Psychology and culture: Exploring clinical psychology in Australia and the Malay Archipelago

Running head: PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE

Psychology and Culture:

Exploring Clinical Psychology in Australia and the Malay Archipelago

Lennie R.C. Geerlings,a* Claire L. Thompson,

b and Anita Lundberg

b

a James Cook University (Australia)

b JCU Singapore (Singapore)

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Please do not cite this document, but refer to the published paper:

Lennie R.C. Geerlings, Claire L. Thompson and Anita Lundberg (2014). Psychology and

culture: Exploring clinical psychology in Australia and the Malay Archipelago. Journal of

Tropical Psychology, 4, 1-12. DOI:10.1017/jtp.2014.4

PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE 2

Abstract

This paper provides landmarks for the study of the historical development and current

expansion of academic psychology and clinical psychology education in Australia and three

countries of the Malay Archipelago (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore). It reviews literature on

the history of clinical psychology, and information from universities and psychological

associations, and includes an overview of the current providers and forms of psychology

education programmes and their curricula. A critical analysis informed by cultural

anthropology indicates that psychology has only to a small extent been adjusted to different

cultural contexts, while ‘western’ models of the discipline remain dominant. The neglect of

attention to culture in psychology and clinical psychology raises important questions about

the future of the discipline in the tropical regions of Australia and the Malay Archipelago.

Keywords: history of psychology, cultural anthropology, Australia, Malay

Archipelago, tropics


Psychology and culture: exploring clinical psychology in Australia and

the Malay Archipelago

Clinical psychology, the subfield of psychology that focuses on the prevention,

assessment and treatment of psychological maladjustment, disability and discomfort

(American Psychological Association [APA], 2013), originated in the United States. In 1896,

Lightner Witmer (1867–1956), a psychologist at the University of Pennsylvania, introduced a

practical component of child guidance in the psychology training programme (Donn, Routh,

& Lunt, 2000; Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007; Leahey, 2004). He called this applied

psychology ‘clinical psychology’ (Kazarian & Evans, 1998). Clinical psychological activities

were extended to adults during the Second World War, when the US government stimulated

expansion of the number of training opportunities (Kazarian & Evans, 1998; Sarason, 2002).

American universities adopted standardised models of clinical psychology with an empirical

scientific base, such as the scientist-practitioner (Boulder)model in 1949, and the practitioner-

scholar (Vail) model in 1973 (Donn et al., 2000; Sarason, 2002).

Today, these American models for clinical psychology are increasingly embedded

outside the United States, for example in Australia and in Asian countries. However, little

consideration is given to the impact, or the suitability, of ‘western’ models in clinical

psychology for societies outside the United States, especially in culturally different regions

such as Asia, and culturally diverse countries such as Australia which includes large

populations of Indigenous Australians and other ethnic groups. Clinical psychology has

been critiqued for being western-centric and intrinsically intertwined with western norms of

behaviour and thought (Arnett, 2008; Davidson, 1993; Gone, 2011; Henrich, Heine &

Norenzayan, 2010; Stewart, 2012; Watter, 2010). Additionally, apart from a few notable

exceptions (e.g. Blowers & Turtle, 1987; Taft & Day, 1988), historical analysis of clinical


psychology has mainly been an American endeavour (Kazarian & Evans, 1998). Although it

is likely through geographical movement and through the re-interpretations in different times

and contexts, that clinical psychology has diversified (Geerlings & Lundberg, 2014),

nevertheless, little is known about the development and practices of clinical psychology other

than mainstream American models. This paper seeks to explore this one-sided treatment of

the history of psychology through a case study focusing on the expansion and diversification

of clinical psychology education in Australia and three countries of the Malay Archipelago.

The analysis is carried out through reviews of literature and information from university

programmes, curricula and psychology associations.

Malay Archipelago

The Malay Archipelago is a region between Australia and South-East Asia, covering

Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and, by most definitions, the Philippines. The term was first

used by the British explorer Alfred Russel Wallace (1869) to describe the similarities in terms

of biodiversity and indigenous cultures in the region. Wallace visited the countries of the

Southern Malay Archipelago, including mainland Malaysia, which he included in the

‘archipelago’ due to the cultural, linguistic and trading links between the mainland and the

surrounding islands. The term Maritime South-East Asia is often used synonymously with

Malay Archipelago, however this term refers more to the islands than mainland Malaysia. For

this reason we use the term Malay Archipelago and in this paper the term is used in the

context of the southern Malay Archipelago – the areas of Wallace’s journeys.

The three countries of the Malay Archipelago discussed in this paper are Indonesia,

Malaysia and Singapore. These countries have historically maintained intensive trade

relations both before and during colonialism, which was facilitated by the shared Malay

language (Bahasa Melayu). Indonesia and the Federation of Malaya became independent


from the Dutch and the British in 1950 and 1957 respectively. During this period, the

Indonesian language (Bahasa Indonesia) was developed in Indonesia. In 1963, Sabah and

Singapore became part of the Federation of Malaya, and Singapore became an independent

nation in 1965. Malaysia kept the Malay language, Singapore adopted English, Mandarin and

Tamil as official languages in addition to Malay. The countries in the Malay Archipelago

remain connected through shared histories, cultures and languages. The Malay Archipelago

countries, in turn, are historically linked through social, educational and economic ties with

the regional neighbour, Australia.

Histories of Clinical Psychology

One way to explore the growth and diversification of psychology and the

specialisation clinical psychology, with a view to stimulating further research into the history

and development of clinical psychology in this region, is through reference to the available

online and in-print resources from scientific databases, psychological organisations,

universities and libraries. By considering each of the case study countries in chronological

order, some interesting contrasts and comparisons can be made that show how the countries

have appropriated initially foreign psychological knowledge. A summary of the dates

discussed in this section can be found in Table 1.

Australia

Academic psychology in Australia has the longest history of the case studies

presented here. It developed from the academic subject called ‘mental philosophy’ introduced

in the 1890s by British colonial scholars to universities in Melbourne, Sydney and Adelaide

(Taft, 1982; Taft&Day, 1988). In 1913 the first specialist lecturer in psychology was

appointed at the University of Western Australia (UWA), followed, in 1929, by a Professor

of Psychology at the University of Sydney (Taft, 1982; Taft & Day, 1988). One year later, an


undergraduate programme in psychology started at UWA (Australian Psychological Society

[APS], 2014). Such early Australian psychology programmes depended heavily on ideas

from the northern hemisphere. For example, psychology lecturers were exclusively trained in

the United Kingdom, Germany or the United States (Taft, 1982).

The first applied psychology practitioners were appointed in Australia in the 1920s

(APS, 2014), and the Second World War created a niche for clinical practice, which

stimulated the development of clinical psychology education. The first specialist programme

in clinical psychology was developed at UWA in 1956, and a decade later a professional

Masters programme started (APS, 2014). Professional doctorates were introduced much later

in the 1990s (APS, 2014). The rise in the number of clinical psychologists motivated the need

for a professional organisation and the Australian Psychological Society (APS) was founded

in 1966with 941 original members. Clinical psychologists were expected to register with the

APS, and since 2008 are required to have completed a clinical psychology programme that is

accredited by the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC; Australian

Psychology Accreditation Council, 2008).

Today, psychology undergraduate education is offered at 38, and postgraduate clinical

programs at 30, out of 40 Australian universities – the majority of which are national,

government-supported universities (see Table 2). Undergraduate programmes have high

student intakes, whereas admission to postgraduate programmes is restricted. Thus the

demand for clinical psychology education is still higher than Australian universities can

presently offer. Psychology degrees in Australia are standardised in duration, methods and

curriculum; quality is checked by the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC,

2010). The importance of addressing cultural diversity in specialty clinical psychology

training is increasingly recognised (e.g. APAC, 2010). An example of two Queensland


universities indicate that culture is integrated into both knowledge and skills development of

clinical psychology trainees (James Cook University, 2014, 2014a, 2014b; University of

Queensland, 2014, 2014a). Their clinical psychology programmes contain coursework,

research and supervised practice (APAC, 2010), indicating a strong commitment to the

scientist-practitioner model.

APAC accreditation of degrees enables unconstrained exchange of psychology

students across Australian universities and ease of professional registration in Australia.

However, it complicates admittance to Australian postgraduate psychology programmes for

foreign students with non-APAC degrees. Even so, Australia is successful in exporting its

psychology programmes to the Malay Archipelago. In 2012, seven Australian universities

were involved in transnational education, resulting in 13 APAC-accredited programmes in

Singapore, nine in Malaysia and one non-accredited degree in Indonesia (APAC, 2012;

2012a). These flows of knowledge are unidirectional, there are no foreign institutes involved

in psychology education in Australia. However, as will be argued later, these flows are

disturbed by bottom-up interpretations of psychology in each country. The next sections

discuss the developments of psychology and the specialty clinical psychology in the countries

in the Malay Archipelago, starting with the country in which there are no APAC accreditation

programmes, Indonesia.

Indonesia

As with Australia, psychology was first introduced in Indonesia during the colonial

era. In 1941, towards the end of colonisation, the Dutch set up clinics and taught psychology

courses to teachers and medical students (see Table 1; Mumandar & Mumandar, 1987).

During the struggle for Indonesian independence, most Dutch psychology experts returned to

the Netherlands, leaving a scarcity of trained practitioners. Therefore, in the 1950s, selected


Indonesian army personnel were sent to the Netherlands and Germany to study psychology.

This was considered a temporary solution; the newly independent Indonesian government

was quick to call for the development of local psychology training.

In 1953, Professor of Psychiatry, Slamet Iman Santoso, returned from the Netherlands

to answer this call. He initiated the first psychology graduate programme at the National

University of Indonesia (Universitas Indonesia) in Jakarta (Satiadarma, 2012; Singh, 1998).

However, this psychology programme was not fully independent: it was based on European

programmes and texts, and was largely taught by graduates from the Netherlands and West

Germany (Mumandar &Mumandar, 1987). In 1959, at a time when there were still only

around 10 to 15 psychologists in Indonesia, the Association of Indonesian Psychologists

(Ikatan Sarjana Psikologi Indonesia, now Himpunan Psikologi Indonesia, HIMPSI) was

founded (Mumandar & Mumandar, 1987), perhaps indicating faith in the expansion of

psychology in the country. Two years later, the first Faculty of Psychology was established at

the University of Padjadjaran (Universitas Padjadjaran) in Bandung, after which psychology

was adopted by other universities. Today, undergraduate psychology can be studied in 47

universities in Indonesia (see Table 3).

Clinical psychology developed as a specific sub-discipline in Indonesia between the

1960s and 1990s (Satiadarma, 2012). Initially, clinical psychology practice was focused

on military service, education and vocational guidance, with little attention to science

(Mumandar & Mumandar, 1987). It was taught in three state universities: the National

University of Indonesia, the University of Padjadjaran, and the University of Gadjah Mada

(Universitas Gadjah Mada) in Jogjakarta. Currently, these three universities remain the only

providers of clinical psychology education in the country. However, an additional nine

universities, including some private universities with religious affiliations, offer ‘professional

psychology’ programmes which are comparable to clinical psychology education. For


example, the Muhammadiyah University of Malang (Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang), a

private university from the Islamic Muhammadiyah organisation, interweaves Islamic

perspectives with clinical psychology theories (Universitas Muhammediyah Malang, 2010).

Clinical and professional psychology together constitute the majority of postgraduate

programmes in psychology in Indonesia. Still, the number of clinical psychologists in the

country remains low. Possible explanations include strict selection processes, limited

available training places, demanding and costly study, and cultural norms.

Higher education is standardised and accredited by the Indonesian Ministry of

Education and Culture (Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2012). Although

psychology education is not regulated or accredited by the Indonesian Association of

Psychologists, in 1974 the Psychological Consortium (Konsorsium Psikologi; Mumandar &

Mumandar, 1987) standardised training for clinical psychologists to a five-and-a-half year

sequence. The Psychological Consortium is an advisory body consisting of members of the

three state universities offering clinical psychology. The standardisation was ratified by the

Indonesian government in the early 1990s (Satiadarma, 2012). Importantly, clinical

psychology trainees are prepared to practice in Indonesia (Himpuman Psikologi Indonesia,

2012), although this focus may not be visible in curricula. For example, the present clinical

psychology curriculum of the National University of Indonesia does not contain any specific

reference to nationally orientated adaptations of western clinical psychology, or to any

courses on integration of psychology within the Indonesian cultural context. This national

focus is paired with low international educational activity, for example only the National

University of Indonesia offers a joint psychology undergraduate programme with the

Australian University of Queensland (see Table 3).


Malaysia

Psychology and clinical psychology in Malaysia is substantially different from that of

Indonesia, despite both countries initially relying on western psychology. Prior to separating

from Singapore, psychology was introduced into the University of Malaya (Universiti

Malaya) by Wan Mohammad Rafaei Wan Abdul Rahman and Abdul Halim Othman, when

they taught psychology courses in the medicine and education curricula (Rahman, 2005; Wan

Rafaei Abdul Rahman, 1993; Ward, 1987). These first psychology courses were taught in

Malaysia in 1974, which is more than 20 years after the first psychology graduate programme

was initiated in Indonesia. The psychology courses were preceded and facilitated by a

conference on psychology and counselling organised by American Fulbright scholar Jerome

Sattler in 1973 (Jerome Sattler, personal communication, 2014).Wan Rafaei Abdul Rahman

and Abdul Halim Othman were both trained abroad, but made efforts to develop psychology

locally with a Malaysian identity (Othman & Bakar, 1993).

After separation of Malaysia and Singapore and the founding of the National

University of Malaysia (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; UKM) by Malay nationalist

scholars in 1968, psychology was adopted as an independent programme (Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2014). At the National University of Malaysia, psychology was linked

with the social sciences (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2013; Ward, 1987), and expanded

rapidly. In 1979, only five years after psychology’s introduction into the country, the

university established Malaysia’s first Department of Psychology (Khan, Verma, & Subba,

2012). This university also introduced a specialist programme in clinical psychology in

the mid-1980s (L.O. Ng, 2012; UKM, 2014). This Master of Arts programme moved to the

Faculty of Medicine in 1994, until it was redesigned as a Master of Clinical Psychology

under the Faculty of Allied Health Sciences in 2003 (L.O. Ng, 2012). Currently psychology

education is available in 16 universities in Malaysia, 12 of which offer undergraduate


programmes and two offer postgraduate clinical psychology programmes (see Table 4). In

1990, a Department of Psychology was set up at the International Islamic University of

Malaysia (Universiti Islam AntarabangsaMalaysia; IIUM; Singh, 1998; Haque & Masuan,

2002). This university was the first in Malaysia to teach psychology from an Islamic

perspective (Wan Rafaei Abdul Rahman, 1993). Its clinical and counselling psychology

programme, set up in 1996, has however, been non-active due to curriculum review since

2010 (L.O. Ng, 2012). In addition, HELP University started offering clinical psychology in

2009 (Wan Rafaei Abdul Rahman, 1993). Both the National University of Malaysia and

HELP University address the integration of clinical psychology in the Malaysian cultural

context through a specific module (HELP University, 2011, 2012; Universiti Kebangsaan

Malaysia, 2013a).

The need for clinical psychologists in Malaysia is reported to be dire (Khan et al.,

2012; L.O. Ng, 2012). The growth of the number of clinical psychologists has been slow, but

seems to be improving: 20 years after the 1988 establishment of the Malaysian Psychological

Association (called PSIMA) there were around 50 clinical psychologists in Malaysia

(Rahmattullah Khan, 2008).More recently, in 2012, this number has climbed to 96 (L.O. Ng,

2012). However, even though relatively low in numbers, clinical psychology has become

more embedded in Malaysia. The Malaysian Society of Clinical Psychology (MSCP) was

established as a registration and regulatory body for clinical psychologists in 2009 (L.O. Ng,

2012) and had 69 members in 2013 (Malaysian Society of Clinical Psychology, 2012), the

majority of which are locally trained clinical psychologists (Malaysian Society of Clinical

Psychology, 2013). Together with the National University of Malaysia and HELP University,

the MSCP is currently working towards registration of clinical psychologists and

accreditation of training programmes.


Singapore

The foundations for psychology in Singapore were laid when the British established

the Singaporean mental asylum in 1841 (Long, 1987). In the following decades psychology

remained a profession solely focused on this early psychiatry background. This changed in

1914 when western academic psychology was introduced in medical training. This first

psychology module, however, was considered of little academic value (Long, 1987). After

the Second World War, psychology was re-introduced, this time as part of teacher training

(Singh, 1998), and in 1952, the Australian visiting lecturer Beryl Wright introduced

psychology into the social work curriculum (Long, 1987). Wright visited the University of

Malaya (now the National University of Singapore) as part of the Colombo Plan, a

developmental aid scheme for Asia and the Pacific originally signed in Colombo by

Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and the United Kingdom

(Colombo Plan, 2012). Psychology gradually gained recognition, and the Singapore

Psychological Society was founded in 1979 with 40 founding members (Long, 1987;

Singapore Psychological Society, 2014). Seven years later the first undergraduate

psychology programme was established at the National University of Singapore (Singh,

1998). Today, this programme is accompanied by undergraduate programmes in six other

universities in Singapore (see Table 5).

In 1956, a few years after Wright’s visit to the then University of Malaya, the

Australian V.W.Wilson was appointed as the first clinical psychologist under the Colonial

Medical Service in Singapore. Wilson, like other psychologists in Singapore at the time, was

trained abroad. The first opportunity to train in clinical psychology in Singapore became

available in 1998 at the National University of Singapore (Singh & Kaur, 2002). As with the

case studies of Australia and Indonesia, Singaporean clinical psychology education was

dependent on imported ideas for the first decade of its existence (Long, 1987), with foreign


textbooks and readings and with lecturers trained abroad (Singh & Kaur, 2002). More

recently, in 2009, this foreign dependency has taken new shape with the National University

of Singapore starting an APAC-accredited joint clinical psychology training programme with

the Australian University of Melbourne, available for Singaporean candidates only (National

University of Singapore, 2008). In addition, James Cook University, also Australian, started

teaching clinical psychology Masters and Doctoral degrees in Singapore in 2004 (JCU

Singapore, 2013). These programmes are also APAC-accredited, and attract predominately

local candidates (Naylor & Hassan, 2012; Singh & Kaur, 2002), indicating a strong

Australian influence in the training of clinical psychologists in Singapore. Perhaps related to

this Australian orientation, the curricula of the clinical psychology programmes in Singapore

do not specifically address integration of clinical psychology into the Singaporean cultural

context. In the APAC guidelines for accreditation several criteria refer to cultural awareness

and intercultural competency, however, this ‘culture’ refers specifically to the Australian

cultural milieu and has an emphasis on Indigenous Australia (APAC, 2010).

Knowledge Flows in Clinical Psychology

The introduction of psychology in Australia and the Malay Archipelago materialised

through academic programmes (in Australia), clinics (in Indonesia) and mental asylums (in

Singapore) set up by colonial scholars or professionals. Although clinics and education

programmes were gradually taken over by local specialists, often they remained dependent

upon foreign knowledge and expertise for at least their first few decades. This initial reliance

on knowledge from the northern hemisphere was also the case in Malaysia, where

psychology was taught by locals who were trained abroad. Thus psychology and clinical

psychology in Australia and the Malay Archipelago may be considered, at least initially, to be

Euro-American imports, and the early development of the discipline represents a neo-colonial


continuation of the incorporation of foreign knowledge into the region (Geerlings, Lundberg,

&Thompson, 2013; Geerlings & Lundberg, 2014).

The western basis of ideas and experiences introduced into psychology and clinical

psychology in the Malay Archipelago and Australian contexts may have been at odds with

the local traditions, political ideologies, religions, languages, cultures and ways of dealing

with psychological distress. More recently, clinical psychology application in non-western

contexts has come under increased scrutiny, and it has been critiqued for western

ethnocentrism, for medicalisation of behaviour, for imposing western norms of behaviour on

Asian and Indigenous societies, and for neglecting minority issues (Arnett, 2008; Davidson,

1993; Gone, 2011; Henrich, Heine & Norenzayan, 2010; Othman & Awang, 1993; Stewart,

2012; Watter, 2010). These concerns invite a postcolonial critique of the knowledge flows

in psychology from west to east and north to south: they draw attention to power disparities

in the production of knowledge in clinical psychology.

The above histories indicate that west to east and north to south knowledge flows in

psychology are more recently accompanied by flows from Australia to Singapore and, to a

smaller extent, to Indonesia and Malaysia (see Tables 3 – 5). These new flows of Australian

influence move with transnational education, for instance, through joint university

programmes and programmes taught at overseas branch campuses of Australian universities.

Especially influential in these flows is the Australian Psychological Accreditation Council.

APAC accreditation is used to standardise psychology education for the Australian context

and to prevent cultural translation or change. It prioritises perspectives, knowledge and

practices in psychology education that are deemed important for preparing students to

practice in the Australian context. Transnational application of APAC accreditation, however,

may lead to cultural imperialist tendencies in clinical psychology education. In other words,

through overseas application APAC accreditation defines the priorities and aims of


psychology education in Malay Archipelago countries. This may restrict the development of

local cultural interpretations or accreditations of clinical psychology degrees in Singapore,

Indonesia and Malaysia.

Similarly, the ‘restricting effects’ of accreditation may also take place within

countries: priorities set by the APAC may not always represent important issues for

communities in the various states and regions of Australia. The inverted situation in

Indonesia confirms this. In the Indonesian context psychology and clinical psychology

programs are not yet nationally accredited by the Indonesian Association of Psychologists or

the Psychological Consortium. As a result, diverse interpretations of clinical psychology

have developed, which is witnessed in, for example, education programs which interweave

clinical psychology with Catholic or Islamic understandings. Possibly, these cultural

translations of clinical psychology have been able to develop because of the absence of a

national accreditation system – with the future of such diversity becoming uncertain once

an accreditation system for psychology degrees is developed.

Flows of knowledge can thus take place between countries (such as from the United

Kingdom to Australia, or from Australia to countries of the Malay Archipelago) and within

countries (such as from the Australian national government to the various communities in

Australia). As a result of such flows, people prioritise specific knowledge and practices in

psychology and clinical psychology, which restricts bottom-up cultural interpretations.

However, the existence of counter flows of ideas, challenging or interrupting the ones from

Euro-America to the global ‘south’, for instance those originating from Australia, or religious

interpretations of clinical psychology in Indonesia and of cultural courses in Malaysia,

indicate that although clinical psychology may have historically been based upon western

models, it has been adjusted to Australian and Malay Archipelago contexts in education

programmes to some extent.


Culture and Clinical Psychology

Accreditation and standardisation rests upon the assumption of human commonality

rather than on human diversity. Standardised clinical psychology curricula focus on models

of psychopathology, methods for therapy and skills for clinicians that are deemed applicable

to large populations, such as the entire Australian population. As a result, these programmes

might be preparing clinical psychologists to work with imagined, but non-existent, ‘global

citizens’ (S.W. Ng, 2012), instead of with real Australians, Indonesians, Malaysians or

Singaporeans (including large populations of Indigenous Australians, and other ethnic and

indigenous groups in Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore) whose mental health

needs are shaped by their societal, cultural, interpersonal, national and local contexts. It is

important to understand whether standardised clinical psychology programmes are meeting

the needs of the societies in which they are taught – whether Australia or in the different

countries of the Malay Archipelago.

Concerns about the neglect of culture by mental health professionals have been voiced

in the United States and Canada since the 1960s (Kazarian & Evans, 1998), and have more

recently been raised in Australia (Davidson, 2007) and in the Malay Archipelago (Chong,

Mohamad & Er, 2013; Haque, 2010; Kao & Sinha, 1997; L.O. Ng, 2012; Othman & Awang,

1993). Some professional organisations have called attention to cultural competency in their

ethical codes (APS, 2014a; Himpuman Psikologi Indonesia, 2010). However, the case studies

in this paper indicate that culture is only addressed in a limited way in clinical psychology

curricula. In Australia, clinical psychology trainees should be knowledgeable of the

limitations of the application of clinical psychology to different cultural groups, and should

be prepared to practice cross-culturally, however, alternative, or ‘non-western’ models for

psychopathology or clinical practice are not specifically addressed. In the clinical psychology


programme at the National University of Indonesia, culture is not mentioned, but religious

understandings are interwoven in the professional psychology programme at the

Muhammadiyah University of Malang. In Malaysia, the psychology programmes at the

National University of Malaysia and HELP University focused on embedding psychology

in the local cultural context from its inception. Such an emphasis on culture is not found in

Singapore, where issues of diversity are not officially addressed in curricula.

Conclusions and Future Directions

University education serves an important function in preparing students to address

societal needs (Altman, 1996; Chan & Lo, 2008; Chiang, 2012). However, psychology,

including clinical psychology, has always been part of society: its ideas and practices cannot

be separated from the culture(s) from which they originate and in which they are practiced.

Psychology and clinical psychology in Australia and the Malay Archipelago have long been

dependent upon ideas and practices from Europe and America. Although some bottom-up

cultural interpretations have been made, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia, the current

state of clinical psychology in the region could be interpreted as embodying western

influence.

Despite several forays into this issue from academics and practitioners, the close

relationship between clinical psychology and culture deserves more attention. The issue is

often neglected in research and lacks significant theorisation. In addition, in the training of

clinical psychologists little attention is paid to the historical cultural background of

psychology, or on issues of cultural diversity. There is a concern that the current system may

train a generation of clinical psychologists who are ‘culture-blind’ (Kazarian & Evans, 1998,

p. 9), and are not able to effectively address cultural diversity in their client groups. This, in


turn, may negatively influence their ability to meet the mental health needs in their country of

practice. On a larger scale, culture-blindness perpetuates a system of uneven production of

knowledge and ideas in psychology and clinical psychology, in which Euro-American

perspectives are prioritised over ‘non-western’ perspectives, and Australian perspectives over

those arising from local communities or from countries in the Malay Archipelago. These

issues raise important questions about the future direction of clinical psychology in Australia

and in the Malay Archipelago region.

Due to uneven resources and disparities of power to produce and distribute

knowledge, standardisation of degrees and transnational education may be at the expense of

the development of local perspectives on mental health and wellbeing. In discourses of

globalisation, commonalities are often emphasised. However, differences also need to

be recognised and understood. There is a need to stimulate cultural perspectives in research

and encourage the incorporation of diverse perspectives in psychology education and in

clinical practice so that clinical psychology is prepared to meet the mental health demands of

a globalised world. Indigenous psychologies, which are locally developed psychologies

within a specific cultural context (Allwood & Berry, 2006), could accelerate this process as

they offer valid alternative perspectives in clinical psychology. These cultural approaches to

psychology initially developed in India, and later in other countries in Asia and the Pacific, as

a reaction to the assumption that western psychology represents universal psychology, and as

a way to deal with social, political and cultural diversity (Allwood & Berry, 2006; Saw &

Okazaki, 2012). By stimulating the development of indigenous psychologies, bottom-up

interpretations of clinical psychology are allowed to create alternative flows of knowledge

that can help enrich clinical psychology professions and education programmes globally.


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Table 1

Historical Landmarks of Australian and Malay Archipelago (Clinical) Psychology

Year Landmark

1841 Mental asylum in Singapore set up by British

1890s Chairs of mental philosophy appointed at Australian universities

1913 First psychology lecturer appointed at University of Western Australia

1914 First psychology course in medical training in Singapore

1920s First psychology practitioners appointed in Australia

1929 First Professor of Psychology appointed at University of Sydney

1930 First undergraduate psychology program at University of Western Australia

1941 First psychological clinics in Indonesia set up by Dutch

1952 Colombo Plan lecturer Beryl Wright teaches psychology in Singapore

1953 First psychology graduate program at University of Padjadjaran, Indonesia.

1956 First clinical psychology program at University of Western Australia

Australian V.W. Wilson appointed as first psychologist in Singapore

1959 Association of Indonesian Psychologists founded

1961 First Faculty of Psychology at University of Padjadjaran, Indonesia

1966 First clinical psychology Masters program at University of Western Australia

Australian Psychological Society (APS) founded

1974 Psychology Consortium regulates clinical psychology education in Indonesia

Psychology introduced in Malaysia by Wan Rafei and Abdul Halim Othman

1979 Singapore Psychological Society (SPS) founded

First Department of Psychology in Malaysia at National University of Malaysia

1986 First undergraduate psychology program at National University of Singapore

1988 Malaysian Psychological Association (PSIMA) founded

1990s First professional clinical psychology doctorate program in Australia

Indonesian government ratifies requirements for clinical psychology training

First Department of Psychology with an Islamic outlook in Malaysia, at International

Islamic University in Malaysia

1996 First clinical psychology graduate program at International Islamic University of

Malaysia

1998 First clinical psychology program at National University of Singapore

2004 Australian James Cook University starts (clinical) psychology education in Singapore

2008 Australian Psychological Accreditation Council officially accredits psychology degrees

HELP University starts teaching clinical psychology in Malaysia

2009 National University of Singapore starts joint clinical psychology masters with University

of Melbourne

Malaysian Society of Clinical Psychology (MSCP) founded


Table 2

Psychology education in Australia (in alphabetical order)

University name (est.) Type Undergraduate Graduate

Australian Catholic University (1991) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP; MP; DP; GD

Australian National University (1946) Public BP MCP; DP; R

Bond University (1989) Private BSc; Hons MCP; MP

Charles Darwin University (1988) Public BSc; Hons MCP; GD

Charles Sturt University (1990) Public BSc; Hons MP ; DP; R; GD; O

CQ University Australia (1992) Public BP; Hons MCP; R; GD

Curtin University (1987) Public BP; BSc MCP; MP; R

Deakin University (1974) Public BA; BSc; Hons; O MCP; MP; DP; R

Edith Cowan University (1991) Public BA; BSc; Hons; DM MP

Flinders University (1966) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP; DP; R

Griffith University (1971) Public BSc; BP; Hons MCP ; MP; DCP; R; O

James Cook University (1970) Public BA; BP MCP ; DCP; GDs

La Trobe University (1964) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP; MP; DP; R

Macquarie University (1964) Public BA; BSc; Hons; DM MCP; MP; DP; GD

Monash University (1958) Public BP GD; O

Murdoch University (1973) Public BA; BP; Hons MCP; DP ; R

Queensland University of Technology

(1998) Public BSc; Hons; DM MCP; MP; DP; R; GDs

RMIT University (1992) Public BSc; Hons; O MP; DP; R; GD

Southern Cross University (1994) Public BSc; Hons GD

Swinburne University of Technology (1992) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP; MP; DP; R

University of Adelaide (1874) Public BSc; BP; DM MCP; MP; R; GDs

University of Ballarat (1994) Public BSc; Hons MCP

University of Canberra (1990) Public BSc; Hons; DM MCP; R; O

University of Melbourne (1853) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP; MP; R

University of New England (1954) Public BA; BSc MCP; R

University of New South Wales (1949) Public BA; BSc; BP; Hons; O MCP; MP; R

University of Newcastle (1965) Public BP

University of Notre Dame (1990) Private BSc; Hons; Double R; other

University of Queensland (1909) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP; MP; DP; R; O

University of South Australia (1991) Public BSc; BP; DM; O MCP; MP

University of Southern Queensland (1992) Public BSc; BP; Hons; O MCP; DCP ; R

University of Sydney (1851) Public BP MP; DCP; R

University of Tasmania (1890) Public BA; BSc; BP; DM MCP; DP; R

University of the Sunshine Coast (1999) Public BSc; Hons; DM MCP; DP; R

University of Western Australia (1911) Public BA; BSc; Hons. MCP; R; O

University of Western Sydney (1989) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP; MP; GD

University of Wollongong (1975) Public BP MCP; R; GD

Victoria University (1992) Public BSc; Hons MCP; DCP; R; GD; O

Note. BA = Bachelor of Arts; BSc = Bachelor of Science; BP = Bachelor of Psychology; Hons = Honours; DM

= Double Majors including Psychology; MCP = Master of Clinical Psychology; MP = Master of Psychology

other than Clinical; DCP = Doctor of Clinical Psychology; DP = Doctor of Psychology other than Clinical; R;

Research Master or PhD; GD = Graduate or Postgraduate Diploma; O = others


Table 3

Psychology Education in Indonesia (in alphabetical order)


IKIP PGRI Semarang (1981) Private DM

Universitas Ahmad Dahlan (1960) Private S1

Universitas Airlangga (1954) Public S1 MPP; DP; R

Universitas Bhayangkara Jakarta Raya (1995) Private S1

Universitas Brawijaya (1963) Public S1

Universitas Ciputra (2006) Private DM

Universitas Diponegoro (1957) Public S1

Universitas Gadjah Mada (1949) Public S1 MCP; MP; R

Universitas Gunadarma (1981) Private S1

Universitas Hang Tuah Surabaya (1987) Private S1

Universitas HKBP Nommensen (1954) Private S1

Universitas Indonesia (1950) Public S1; BA (with

UQ) MCP; MP; R

Universitas Islam Indonesia (1945) Private S1 MPP

Universitas Islam Negeri Malang (2004) Public S1

Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah

Jakarta (1957) Public S1

Universitas Jayabaya (1958) Private S1

Universitas Katolik Atma Jaya (1960) Private S1 MPP; R

Universitas Katolik Soegijapranata (1964) Private S1 MPP, R

Universitas Katolik Widya Mandala Madiun

(1960) Private S1

Universitas Kristen Krida Wacana (1967) Private S1

Universitas Kristen Manahata (1965) Private S1

Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana (1956) Private S1 MSc

Universitas Mercu Buana (1985) Private S1

Universitas Merdeka Malang (1964) Private S1

Universitas Muhammadiyah Gresik (1987) Private S1

Universitas Muhammadiyah Jember (1987) Private S1

Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang (1964) Private MPP; R

Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr.

HAMKA(1960) Private S1

Universitas Muhammadiyah Purworejo (1964) Private S1

Universitas Muhammadiyah Sidoarjo (1987) Private S1

Universitas Muhammadiyah Surabaya (1964) Private S1

Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta (1960) Private S1 MPP

Universitas Muria Kudus (1982) Private S1

Universitas Negeri Makassar (1964) Public DM

Universitas Negeri Malang (2004) Public DM

Universitas Negeri Surabaya (1964) Public S1

Universitas Padjadjaran (1957) Public S1 MCP; MP; DP

Universitas Pancasila (1966) Private S1

Universitas Pelita Harapan (1993) Private S1

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (1954) Public S1

Universitas Persada Indonesia Y.A.I (1985) Private S1 MPP; DP


Table 3 (continued)


Universitas Sanata Dharma (1955) Private S1

Universitas Sebelas Maret (1976) Public S1

Universitas Sumatera Utara (1952) Public S1

Universitas Tarumanagara (1959) Private S1 MPP; R

Universitas Trunojoyo Madura (2001) Public S1

Universitas Udayana (1962) Public S1

Ubaya Universitas Surabaya (1968) Public MPP; R

Sultan Agung Islamic University (1962) Private S1

Note. S1 = Strata-1; DM = Double Major incl. Psychology; BA = Bachelor of Arts; MCP = Master of Clinical

Psychology; MPP = Master of Professional Psychology; MP = Master of Psychology other than Clinical; DP =

Doctor of Psychology other than Clinical; R = Research Master or PhD; UQ = University of Queensland,

Australia.


Table 4

Psychology Education in Malaysia (in alphabetical order)


HELP University (1986) Private BSc, BP (also joint

with FU) MCP; MP

International Islamic University Malaysia

(1983) Public BSc MSc; R

International Medical University (1992) Private BSc; Hons

Monash University Sunway Campus (1998) Private BSc; Hons GD; R

Sunway University (1987) Private BSc; Hons; O MSc; R

The University of Nottingham Malaysia

Campus (2000) Private BSc; Hons; O MSc; R

UCSI University (1986) Private BA; Hons

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (1970) Public MCP; MP

Universiti Malaysia Sabah (1994) Public BP; Hons; O MP

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (1997) Public MSc; R

Universiti Selangor (1999) Private BP

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (1972). Public BP MSc, O

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (1972) Private BSc; Hons

Universiti Utara Malaysia (1984) Public MSc; R

University College Shah Putra (1997) Private BP; Hons

University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

(2000) Public MSc; R

Note. BA = Bachelor of Arts; BSc = Bachelor of Science; BP = Bachelor of Psychology; Hons = Honours; MCP

= Master of Clinical Psychology; MP = Master of Psychology other than Clinical; MSc = Master of Science, or

coursework/research combined; R; Research Master or PhD; GD = Graduate Diploma or Postgraduate Diploma;

O = Others; FU = Flinders University, Australia


Table 5

Psychology education in Singapore (in alphabetical order)


EASB East Institute of Management

(1984) Private

BSc; Hons (joint with

CMU)

JCU Singapore (2003) Private BA; BP; Hons MCP; DCP; R (with

JCUA)

Melior International College (2007) Private BP; Hons (joint with

CQU)

Nanyang Technological University

(1991) Public BA; BSc R

National University of Singapore (1905) Public BA; BSc; Hons MCP (also joint with

UM); R

SIM University (2005) Private BA; BSc (joint with

UOW)

Singapore Management University

(2000) Public BSc

Note. BA = Bachelor of Arts; BSc = Bachelor of Science; Hons = Honours; MCP = Master of Clinical

Psychology; DCP = Doctor of Clinical Psychology; R = Research Master or PhD; CMU = Cardiff Metropolitan

University, UK; CQU = Central Queensland University, Australia; JCUA = James Cook University, Australia;

UM = University of Melbourne, Australia; UOW = University of Wollongong, Australia

Psychology and culture: Exploring clinical psychology in Australia and the Malay Archipelago

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