoyParis - 7.France

UNESCO PUBLICATIONS: NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

Afghanistan Panuzai, Press Department, Royal Afghan Ministryof Education, KABUL.

Albania: N. Sh. Botimeve, Naim Frasheri., TIRANA.Argontino: Editorial Sudamericana S. A., Alsina 500, BUENOS

AIRES.Australia: Melbourne University Press, 369 Lonsdale Street,

MELBOURNE C. 1 (Victoria).Austria: Verlag Georg Fromme & Co., Spengergasse 39, WIEN V.B elgium: Office de publicite S.A., 16, rue Marcq, BRUXELLES;

N.V. Standaard Boekhandel, Belgielei 151, ANTWERPEN. ForThe Courier : Louis de Lannoy, 22, Place de Brouckere,BRUXELLES.

Bolivia: Libreria Selecciones, avenida Camacho 369, casilla 972,LA PAZ.

B rasil: Fundagio Gettilio Vargas, 186 Praia de Botafogo, caixapostal 4081, RIO DE JANEIRO.

B ulgaria: Raznoiznos, 1, Tzar Assen, SOFIA.B urma: Burma Translation Society, 529-531 Merchant Street,

RANGOON.Cambodia s Librairie Albert Portail, 14, avenue Boulloche,

PHNOM -PENH.Canada: The Queen's Printer, OTTAWA (Ont.).Ceylon: Lake House Bookshop, P.O. Box 244, Lady Lochore

Building, 100 Parsons Road, COLOMBO 2.Chile: Editorial Universitaria S.A., avenida B. O'Higgins 1058,

casilla 10220, SANTIAGO.Chino: The World Book Co., Ltd., 99 Chungking South Road,

Section 1, TAIPEH, Taiwan (Formosa).Colombia : Libreria Central, Carrera 6-A no). 14-32, BOGOTA.Costa Rico : Imprenta y Libreria Trejos, S.A., apartado 1313,

SAN JOSE.Cubs: Libreria Econ6mica, Pte. Zayas 505-7, apartado 113,

LA HABANA.Czechoslovakia Artia Ltd., 30, Ve SmZcicach, PRAHA 2.Denmark: Einar Munksgaard Ltd., 6 Ndffegade, KOBENHAVN K.Dominican Republic Libreria Dominicana Mercedes apar-

tado de correos 656, CIUDAD TRUJILLO.Ecuador: Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, Nticleo del Guayas,

Pedro Moncayo y 9 de Octubre, casilla de correo no. 3542,GUAYAQUIL. aEl Salvador: Manuel Navas & Cia., 1 . avenida Sur 37, SANSALVADOR.

Ethiopia: International Press Agency, P.O.Box 120, ADDIS ABABA.Finland : Akateeminen Kirjakauppa, 2 Keskuskatu, HELSINKI.France: Librairie de l'Unesco, place de Fontenoy, PARIS-7e;

Wholesale : Sales Section, place de Fontenoy, PARIS-7e.French West Indies : Librairie J. Bocage, Rue Lavoir, B.P. 208,

FORT-DE-FRANCE (Martinique).Germany (Fed. Rep.): R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Unesco-Vertrieb fiir

Deutschland, Rosenheimerstrasse 145, MUNCHEN 8.Grose.: Librairie H. Kauffman, 28, rue du Stade, ATHENES.Haiti: Librairie "A la Caravelle", 36, rue Roux, 13,13. 111,

PORT- AU-PRINCE.Nang -Kong : Swindon Book Co., 25 Nathan Road, KOWLOON.Hungary: Kultura, P.O. Box 149, BUDAPEST 62.India : Orient Longmans Private Ltd. : 17, Chittaranjan Ave.,

CALCUTTA 13;, Indian Mercantile Chamber, Nicol Road,BOMBAY 1; 36a Mount Road, MADRAS 2; Gunfoundry Road,HYDERABAD 1; Kanson House, 24/1 Asaf Ali Road, P.O.Box 386, NEW DELHI 1. Sub-Depots : Oxford Book & StationeryCo., 17 Park Street, CALCUTTA 16 ; and Scindia House,NEW DELHI.

Indanosia Bappit Pusat 4PERMATA., Djl. Nusantsra 22, DJAKARTA.Iran: Commission nationale iranienne pour l'Unesco, avenue du

Musee TEHERAN.Iraq: McKenzie's Bookshop, BAGHDAD.Ireland: The National Press, 2 Wellington Road, Ballsbridge,

DUBLIN.Israel Blumstein's Bookstores Ltd., 35 Allenby Road and 48 Nahlat

Benjamin Street, TEL AVIV.Italy: Libreria Commissionaria Sansoni, via Gino Capponi 26,

casella postale 552, FIRENZE.Jamaica : Sangster's Book Room, 91 Harbour Street, KINGSTON;

Knox Educational Services, SPALDINGS.Japan : Maruzen Co., Ltd., 6, Tori-Nichome, Nihonbashi, P.O.

Box 605, Tokyo Central, TOKYO.

Jordan Joseph I. Bahous & Co., Dar- ul- Kutub, Salt Road, P.O.Box 66, AMMAN.

Korea : Korean National Commission for Unesco, P.O. BoxCentral 64, SEOUL.

Lebanon : Librairie Antoine, A. Naufal et Frees, B.P. 656,BE YR OUTH .

Liberia : J. Momolu Kamara, 69 Front and Gurley Streets,MONROVIA:

Luxembourg Librairie Paul Bruck,33,Grande-Rue, LUXEMBOURG.Malaya (Federation of) & Singapore : Federal Publications Ltd.,

Times House, River Valley Road, SINGAPORE.Malta : Sapienza's Library, 26 Kingsway, VALLETTA.Mauritius : Nalanda Co. Ltd., 30, Bourbon Street, PORT-LOUIS.Mexico: Editorial Hermes, Ignacio Mariscal, 41, Mexico D.F.

MEXICO.Monaco : British Library, 30, boulevard des Moulins, MONTE-

CARLO.Morocco: Centre de diffusion documentaire du B.E.P.I., B.P. 211,

RABAT.Netherlands : N. V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9,'s-GRAVENHAGE.Netherlands Antilles : G.C.T. Van Dorp & Co., (Ned. Ant.) N.V.,

WILLEMSTAD (Curacao, N.A.).New Zealand : Unesco Publications Centre, 100 Hackthome Road,

CHRISTCHURCH.Nicaragua: Libreria Cultural Nicaragiiense, calla 15 de Septiem-

bre no. 115, MANAGUA.Nigeria: C.M.S. (Nigeria) Bookshops, P.O. Box 174, LAGOS.Norway: A.S. Bokhjdrnet, Lille Grensen 7, OSLO.Pakistan :The West-Pak Publishing Co. Ltd., Unesco Publications

House, P.O. Box 374, 56-N Gulberg Industrial Colony, LAHORE.Panama : Cultural Panameita, Avenida 7a. n°. T1-49, apartado de

correos 2018. PANAMA.Paraguay : Agencia de Librerfas de Salvado; Nizza Yegros, entre

25 de Mayo y Mcal. Estigarribia, ASUNCION.Peru : ESEDAL, Oficina de Servicios, Departamento de Venta de

Publicaciones, avenida Tacna 359, Ofc. 51, Casilla 577, LIMA.Philippines : Philippine Education Co. Inc., 1104 Castillejos,

Quiapo, P.O. Box 620, MANILA.Poland : Osrodek Rozpowszechniania Wydawnictw Naukowych PAN.

Parac Kultury i Nsuki, WARZAWA.Portugal : Dias & Andrade Ltda., Livraria Portugal, rua do

Carmo 70, LISBOA.Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland : The Book Centre,

First Street, SALISBURY (Southern Rhodesia).Rumania: Cartimex, Str. Aristide Briand 14-18, P.O. Box 134-135,

BUCURESTI.Singapore: see Malaya (Federation of).Spain : Libreria Cientifica Medinaceli, Duque de Medinaceli 4,

MADRID 14. For The Courier: Ediciones Iberoamericanas S.A.,Pizarro 19, MADRID.

Sweden A/ B.C.E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2,STOCKHOLM 16. For The Couner: Svenska Unescoriidet, Va-sagatan 15-17, STOCKHOLM C.

Switzerland : Europa Verlag, Rimistrasse 5, ZURICH. Payot,40, rue du Marche, GENEVE.

Thailand Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue,BANGKOK.

Turkey Librairie Hachette, 469, Istiklal Caddesi, Beyoglu,ISTANBUL.

Union of South Africa: Van Schaik's Bookstore (Pty) Ltd., LibriBuilding, Church Street, P.O. Box 724, PRETORIA.

UMW Arab Republic La Renaissance d'Egypte, 9 Sh. Adly-Pasha, CAIRO (Egypt).

United Kingdom : H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569, LONDONS.E, 1.

United States of America Unesco Publications Center., 801Third Avenue, NEW YORK 22. N.Y., and except /or periodicals:Columbia University Press, 2960, Broadway, NEW YORK 27, N.Y.

Uruguay: Unesco Centro de Cooperacidn CientIfica para AmericaLatina, bulevar Artigas 1320- 24, casilla de correot 859,.MONTEVIDEO. Oficina de RepresentaciOn de Editoriales,plaza Cagancha 1342, Ler piso, MONTEVIDEO.

USSR : Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga, MOSKVA G-200.Viet Nam : Librairie papeterie Xuan -Thu, 185-193, rue Ttr-Do,

B.P. 283, SAIGON.Yugoslavia : Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27, BEOGRAD.

669 Li] $1;50; 7/6 (mg.); 5,25 NF