Production and comparison of fuel properties, engine performance, and emission characteristics of...

Energy Conversion and Management 80 (2014) 202–228

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Energy Conversion and Management

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Review

Production and comparison of fuel properties, engine performance,and emission characteristics of biodiesel from various non-ediblevegetable oils: A review

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.01.0370196-8904/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 1 02577943; fax: +60 3 79675317.E-mail address: [email protected] (A.M. Ashraful).

A.M. Ashraful ⇑, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, S. Imtenan, S.A. Shahir, H.M. MobarakCentre for Energy Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 28 October 2013Accepted 21 January 2014Available online 13 February 2014

Keywords:BiodieselNon-edible oilsFuel propertiesPerformanceEmissionRenewable energy

a b s t r a c t

Energy demand is increasing dramatically because of the fast industrial development, rising population,expanding urbanization, and economic growth in the world. To fulfill this energy demand, a large amountof fuel is widely used from different fossil resources. Burning of fossil fuels has caused serious detrimentalenvironmental consequences. The application of biodiesel has shown a positive impact in resolving theseissues. Edible vegetable oils are one of the potential feedstocks for biodiesel production. However, as theuse of edible oils will jeopardize food supplies and biodiversity, non-edible vegetable oils, also known assecond-generation feedstocks, are considered potential substitutes of edible food crops for biodiesel pro-duction. This paper introduces some species of non-edible vegetables whose oils are potential sources ofbiodiesel. These species are Pongamia pinnata (karanja), Calophyllum inophyllum (Polanga), Maduca indica(mahua), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber seed), Cotton seed, Simmondsia chinesnsis (Jojoba), Nicotianna tabacum(tobacco), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Linum usitatissimum (Linseed) and Jatropha curcas (Jatropha). Vari-ous aspects of non-edible feedstocks, such as biology, distribution, and chemistry, the biodiesel’s physi-cochemical properties, and its effect on engine performance and emission, are reviewed based onpublished articles. From the review, fuel properties are found to considerably vary depending on feed-stocks. Analysis of the performance results revealed that most of the biodiesel generally give higher brakethermal efficiency and lower brake-specific fuel consumption. Emission results showed that in mostcases, NOx emission is increased, and HC, CO, and PM emissions are decreases. It was reported that a die-sel engine could be successfully run and could give excellent performance and the study revealed themost effective regulated emissions on the application of karanja, mahua, rubber seed, and tobacco biodie-sel and their blends as fuel in a CI engine.

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Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
1.1. Current energy scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2. Resources of non-edible vegetable oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.1. Biology, distribution, and chemistry of the selected non-edible sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.1.1. Karanja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052.1.2. Polanga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052.1.3. Mahua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052.1.4. Rubber seed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052.1.5. Cotton seed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052.1.6. Jojoba oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062.1.7. Tobacco oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062.1.8. Neem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

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2.1.9. Linseed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062.1.10. Jatropha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

3. Fuel properties of various non-edible biodiesels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.1. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2073.2. Kinematic viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2073.3. Flash point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2073.4. Cloud point and pour point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2073.5. Cetane number (CN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2073.6. Calorific value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4. Fatty acid composition of various non-edible oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2085. Engine performance of a diesel engine using non-edible vegetable biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

5.1. Karanja biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2085.2. Polanga biodiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2105.3. Mahua biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2105.4. Rubber seed biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2105.5. Cotton seed biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2135.6. Jojoba oil biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2135.7. Tobacco oil biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2135.8. Neem biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145.9. Linseed oil biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145.10. Jatropha biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

6. Engine emission performance when non-edible vegetable biodiesel is used in a diesel engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.1. Karanja biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2166.2. Polanga biodiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2166.3. Mohua biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2166.4. Rubber seed oil biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2186.5. Cotton seed biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2186.6. Jojoba oil biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2206.7. Tobacco oil biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2206.8. Neem biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2206.9. Linseed oil biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2256.10. Jatropha biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2258. Conclusion and summary of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Table 1World primary energy consumption and percentage of share [1].

Source 1980 2012

Mtoe Share (%) Mtoe Share (%)

Petroleum 2979.8 44.9 4130.5 33.7Coal 1807.9 27.3 3730.1 30.5Natural gas 1296.8 19.6 2987.1 24.4Nuclear 161 2.4 560.4 4.6Hydropower 384.3 5.8 831.1 6.8Total 6629.8 100 12239.2 100

1. Introduction

Since the industrial revolution, different forms of energy havebecome essential for human beings to maintain a standard of livingand to conserve economic growth. In the past few decades, fossilfuels, mainly petroleum-based liquid fuels, natural gas and coal,have played an important role in fulfilling this energy demand.However, because of their non-renewable nature, these fossil fuelsare projected to be exhausted in the near future. This situation hasworsened with the rapid increase in energy demand with signifi-cant worldwide population growth. Therefore, the demand forclean, reliable, and yet economically feasible renewable energysources has led researchers to search for new sources. In this con-text, biodiesel derived from vegetable oil has drawn attention as apotential alternative for diesel fuel for diesel engines.

1.1. Current energy scenario

Gobal energy demand is increasing dramatically because of ris-ing population. In 1980, fuel consumption was 6630 million tons ofoil equivalents (Mtoe). It almost doubled in 2012 at 12,239 Mtoe,as shown in Table 1 [1]. According to the International EnergyAgency estimation, global energy demand is expected to increaseby 53% by 2030. Currently, a major part of energy demand(88.6%) is fulfilled by fossil fuels, in which crude oil accounts for33.7%, coal for 30.5%, and natural gas for 24.4% [2]. Conversely, nu-clear energy and hydroelectric energy contribute only small pro-portions at 4.6% and 6.8%, respectively. Over the past 25 years,total energy supply has increased steadily. However, with the cur-

rent consumption rates, the reserves of crude oil and natural gaswill diminish after approximately 41.8 and 60.3 years, respectively.The total primary fuel consumption was estimated to reachapproximately 12,239 Mtoe in 2012; the estimate is 70% higherthan that in 1987, as shown in Fig. 1 [1]. Globally, we consumethe equivalent of more than 11 billion tons of oil in fossil fuel everyyear. Crude oil reserves are vanishing at a rate of 4 billion tons ayear. If this rate continues, oil deposits will be exhausted by2052 [3]. However, if increased gas production can fills up the en-ergy gap left by oil, then those reserves will give an additionalbackup of eight years until 2060. The world has enough coal re-serve to a last century, but production is necessary to fill the gapcaused by depleting oil and gas reserves. Coal deposits will giveus enough energy to last as long as 2088. Moreover, the rate of en-ergy consumption in the world is not steady, as it increases dra-matically with the increase in global population and living

Fig. 1. World’s primary energy consumption [1].

204 A.M. Ashraful et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 80 (2014) 202–228

standards. Therefore, fossil fuel stock will run out in the near fu-ture. Fig. 2 shows the global energy reserves for coal, gas, and oiland marks the point at which fossil fuel could run out in the future.

Consequently, the world is moving toward an energy crisis,driving the world to look for alternatives [4–6]. Many renewableenergy sources have drawn the attention of researchers. Amongthese sources, biodiesel is the most popular choice. Biodiesel is de-rived from renewable resources that can be produced by a simplechemical process using edible, non-edible, waste vegetable oils andanimal fats. Biodiesel is usable in diesel engines in pure form or byblending it with petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is environmentfriendly and non-toxic, and it emits lesser pollutants [7–9]. Manypotential feedstocks are available for biodiesel production. Cur-rently, more than 95% of biodiesel produced globally is from ediblevegetable oil because of its abundant agricultural production [10].The various types of edible vegetable oils and biodiesel as substi-tutes for conventional fuels are considered in many countriesdepending on the climate condition. For instance, palm oil inSoutheast Asia, soybean oil in the United States, coconut oil inthe Philippines, and rapeseed and sunflower in Europe are being

Fig. 2. World’s energy reserves for coal, gas, and oil [3].

produced [4]. Although biodiesel produced from edible vegetableoil has many advantages, it also has disadvantages, such as inferiorstorage and oxidation stability, high feedstock cost, low heating va-lue and higher NOx emission compared with diesel fuel. Moreover,60–80% of biodiesel production cost depends on feedstock cost[11,12]. The use of edible oils for biodiesel production may leadto a self-sufficiency problem in vegetable production. The use ofnon-edible vegetable oils is significant because edible oil is neces-sary as food. The demand for both food and biofuel has increasedrapidly because of population growth.

To minimize the reliance on edible vegetable oil feedstocks forbiodiesel production, alternative sources, such as non-edible feed-stocks, have been sought for biodiesel production. The use of non-edible vegetable oils compared with edible vegetable oils is signif-icant in developing countries because of the tremendous demandfor edible vegetable oils as food; these edible vegetables oils areexpensive for biodiesel production [13]. Globally, a huge amountof non-edible vegetable oil plants is naturally available [14]. En-ergy crops such as Jatropha curcas, Maduca indica, Pongamia pinnat-a, Simmondsia chinesnsis, Linum usitatissimum, Nicotianna tabacum,Calophyllum inophyllum, Hevea brasiliensis, Corton megalocarpus,Carmellia, Simarouba glauca, Desert date, Alagae, Sapindus mukorossietc. represent second-generation biodiesel feedstocks. Biodieselproduction from non-edible feedstock-based oils has been exten-sively investigated over the past few years. Non-edible vegetableoil is not suitable for human consumption because of the presenceof toxic components in these feedstocks. Furthermore, non-ediblevegetable oil crops are grown in wastelands, and their cultivationcost is much lower than that of edible vegetable oil crops becauseintensive care is not required to sustain a reasonably high yield[15]. As wastelands are not suitable for edible crop cultivation, thisreview focuses on biodiesel produced only from non-edible vegeta-ble oils as alternative fuel.

Reviewing the existing reviews on the selection of non-edibleoils for possible alternative diesel fuel is essential. M. Balat [16] re-viewed potential alternatives to edible oils for biodiesel productionand selected five sources of non-edible vegetable oils. Thesesources are jatropha, karanja, rice bran oil, microalgae, mahua,and selected waste cooking oil and animal fats.


In a review of oil production, vegetable oils, and their methylester characterization as alternatives to diesel fuel [7], four non-edible vegetable oils, namely, jatropha, karanja, polanga, and rub-ber seed oils, were suggested as sources for biodiesel production.

Silitonga et al. [17] recently reviewed the general properties ofbiodiesel blend from edible and inedible feedstocks, such as palmoil, Alurietas mollucana, Jatropha curcas, Sterculiafoetida, Calophylluinophyllum, Ceiba pentandra, Cerbere manghas, Pangium edule andHevea brasilinensis, as potential alternatives to diesel fuel. They rec-ommended that these fuel meet the biodiesel standards of USASTM D 6751 and European EN 14214. Moreover, they found thatjatropha and karanja vegetable oils are suitable for used in cold cli-mate conditions compared with other vegetable oils.

In a critical review of biodiesels, Balat et al. [18] found thatmore than 350 oilseed crops have been indentified. They arguedthat edible oils such as rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, peanut, andsafflower are potential alternative sources of diesel fuel for dieselengines. They also recommended other non-edible vegetable oilssuch as jatropha, tobacco, karanja, rice bran, rubber seed, and ma-hua. However, only jatropha, karanja, and mahua oils were brieflyexplained in this review on the progress in biodiesel processing.

A recent review discussed the sources of non-edible vegetableoils, as well as their production and characterization, as sustainablepetroleum diesel fuel [19] and the performance of non-edible oilsas sources of fuel. Moreover, 15 oilseed crops were recommendedas sources of biodiesel in India.

Non-edible vegetable oils have high potential for biodiesel pro-duction. Olivera et al. [15] identified nine vegetable oils and exam-ined their fuel properties and biodiesel production methods. Theyfound that biodiesel production using jatropha, karanja, mahua,and castor oil is commonly used in biodiesel synthesis.

Based on the review works considered in this study, severaltrees that are naturally available can be exploited for the produc-tion of sustainable fuel for petrodiesel engine. The raw materialsof the biofuel being exploited commercially and scientifically byseveral researchers are the non-edible oils derived from jatropha,mahua, karanja, rubber seed, linseed, neem, tobacco seed, polanga,cotton seed, castor, jojoba, moringa, poon, desert date, crambe,mango and so forth [6,8,9,20]. The selection of non-edible oils aspossible fuel for use in a diesel engine is based on the literature.Some of the non-edible vegetable oils that are promising substi-tutes for petroleum diesel and the acceptable non-edible biodieselfeedstocks for biodiesel production include karanja, polanga, ma-hua, rubber seed, cotton seed, Simmondsia chinensis (jojoba), tobac-co, neem, linseed, Jatropha carcus, and so on [20–25]. The objectiveof this paper is to present the various sources of non-edible oilsthat can replace edible oils and fossil fuels for biodiesel productionas well as their fuel properties. This study also compares theirphysicochemical properties, engine performance, and emissioncharacteristics in a diesel engine through a review and discussion.

2. Resources of non-edible vegetable oils

Non-edible oils have several advantages over edible oils. Non-edible oils possess toxic components that make them unsuitable[26]. The use of non-edible oils for biodiesel production solvesthe food-versus-fuel concern and other issues [27]. Moreover,unproductive lands, degraded forests, cultivators’ fallow lands, irri-gation canals, and boundaries of roads and fields can be used forthe plantation of non-edible oil crops. Biodiesel development fromnon-edible oil can become a major poverty alleviation program forthe rural poor apart from providing energy security for the masses.This development can upgrade the rural non-farm sector and helpin the sustainable biodiesel production. Many researchers haverecommended non-edible oils to be a sustainable alternative to

edible oils for biodiesel production [6,28–31]. Researchers haveidentified several non-edible crops that can be used for biodieselproduction [28,32]. Fig. 3 shows the various non-edible vegetableoil feedstocks for biodiesel.

2.1. Biology, distribution, and chemistry of the selected non-ediblesources

2.1.1. KaranjaKaranja is a medium-sized green tree from the legumnosae fam-

ily. It grows approximately 15–25 m in height. Flowering startsthree to four years after plantation, and it matures four to sevenyears after. Recently, karanja has been recognized as an invaluablesource of oil. A single tree is said to yield 9–90 kg of seeds. Severalresearchers have discovered the large variability of oil content inkaranja seed oil. The seed contains approximately 25–40 wt.% oil[16,36–38]. Karanja mainly grows in Southeast Asia and has beensuccessfully introduced in humid tropical regions of the worldand part of China, the United States, and Australia [39,40]. Karanjaoil mainly contains oleic acid (44.5–71.3%), followed by linoleic(10.8–18.3%) and stearic acids (2.4–8.9%) [41–43].

2.1.2. PolangaPolanga is a large- or medium-sized green tree that grows in

deep soil or on exposed sea sand. It belongs to the Clusiaceae fam-ily. The rainfall requirement of polanga seed plantation is 750 mm/year to 5000 mm/year. The tree has multiple origins, such asSoutheast Asia, India, East Africa, and Australia [36,39,44,24,45].Its growth rate is 1 m in height, and it yields approximately 100fruits/kg to 200 fruits/kg. Oil yield per unit area is approximately2000 kg/ha (cite). The seed has a high oil content of 65–75 wt.%.The oil is thick and nutty smelling [5,44,24,45,46], and it containsmainly unsaturated fatty acids, that is, approximately 34.09–37.57% oleic acid and 26.33–38.26% linoleic acid. Saturated acids,such as stearic (12.95–19.96%) and palmitic (12.01–14.6%) acids,can also be found in this oil [47,48].

2.1.3. MahuaMahua is a large-sized evergreen or semi-evergreen tree from

the Sapotaceae family. Mahua is a forest-based tree largely pro-duced in India [4,16,49,50]. It is cultivated in warm and humid re-gions for its oleaginous seeds (producing 20–200 kg of seedsannually per tree, depending on maturity), flowers, and wood. Ma-hua oil fat (solid at ambient temperature) has been used in skincare and in manufacturing soap or detergents. The mahua treestarts producing seeds 10 years after plantation and continues todo so up to 60 years. Tree growth is approximately 20 m in height,and its seed has an oil content of 35–50 wt.% [16,24,50,51]. Mahuaoil contains approximately 41–51% oleic acid. Other fatty acids arealso present in the oil, such as stearic (20.0–25.1%), palmitic (16.0–28.2%), and linoleic acids (8.9–18.3%) [52–54].

2.1.4. Rubber seed oilRubber seed oil comes from the Euphorbiaceae family. This tree

originates from Brazil. It is a forest-based tree largely produced inMalaysia, India, Thailand, and Indonesia. In the wild, plant heightcan reach up to 34 m [55]. The tree requires heavy rainfall andnon-frost climate condition. Rubber seed contains 50–60 wt.% oil,and its kernel contains 40–50 wt.% of brown oil [4,39,24,56]. Rub-ber seed oil is high in unsaturated constituents, such as 39.6–40.5%linoleic acid, 17–24.6% oleic acid, and 16.3–26% linolenic acid[55,57].

2.1.5. Cotton seed oilCotton seed oil is extracted from the seeds of the cotton plant of

various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herba-

pongamia pinnata (karanja) calophyllum inophyllum (polanga) madhuca indica (mahua)

hevea brasiliensis (rubberseed) cotton seed simmondsia chinensis (jojoba)

nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) azadirachata indica (neem) Linseed

Jatropha

Fig. 3. Various non-edible vegetable oil feedstocks for biodiesel [24,33–35].


ceum, which are grown for cotton fiber. Cotton plant grows mainlyin China, the United States, and Europe. Crude cotton seed oil con-tains several types of non-glyceride materials, such as gossypol,phospholipids, sterols, resins, carbohydrates, and related pigments.Cotton seed oil has a density that ranges from 0.917 g/cm3 to0.933 g/cm3. The seed contains 17–25 wt.% oil. The fatty acid com-position of cotton seed oil is mainly linoleic (55.2–55.5%), palmitic(11.67–20.1%), and oleic acids (19.2–23.26%) [58–60].

2.1.6. Jojoba oilJojoba is native to the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of California,

Arizona, and Mexico. The jojoba tree is from the Simmondsiaceaefamily. Jojoba has been grown commercially for its oil, a liquidwax ester, extracted from the seed. The plant has been used tocombat and prevent desertification in some parts of India. The jo-joba tree grows to a height of 1–2 m, and it has a broad and densecrown. The leaves are oval in shape, approximately 2–4 cm longand 1.5–3 cm broad; they are thick, waxy glaucous grayish green[61,62]. The seed contains approximately 40–50 wt.% oil [63] witha fatty acid composition of 43.5–66% oleic acid and 25.2–34.4% lin-oleic acid [24,63,64].

2.1.7. Tobacco oilTobacco belongs to the Solanaceae family, and it is cultivated in

several countries worldwide, such as Turkey, Macedonia, NorthAmerica, South America, India and Russia [37,65,66]. The tree iscommonly grown for leaf collection. The physical and chemicalproperties of tobacco oil are comparable with those of other vege-table oils, and tobacco is considered a new potential feedstock for

biodiesel production [66–68]. The seed contains approximately35–49 wt.% oil with fatty acid composition of 69.49–75.58% of lin-oleic acid [67,69].

2.1.8. NeemNeem is a medium-sized evergreen tree from the Meliaceae

family. The tree grows 12–18 m in height. The neem tree can growin all kinds of soil, including saline, clay, dry, shallow, alkaline, andstony soils, and even in highly calcareous soil. Neem grows in sev-eral Asian countries, such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Burma, and in the tropical regionsof Australia. Normally, neem thrives in areas with sub-arid to sub-humid conditions and with an annual rainfall of 400–1200 mm. Itreaches a maximum productivity of 15 years after plantation, witha life span of approximately 150–200 years. Neem seed contains20–30 wt.% oil, and its kernels contain 40–50% brown oil[24,36,39,70]. Neem oil has high-unsaturated constituents, suchas linoleic acid (6–16%) and oleic (25–54%) acid, and saturated oillike stearic acid (9–24%) [71,72].

2.1.9. LinseedLinseed is an herbaceous annual-type plant that grows in coun-

tries such as India, Canada, Argentina, and some parts of Europe.Linseed contains 35–45 wt.% oil and is high in unsaturated constit-uents, such as linoleic (13.29–14.93%), oleic (20.17–24.05%), andlinolenic acids (46.10–51.12%). Other fatty acids found in linseedoil include saturated species such as stearic (5.47–5.63%) and pal-mitic (5.85–6.21%) acids [73,74].


2.1.10. JatrophaJatropha is a small tree from the Euphorbiaceae family, and it

grows 5–7 m in height [23,28,30,75–77]. Jatropha thrives inarid, semi-arid, and tropical areas with an annual rainfall of1000–1500 mm. The jatropha plant is native to the United States,Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, Mexico, Africa, Paraguay, and India[23,28,36,24,78]. The jatropha seed contains 20–60 wt.% oil.Jatropha produces seeds after 12 months of plantation, reachesmaximum productivity by 5 years, and can live for 30 years to50 years [29]. Jatropha oil contains mainly unsaturated constitu-ents, such as linoleic (31.4–43.2%) and oleic acids (34.3–44.7%),and some unsaturated species, such as stearic (7.1–7.4%) andpalmitic acids (13.6–15.1%) [79,80].

3. Fuel properties of various non-edible biodiesels

Density, viscosity, flash point, cetane number, cloud and pourpoint, and calorific value, among others are the most importantfuel properties considered in the application of non-edible biodie-sels in diesel engines. Many researchers have reported that fuelproperties of non-edible biodiesels vary depending on their fattyacid and chemical composition [51,69,81–83]. Therefore, beforeusing non-edible-based biodiesels in diesel engines, measuringthe fuel properties of selected biodiesels is necessary. The fuelproperties of biodiesels are specified by different standardizationorganizations; the ASTM D6751 and EN14214 are the most popularstandards for biodiesel. Fuel properties of various non-edible bio-diesels are shown in Table 2. The following section discusses thefuel properties of the reviewed biodiesels.

3.1. Density

The molecular weight of biodiesel is one of the factors that con-tribute in the increase in biodiesel density [84]. Biodiesel density ismeasured using the ASTM standard D1298 and EN ISO 3675 testmethod. According to these standards, density should be tested at15 �C [85]. Table 2 shows that biodiesel density is usually higherthan that of ordinary diesel fuel. Neem biodiesel has the highestdensity ranging from 912 kg/m3 to 965 kg/m3 [86,87], and jojobabiodiesel has the lowest density ranging from 863 kg/m3 to866 kg/m3 [88,89]. Diesel has a density range of 816–840 kg/m3

[90].

3.2. Kinematic viscosity

Viscosity is the most important property of fuel that must beconsidered to maintain engine performance that is close to dieseloperation. High viscosity causes poor flow of fuel in the enginecombustion chamber during intake stroke and takes a long timeto mix with air. Therefore, it results in delayed combustion. Viscosity

Table 2Fuel properties of various non-edible biodiesel.

Vegetable oil Density at40 �C (kg/m3)

Viscosity at40 �C (mm2/s)

Flashpoint (�C)

Karanja (Pongamia pinnata L.) 876–890 4.37–9.60 163–187Polanga (Calophyllum inophyllum) 888.6–910 4–5.34 151–170Mohua (Madhuca indica) 904–916 3.98–5.8 127–129Rubber Seed oil (Hevea brasiliensis) 860–881 5.81–5.96 130–140Cotton seed 874–911 4–4.9 210–243Jojoba oil (Simmondsia chinensis) 863–866 19.2–25.4 61–75Tobacco oil (Nicotiana tabacum) 860–888.5 3.5–4.23 152–165.4Neem (Azadirachta) 912–965 20.5–48.5 34Linseed oil (Linum usitatissimum) 865–950 16.2–36.6 108Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) 864–880 3.7–5.8 163–238Diesel 816–840 2.5–5.7 50–98

of fuel has been proved to decrease with the increase in tempera-ture. Kinematic viscosity is determined using the ASTM D445 andEN ISO 3104 test methods [91]. Table 2 shows that some non-edi-ble biodiesels, such as jojoba, neem, and linseed, have high viscos-ity that ranges from 19.2 mm2/s to 25.4 mm2/s, 20.5 mm2/s to48.5 mm2/s, and 16.2 mm2/s to 36.6 mm2/s, respectively, whichare higher than that of diesel fuel [86–89,92]. However, the viscos-ity of jatropha, tobacco, and mohua biodiesels ranges from3.7 mm2/s to 5.8 mm2/s, 3.5 mm2/s to 4.23 mm2/s, and 3.98 mm2/s to 5.8 mm2/s, respectively, which are close to that of diesel at2.5–5.7 mm2/s [66,68,93–96]. Therefore, these biodiesels can givebetter atomization and provide improved combustion than others.

3.3. Flash point

Flash point is the most important property that must be consid-ered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a material. Atthis temperature, vapor stops burning if the source of ignition is re-moved. Each biodiesel has its own flash point. Many factors affectthe change in biodiesel flash point, with residual alcohol contentbeing one of them [97]. Moreover, flash point is influenced bythe chemical compositions of the biodiesel, including the numberof double bonds, number of carbon atoms, and so on. [98]. The flashpoint of biodiesel is measured using the ASTM D93 and EN ISO3697 test methods [85]. Table 2 shows that biodiesel has a higherflash point than diesel fuel. The ASTM D6751 standard recom-mends a minimum flash point of 130 �C for biodiesel, as clearlyillustrated in Table 2. With the exception of neem, linseed, and jo-joba, all biodiesels meet the ASTM specification.

3.4. Cloud point and pour point

Biodiesel has higher cloud and pour points than conventionaldiesel fuel [99,100]. Cloud and pour points are measured usingthe ASTM D2500 and D97 test methods, respectively. Table 2 illus-trates that linseed and cotton seed biodiesels have the lowest cloudpoint of 1.7 �C, whereas jojoba oil has the highest cloud point rangeof 6–16 �C. On the contrary, cotton seed and linseed biodiesel havethe lowest pour point range of �10 �C to �15 �C and �4 �C to�18 �C, respectively, whereas mohua has the highest pour pointrange of 1–6 �C.

3.5. Cetane number (CN)

CN is the most important property of fuel that directly affects itscombustion quality. Ignition quality of fuel in a power diesel en-gine is measured by CN. Higher CN implies shorter ignition delay.The CN of pure diesel fuel is lower than that of biodiesel [39,101].The CN of biodiesel is higher because of its longer fatty acid carbonchains and the presence of saturation in molecules. CN is based on

Cloudpoint (�C)

Pourpoint (�C)

Cetanenumber

Calorific value(MJ/kg)

Refs.

13–15 �3 to 5.1 52–58 36–38 [38,39,47,108,109]13.2–14 4.3 57.3 39.25–41.3 [39,48,110]3–5 1–6 51–52 39.4–39.91 [39,95,107,96,111]4–5 �8 37–49 36.5–41.07 [55,105,112,113]1.7 �10 to �15 41.2–59.5 39.5–40.1 [83,114,115]6–16 �6 to 6 63.5 42.76–47.38 [61,64,70,88,89]– �12 49–51.6 38.43–39.81 [65,67,68]– – 51 33.7–39.5 [72,83,86,87]1.7 �4 to �18 28–35 37.7–39.8 [73,83,92]– 5 46–55 38.5–42 [94,116]�10 to �5 �20 to 5 45–55 42–45.9 [6,90,117]

Tabl

e3

Typi

cal

fatt

yac

idco

mpo

siti

onof

vari

ous

non-

edib

leve

geta

ble

oils

(wt.%

)[1

8,36

,38,

41,4

2,55

,61,

64,7

1,87

,89,

52,1

23–1

32].

Fatt

yac

id(x

x:y)

Ch

emic

alfo

rmu

lae

Syst

emic

nam

eK

aran

jaPo

lan

gaM

ohu

aR

ubb

erse

edoi

lC

otto

nse

edJo

joba

oil

Toba

cco

oil

Nee

mLi

nse

edoi

lJa

trop

ha

Myr

isti

cac

id(C

14:0

)C 1

4H

28O

2Te

trad

ecan

oic

acid

–0.

09–

2.2

0.7

–0.

09–0

.17

0.2–

0.26

0.04

51.

4Pa

lmit

icac

id(C

16:0

)C 1

6H

32O

2H

exad

ecan

oic

acid

3.7–

7.9

12.0

1–14

.616

–28.

28.

7–10

.611

.67–

20.1

3–16

8.46

–10.

9616

–33

5.85

–6.2

113

.6–1

5.1

Palm

itol

eic

acid

(C16

:1)

C 16H

30O

29-

Hex

adec

anoi

cac

id–

2.5

––

––

0.2

0.24

0.3

–St

eari

cac

id(C

18:0

)C 1

8H

36O

2O

ctad

ecen

oic

acid

2.4–

8.9

12.9

5–19

.96

20.0

–25.

18.

0–12

2.6–

3.15

0.5–

6.5

2.64

–3.3

49–

245.

47–5

.63

7.1–

7.4

Ole

icac

id(C

18:1

)C 1

8H

34O

29-

Oct

adec

enoi

cac

id44

.5–7

1.3

34.0

9–37

.57

41.0

–51.

017

–24.

619

.2–2

3.26

43.5

–66

11.2

4–14

.54

25–5

420

.17–

24.0

534

.3–4

4.7

Lin

olei

cac

id(C

18:2

)C 1

8H

32O

29,

12-O

ctad

ecen

oic

acid

10.8

–18.

326

.33–

38.2

68.

9–18

.339

.6–4

0.5

55.2

–55.

525

.2–3

4.4

69.4

9–75

.58

6–16

13.2

9–14

.93

31.4

–43.

2a

-Lin

olen

icac

id(C

18:3

)C 1

8H

32O

26,

9,12

-Oct

adec

enoi

cac

id–

0.27

–0.3

14.7

416

.3–2

60.

6–6.

310

0.69

–4.2

00.

5646

.10–

51.1

2–

Ara

chid

icac

id(C

20:0

)C 2

0H

40O

2Ei

cosa

noi

cac

id2.

2–4.

10.

940.

0–3.

3–

–_

0.25

1.04

0.2

0.2–

0.3

Beh

enic

acid

(C22

:0)

C 22H

44O

2D

ocos

anoi

cac

id4.

2–5.

3–

––

––

0.12

0.3

0.3

–O

ilco

nte

nt

(wt%

)25

–40

65–7

535

–50

50–6

017

–25

40–5

035

–49

20–3

035

–45

20–6

0


two compounds, namely, hexadecane and heptamethyl nonane.The CN of biodiesel is measured by the ASTM D613 and EN ISO5165 test methods [85]. Table 2 shows that most biodiesel fuelshave higher CN than diesel fuel (45–55), except for rubber seedand linseed biodiesels, which have low CN that is equal to 37–49and 28–35, respectively [55]. Jatropha, mohua, neem, and tobaccohave CN close to that of diesel fuel. Jojoba, karanja, and polangausually have higher CN than other biodiesels; thus, they are moresuperior.

3.6. Calorific value

Calorific value is the measure of heat energy content of a fuel.Higher calorific value of fuel is desired because it releases higherheat and consequently improves engine performance during com-bustion [102–104]. Biofuel usually has lower calorific value thandiesel fuel because of its higher oxygen content [105–107]. Table 2shows that the calorific values of jojoba and jatropha are 42.76–47.38 MJ/kg and 38.5–42 MJ/kg [93,94], respectively, which areclose to that of diesel at 42–45.9 MJ/kg. Jojoba biodiesel has thehighest calorific value of 47.38 MJ/kg among all reviewed biodiesels;this value is also much higher than that of diesel fuel. Therefore, jo-joba gives better engine performance than other biodiesel fuels.

4. Fatty acid composition of various non-edible oils

Fatty acid composition, such as the type and percentage, deter-mines the fuel properties of biodiesel. It depends on the fatty acidcomposition of the parent oil. Non-edible-based biodiesel mainlycontains C16 and C18 acids. However, some feedstocks have a sig-nificant amount of fatty acids other than C16 and C18 acids [118].Palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), lino-leic acid (C18:2), and linolenic acid (C18:3) are the common fattyacids in vegetable oils [119]. The quality of biodiesel and its fuelproperties highly depend on the presence of fatty acid compositionin the fuel blend. The presence of monounsaturated fatty acid in abiodiesel blend at low temperature may improve ignition quality,fuel flow properties, and fuel stability [39]. Several researchershave found that biodiesel oxidation stability and fuel flow proper-ties increase with the presence of capric acid [120,121]. However,Sahoo et al. [122] reported that fuel CN, cloud point, and stabilityincrease with the presence of saturated fatty acid alkyl ester in fuelblend. Biodiesel viscosity and freezing point increase with the in-crease in carbon chain length and decrease with the increase indouble bond chain. Table 3 shows the average fatty acid composi-tion of the reviewed non-edible vegetable oils [121].

5. Engine performance of a diesel engine using non-ediblevegetable biodiesel

Availability and economic aspects are first considered whenselecting biodiesel. The characteristics of engine performance arethen considered, indicating the applicability of the biodiesel in en-gines. Brake power, brake torque, brake thermal efficiency (BTE),and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) are the performanceindicators. Factors such as air–fuel mixture, fuel injection pressure,fuel spray pattern, and fuel properties affect performance. Theseparameters are tested against engine load or engine speed in theliterature review [42,43,47]. Engine performance characteristicsof the reviewed biodiesel are discussed below.

5.1. Karanja biodiesel

Karanja gives higher BTE at higher load condition and higherBSFC with the increase in blend ratio [42,95,133]. However, the

Table 4Engine performance results using karanja (Pongamia pinnata L.) biodiesel compared with diesel fuel at different test condition.

Engine type Test condition Result Refs.

Power/torque BTE BSFC

3-Cylinder, AVL make CIengine, D: 3.44 l, CR: 18.1,WC, RS: 2200 rpm, P:44.1 kw

Full/part throttle at different speeds(1200 rpm, 1800 rpm and 2200 rpm)and different blends (20%, 50% and100%)

Slightly reduction in the range of 0.44–1.93% and 1.2–2.55% using 20% and 40%biodiesel blend at higher speed engineoperation

– Increases with increase of blend ratio anddecreases with increase engine speeds. For partthrottle experiment BSFC decrease with use higherbiodiesel blend

[47]

2-Cylinder, 4S, petter KirloskarCI engine, RP: 10HP, RS:1500 rpm, DI, WC, CR:16.5:1,RP: 7.5 kw

Constant speed (1500 rpm) anddifferent blends (5%, 10%, 20% and 30%)

– Reduce 5.72% as compared with dieselfuel

Slightly Higher (Min 0.313 kg/kw h) as comparedto diesel fuel

[41]

1-Cylinder,AV-1, 4S, CS, WC, DI,CI engine, RP: 3.67 kw, D:552.92 cm3, CR:17.5

Different blends (10%, 20%, 50%, 75%)and constant speed (1500 rpm) anddifferent load condition

– Improve (0–25%) compared withdiesel fuel and use without preheatingbiodiesel blends

Improve use preheated lower biodiesel blend up to50%

[42]

1- cylinder, 4S, RP: 5.9 kw, CR:17.5, CI engine

Constant speed (1500 rpm), 20% blendand different load condition

At similar performance compared withdiesel fuel

BTE is higher in all loads condition Decreases with the increases engine load [133]

1- Cylinder, 4S, DI, RP: 6 kw,WC, CI engine

Different blends (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%)and different load (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%,80% and 100%), constant speed(1500 rpm)

– Slightly Improve at lower loads andreduce at higher loads condition ascompared to neat petroleum baseddiesel fuel

Slightly increases as all blends compared with neatpetro-diesel

[43]

1- Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, RP:7.5 kw, CR: 16:1, CI engine

Different loads (10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 85%and 100%), different blends (20%, 40%,60%, 80%) and constant speed 3000 rpm

Engine power increases on average 6% upto biodiesel blend used 40% and increaseswith decreases blend ratio

Increase with increases engine load 0.8–7.4% lower at 20% and 40% blend, and higherwith higher percentage of blend ratio

[109]

1- Cylinder, 4S, RP: 3.75 kw, D:553 cm3, CR: 16.5, DI, WC, CIengine

Different loads (33.3%, 66.6% and 100%),different blends (20%, 40%, 60% and80%) and constant speed 1500 rpm

– Slightly decrease with uses higherpercentage of biodiesel bland ratio

Increase with up to 40% bland ratio used in dieselengine

[135]

1- Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, D:553 cm3, RP: 4.476 kw, CR:16.5:1, CI engine

Different blends (10%, 25%, 50% and100%) and constant speed (1200 rpm)

– Almost unchanged compared withdiesel fuel

– [136]

4-Cylinder, DI, D: 3298 cm3,CR: 17.5:1, RP: 70 kw, WC,CI engine

Constant speed, different loads andblend (B100, B90M10)

– Increase 4.2% at high load condition – [137]

1- Cylinder, DI, WC, 4S, CR:17.5:1, RP: 3.5, CI engine

Constant speed (1500 rpm) anddifferent load condition

– Increase significantly at higher loadcondition

Decrease 12% at higher load condition comparedwith other biodiesel blend, but increase 14.7%compared with diesel fuel

[134]

Engine codes: S = stock; DI = direct injection; AC = air cooled; WC = water cooled; IC = intercooled; TC = turbocharger; CI = compression ignition; CR = compression ratio; RP: rated power; D: displacement; RS: rated speed; EGR:exhaust gas recirculation.Performance analysis codes: BTE: Brake thermal efficiency; BSFC: Brake specific fuel consumption; BSEC: Brake specific energy consumption.Emission analysis codes: CO: Carbon monoxide; HC: Hydrocarbon; NOx: Nitrogen oxide; BSU: Bosch smoke unit.

A.M

.Ashraful

etal./Energy

Conversionand

Managem

ent80

(2014)202–

228209

Tabl

e5

Dif

fere

ntex

peri

men

tal

engi

nepe

rfor

man

cere

sult

sus

ing

pola

nga

(Cal

ophy

llum

inop

hyllu

m)

biod

iese

lco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

.

Engi

ne

Test

con

diti

onR

esu

ltR

efs.

Pow

er/t

orqu

eB

TEB

SFC

3C

ylin

der,

AV

Lm

ake

CI

engi

ne,

D:

3.44

l,C

R:

18.1

,WC

,RS:

2200

rpm

,P:

44.1

kw

Full

/par

tth

rott

leat

diff

eren

tsp

eeds

(120

0rp

m,1

400

rpm

and

2200

rpm

)an

ddi

ffer

ent

blen

ds(2

0%,5

0%an

d10

0%)

Slig

ht

redu

ctio

nin

pow

er1.

93%

usi

ng

20%

biod

iese

lbl

end

but

impr

ove

0.19

–0.8

8%u

sin

g50

%bi

odie

sel

blen

dco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

duri

ng

the

enti

rera

nge

ofen

gin

eop

erat

ion

–In

crea

ses

wit

hin

crea

seof

blen

dra

tio

and

decr

ease

sw

ith

incr

ease

engi

ne

spee

ds.F

orpa

rtth

rott

lete

stB

SFC

decr

ease

wit

hm

ore

than

20%

,bl

end

[47]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,

WC

,DI

Dif

fere

nt

load

s(0

%,2

0%,4

0%,6

0%,8

0%an

d10

0%)

and

diff

eren

tbl

ends

(20%

,40

%,6

0%,8

0%an

d10

0%)

Slig

htl

yin

crea

seco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

0.1%

Incr

ease

wit

hin

crea

seof

blen

dra

tio

Red

uce

wit

hu

sin

gh

igh

erbi

odie

selb

len

dra

tio

and

engi

ne

spee

ds[4

4]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,W

C,D

I,C

Ien

gin

eD

iffe

ren

tbl

ends

(B10

,B20

,B30

and

B40

)an

dco

nst

ant

spee

d(1

500

rpm

)–

Incr

ease

wit

had

diti

onad

diti

ves

inth

ebi

odie

sel

fuel

blen

d

Dec

reas

esw

ith

adde

dad

diti

ves

inth

efu

elbl

end

[48]


opposite trend was observed by some researchers [47,109]. Sri-vastava et al. [41] experimented different karanja biodiesel blendsusing a two-cylinder CI engine. They concluded that pure biodieselgives lower BTE than diesel fuel, but biodiesel blend gives higherBTE than pure biodiesel. Jindal et al. [134] found that karanjabiodiesel blend gives better BTE and BSFC than other biodiesels.Table 4 shows different experimental results of engine performanceusing karanja biodiesel. The following conclusions were drawnbased on the result analysis:

� Engine power increases by about 6% with the presence of higherbiodiesel percentage in fuel blend.� Higher engine speed and lower biodiesel concentration give

higher engine power.� BTE increases with higher engine load and decreases when a

lower percentage of biodiesel is used in the fuel blend.� BSFC decreases about 0.8% with used lower biodiesel blend ratio

and higher engine speed.� BSFC decreases significantly when pre-heated biodiesel fuel

blends are used.

5.2. Polanga biodiesel

Polanga biodiesel usually gives high power output, high BTE,and low BSFC when used in a diesel engine [44]. However, someresearchers obtained the opposite trend [47]. Table 5 presentsthe engine performance parameters using polanga biodiesel in adiesel engine. The following conclusions can be made by analyzingthe results:

� Engine power is slightly reduced when a lower biodiesel fuelblend is used but increases when a medium percentage of bio-diesel fuel blend is used.� BTE increases with the use of higher biodiesel blend and added

additives in the fuel.� Lower BSFC is observed when the biodiesel blend has added

additives and when the engine is operated at high speed.

5.3. Mahua biodiesel

Mahua biodiesel gives poor results in terms of engine perfor-mance. Most researchers found that it has high BSFC and lowBTE [96,107,111,138]. However, some test conditions gave higherthermal efficiency [53,54,139]. Different experimental resultsusing mahua biodiesel in different test conditions are shown in Ta-ble 6. The following conclusions can be made by analyzing the dif-ferent experimental observations:

� A 20% biodiesel blend gives about 1–32.5% higher BTE at higherengine load condition than any other blend.� BTE is reduced with the presence of a higher percentage of bio-

diesel in the fuel blend.� BSFC increases by 4.1% with the increased proportion of biodie-

sel in the fuel blend.

5.4. Rubber seed biodiesel

Most experiments show that BSFC is higher when rubber seedbiodiesel is used in a diesel engine. However, higher BTE and brakepower were observed with increased percentage of biodiesel infuel blend and with engine load [106,141]. Table 7 shows the en-gine performance when rubber seed biodiesel is used in differenttest conditions. BTE increases at about 1.14–1.33% in a full loadcondition. The following conclusions can be made from the analy-sis of the different experimental results:

Table 6Different experimental engine performance results using mahua (Madhuca indica) biodiesel compared with diesel fuel.


Power/torque

BTE BSFC

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, CR: 18:1, P:9 kw, CI engine

Different blends (B20, B40, B60 and B80), different loads (25%,50%, 75% and 100%) and constant speed (1500 rpm)

– Increase 1% with using 20% biodiesel blend andDecrease 10.1% with used 100% biodiesel

Increased min 4.1% with the increasedproportion of biodiesel in the blends

[96]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, CI engine, RP:4 kw

Different blends (10, 20 and 30%), different loads and constantspeed (1500 rpm)

– Increased 0–30% with increased of biodieselpercentage in the fuel blend

– [53]

6- Cylinder, 4S, AC, D: 5.9 L, CR:17.6:1, HP: 158, CI engine

Different loads, different blends (B20, B40, B60) and constantspeed (1500 rpm)

_ Increased 32.5% using 20% biodiesel blendcompared with diesel fuel

Increase with increase in the proportion ofbiodiesel in the fuel blends and engine loads

[111]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, CR: 16.5:1,RP: 3.7 kw, D: 553 cm3

Constant speed (1500 rpm) – 13% Lower than that of diesel fuel 20% Higher than the ordinary diesel fuel [107]


Constant speed (1500 rpm) – Gradually increase 26.42%-28.307% for both esterused compared to diesel fuel

Increase about 6% and 14% compared with dieselfuel

[54]


Constant speed (1500 rpm) – 1.95% higher than that of diesel fuel Higher compared to diesel fuel [140]

1- Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, HP: 7, Blend (B20), constant speed (1500 rpm), and steady statecondition

– 20% biodiesel blend gave higher efficiency thandiesel fuel at higher load condition

– [139]

3-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, D:2826 cm3, CR: 17:1

Different loads, different blends (B10, B20, B40, B60, B80) andconstant speed (1500 rpm)

– Decrease with increase of blend ratio. Maximumefficiency obtained at use B20 bland

Increase with increase biodiesel blend ratiocompare with diesel

[138]

Table 7Different experimental engine performance results using rubber seed oil (Hevea brasiliensis) biodiesel compared with diesel fuel.



1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, RP: 5.5 kw, WC,CI engine, RS: 1500 rpm

Different loads, different blends (B20, B40, B60, B80 and B100)and constant speed (1500 rpm)

Increase with increaseof biodiesel blend ratio

Increase with the increase of biodiesel blendratio compared to diesel fuel

Higher compare with dieselfuel

[141]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, RP: 5.5 kw, WC,CI engine, RS: 1500 rpm

Different loads, different blends (B10, B20, B50, B75 and B100)and constant speed (1500 rpm)

Increased with theincreased in engineload

3% Increase using 20% biodiesel blend withincrease in engine loads

Increased 12% using 100%biodiesel compared with dieselfuel

[106]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, RP: 4.4 kw, CR:17.5:1, D: 661.5 cm3, RS:1500 rpm

Constant speed (1500 rpm) and different load (25%, 50% 75%,100%), Duel fueling with hydrogen induction (25%, 50% and 75%)

– Increase about 1.33% and 1.14% at full loadcondition with hydrogen induction using RSOME

– [113]

1-Cylinder, DI, 4S, RP: 5.5 kw, CIengine, WC, RS: 1500 rpm

Constant speed (1500 rpm)and different load condition – Reduce for incomplete combustion comparedwith diesel fuel

Higher than that of diesel fuelfor duel fuel operation

[142]

1-cylinder, AC, CR: 17.5:1, 4S, DI, CIengine, RP: 4.4 kw, RS:1500 rpm

Using net RSO and Various diethyl ether with RSO (50 g/h,100 g/h, 150 g/h, 200 g/h and 250 g/h) and full load condition

– 3.4% Lower than that of diesel fuel using net RSO.But improved at using RSO with DEE injection

– [143]

1-Cylinder, WC, 4S, DI, RS:1500 rpm, RP: 5.5 kw, CR:16.5:1

Different loads and constant speed 1500 rpm Less than that of dieselfuel

4.95% Lower than that of diesel fuel at full loadcondition

34.8% Higher than that ofdiesel fuel at 70% loadcondition

[144]

A.M

.Ashraful

etal./Energy

Conversionand

Managem

ent80

(2014)202–

228211

Table 8Different experimental engine performance results using cotton seed biodiesel compared with diesel fuel.



1-Cylinder, WC, 4S, DI, CR: 19.8:1,RS: 4500 rpm

Constant speed 2000 rpm, Different blends (10% and20%) medium and high load condition

Same compared with dieselfuel all load condition

Same compared with diesel fuel allload condition

Higher than that of diesel fuel at medium andhigher load condition

[114]

6-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, D: 5958 ,CR: 18:1, RP: 177 kw, RS:2600 rpm

Different speeds (1200 and 1500 rpm), differentloads (20%, 40%, 60% and full load)

_ Similar compared with neat diesel fuel Little higher than that of diesel fuel with thehigher percentage of biodiesel in the blend

[147]

1-Clynder, 4S, DI, WC, CR: 17:1,D: 770 cm3, RP: 8 HP, RS:2000 rpm

Full load and different speeds (900–1800 rpm) Reduced about 3%compared with diesel fuel

– SFC of methyl ester has lower compared with rawoil fuel, Higher fuel consumption due to lowerenergy contain

[115]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, D: 406 cm3,RP: 10 HP, RS: 3600 rpm, CR:18:1

Different speeds (1250–2500 rpm) and differentblends (B5, B20, B50, B75 and B100)

Increase at higher enginespeed but less then dieselfuel

– Lower at full load operation and 2000 rpm speedfor using 5% and 20% biodiesel blend

[145]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, NA, D:553 cc, CR: 16.5:1, RP:4.476 kw, RS: 1800 rpm

Constant speed 850 rpm and different blends (B10,B20, B30)

– Increase with the increased in enginetorque, but decreased due to themaximum torque

Decrease with increase in engine torque [59]

6-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, TC, D:5958 cc, CR: 18:1, RP: 177 kw,RS: 2600 rpm

Different blends (B10, B20), different speeds(1200 rpm and 1500 rpm) and different loadcondition (20%, 40% and 60%)

– Same compared with diesel fuel at allload condition

Littlie higher than that of neat diesel fuel [148]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, CR: 18:1, NA,RS: 3600 rpm,

Different speeds and preheated blend (30�, 60�, 90�,120 �C)

Decrease compared withdiesel fuel at all operatingtemperature

Increase 6.34% at high operatingtemperature

– [149]

1-Cylinder, DI, 4S, AC, CR: 18:1, D:395 cc, RS: 3600 rpm, RP:6.25 kw

Full load and different speeds (2800–1300 rpm) 3–9% Lowers than that ofdiesel fuel

– 8–10% Higher than that of diesel fuel [150]

4-Cylinder, 4S, DI, NA, WC, CR:16.8:1, RP: 51 kw, RS:2400 rpm,

Full load and different speeds (1200–2400 rpm) Increase with the increasedof engine speed

Improved slightly both NA and TCoperation compared with diesel fuel

Slightly higher both NA and TC operationcompared with diesel fuel

[146]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, CR: 18:1,RP: 6.25 kw, RS: 3600 rpm,

Full load and different speeds (1700, 2000, 2300,2600 and 3000 rpm)

2.2–2.3% Increased at fullload operating condition

Increased 6% at B20 and 3.5% at B40biodiesel

Increased compared with diesel fuel [151]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, CR: 18:1,RP: 6.25, RS: 3600 rpm

Full load, varied injection pressure and constantspeed

3–6% Decreased than dieselfuel at all injection pressure

_ 3–7% Increased compared with diesel fuel [60]

212A

.M.A

shrafulet

al./EnergyConversion

andM

anagement

80(2014)

202–228

Tabl

e9

Engi

nepe

rfor

man

cere

sult

sus

ing

jojo

baoi

lba

sed

biod

iese

lat

diff

eren

tte

stco

ndit

ion.

Engi

ne

type

Test

con

diti

onR

esu

ltR

efs.

Pow

er/t

orqu

eB

TEB

SFC

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,A

C,D

I,C

R:

17:1

,RP:

5.77

5kw

,RS:

1500

rpm

Var

iou

slo

ads

(no

load

,1/3

,2/3

and

full

load

),di

ffer

ent

blen

ds(B

20,B

40,B

60)

and

diff

eren

tsp

eeds

Slig

htl

yde

crea

sed

wit

hin

crea

sed

ofbi

odie

sel

perc

enta

gein

fuel

blen

d–

Slig

htl

yin

crea

sed

wit

hin

crea

sed

ofbi

odie

sel

perc

enta

gein

fuel

blen

d[6

1]

2-C

ylin

der,

4S,W

C,D

I,D

:22

66cc

,C

R:

16.4

:1,R

S:15

00rp

m,R

P:26

HP

Dif

fere

nt

spee

ds(1

000–

1900

rpm

)an

dfu

lllo

adSl

igh

tly

hig

her

than

that

ofdi

esel

fuel

wit

hth

ein

crea

seof

engi

ne

spee

d

Slig

htl

yh

igh

erco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

wit

hth

ein

crea

seof

engi

ne

spee

d8.

2%an

d9.

8%lo

wer

aten

gin

esp

eed

1200

and

1600

rpm

com

pare

dw

ith

dies

elfu

el[1

52]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,A

C,D

I,N

A,C

R:

17:1

,R

P:5.

775

kw,R

S:15

00rp

mD

iffe

ren

tsp

eeds

and

inje

ctio

nti

min

gof

24C

AD

BTD

CIn

crea

sed

5%w

ith

EGR

oper

atio

nD

ecre

ased

6%an

d13

%w

ith

EGR

and

wit

hou

tEG

Rop

erat

ion

Dec

reas

ed8%

wit

hEG

Ran

d14

%in

crea

sed

wit

hou

tEG

Rop

erat

ion

[64]


� Engine power increases with the increased percentages of bio-diesel in the fuel blend and higher engine speed condition.� A 20% biodiesel blend ratio and higher engine speed give higher

BTE.� Diethyl ether (DEE) injection with rubber seed oil-based biodie-

sel blend shows high peak pressure and gives high BTE.� BSFC increases with increased engine load and higher biodiesel

percentages in the fuel blend.

5.5. Cotton seed biodiesel

Cotton seed biodiesel gives poor engine performance resultscompared with other biodiesel fuels. BSFC is high in most test con-ditions, along with lower brake power and BTE [115,145], but itgives high thermal efficiency in some specific conditions [59,146].Table 8 presents the engine performance results using cotton seedbiodiesel in different test conditions. The following conclusionscan be made by analyzing the different experimental results:

� Engine power increases by about 2.2–2.3% in a full load operat-ing condition.� Engine power decreases with the use of preheated biodiesel

blend and higher injection pressure.� BTE improves in both naturally aspirated and turbo-charged

operations, the increment of which is about 6.34% with fuelsat elevated temperature.� BTE increases by about 6% with low biodiesel present in the

blend and with high engine torque condition.� BSFC increases by about 3.7% with increased engine load and

high percentage of biodiesel present in the fuel blend.� BSFC decreases with the lower percentage of biodiesel present

in the fuel blend.

5.6. Jojoba oil biodiesel

Jojoba oil-based biodiesel can be considered a good alternativefuel because of its give higher brake power using in diesel engine.Moreover, its thermal efficiency and BSFC decrease at differentspeeds and in a full load condition [64,152]. However, it gives high-er BSFC in some specific conditions [61]. Different engine perfor-mance results using jojoba oil-based biodiesel in a diesel engineare shown in Table 9. The following conclusions can be made fromthe analysis of the different experimental results:

� Engine power increases by 5% using jojoba oil methyl ester withEGR operation.� Engine power slightly decreases when the fuel blend used has a

high percentage of biodiesel in the fuel blend.� BTE slightly increases in a full load condition and with high

engine speed but decreases by 6% with EGR operation.� BSFC decreases about 8% when jojoba oil methyl ester is used in

EGR operation and with high engine speed.

5.7. Tobacco oil biodiesel

Tobacco oil biodiesel has shown excellent results in terms of en-gine performance, with high brake power and BTE, and low BSFC[66,68,153]. However, it gives high BSFC in some specific condi-tions [154,155]. Different engine performance results using tobac-co oil-based biodiesel in a diesel engine are shown in Table 10. Thefollowing outcomes can be concluded by analyzing the results:

� Engine power increases by about 3.13% with high engine loadand low biodiesel percentage in the fuel blend.� At high engine speed and low biodiesel percentage, BTE

increases by 2.02%.

Tabl

e10

Engi

nepe

rfor

man

cere

sult

sus

ing

toba

cco

oil

base

dbi

odie

sel

atdi

ffer

ent

test

cond

itio

n.

Engi

ne

type

Test

con

diti

onR

esu

ltR

efs.

Pow

er/t

orqu

eB

TEB

SFC

4-C

ylin

der,

4S,T

C,W

C,R

P:55

kw,

RS:

2200

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

load

s(5

0%,7

5%an

d10

0%),

diff

eren

tbl

ends

(B10

,B17

.5an

dB

25)

and

spee

d(1

500–

3000

rpm

)

Incr

ease

dw

ith

the

incr

ease

dof

engi

ne

spee

dan

dh

igh

erlo

adco

ndi

tion

0.27

2–0.

292%

Incr

ease

dw

ith

incr

ease

dof

engi

ne

spee

dan

dh

igh

erlo

adco

ndi

tion

Incr

ease

dw

ith

the

incr

ease

dof

engi

ne

spee

d[6

6]

4-C

ylin

der,

4S,T

C,W

C,ID

I,C

R:

21.5

:1,D

:1.

753,

RP:

55kw

,RS:

2200

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

load

s(5

0%,7

5%an

d10

0%),

diff

eren

tbl

ends

(B10

,B17

.5an

dB

25)

3.13

%H

igh

erth

anth

atof

dies

elfu

elat

hig

her

load

and

low

erbl

end

rati

ou

sed

indi

esel

engi

ne

2.02

%H

igh

erco

mpa

red

dies

elfu

elw

ith

low

erbi

odie

sel

perc

enta

gein

the

fuel

Slig

htl

yin

crea

sed

wit

hlo

wlo

adco

ndi

tion

[68]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,N

A,R

S:15

00rp

m,

RP:

5H

PC

onst

ant

spee

d15

00rp

m,d

iffe

ren

tlo

ads

and

diff

eren

tbl

ends

(B2

and

B5)

–1.

69%

Incr

ease

dth

anth

atof

dies

elfu

elat

hig

her

load

con

diti

on9.

8%Lo

wer

that

ofdi

esel

fuel

low

biod

iese

lpe

rcen

tage

inth

ebl

end

[154

]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,N

A,D

I,R

P:14

.7:1

,R

S:25

00rp

mFu

lllo

adan

ddi

ffer

ent

spee

ds(1

200,

1400

,160

0,18

00,2

000,

2200

and

2400

rpm

)In

crea

sed

wit

hth

ein

crea

sed

ofen

gin

esp

eed

and

full

load

con

diti

on–

Incr

ease

dsl

igh

tly

com

pare

dw

ith

dies

elfu

elat

low

eren

gin

esp

eed

[153

]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,W

C,R

P:5.

2kw

,C

R:

17.5

:1D

iffe

ren

tin

ject

ion

pres

sure

s(2

05,2

20,2

40an

d26

0ba

r)–

Low

erco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

atlo

wer

inje

ctio

npr

essu

reD

ecre

ased

wit

hin

crea

sed

ofbr

eak

pow

eran

dlo

wer

inje

ctio

npr

essu

re

[155

]


� High engine load condition, high injection pressure, and biodie-sel percentage affect the BTE of an engine.� BSFC slightly decreases because of high brake power and low

injection pressure.� Engine load and speed also affect specific fuel consumption.

5.8. Neem biodiesel

Neem biodiesel generally gives slightly lower BTE and higherBSFC [86,156–158] but gives higher BTE than diesel fuel insome conditions [87,159,160]. Different experimental engineperformance results are shown in Table 11. Its low calorific valuecauses neem biodiesel to give low BTE with high fuel consumptionin most cases. The following deductions can be made based onTable 11:

� BTE significantly increases with increased biodiesel percentagein the fuel blend and engine load.� In a part load condition, the BTE of an increases about 63.11%

compared with that of diesel fuel. However, it decreases in a fullload condition.� BSFC decreases by about 8.25% at constant speed in a part

load condition but significantly increases in a full loadcondition.

5.9. Linseed oil biodiesel

The use of linseed oil biodiesel in diesel engine gives excellentresults, such as high BTE, high power output, and low BSFC. Someexperimental results also show its high BSFC and low BTE[73,92,164]. Table 12 shows the engine performance results usinglinseed oil-based biodiesel in a diesel engine in different condi-tions. The following conclusions can be made from the analysisof the different experimental findings:

� Engine power increases with the presence of high engine loadand high percentage of biodiesel in the fuel blend.� BTE increases because of improved atomization and better mix-

ing process at a high injection pressure.� BTE increases by about 10–12% with increased biodiesel con-

centration in the fuel blend and high engine load condition.� BSFC decreases by about 4–6% with high engine load and high

biodiesel percentage in the fuel blend. It significantly increaseswith at a high injection pressure in the engine.

5.10. Jatropha biodiesel

Jatropha biodiesel gives high thermal efficiency with highfuel consumption [116,166–168]. Its blends give better brakepower than diesel fuel in some cases [47]. It also exhibitslow BTE in some conditions [116,169]. Engine performanceresults in different test conditions are shown in Table 13. Thefollowing deductions can be made by analyzing the results inTable 13:

� A 20% biodiesel blend gives better engine power, which is about0.09–2.64% higher, than diesel fuel.� Engine power decreases with increased biodiesel percentage in

the fuel blend.� BTE slightly improves (percentage) in medium engine speed

and improves by 0.1–6.7% in high engine speed. However, itdecreases when a high biodiesel percentage is present in thefuel blend.� BSFC increases by 6.8% with increased engine speed and high

biodiesel percentage in the fuel blend.

Table 11Engine performance results using neem biodiesel at different test condition.


Power/torque

BTE BSFC

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, RP: 5.2 kw, CR:17.5:1, RS: 1500 rpm

Constant speed 1500 rpm, duel fueling – 5% lower than that of diesel fuel – [161]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, NA, WC, RP: 9.8 kw,CR: 20:1, RS: 2000 rpm

Different blends (B5, B10 and B15), differentspeed (600–1200 rpm) and different BMEP

– Increased with increased of fuel supply up to 1000 rpmand decreased when engine speed above 1000 rpm

– [162]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, D: 425 cc, CR: 15.5:1,RP: 7.5HP, RS: 1500 rpm

Different loads (4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 kg) andconstant speed 1500 rpm

– Increased with the increased of engine load Decreased with the increased of engine load [87]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, RS: 1500 rpm, RP:3.7 kw, CR: 16.5:1

Constant speed and different loads (1000–4000Watt) condition

– Slightly lower at higher loads compared with diesel fuel Slightly higher at low load condition comparedwith diesel fuel

[156]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, CR: 17.5:1, D:661 cc, RP: 5.2 kw, RS: 1500 rpm

Different BMEP (100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and650) and constant speed 1500 rpm

_ 63.11% higher than that of diesel fuel at part loadcondition and 11.2% lower at full load condition

8.25% Lower at part load and 27.25% higher atfull load condition than that of diesel fuel

[163]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, NA, WC, RP: 5HP, RS:1500 rpm, CR: 16.5:1

Constant speed and different BP (0–5 kw) – Lower than that of diesel fuel at all loads condition – [157]

1-Cylinder, AC, DI, CR: 17.5:1, RP: 4.4 kw,RS: 1500 rpm

Different blends (B10, B20, B30, B40 and B50),constant speed and different break power

– Decreased with the increased of biodiesel percentage inthe blend

Slightly higher for B20 and all biodiesel nearlyclosed to diesel fuel

[158]

1-Cylinder, DI, WC, RP: 5.2 kw, RS:1500 rpm

Different blends (B20, B40, B60, B80 and B100),Different BMEP and constant speed 1500 rpm

– Increased 7.01% at full load condition and lower biodieselpercentage in the fuel blend

27.75% Higher at full load condition and higherbiodiesel percentage in the blend

[159]

1-Cylinder, 4S, NA, DI, CR: 16.5:1, RP:3.5 kw, RS: 1500 rpm

Different blends (B5, B10, B15, B20), differentloads and constant speed 1500 rpm

– Increased with the increased of percentage of biodiesel inthe fuel blend at all load condition

– [160]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, RP: 8 HP, CR:16.5:1, RS: 1800 rpm

Different loads, constant speed 1800 rpm anddifferent blends (B10, B20)

– Decreased with higher biodiesel in the blends comparedwith diesel fuel

Increased 23.38% and 12.12% of B10 and B20compared with diesel fuel

[86]

Table 12Engine performance results using linseed oil biodiesel at different test condition.



1-Cylinder, WC, 4S, DI, D:662 cc, RP: 4 kw, RS:1500 rpm

Different blends (B10, B20, B30 and B50, v/v), constant speed 1500 rpm and differentloads

– Increases with the increase of engine loads and concentration ofbiodiesel in the fuel blend

Lower by used blend B50compared with others blends

[164]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, RP:4.4 kw, CR: 17.5:1, RS:1500 rpm

Different loads, constant speed 1500 rpmand different injection pressure (200, 220and 240 bar)

– Increases at full load condition are closer to diesel fuel because ofimproved atomization and better mixing process at higherinjection pressures

Higher than that of diesel fuelat all load and higher injectionpressure

[92]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, RP:4.4 kw, D: 661 cc, CR:17.5:1, RS: 1500 rpm

Different loads and constant speed1500 rpm

– Lower compare with others biodiesel blend at full load condition Similar compare with othersbiodiesel blend

[73]

1-Cylinder, WC, 4S, Di, RP:3.5 kw, CR: 17.5:1, RS:1500 rpm

Different blends (B5, B10, B15 and B20),constant speed 1500 rpm and differentloads

Decreases with increasingbiodiesel concentration in thefuel blend

Increases 10–12% with the increase of engine power andincreasing concentration of biodiesel in the fuel blend

Decreased 4–6% with theincrease biodiesel percentage infuel blend

[165]

A.M

.Ashraful

etal./Energy

Conversionand

Managem

ent80

(2014)202–

228215

Tabl

e13

Engi

nepe

rfor

man

cere

sult

sus

ing

jatr

opha

biod

iese

lat

diff

eren

tte

stco

ndit

ion.

Engi

ne

type

Test

con

diti

onR

esu

ltR

efs.

Pow

er/t

orqu

eB

TEB

SFC

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,W

C,D

:10

07cc

,CR

:18

.5:1

,RS:

2400

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

blen

ds(B

10,B

20,B

50an

dB

100)

and

diff

eren

tsp

eeds

(100

0–24

00rp

m)

Dec

reas

edw

ith

incr

ease

dof

perc

enta

geof

biod

iese

lin

the

fuel

Low

erco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

Hig

her

than

that

ofdi

esel

fuel

[79]

3-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,W

C,D

:34

40cc

,CR

:18

:1,R

S:22

00rp

m

Dif

fere

nt

spee

ds(1

200,

1800

and

2200

rpm

)an

ddi

ffer

ent

blen

ds(B

20,B

50an

dB

100)

Incr

ease

d0.

09–2

.64%

use

d20

%bi

odie

sel

blen

dw

ith

enti

rera

nge

ofen

gin

eop

erat

ion

_In

crea

sew

ith

incr

ease

dof

perc

enta

geof

biod

iese

lin

the

fuel

blen

d,bu

tde

crea

sed

wit

hh

igh

eren

gin

esp

eed

[47]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,C

R:

16.5

:1,

RP:

5HP,

RS:

1500

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

blen

ds(B

20,B

40,B

50,B

60,B

80an

dB

100)

and

diff

eren

tlo

ads

(25%

,50%

75%

and

100%

)

–H

igh

erth

anth

atof

dies

elfu

elab

out

(20–

80%

)bl

ends

Low

erco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

wh

enB

20u

sed,

for

oth

erbl

ends

alm

ost

sam

eas

dies

el[1

70]

4-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,TC

,D:

1609

cc,R

P:84

.5kw

,CR

:18

.5:1

,RS:

3800

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

spee

dsan

dfu

lllo

adco

ndi

tion

Dec

reas

edco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

Alm

ost

sam

eco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

Hig

her

than

that

ofdi

esel

fuel

[80]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,W

C,R

P:8

HP,

RS:

1500

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

blen

ds(B

25,B

50,B

75an

dB

100)

and

cons

tan

tsp

eed

–7%

Dec

reas

edco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

for

B10

0In

crea

sed

wit

hth

ein

crea

sed

ofpe

rcen

tage

ofbi

odie

sel

inth

efu

el[1

69]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,W

C,D

I,D

:81

5cc

,RP:

8.82

kw,C

R:1

7:1,

RS:

2000

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

spee

ds(1

500

and

2000

rpm

)an

ddi

ffer

ent

load

–0.

2–3.

5%an

d0.

1–6.

7%in

crea

sed

for

1500

rpm

and

2000

rpm

Ave

rage

9.3%

and

6.8%

incr

ease

dfo

r15

00rp

man

d20

00rp

m[1

66]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,A

C,C

R:

18:1

,D

:39

5cc

,RP:

5.59

kw,R

S:36

00rp

m

Dif

fere

nt

spee

ds(1

800,

2500

and

3200

rpm

)–

Low

erco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

Hig

her

than

that

ofdi

esel

fuel

[94]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,A

C,D

:94

7.8

cc,C

R:

17.5

:1,R

P:7.

4kw

,RS:

1500

rpm

Dif

fere

nt

blen

ds(B

5,B

10,B

20,B

30an

dB

100)

and

diff

eren

tlo

ads

(20%

,40%

,60%

,80

%an

d10

0%)

–D

ecre

ased

wit

hth

ein

crea

sed

ofpe

rcen

tage

ofbi

odie

sel

inth

efu

elco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

Hig

her

than

that

ofdi

esel

fuel

and

incr

ease

dw

ith

the

incr

ease

dof

blen

dra

tio

[171

]


6. Engine emission performance when non-edible vegetablebiodiesel is used in a diesel engine

Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel. Therefore, it produces a com-plete combustion, provides excellent emission properties, and cre-ates less negative environmental effects [82,172]. Differentexperimental investigations on engine emission characteristicsusing the reviewed non-edible oil biodiesels are presented.

6.1. Karanja biodiesel

Engine operating condition and biodiesel percentage in theblend significantly affect engine emission characteristics. Althoughsome experimental results show high CO and NOx emissions, oth-ers present low CO, HC, and smoke emission [41,42,47]. Table 14shows the engine emission results using karanja biodiesel in differ-ent test conditions. The following conclusions can be made by ana-lyzing the different experimental results:

� CO emission decreases by approximately 4–46.5% in a high loadcondition but increases with the presence of a high percentageof biodiesel in the fuel blend.� HC emission decreases with a low percentage of biodiesel pres-

ent in the fuel blend and in a high load condition.� PM decreases with increased biodiesel content in the fuel blend.� NOx emission increases by 4.15–14.18% with increased biodie-

sel percentage in the fuel blend. However, it decreases by 4–39%with the presence of low biodiesel percentage in the fuel blend.� Smoke level is reduced (20–43%) with a high engine load and

high biodiesel concentration in the fuel blend.

6.2. Polanga biodiesel

Only a few researchers conducted experiments using polangabiodiesel in a diesel engine. These researchers found that it giveslow-criteria engine emission. Table 15 presents the engine emis-sion results using polanga biodiesel in different operating condi-tions. Clearly, biodiesel blends greatly affect emission. Thefollowing deductions can be made based on the analysis of the dif-ferent experimental results:

� Higher biodiesel blend ratio gives higher CO emission.� HC emission significantly decreases with the presence of high

biodiesel percentage in the fuel blend.� Polanga biodiesel produces a low reduction of PM at about

9.88–42.06% with increased biodiesel percentage in the fuelblend.� NOx emission increases when a fuel blend is used with high bio-

diesel percentage. However, it decreases by 4% in a high loadcondition.� Smoke level decreases at a maximum of 35% at high biodiesel

blend and high engine speed condition.

6.3. Mohua biodiesel

Experimental results on engine operation using mohua oil-based biodiesel show that it gives low CO, HC, NOx, and smokeemission [54,95,107,139,140] but produces high NOx emission insome cases [53,96,111]. An emission characteristic of the differentexperimental results using Mohua biodiesel and its blends isshown in Table 16. The following conclusions are attained by ana-lyzing the different experimental results:

� CO emission decreases by 0.02–0.16% with the increase in bio-diesel concentration in the fuel blend.

Table 14Engine emission results using karanja biodiesel at different condition.

Engine Test condition Emission Refs.

CO HC PM Nox Smoke

3 Cylinder, AVL make CIengine, D: 3.44 l, CR: 18.1,WC, RS: 2200 rpm, P:44.1 kw

Full throttle at different speeds(1200 rpm, 1400 rpm and 2200 rpm)and different blends (20%, 50% and100%)

Improvement 2.93–5.87% less thanthat of diesel fuel using 20% 50% and100% biodiesel blend entire range ofengine operation

Reduce range of 4.30–20.64% with increase ofbland ratio

Reduce range of16.43–45.48%with increase ofbland ratio

Slightly increase withrange of 4.15–14.18%with increase of blendratio

Reduction with increaseof blend ratio

[47]

2-Cylinder, 4S, petterKirloskar CI engine, RP:10HP, RS: 1500 rpm, DI,WC, CR: 16.5:1, RP: 7.5 kw

Constant speed (1500 rpm) anddifferent blends (5%, 10%, 20% and30%)

Slightly Increase about 0.03% atincreases of blend ratio

Exhibited 11.76%higher HC emissionwith the increasedbiodiesel percentage

– Increase 12%compared with dieselfuel

– [41]

1-Cylinder, 4S, CS, WC, DI, CIengine, RP: 3.67 kw, D:552.92 cm3, CR: 17.5

Different blends (10%, 20%, 50%, 75%)and constant speed (1500 rpm)

Increase min 10 g/kw h use withoutpreheating blend

Lower as use of lowerblends compared thandiesel

– – Smoke density almostsame compared withdiesel fuel

[42]

1-Cylinder, 4S, RP: 5.9 kw, CR:17.5, CI engine

Constant speed (1500 rpm), 20%blend and different load condition

Reduce with use of net biodiesel andblend

Reduce with use of netbiodiesel and blend

– Increases 10–25%compared withconventional diesel

Reduce with use of netbiodiesel and blend

[133]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, RP: 6 kw,WC, CI engine

Different blends (5%, 10%, 15% and20%) and different load (0%, 20%,40%, 60%, 80% and 100%)

Approximately 4% decreases withhigher load condition

Lower at 10% blend and70% load

– At 20% blend and 80%load give 4% lowerNox compared todiesel

Smoke was significantlyreduce for all blends

[43]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, RP:7.5 kw, CR: 16:1, CI engine

Different loads (10%, 25%, 50%, 75%,85% and 100%), different blends(20%, 40%, 60%, 80%) and constantspeed 3000 rpm

Reduce 60% at low load condition _ –– Average 26%reduction ascompared to diesel

Smoke density min 20%decrease and maximum80% decrease with highengine load

[109]

1-Cylinder, 4S, RP: 3.75 kw,D: 553 cm3, CR: 16.5 DI,WC, CI engine

Different loads (33.3%, 66.6% and100%), different blends (20%, 40%,60% and 80%) and constant speed1500 rpm

Slightly higher than baseline diesel Reduce 2.85%-12.8% for20% and 40% biodieselblends used in dieselengine

– Decrease 28%-39%with 20% and 40%biodiesel blends used

– [135]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, D:553 cm3, RP: 4.476 kw, CR:16.5:1, CI engine

Different blends (10%, 25%, 50% and100%) and constant speed(1200 rpm)

Reduce 50% compared with diesel – – Increases 15% Noxemission

B100 reduce smokeopacity by 43%

[136]

4-Cylinder, DI, D: 3298 cm3,CR: 17.5:1, RP: 70 kw, WC,CI engine

Constant speed, different loads andblend (B100, B90M10)

Decrease significantly at higher loadcondition, maximum 46.5% decrease atfull load condition

Slightly higher at lowload condition

– – Lower at high load (80%)condition

[137]

1-Cylinder, DI, WC, 4S, CR:17.5:1, RP: 3.5, CI engine

Constant Speed (1500 rpm) anddifferent load condition

Lower 23% compared with diesel fuelemission

Reduce 50% comparedwith diesel fuel

– 48% reduction in NOxcompared with dieselfuel

Lower (20%) as comparedwith diesel fuel

[134]

A.M

.Ashraful

etal./Energy

Conversionand

Managem

ent80

(2014)202–

228217

Tabl

e15

Engi

neem

issi

onre

sult

sus

ing

pola

nga

biod

iese

lat

diff

eren

tco

ndit

ion.

Engi

ne

Test

con

diti

onEm

issi

onR

efs.

CO

HC

PMN

oxSm

oke

3C

ylin

der,

AV

Lm

ake

CI

engi

ne,

D:

3.44

l,C

R:

18.1

,WC

,RS:

2200

rpm

,P:

44.1

kw

Full

thro

ttle

atdi

ffer

ent

spee

ds(1

200

rpm

,14

00rp

man

d22

00rp

m)

and

diff

eren

tbl

ends

(20%

,50%

and

100%

)

Slig

htl

yim

prov

emen

t12

.96%

wit

hh

ighe

rbi

odie

sel

blen

dra

tio

Red

uce

6.75

%w

ith

use

ofh

igh

erbl

and

rati

o

Red

uce

9.88

–42.

06%

wit

hin

crea

seof

blan

dra

tio

Incr

ease

14.8

7–22

.5%

wit

hin

crea

seof

blen

dra

tio

Red

uct

ion

wit

hin

crea

seof

blen

dra

tio

and

engi

ne

spee

ds

[47]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,

WC

,DI

Dif

fere

nt

load

s(0

%,2

0%,4

0%,6

0%,8

0%an

d10

0%)

and

diff

eren

tbl

ends

(20%

,40%

,60%

,80%

and

100%

)

––

–4%

Red

uce

for

B10

0bi

odie

sel

use

dat

full

load

35%

redu

cew

ith

B60

biod

iese

lu

sed

asco

mpa

red

todi

esel

[44]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,W

C,D

I,C

Ien

gin

eD

iffe

ren

tbl

ends

(B10

,B20

,B30

and

B40

),C

onst

ant

spee

d(1

500

rpm

)an

dad

ded

addi

tive

s–

––

Mar

gin

ally

incr

ease

–[4

8]


� HC emission dramatically decreases by 35-60% with theincrease in biodiesel percentage in the fuel blend and in highengine load condition.� NOx emission increases (6–16%) with increased engine load and

high biodiesel percentage in the blend. However, it decreases(9–27%) when mohua ethyl ester is used.� Smoke level decreases (5–46%) in a full load condition and with

high biodiesel percentage present in the fuel blend.

6.4. Rubber seed oil biodiesel

Rubber seed biodiesel produces lower emission than diesel fuel[106,113,141]. However, it produces high emissions in some spe-cific conditions [142]. The emission characteristics of rubber seedbiodiesel are presented in Table 17. The following deductions canbe made by analyzing the findings of the different experiments:

� CO emission decreases by about 0.13–1.13% with a low biodie-sel concentration in the blend and a high load condition.� With the DEE additive, high load, and low biodiesel percentage

concentration, CO and HC emission is considerably decreased.� NOx emission increases by about 13% with a high biodiesel per-

centage in the blend and a high load condition.� Smoke opacity decreases by 37.09% with a low load condition

and high biodiesel concentration present in the fuel blend.� The volatility and oxygen enrichment provided by DEE are ben-

eficial in improving fuel evaporation and smoke reduction.� The presence of oxygen and the better mixing of DEE with air

lead to an improved combustion rate.

6.5. Cotton seed biodiesel

Some studies examined the use of cotton seed-based biodieselin a diesel engine, and the emission results showed low emissionsof CO, HC, NOx, and smoke opacity [145,146,173]. However, someconditions also showed high emissions [145,148]. Table 18 pre-sents the different experimental results of emission characteristicsusing cotton seed biodiesel and its blends. The table also showsthat the maximum reduction of cotton seed biodiesel of CO, HC,and smoke emission is 45%, 67%, and 14%, respectively, with NOxdecreasing by 25% in some conditions compared with diesel fuel.The following conclusions can be made from the analysis of the dif-ferent experimental results:

� CO and NOx emissions decrease with the increase in fuel injec-tion pressure.� CO and HC emissions drastically decrease with high BMEP and

turbo charging operation.� CO emission decreases by about 4–45.66% depending on differ-

ent conditions.� HC emission increases with increased percentage of biodiesel

present in the fuel blend.� PM emission decreases (24–69%) because of high BMEP.� Higher NOx emission is emitted (6–39.5%) because of low

engine load condition. However, low emission is produced witha high concentration of biodiesel present in the fuel blend.� NOx emission decreases by about 10–25% in a full load

condition.� NOx emission increases with increased BMEP in the combustion

chamber.� Low smoke emission is produced because of the low percentage

of biodiesel present in the fuel blend. However, it increases in ahigh load condition.

Table 16Engine emission results using mohua (Madhuca indica) biodiesel at different condition.

Engine type Test condition Emission Refs.

CO HC PM Nox Smoke

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, CR: 18:1, P: 9 kw,CI engine

Different blends (B20, B40, B60 andB80), different loads (25%, 50%, 75%and 100%) and constant speed(1500 rpm)

Reduce 0.02–0.2% comparison ofdiesel fuel with the increase ofbiodiesel concentration in theblends

– – Increased 6% comparedwith diesel fuel

Reduce 5–46% with increase ofpercentage of biodiesel in theblends

[96]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, CI engine, RP:4 kw

Different blends (10%, 20% and 30%),different loads and constant speed(1500 rpm)

– – – Higher at lower loadcompared to diesel fuel

– [53]

6-Cylinder, 4S, AC, D: 5.9 L, CR:17.6:1, HP: 158, CI engine

Different loads, different blends (B20,B40, B60) and constant speed(1500 rpm)

Reduce 0.02–0.16% with theincrease of biodiesel blendscompared with diesel fuel

Reduce with increaseof blend ratiocompared with dieselfuel

– Increased 11.6% withincrease proportion ofbiodiesel in the blends

– [111]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, CR: 16.5:1, RP:3.7 kw, D: 553 cm3

Constant speed (1500 rpm) Reduce 30% compared with dieselfuel

Reduce 35% comparedwith diesel

– Reduced 11% comparedwith diesel

– [107]


Constant speed (1500 rpm) and usedMME and MEE

Reduce 67%-79% for both esterused compared with diesel fuel

49%-60% lessercompared to dieselfuel.

– Reduced 9% for methylester and 27% for Ethylester compared todiesel.

– [54]


Constant speed (1500 rpm) 0.34% lower compared with diesel Lower than that ofdiesel

– Lower compared todiesel fuel

_ [140]

1- Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, HP: 7, Blend (B20), constant speed(1500 rpm), and steady state condition

–– – – – Higher compared with diesel fuel [139]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, CR: 17.5:1, RP:4.4 kw

Constant speed (1500 rpm) anddifferent loads (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and100%)

At full load condition COreduction, about 26% comparedwith diesel fuel

Reduce graduallywith increase of loadcompared with dieselfuel

– 4% Lower than dieselfuel

At part load 30% reduction and fullload condition there about 15%reduction compared with dieselfuel

[95]

3-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, D: 2826 cm3,CR: 17:1

Different loads, different blends (B10,B20, B40, B60, B80) and constant speed(1500 rpm)

Lower compared to diesel fuel Lower than that ofdiesel fuel

– 16% Increase withincrease ofconcentration ofbiodiesel in diesel fuel

– [138]

A.M

.Ashraful

etal./Energy

Conversionand

Managem

ent80

(2014)202–

228219

Tabl

e17

Engi

neem

issi

onre

sult

sus

ing

rubb

erse

edoi

lbi

odie

sel

atdi

ffer

ent

cond

itio

n.

Engi

ne

type

Test

con

diti

onEm

issi

onR

efs.

CO

HC

Nox

Smok

e

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,R

P:5.

5kw

,WC

,CI

engi

ne

Dif

fere

nt

load

s,di

ffer

ent

blen

ds(B

20,

B40

,B60

,B80

and

B10

0)an

dco

nst

ant

spee

d(1

500

rpm

)

0.13

–1.1

3%Lo

wer

com

pare

dto

dies

elfu

el–

–In

crea

sew

ith

incr

ease

ofen

gin

elo

ad[1

41]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,R

P:5.

5kw

,WC

,CI

engi

ne

Dif

fere

nt

load

s,di

ffer

ent

blen

ds(B

10,

B20

,B50

,B75

and

B10

0)an

dco

nst

ant

spee

d(1

500

rpm

)

Dec

reas

ew

ith

incr

easi

ng

perc

enta

geof

biod

iese

lin

the

fuel

and

low

load

con

diti

on

–In

crea

sew

ith

the

incr

easi

ng

biod

iese

lbl

ends

20%

Bio

dies

elbl

end

gave

low

erab

out

17%

smok

eop

acit

yco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

[106

]

1-C

ylin

der,

4S,D

I,R

P:4.

4kw

,CR

:17

.5:1

,D:

661.

5cm

3

Con

stan

tsp

eed

(150

0rp

m)

and

diff

eren

tlo

ad(2

5%,5

0%75

%,1

00%

)R

edu

ced

atal

llo

adco

ndi

tion

wit

hth

ein

duct

ion

ofh

ydro

gen

for

all

inje

cted

fuel

Red

uce

dw

ith

the

indu

ctio

nof

hyd

roge

nfo

ral

lin

ject

edfu

el

Incr

ease

1.01

%w

ith

hyd

roge

nen

ergy

shea

rR

edu

ced

smok

ele

vel

37.0

9%at

full

load

con

diti

on[1

13]

1-C

ylin

der,

DI,

4S,R

P:5.

5kw

,CI

engi

ne,

WC

Con

stan

tsp

eed

(150

0rp

m)a

nd

diff

eren

tlo

adco

ndi

tion

Hig

her

than

that

ofdi

esel

inal

lop

erat

ion

con

diti

on–

–H

igh

erth

anth

atof

dies

elw

ith

hig

hlo

adco

ndi

tion

[142

]

1-cy

lin

der,

AC

,CR

:17

.5:1

,4S

,DI,

CI

engi

ne,

RP:

4.4

kw,R

S:15

00rp

m

Var

iou

sdi

eth

ylet

her

(DEE

)(50

g/h

,10

0g/

h,1

50g/

h,2

00g/

han

d25

0g/

h)

and

full

load

con

diti

on

Dec

reas

e26

%w

ith

usi

ng

inje

ctio

nof

DEE

com

pare

dw

ith

RSO

Dec

reas

ew

ith

usi

ng

DEE

oper

atio

nco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

13%

Hig

her

usi

ng

DEE

inbi

odie

sel

com

pare

dw

ith

dies

elfu

elLa

rge

redu

ctio

nin

smok

eop

acit

yab

out

34.4

%u

sin

gD

EE[1

43]

1-C

ylin

der,

WC

,4S,

DI,

RS:

1500

rpm

,RP:

5.5

kw,

CR

:16

.5:1

Dif

fere

nt

load

san

dco

nst

ant

spee

d15

00rp

m0.

037%

low

erth

anco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

Low

erco

mpa

red

wit

hdi

esel

fuel

Hig

her

com

pare

dw

ith

dies

elfu

elbu

tlo

wer

6.02

–20.

1%co

mpa

reto

oth

erbi

odie

sel

atal

llo

adco

ndi

tion

–[1

44]


6.6. Jojoba oil biodiesel

Studies have been conducted on the use of jojoba biodiesel in adiesel engine, and jojoba biodiesel has been found to give higheremission than diesel fuel [61,64,152]. Table 19 shows the differentexperimental results of the emission characteristics of jojoba bio-diesel. Jojoba biodiesel produces high CO, HC, and NOx emissionsin most cases but produces low CO emission in some specific con-ditions. The following conclusions can be deduced from the analy-sis of the different experimental results:

� CO emission increases (12–14%) with the increase in biodieselpercentage in the fuel blend and with EGR operation. However,it decreases in a high engine speed condition.� CO emission decreases dramatically because of high engine

speed.� HC emission decreases significantly in a low engine speed con-

dition and increases with EGR operation.� NOx emission (14–16%) increases with increased engine speed

but decreases by about 11–13% when jojoba methyl ester isused without EGR operation.

6.7. Tobacco oil biodiesel

Tobacco biodiesel in diesel engine produces better emissionperformance compared with diesel fuel in most studies. Table 20shows that blends of tobacco biodiesel reduce CO and increaseHC and NOx emissions. However, HC and NOx emissionssignificantly decrease in some special conditions. The followingdeductions can be made from the analysis of the differentexperimental results:

� With the increase in engine load and biodiesel content in thefuel blend, CO and HC emissions decrease. However, increasewith high injection pressure.� With a full load and in a high injection pressure condition, NOx

increases by about 5–6% but significantly decreases with lowcontent of biodiesel in the fuel blend.� Smoke emission slightly decreases with a full load and in high

engine speed condition.

6.8. Neem biodiesel

Many researchers have used Neem biodiesel in a diesel engineand have found low emission characteristics [156,158–160,162].Some specific condition show high emissions of CO, HC, NOx, andsmoke opacity [157,161]. Table 21 shows the different experimen-tal engine emission results using neem biodiesel in a diesel enginein different conditions. The following conclusions can be madefrom the analysis of the different experimental results:

� CO decreases with increased percentage of ethanol content inthe fuel blend. However, with higher BMEP and engine load,CO emission increases by about 20–40%.� Engine operation with dual mode condition produces high CO

emission.� HC emission increases by 24–54% with the increase in engine

load and decreases by 2.59–5.26% in full load and half loadconditions.� HC emission is higher with the addition of ethanol in fuel blends

in all operating load conditions.� NOx emission decreases by 3.2–6.06% in half load and full load

conditions.� NOx emission decreases by 37% when pure oil is used and by

19% when methyl ester is used in a full load condition.

Table 18Engine emission results using cotton seed biodiesel at different condition.


CO HC PM NOx Smoke

1-Cylinder, WC, 4S, DI, CR:19.8:1, RS: 4500 rpm

Constant speed (2000 rpm), differentblends (10% and 20%), medium and highload condition

Increase compared withneat diesel fuel atmedium and high loads

Slightly increase withusing 10% biodiesel in thefuel blend

– Lower as compare withneat diesel fuel in bothmedium and high loads

Increase compare with neatdiesel fuel at medium andhigh loads

[114]

6-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, D:5958 cm3, CR: 18:1, RP:177 kw, RS: 2600 rpm,

Different speeds (1200 and 1500 rpm),different loads (20%, 40%, 60% and full load)

Reduced with increasingbiodiesel percentage inthe blend

Slightly increase withincrease of biodieselpercentage in the fuelblend

– Slightly increases withhigher percentage ofbiodiesel in the fuel blend

– [147]

1-Clynder, 4S, DI, WC, CR:17:1, D: 770 cm3, RP: 8HP, RS: 2000 rpm

Full load and different speeds (900–1800 rpm)

Increase compared withdiesel fuel

– – – Higher than that of dieselfuel but lower compare withother biodiesel blends

[115]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, D:406 cm3, RP: 10 HP, RS:3600 rpm, CR: 18:1

Different speeds (1250–2500 rpm) anddifferent blends (B5, B20, B50, B75 andB100)

Decrease with increase ofbiodiesel percentage inthe fuel blend

– – Decrease at high enginespeed condition

Increase with increase ofblend ratio

[145]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, NA,D: 553 cc, CR: 16.5:1, RP:4.476 kw, RS: 1800 rpm

Different speeds and different blends (B10,B20, B30)

Lower than that of dieselfuel

– Reduced 24%compare with neatdiesel fuel

10% increases withincrease engine torque

Reduced 14% at used 10%biodiesel blend

[59]

6-Cylinder, 4S, DI, TC, D:5.9, CR: 17.5:1, RP:136 kw, RS: 2500 rpm

Constant speed 1500 rpm, different BMEPand different methyl ester used

Average 4–16% reducedat high BMEP

Average 45–67% reducedcompare with diesel fuel

Reduced 53–69%on averagecompare withdiesel fuel

Increases 10–23% athigher BMEP

– [174]

6-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, TC,D: 5958 cc, CR: 18:1, RP:177 kw, RS: 2600 rpm

Different blends (B10, B20), differentspeeds (1200 rpm and 1500 rpm) anddifferent load condition (20%, 40% and 60%)

Slightly increase withhigher percentage ofbiodiesel in the fuelblend

Increase slightly withincrease biodieselpercentage in the fuelblend

– Slightly increase withhigher percentage ofbiodiesel in the blend

Reduced with the increaseof percentage of oil in thefuel blend

[148]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, CR: 18:1,RS: 3600 rpm, NA,

Different speeds and preheated blend at(30�, 60�, 90�, 120 �C)

Decreases 14.40%-45.66%compare with diesel fuel

– – Increase approximately11.21%-39.1% as comparewith diesel fuel

– [149]

1-Cylinder, DI, 4S, AC, CR:18:1, D: 395 cc, RS:3600 rpm, RP: 6.25 kw


Decrease about 35%compare with diesel fuel

– – 10–22% decreasecompare with diesel fuel

– [150]

4-Cylinder, 4S, DI, NA, WC,CR: 16.8:1, RP: 51 kw,RS: 2400 rpm,


Decrease 5% comparewith diesel fuel

– – Increase 6% compare withdiesel fuel

– [146]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, CR:18:1, RP: 6.25 kw, RS:3600 rpm,

Full load and different speeds (1700, 2000,2300, 2600 and 3000 rpm)

17–21% decrease for bothengine test

– – 6.5–7.4% increase forengine test

Lower emission comparedwith diesel fuel

[151]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, CR:18:1, RP: 6.25, RS:3600 rpm

Full load, varied injection pressure andconstant speed

Reduction about 30%compare with diesel fuel

– – Reduction 25% comparewith diesel fuel

– [60]

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228221

Table 19Engine emission results using jojoba biodiesel at different condition.


CO HC Nox Smoke

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, CR:17:1, RP: 5.775 kw, RS:1500 rpm

Various loads (no load, 1/3, 2/3 and fullload), different blends (B20, B40, B60)and different speeds

Increase with the increaseof biodiesel percentage inthe fuel blend

– Increase with the increase of engine speeds – [61]

2-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, D:2266 cc, CR: 16.4:1, RS:1500 rpm, RP: 26HP

Different speeds (1000–1900 rpm) andfull load

Decrease with increase ofengine speed compare withdiesel fuel

Higher at low speed condition and EGRoperation but at higher engine speed givelower emission than diesel fuel

Increase about 16% and 14% at engine speed1200 rpm and 1600 rpm but 33% reduction inNOx with EGR operation

– [152]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, NA,CR: 17:1, RP: 5.775 kw,RS: 1500 rpm

Different speeds and injection timing of24 CAD BTDC

Increase 12% and 14% withEGR and without EGR

– Decrease about 11% and 13% with EGR andwithout EGR operation

– [64]

Table 20Engine emission results using tobacco oil biodiesel at different condition.


CO HC Nox Smoke

4-Cylinder, 4S, TC, WC, RP: 112 kw,RS: 9000 rpm

Different loads (50%, 75% and 100%), differentblends (B10, B17.5 and B25) and speed (1500–3000 rpm)

Reduced 100–1600 ppmat medium loadcondition

– Slightly increase at full load – [66]

4-Cylinder, 4S, TC, WC, IDI, CR:21.5:1, D: 1.753, RP: 55 kw, RS:2200 rpm

Different loads (50%, 75% and 100%), differentblends (B10, B17.5 and B25)

Decrease at full loadcondition

– 5% Increase at full loadcondition

– [68]

1-Cylinder, 4S, NA, RS: 1500 rpm,RP: 5 HP

Constant speed 1500 rpm, different loads anddifferent blends (B2 and B5)

Decrease with theincrease of biodieselpercentage

Increase with the increase ofbiodiesel percentage in the fuelblend

Decrease with increase ofbiodiesel percentage in the fuelblend

– [154]

1-Cylinder, 4S, NA, DI, RP: 14.7:1,RS: 2500 rpm

Full load and different speeds (1200, 1400, 1600,1800, 2000, 2200 and 2400 rpm)

Decrease with increaseof engine speed

Decrease with increase of enginespeed

6% Increase compared withdiesel fuel

Reduced slightly athigher engine speedcondition

[153]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, RP: 5.2 kw,CR: 17.5:1

Different injection pressures (205, 220, 240 and260 bar)

Slightly highercompared with dieselfuel

Higher than that of diesel fuel Increase with increase ofengine load

– [155]

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Table 21Engine emission results using neem biodiesel at different condition.


CO HC PM Nox Smoke

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, RP:5.2 kw, CR: 17.5:1, RS:1500 rpm

Constant speed 1500 rpm, duelfueling

Increase at dual mode operation Increase with the increaseof engine load

– – Lower as compare with diesel fuel [161]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, NA, WC,RP: 9.8 kw, CR: 20:1, RS:2000 rpm

Different blends (B5, B10 and B15),different speed (600–1200 rpm) anddifferent BMEP

Reduced compare with dieselfuel

– – Increase compare with dieselfuel

Reduced compare with diesel fuel [162]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, RS:1500 rpm, RP: 3.7 kw,CR: 16.5:1

Constant speed and different loads(1000–4000 watt) condition

Lower compared with diesel fuel Slightly reduced comparewith diesel fuel

– Lower than that of diesel fuel Slightly reduced all load condition [156]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, CR:17.5:1, D: 661 cc, RP:5.2 kw, RS: 1500 rpm

Different BMEP (100, 200,300,400,500,600 and 650) andconstant speed 1500 rpm

Increase at increase of BMEP Reduced 5.26% at part loadand 2.59% at full loadcondition

– Decrease about 3.22% at partload and 6.06% at full loadcondition

– [163]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, NA, WC,RP: 5HP, RS: 1500 rpm,CR: 16.5:1,

Constant speed and different BP (0–5 kw)

Increase 40% for pure oil and 20%for methyl ester at full load

Increase 54% and 24% forpure oil and methyl ester atfull load condition

– 37% reduction for pure oil and19% reduction for methyl esterat full load condition

Higher than that of diesel fuel [157]

1-Cylinder, AC, DI, CR:17.5:1, RP: 4.4 kw, RS:1500 rpm

Different blends (B10, B20, B30, B40and B50), constant speed anddeferent break power

Lower at all load compared withdiesel fuel

Lower compared with dieselfuel

– Increases with the increase ofengine load

Increase with the increase ofpercentage of biodiesel in the fuelblend and increase engine load

[158]

1-Cylinder, DI, WC, RP:5.2 kw, RS: 1500 rpm

Different blends (B20, B40, B60, B80and B100), Different BMEP andconstant speed 1500 rpm

– Reduced 2.59% at full load – Reduced 6.06% at full load 18.39% reduction at full loadcondition

[159]

1-Cylinder, 4S, NA, DI, CR:16.5:1, RP: 3.5 kw, RS:1500 rpm

Different blends (B5, B10, B15, B20),different loads and constant speed1500 rpm

Lower with the higherpercentage of ethanol in the fuelblend at high loads condition

Higher with the addition ofethanol in the blends at allloads

– Increase slightly at full loadscondition

Decrease at higher engine load withthe addition of ethanol in the fuelblends

[160]

Table 22Engine emission results using linseed biodiesel at different condition.


CO HC NOx Smoke

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, RP:4.4 kw, CR: 17.5:1, RS:1500 rpm

Different loads, constant speed 1500 rpmand different injection pressure (200,220and 240 bar)

Lower than that of diesel fuel at all theinjection pressure

HC emission decreases with theincrease of fuel injection pressure

Increase by the increase inengine loads but near thediesel fuel

Lower emissioncompare with dieselfuel

[92]

1-Cylinder, 4S, AC, DI, RP:4.4 kw, D: 661 cc, CR:17.5:1, RS: 1500 rpm

Different loads and constant speed1500 rpm

Higher compare with others biodiesel athigh load condition

Increase with the increase of engineloads

Higher than that of othersbiodiesel

Higher emissioncompare withothers biodiesel

[73]

1-Cylinder, WC, 4S, Di, RP:3.5 kw, CR: 17.5:1, RS:1500 rpm

Different blends (B5, B10, B15 and B20),constant speed 1500 rpm and differentloads

Decrease with the increase of load andincrease of biodiesel concentration inthe fuel blend

Increase with the increase of biodieselconcentration in the fuel blend andengine loads

Slightly increase comparewith the diesel fuel

– [165]

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etal./Energy

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228223

Table 23Engine emission results using jatropha biodiesel at different condition.


CO HC Nox Smoke

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, D:1007 cc, CR: 18.5:1, RS:2400 rpm

Different blends (B10, B20, B50 andB100) and different speeds (1000–2400 rpm)

6.51–12.32% Reduced with theincrease of blend ratio

14.91–27.53% Decreases withthe increase of biodieselpercentage in the fuel blend

3.29–10.75% Increases compared withdiesel fuel

Reduced compared withdiesel fuel at higherpercentage of biodiesel blend

[79]

3-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, D:3440 cc, CR: 18:1, RS:2200 rpm

Different speeds (1200,1800 and2200 rpm) and different blends (B20,B50 and B100)

Reduced 5.57–35.21% with theincrease of percentage ofbiodiesel in the fuel blend

Reduce about 18.19–32.28% with lower percentage ofbiodiesel blend used

Increased 20.54% with 20% biodieselblend used and 15.65% increased withused 50% biodiesel

Reduced with the increase ofbiodiesel percentage in thefuel blend

[47]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, CR:16.5:1, RP: 5HP, RS:1500 rpm

Different blends (B20, B40, B50, B60,B80 and B100) and different loads(25%, 50% 75% and 100%)

Lower compare with diesel fuel Lower than that of diesel fuel Lower compared with diesel fuel – [170]

4-Cylinder, 4S, DI, TC, D:1609 cc, RP: 84.5 kw, CR:18.5:1, RS: 3800 rpm

Different speeds and full loadcondition

10–40% Reduced compare withdiesel fuel

Lower than that of diesel fuel atfull load condition

5–10% Reduction with full loadcondition

Reduce compared with dieselfuel

[80]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, RP: 8HP, RS: 1500 rpm

Different blends (B25, B50, B75 andB100) and constant speed

Higher than that of diesel fuel athigh load

Decreases with the increase ofbiodiesel percentage in fuelblend

Increases with the increase of biodieselpercentage in fuel blend and higherthan that of diesel fuel

Lower than that of diesel fuel [169]

1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, D:815 cc, RP: 8.82 kw, CR:17:1, RS: 2000 rpm

Different speeds (1500 and 2000 rpm)and different load

Lower compare with diesel fuelat pick load condition

Decreases with the increase ofengine speed

Lower with the increase of enginespeed

– [166]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, AC, CR:18:1, D: 395 cc, RP:5.59 kw, RS: 3600 rpm

Different speeds (1800, 2500 and3200 rpm)

Lower than that of diesel fuel Lower than that of diesel fuel Higher than that of diesel fuel Lower compared with dieselfuel

[94]

1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, AC, D:947.8 cc, CR: 17.5:1, RP:7.4 kw, RS: 1500 rpm

Different blends (B5, B10, B20, B30and B100) and different loads (20%,40%, 60%, 80% and 100%)

Decreases with the increasepercentage of biodiesel in thefuel blend

Decreases with the increase ofbiodiesel blend ratio

Higher than that of diesel fuel Decreases with the increaseof biodiesel concentration inthe fuel blend

[171]

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� Smoke opacity decreases by 18.39% with the addition of ethanolin fuel blends and high load condition. However, it increasessignificantly when a high percentage of biodiesel is present inthe blend.

6.9. Linseed oil biodiesel

The emission behavior of linseed oil-based biodiesel used in adiesel engine depends on the engine’s operating condition. Emis-sion results using linseed based biodiesel in a diesel engine showlow emissions of CO, HC, NOx, and smoke [73,92]. However, it pro-duces a high emission in some specific cases. Table 22 shows theemission characteristics affected by different blend ratios. The fol-lowing deductions can be made from the analysis of the differentexperimental results:

� CO decreases when a high content of biodiesel is present in fuelblends and in a high engine load condition.� Linseed biodiesel produces higher HC emission when higher

biodiesel content is present in the fuel blends and in a higherload condition.� HC emission dramatically decreases with the increase in fuel

injection pressure.� NOx emission generally increases when used high biodiesel

percentage in the fuel blned.� Smoke level decreases but NOx emission increases with

increased fuel injection pressure.

6.10. Jatropha biodiesel

Low emissions of CO, HC, NOx, and smoke opacity were ob-served when jatropha biodiesel was used [47,94,166,169]. How-ever, engine emission decreases significantly in some specificconditions [47,94,169]. Table 23 shows the different experimentalengine emission results. Specifically, emissions of CO, HC, andsmoke opacity decrease, with NOx emission decreasing in mostcases. As jatropha biodiesel lowers the heating value, NOx emissionsignificantly decreases. The following deductions can be madefrom the analysis of the different experimental results:

� CO and HC emissions increase because of high engine load withEGR operation and gradually decrease because of a high per-centage of biodiesel concentration present in fuel blends.� CO emission decreases by 5.57–35.21% and HC emission

decreases by 14.91–32.28% because of high biodiesel contentin fuel blends.� NOx emission decreases with EGR operation but increases with

increased engine load and biodiesel content in fuel blends.� NOx emission increases by 3.29–10.75% in some specific condi-

tions. However, it reduces in a full load condition.� Smoke opacity increases in a high engine load condition but

decreases with the increase in biodiesel concentration in fuelblends.

7. Recommendations

Driven by energy security and other environmental concerns,research on biodiesel is rapidly growing around the globe. Appar-ently, the demand for biodiesel will significantly increase in the fu-ture. Although edible oils are available as feedstock sources forbiodiesel production, they may not be sustainable sources. There-fore, reliable, economical, and sustainable feedstocks for biodieselproduction must be sought. As mentioned in previous sections,there are many potential non-edible sources of oil that can com-pete with edible oils, considering that most non-edible oil-growingplants can be cultivated in non-arable lands. Therefore, wasteland

can be used for oil–crop cultivation for biodiesel production tominimize the use of limited arable lands for growing edible oilcrops for biodiesel production. When all these factors are consid-ered, non-edible oils may definitely overrun edible oils as biodieselfeedstocks. However, feedstocks for biodiesel should have a diver-sified oil source depending on geographical location. The use ofedible oils as fuels instead of food will certainly affect the priceof the former. Considering all factors, non-edible vegetable feed-stocks have more advantages than edible vegetable feedstocks.Fertile agricultural land should be maintained for planting edibleoil crops, while wastelands should be maintained for cultivatingnon-edible vegetable crops that have simple ecological require-ments. Developed countries should maximize the utilization oflimited land areas. Variegated resources for biofuel feedstocks willensure that the quality of obtained biodiesel is suitable for thatparticular region. Therefore, non-edible vegetable oil feedstockscan ensure sustainable alternative fuel in the future.

8. Conclusion and summary of results

Biodiesel has attracted much research because of its economicand environmental benefits as well as its renewable origin. Biodie-sel produced from non-edible oil resources can defy the use of edi-ble oil for biodiesel production. Therefore, its demand is growingsteadily, and researchers are looking for possible newer sourcesof non-edible oil. This review concludes that non-edible oil is apromising source that can sustain biodiesel growth.

Fuel properties vary depending on feedstock and the biodieselconversion process. Most reviewed biodiesel fuels have excellentkinematic viscosity, except jojoba, neem, and linseed biodiesel.However, the viscosity ranges of jatropha, tobacco, and mohua bio-diesels are close to that of diesel fuel. Rubber seed, jojoba, tobacco,and jatropha biodiesels are better than others in terms of density.Except for jojoba, neem, and linseed oil biodiesels, other biodieselsmeet the specified flash point limit. Karanja, polanga, cotton seed,jojoba, and jatropha oil biodiesels are excellent in terms of CN. Jo-joba and jatropha biodiesel have better calorific value than otherbiodiesels.

Palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenicacid are the common fatty acids in vegetable oils. Biodiesel qualityand fuel properties are highly dependent on the presence of fattyacid composition in the fuel blend. Several researchers found thatthe presence of monounsaturated fatty acid in biodiesel blend atlow temperature could improve ignition quality, fuel flow proper-ties, and fuel stability. Moreover, biodiesel CN, cloud point, and sta-bility increase with the presence of saturated fatty acid alkyl esterin the fuel blend.

Several studies were carried out to determine power output,BSFC, and BTE of an engine operating with non-edible oil-basedbiodiesel. In most cases, cotton seed and jatropha biodiesels gavehigher BSFC but had better thermal efficiency than other biodie-sels. Their brake power and torque were closer to those of dieselfuel because of their calorific value. Karanja, rubber seed, jojoba,and tobacco biodiesels had higher BTE and power and lower BSFCthan other biodiesels. Moreover, the low percentage of biodieselblends (<20%) caused high brake power and reduced fuel consump-tion because of complete combustion. Therefore, biodiesels withhigh calorific value and low viscosity are more suitable for theimprovement of engine performance.

Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel that leads to complete combus-tion. Based on several experimental results, the use of karanja, mo-hua, rubber seed, and tobacco biodiesel in CI engine can reduce CO,HC, and smoke emission with an increase in NOx emission. The lowHC emission in most cases is usually caused by advanced injectiontiming and proper combustion in the combustion chamber. More-


over, higher oxygen contains and higher CN, which is favored tolower emission. However, some authors found a significant reduc-tion of NOx emission. Based on the review of the emission charac-teristics, cotton seed, rubber seed, and karanja biodiesels areconcluded to give better emission characteristics than other bio-diesels. Therefore, non-edible vegetable oil resources have goodpotential to replace edible oil-based biodiesels in the near future.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to appreciate University of Malayafor financial support through High Impact Research grant titled:‘‘Development of Alternative and Renewable Energy Carrier (DAREC)’’having Grant Number UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/60

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