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Principled Materials Develoment for Kindergarten Students

Iin Inawati

English Education Department, STKIP Muhammadiyah Pringsewu Lampung

inawati.upi@gmail.com

Abstract

English language education for children has become a burning issue, particularly in EFL

countries in Asia. In Indonesia, English is also taught in some kindergartens, especially in urban area.

The success of English language Teaching (ELT) for young learners relies on various factors, one of

them is the teaching materials. Teaching materials in teaching English for young learners have

different characteristics compare to materials for adult (Tomlinson, 2005). This article aims to discuss

the principled ELT materials for young learners based on the theory of second Language Acquisition,

Communicative Language Teaching and ELT Materials Development.

Keywords: SLA, CLT, Principled Materials Development, Young Learners;

1. Introduction

English language education for children has become a burning issue, particularly in EFL

countries in Asia. For example: in Thailand, English education become a compulsory subject from 1st

grade of elementary school in 1994, in Korea from 3rd grade in 1997, in Taiwan in the 5th and 6th

grades in 200 (Hirofumi, 2013). Even in China, Japan, Singapore and South Korea pre-school

children are going to English classes (Tomlinson, 2005).

In Indonesia, English is also taught in some kindergartens, especially in urban area. When

elementary schools have guidance from the government by providing the curriculum which consists

of standard of competence and basic competence (Standar Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar SD/MI,

BNSP, 2006) English teaching in kindergarten has no guidance from government. The teachers in

kindergarten construct their own curriculum, employ teaching methods and use books or materials

they feel appropriate for their students (Rahmat, 2009).

It can not be avoided that teaching materials play important role in the sucess of teaching and

learning in the classroom. The most important teaching and learning materials that guides teachers’

and learners activities in many classrooms seems to be the coursebook (Pinter, 2006: 115). In many

countries, teachers have found themselves with lack of suitable materials, either because materials are

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not available or because they do not reflect changes in the curriculum. When textbooks are

inadequate, teachers often lack of time and expertise to develop appropriate materials learners (Garto,

Copland and Burns, 2011). Yet good materials may have an important role to play as they can become

the ‘de facto’ curriculum. It can become a support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain

in confidence (Cunningsworth, 1995: 5). Considering the important of materials that can support

teaching and learning English in young learners class, this article aims to discuss the principled

materials for young learners based on the theory o Second Language Acquisition and Communicative

Language Teaching

2. Discussion

2.1. English for Young Learners

2.1.1. Who young learners are

Young learners are the learners who learn English in the young age. They are the elementary

students that that learn English (Kasihani, 2008). However, primary education is very different in

various parts of the world. In some context, primary school lasts from five to eleven years of age,

while in other context children start school late, at the age of six or seven, and state primary school

can carry on until children are 14 years of age (Pinter, 2008). Even, in some contexts, children start

learning English in kindergarten at the age of five or even earlier (kasihani, 2008; Pinter, 2008).

The experts of Teaching English for Young Learners have various idea in defining who

young learners are. Some of them suggest that young learners are children whose age between five

and twelve years of age (Cameron, 2001: xi; Linse, 2005: 2). While others propose that young

learners are the students between four or five and twelve years of age (McKay, 2006: 1; Arnold and

Rixon, 2008: 38). Whereas Pinter (2009: 1-2) suggest that young learners are the children at the age

between four and fifteen. In this study, the participant are the kindergarten students whose age are

between five to six years olds. Based on the range of age proposed by the expert, they are also can be

categorized as young learners.

2.1.2. Young learners learning characteristics

Having knowledge of young learners learning characteristics can give the teacher

understanding on what they should do for ensuring optimal English language learning (Musthafa,

2008: 4). In addition, the teacher should also take into account that the children’s cognitive

development influences the students successful in learning a new language. As Brown (2001)

highlights that children will be successful in learning a new language as long as the teacher takes into

consideration their characteristics and intellectual development in teaching learning process. Some

learning characteristics of young learner will be discussed in the following subsection.

The first learning characteristic of young learners is that they learn through physical

experience or in other words young learners conduct learning by doing (Halliwell, 1992; Sollars,

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2001; Girard et al., 2003; Musthafa, 2008; Suyanto, 2008). According to Harmer (2008: 82)

“children’s understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from what they see, hear, touch

and interact with.”

Based on the characteristic above, it is suggested that the teacher should provide appropriate

activities that make the students use their physical and also language at the same time. As asserted by

Wessels (1991) role play is one alternative that can make the students experience with the language

and also their body because in role play the students say the language, use their physical expression

such as mime and gesture.

The second is that they have difficulties to differentiate between abstract concept and the

concrete one, especially for children at the age between five to seven (Suyanto, 2008; Brown, 2001).

In the teaching learning activity, the teacher must avoid abstract concepts and focus on concrete items

that children understand and are familiar with. For example the teacher should start with familiar

topics such as colors, numbers, animals, fruit, food and drink or body parts.

To facilitate their learning, Suyanto (2008) argues that introducing concrete words can be

conducted by using pictures. It is in line with Akbary (2008) and Leny (2006) who highlight that

pictures are believed as effective tools to introduce new words to young learners. The other teaching

media to provide students with concrete objects are realia (Suyanto, 2008; Mumford, 2005).

Additionally, Budden (2008) states that realia is used to make the learning experience more

memorable for the learners by creating the link between the objects and the word or phrase they

represents.

The third is that young learners have relatively short attention and concentration span

(Ytreberg & Scott, 1990: 2; Brown, 2001; Alwasilah 2000; Harmer, 2001). They cannot be expected

to sit down and do particular activity for long time. They are very easy to get bored, lose interest after

several minutes of the activity. However, they “can also concentrate for surprisingly a long time if

they are interested” in the activities prepared by the teacher (Girard et al., 2003: 28).

For this reason, various activities should be carried out by a teacher. The teaching units must

be short to reflect the limited concentration span of young learners (Frohlich-Ward, 1991; Brown,

2001). The activities in the classroom must be changed every 10-15 minutes to take over their interest

(Suyanto, 2008). Consequently, the teacher should provide the activities that stimulate their curiosity

and capture their attention which in turn make them enjoy the lesson and want to learn English more

and more (Brown, 2001).

The forth is that young learners learn best when learning is kept as a whole (Halliwell, 1992;

Musthafa, 2008). It means that very young children are able to understand what is being said to them

even before they understand the individual words because they grasp the meaning not only by words

or phrase but also from intonation, gesture, facial expression, action and circumstances. As a result, it

is important to use expression, mime and gesture to convey meaning to young learners (Phillips,

1993). It is in line with Suyanto (2008: 19) who argues that children find it difficult when the

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language is broken down into pieces (e.g., words, phrases, sentences, and paragraph as analytical

unit).

The other way to create learning to be kept a whole is by conducting the activity in which

language is used comprehensively, such as storytelling activities (Read, 2008). Further, she asserts

that by telling stories, children can be trained to concentrate their attention on the whole context rather

than in partial. After having language input comprehensively in storytelling activities, children tend to

joining in with part of the story (Pinter, 2006). The teacher can take this moment to invite the students

to practice the language in the story by inviting them to practice the language used (Girard, 2003).

The last is that young learners enjoy repetition (Kwiatkowska, 2008). It is in line with Fleta

(2007: 11) who claims that “children have the natural tendency to repeat and they learn through

repetition”. They also enjoy rhythmic and repetitive language more than adults do (Peck, 2001 cited in

Elcilic and Akca, 2008).

The activities conducted in classroom should be conformed to the characteristics of young

English language learner and their development, the effective learning conditions for them, and the

kinds of instruction that best meet their needs. Knowing young learners learning characteristics can

also help the material developer to write and design the materials that can be used in young learners

class.

2.2 Second Language Acquisition by young learners.

2.2.1. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) definition

SLA is the study to describe and explain the learners’ linguistic or communicative competence that

take place in either a naturalistic or an instructional setting (Ellis, 1994: 14). Since the language

acquisition is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon some expert have their own findings and

principles but it is generally agreed that SLA is facilitated by : a rich and meaningful exposure to

language in use, affective and cognitive engagement, making use of those mental resources typically

used in communication in the L1, noticing how the L2 is used, being given opportunities for

contextualized and purposeful communication in the L2, being encourage to interact, being allowed to

focus on meaning (Tomlinson, 2013).

In the preschool years, children’s progress in learning English as a second language can be

assessed in four stages: Stage 1—new to English, Stage 2—Becoming familiar with English, Stage

3—Becoming confident as a user of English and Stage 4—Demonstrated competency as a user of

English (Clarke, 1994 in Clarke 2009).

In details, students in preschool have to:

• Learn new vocabulary

• Recognize new non-verbal language, gesture and facial expressions

• Recognize differences in stress, rhythm and intonation

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• Differentiate the grammatical structure of the new language

• Adopt new ways of behaving and new values

• Understand jokes, metaphors and idiomatic language

Those skills are adapted from ESL Stage A 1 Teacher support materials for lower primary new

arrivals (in Clarke, 2009).

Besides, Cameron (2009) also proposes the key principles of children learning a foreign language

1. Children actively try to construct meaning

2. Children needs space for language growth

3. Language in use carries cues to meaning that may not be noticed

4. Development can be seen as internalizing from social interaction

5. Children’s foreign language learning depends on what they experience

In the years before school, the main focus for young children is developing oral English

language through the dimensions of listening and speaking and The first stage can be learn new

vocabularies (Cameron, 2003; Clarke, 2009).

2.3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

2.3.1. Definition of CLT

CLT first emerged in Europe in the 1970s and flourished in the 1980s. European

applied linguists saw the need for language instructors to focus on communicative competence rather

than on the mastery of structures alone. It has no monolithic identity, and no single model of CLT is

universally accepted as authoritative. However, according to Richards and Rodgers (1986), CLT starts

with a theory of language as communication, and its goal is to develop learners’ communicative

competence.

2.3.2 Communicative Competence

Communicative competence is the ability of classroom language learners to interact with

other speakers, to make meaning, as distinct from their ability to recite dialogues or perform on

discrete-point test of grammatical knowledge (Savignon, 2002). Communicative competence includes

the knowledge of language and competence to use the language in various context. Savignon (1983:

8-9) states the characteristic of communicative competence

1. Communicative competence is dynamic, based on the negotiation of meaning between two or

more interlocutor who has the language rules. In this regard communicative competence can be

charaterized as interpersonal.

2. Communicative competence involves the using of language, either written or oral, and also the

other symbol system.

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3. Communicative competence is contextual. Communication always take place in various

communication events. The succeed of communication relies on the knowledge of the participant

toward the context and experience.

4. Considering of the dichotomy between competence and performance, competence refers to what

is known about the language, while performance refers to what is done. Only performance can be

observed. By performance, the competence can be developed, persisted and evaluated.

5. Communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and depend on the collaboration among the

participants. This thing that make level of communicative competence.

However, it has been repeatedly reported that young learners’ teachers face difficulties

practicing them in their classroom (see Jeon, 2009; Prasongsook, 2010.). It is not surprising because

CLT is a method that has its origin in EFL teaching for adult in western countries where groups are

small and classrooms well-equipped. It may not be appropriate for teaching children in over-crowded

classrooms with few resources and very different educational tradition (Enever and Moon, 2009 in

Garto, Copland and Burns, 2011)

2.3.2. Basic Principle of CLT

There are ten core assumptions of current communicative language teaching (Richard, 2006)

1. Second language learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in interaction and meaningful

communication.

2. Effective classroom learning task and exercise provide opportunities for students to negociate

meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used, and take part in

meaningful interpersonal exchange.

3. Meaningful communication results from students processing content that is relevant,

purposeful, interesting, and engaging.

4. Communication is a holistic processs that often calls upon the use of several language skills or

modalities.

5. Language learning is facilitated both by activities that involved inductive or discovery learning

of underlying rules of language use and organization, as well as by those involving language

analysis and reflection.

6. Al product of learning, the ultimate Language learning is a gradual process that involves

creative use of language, and trial and error. Although errors are normal product of learning, the

ultimate goal of learning is to be able to use the new language both accurately and fluently.

7. Learners develop their own routes to language learning, progress at different rates, and have

different needs and motivations for language learning.

8. Successful language learning involves the use of effective learning and communication

strategies.

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9. The role of the teacher in the language classroom is that of a facilitator, who creates a classroom

climate conducive to language learning and provides opportunities for students to use and

practice the language and to reflect on language use and language learning.

10. The classroom is a community where learners learn through collaboration and sharing.

2.2.3. CLT in EYL

The classroom activities typically have some of the following characteristics (Richard, 2006),

for young learners class the activities must not higher than what the students do in their first language,

for example: (1) they seek to develop students’ communicative competence through linking

grammatical development to the ability to communicate. Hence, grammar is not taught in isolation but

often arises out of communicative task, thus creating a need for specific items of grammar. Students

might carry out a task and then reflect on some of the linguistic characteristics of their performance,

(2) they create the need for communication, interaction, and negotiation of meaning through the use of

activities such as problem solving, information sharing, and role play, (3) they make use of content

that connects to students’ lives and interests, (4) they allow students to personalize learning by

applying what they have learned to their own lives, (5) classroom materials typically make use of

authentic text to create interest and to provide valid models of language.

Another useful distinction that some advocates of CLT proposed was the distinction between

three different kinds of practice—mechanical, meaningful, and communicative practice (Richard,

2006).

Mechanical practice refers to a controlled practice activity which students can successfully

carry out without necessarily understanding the language they are using. Examples of this kind of

activity would be repetition drills and substitution drills designed to practice use of particular

grammatical or other items

Meaningful practice refers to an activity where language control is still provided but where

students are required to make meaningful choices when carrying out practice. For example, in order to

practice the use of prepositions to describe locations of places, students might be given a street map

with various buildings identified in different locations. They are also given a list of prepositions such

as across from, on the corner of, near, on, next to. They then have to answer questions such as “Where

is the book shop? Where is the cafe?”, etc. The practice is now meaningful because they have to

respond according to location of places on the map.

Communicative practice refers to activities where practice in using language within a real

communicative context is the focus, where real information is exchanged, and where the language

used is not totally predictable. For example, students might have to draw a map of their neighborhood

and answer questions about the location of different places, such as the nearest bus stop, the nearest

cafe, etc.

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The other expert, Labov and Franshel (1977:20 in Faridi, 2011) state that children can

develop and communicative competence by using the following ways:

(1) Communicative competence is gained together with linguistic competence simultanously,

they do not learn partially. For example: learning the grammar and then apply it in the

conversation, but they learn integratively in interactive and meaningful communication.

(2) Communicative competence which is develop by children involves the usage and

interpretation about the usage of language for various goals and can be used various pattern

too. The language which is adapted variously by the children, will be worthty for the

environment.

(3) Children can get communicative competence in interactive environment by involving them in

meaningful interaction.

(4) Children is very active in language development, including making hypothesis, testing, and

reviewing what they got. In some years, their development of communicative competence

will be observed.

2.4. Principles in Developing Materials for Language Teachinh

2.4.1. ELT Materials

Materials are anything which is used by teachers and learners to facilitate the learning of

language (Tomlinson, 2011). There are five types of materials, namely: electronic media, paper-based

media, realia, and processes. He specifies that materials are anything which is used by teachers and

learners to facilitate the learning of language, and we could take this further by arguing that the

defining characteristic of material is that the materials designer build in a pedagogic purpose.

There are five key purposes of materials (Mishan and Timmis, 2015)

Materials meet a psychological needs

Materials provide exposure to the language

Materials are vehicles of information

Materials provide a stimulus for other activities

Materials can act as teacher education

Principled materials development is materials development wich takes into account current practice ,

but goes beyond it to consult first principles drawn from second language acquisition (SLA) and

language teaching theory.

Principles to guide their writing (Bell and Gower, 2011 in Tomlinson, 2013)

Flexibility

From text to language

Engaging context

Natural language

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Analytic approaches

Emphasis on review

Personalized practice

Integrated skills

Balance of approaches

Learning to learn

Profesional respect

Six principles of materials design identified by Nunan (1988 in Tomlinson, 2013)

Materials should be clearly linkied to the curriculum they serve

Materials should be authentic in terms of text and task

Materials should stimulate interaction

Materials should stimulate interaction

Materials should allow learners to focus on formal aspects of the language

Materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills to the world beyond the

classroom

Tomlinson use the principle of second languae acquisition (SLA) to develop critera for the

development and evaluation materials (2013).

A rich and meaningful exposure to language in use

Affective and cognitive engagement

Making use of those mental resources typically used in communication in the L1

Noticing how the L2 is used

Being given opportunities for contextualized and purposeful communication in the L2

Being encourage to interact

Being allowed to focus on meaning

Mishan and Timmis (2015) propose three principles in developing materials

Materials should give affective and cognitive challenge

Affective means that materials should consider motivation that increase of intrinsic interest,

(linguistic) self-confidence and self-esteem, avoid anxiety. Besides, materials should also

give challenge by deploying the cognitive domain (e.g. employment of Bloom’s taxonomy,

namely: knowledge—remember, understand—describe, explain, apply, analyses, evaluate,

and create;

as revised by Anderson and Krawthwohl, 2001 in Mishan and Timmis, 2015)

Materials should consider learner input and output

Materials should interpret ‘consciousness-raising” (C-R) activities

The quality of a text book can be identified by considering the characteristics of good

language teaching materials (Tomlinson, 1998: 7-22):

Materials should achieve impact

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Impact is achieved when materials have noticeable effect on learners, that is when the

learners’ curiosity, interest and attention are attracted. If this is achieved there is a better chance that

some of the language in the materials will be take in for processing. Materials could achieve impact

through: novelty, variety, attractive presentation, appealing content.

Materials should help learners feel at ease

Materials can help learners to feel at ease in a number of ways. For example: most learners

feel more comfortable with materials with lots of white space than they do with materials in which

lots of different activities are crammed together on the same page. Besides, most learners more

relaxed with materials which are obviously trying to help them to learn than they are with materials

which are always testing them.

Materials should help learners to develop confidence

Developing learners’ confidence can be done by providing activities that encourage them to

use their existing extra-linguistic skills, such as those which involve being imaginative, being creative

and being analytical.

What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful

It can be achieved by narrowing the target readership and/or by researching what the target

learners are interested in and what they really want to learn the language for.

Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment

It would seem that learners profit most if they invest interest, effort and attention in the

learning activity. Materials can help them to achieve this by providing them with choices of focus and

activity, by giving them topic control and by engaging them in learner-centered discovery activities.

Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught

It can be achieved by materials which get learners to focus attention on features of the target

language which they have not yet acquired so that they might be more attentive to these features in

future input.

Materials must be should expose the learners to language in authentic

Materials can provide exposure to authentic input through the advice they give, the instruction

for their activities and the spoken and written texts they include.

The learners’ attention should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target

language to achieve communicative purposes

Using language for communication involves attempts to achieve a purpose in a sitation in

which the content, strategies and expression of the interaction are determined by the learners.

Materials should take into account that the positive effect of instruction are usually

delayed

In order to facilitate gradual process of acquition it is important for materials to recycle

instruction and to provide frequent and ample exposure to instructed language features in

communicative use. It is equally important that the learners are not forced into premature production

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of the instructed features (they will get them wrong) and that test of proficiency are not conducted

immediately after instruction (they will indicate failure).

Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning style

The important point for material developers is that they are aware of and cater for differences

of prefered learning styles in their materials and that they do not assume that all learners can benefi

from the same approaches as the ‘good language learners’.

Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes

Obviously no materials developer can cater for all affective variables but it is important for

anybody who is writing learning materials to be aware of the inevitable attitudinal differences of the

users of the materials.

Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction

This silent period can facilitate the development of an effective internalized grammar which

can help learners to achieve proficiency when they eventually start to speak in the target language.

Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic,

and emotional involvement that stimulates both right and left brain activities

A varied series of activities making, for example, analytic, creative, and evaluative and

rehearsal demands on processing capacity can lead to deeper and more durable learning.

Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice

Controlled practice appears to have little long term effect on the accuracy with new structures

are performed (Ellis, 1990: 192 in Tomlinson, 1998:21).

Materials should provide activities for outcome feedback

Feedback which is focused first on the effectiveness of the outcome rather than just on the

accuracy of the output can lead to output becoming a profitable sourse of input.

3. Conclusion

Teaching materials in teaching English for young learners have different characteristics compare to

materials for adult (Tomlinson, 2005). They should fulfil some criteria, such as: First, materials for

children should provide rich of authentic language in entertain environment. It can be employed by

making use of young children’s stories, songs, poems, and rhymes to language in use. It is because

literature not only provide art but also entertainment (McMillan, 2003). Besides, stories provide rich

and authentic uses of the foreign language (Cameron, 2003).

Second, materials for children should provide a lot of language linked kinaesthetic activity through

drama, games, and TPR. Because children learn through physical experience or in other words young

learners conduct learning by doing (Halliwell, 1992; Sollars, 2001; Girard et al., 2003; Musthafa,

2008; Suyanto, 2008). According to Harmer (2008: 82) “children’s understanding comes not just from

51

explanation, but also from what they see, hear, touch and interact with.” That is why the materials for

children should make them doing something while learning at the same time.

Third, materials for children should focus more on meaning than form, young learners learn best

when learning is kept as a whole (Halliwell, 1992; Musthafa, 2008). It means that very young children

are able to understand what is being said to them even before they understand the individual words

because they grasp the meaning not only by words or phrase but also from intonation, gesture, facial

expression, action and circumstances. It is in line with Suyanto (2008: 19) who argues that children

find it difficult when the language is broken down into pieces (e.g., words, phrases, sentences, and

paragraph as analytical unit).

Forth, materials for young learners should focus more on informal implicit learning than formal

explicit teaching (Tomlinson, 2005: 9). Materials for young learners should not discuss about the

language or linguistics matter but should provide example how the language is use so that they can

learn from the model from the materials (Cameron, 2003).

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