Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER I

Definition and background

Pragmatics is

1. The study of what speakers mean, or ‘speaker meaning’.

2. Concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by aspeaker(or writer) and interpreted by a listener(orreaders)

It has, consequently, more to do with the analyss of whatpeople mean by their utterances than what the words or phrasesin those utterances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is thestudy of speaker meaning.

This type of study necessarily involves the interpretation ofwhat people mean in a particular context and how the contextinfluences what is said.nIt requires a consideration of howspeakers organize what they want to say in accordance with whothey are talking to, where, when, and under whatcircumstances. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.

This approach also necessarily explores how listeners can makeinferences about what is said in order to arrive at aninterpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning. This type ofstudy explores how a great deal of what is unsaid isrecognized as part of what is communicated. We might say thatit is the investigation of invisible meaning. Pragmatics is thestudy of how more gets communicated than it is said.

This perspective then raises the question of what determiinesthe choice between the said and the unsaid. The basic answeris tied to the notion of distance. Closeness, whether it isphysical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience. Onthe assumption of how close or distant the listener is,speakers determine how much needs to be said. Pragmatics is the

study of the expression of relative distance. These are four areas thatpragmatics concerned with.

Invisible meaning

In many ways, pragmatics is the study of ‘invisible’meaning, or how we recognize what is meant even when it isn’tactually said or written. In order for that to happen,speakers (or writers) must be able to depend on a lot ofshared assumptions and expectations when they try tocommunicate. The investigation of those assumptions andexpectations provides us with some insights into how more isalways being communicated than is said. Alternatively, thesign may indicate a place where parking will be carried out byattendants who have been heated.

     

The words in the sign may allow these interpretations, but wewould normally understand that we can park a car in thisplace, that it’s a heated area, and that there will be anattendant to look after the car.

So, how do we decide that the sign means this when the signdoesn’t even have the word car on it? We must use the meaningsof the words, the context in which they occur, and somepreexisting knowledge of what would be a likely message as wework toward a reasonable interpretation of what the producerof the sign intended it to convey. Our interpretation of the‘meaning’ of the sign is not based solely on the words, but onwhat we think the writer intended to communicate. In the otherpicture, assuming things are normal and this store has notgone into the business of selling young children over thecounter, we can recognize an advertisement for a sale ofclothes for those babies and toddlers. The word clothesdoesn’t appear in the message, but we can bring that idea toour interpretation of the message as we work out what the

advertiser intended us to understand. We are actively involvedin creating an interpretation of what we read and hear.

Context

One kind is described as linguistic context, also known as co-text. The co-text of a word is the set of other words used inthe same phrase or sentence. The surrounding co-text has astrong effect on what we think the word probably means. In thelast chapter, we identified the word bank as a homonym, asingle form with more than one meaning. How do we usually knowwhich meaning is intended in a particular sentence? Wenormally do so on the basis of linguistic context. If the wordbank is used in a sentence together with words like steep orovergrown, we have no problem deciding which type of bank ismeant. Or, if we hear someone say that she has to get to thebank to withdraw some cash, we know from this linguisticcontext which type of bank is intended. More generally, weknow how to interpret words on the basis of physical context.

The relevant context is our mental representation of thoseaspects of what is physically out there that we use inarriving at an interpretation. Our understanding of much ofwhat we read and hear is tied to this processing of aspects ofthe physical context, particularly the time and place, inwhich we encounter linguistic expressions.

Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics

Syntax is the study of the relationship between linguisticforms, how they are arranged in sequence, and which sequencesare well-formed.

Semantics is the study of the relationship between linguisticsforms and entries in the world; that is, how words literallyconnect to things. Semantic analysis also attempts toestablish the relationships between verbal descriptions andstates of affairs in the world as accurate (true) or not,regardless of who produces that description.

Pragmatics is the study of the relationship betweenlinguistic forms and the users of those forms. In this three-part distinction, only pragmatics allows human into theanalysis.  The advantage of studying language via pragmaticsis that one can talk about people’s intended meanings, theirassumptions, their purposes or goals, and the kinds of actions(for example, request) that they are performing when theyspeak. The big advantage is that all these very human conceptsare extremely difficult to analyze in a consistent andobjective way. Two friends having a conversation may implysome things and infer some others without providing any clearlinguistic evidence that we can point to as the explicitsource of ‘the meaning’ of what was communicated. Example [I]is just such a problematic case. I heard the speakers, I knewwhat they said, but I had no idea what was communicated.

[I] Her: So-did you?

     Him: Hey-who wouldn’t?

Thus, pragmatics is appealing because it’s about howpeople make sense of each other lingiuistically, but it can bea frustrating area of study because it requires us to makesense of people and what they have in mind.

Regularity

Luckily, people tend to behave in fairly regular wayswhen it comes to using language. Some of that regularityderives from the fact that people are members of social groupsand follow general patterns of behaviour expeted within thegroup. Within a familiar social group, we normally find iteasy to be polite and say appropriate things. In a new,unfamiliar social setting, we are often unsure about what tosay and worry that we might say the wrong thing.

Another source of regularity in language use derives from thefact that most people within a linguistic community have

similar basic experiences of the world and share a lot of non-linguistic knowledge.

Example: You would perhaps think that more was beingcommunicated than was being said and that you were beingtreated as someone with no basic knowledge (i.e. stupid). Onceagain, nothing in the use of the linguistic is inaccurate, butgetting the pragmatics wrong might be offensive.

Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER 2

Deixis and Distance

Deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of themost basic things we do with utterances. It means “pointingvia language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this‘pointing’ is called a deictic expression.

When you notice a strange object and ask, ‘What’s that?’,you are using a deictic expression (‘that’) to indicatesomething in the immedate context. Deictic expressions arealso sometimes called indexicals. They are among the firstforms to be spoken by very young children and can be used toindicate people via person deixis )’me’, ‘you’_, or locationvia spatial deixis (‘here’, ‘there’, or time via temporaldeixis (‘now’, ‘then’)

Person Deixis

Person deixis clearly operates on a basic three-partdivision, exemplified by the pronouns for first person (‘I’),second person (‘you’), and third person (‘he’, ‘she’, or‘it’). In many languages these deictic categories of speaker,addressee, and other(s) are elaborated with markers ofrelative social status (for example, addressee with higherstatus versus addressee with lower status). Expressions whichindicate higher status are described as honorifics. Thediscussion of the circumstances which lead to the choice ofone of these forms rather than another is sometimes describedas social deixis. A fairly well-known example of a socialcontrast encoded within person deixis is the distinctionbetween forms used for a familiar versus a non-familiaraddressee in some languages. This is known as the T/Vdistinction, from the French forms ‘tu’ (familiar) and ‘vous’(non-familiar), and is found in many languages includingGerman and Spanish. The choice of one form will certainly

communicate somthing about the speaker’s view of his or herrelationship with the addressee. In those socail contextswhere indiviaduals typically mark distinctions between thesocial status of the speaker and addressee, the higher, theolder, and more powerful speaker will tend to use the ‘tu’version to a lower, younger, and less powerful addressee, andbe addressed by the ‘vous’ form in return.

Spatial deixis

The concept of distance already mentioned is clearlyrelevant to spatial deixis, where the relative location ofpeople and things is being indicated. Contemporary Englishmakes use of only two adverbs, ‘here’ and ‘there’, for thebasic distinction, but in older texts and in some dialects, amuch larger set of deictic expressions can be found.

In considering spatial deixis, however, it is importantto remember that location from the speaker’s perspective canbe fixed mentally as well as physically.

Temporal deixis

The psychological basis of temporal deixis seems to besimilar to that of spatial deixis. We can treat temporalevents as objects that move toward us (into view) or away fromus (out of view). One metaphor used in English is of eventscoming toward the speaker from the future (for example, ‘thecoming week’, ‘the approaching year’) and going away from thespeaker to the past for example, ‘in days gone by’, ‘the pastweek’. We also seem to treat the near or immediate future asbeing close to utterance time by using a proximal deictic‘this’, as in ‘this (coming) weekend’ or ‘this (coming)Thursday’.

One basic (but often unrecognized) type of temporaldeixis in English is in the choice of verb tense. Whereasother languages have many different forms of the verb as

different tenses. English has only two basic forms, thepresent and the past.

Example:

Present —> I live here now

Past       —-> I lived there then.

The present tense is the proximal form and the past tense isthe distal form.

The past tense is always used in English in those if-clauses that mark events presented by the speaker as not beingclose to present reality as in example below:

If I had a yacht, …..

If I was rich, ….

In order to understand many English conditionalconstructions, we have to recognize that, in temporal deixis,the remote or distal form can be used to communicate not onlydistance from current time, but also distance from currentreality or facts.

Deixis and Grammar

The basic distinctions presented so far for person,spatial, and temporal deixis can all be seen at work in one ofthe most common structural distinctions made in Englishgrammar – that between direct and indirect (or reportedspeech). As already described, the deictic expressions forperson (‘you’), place (‘here’), and time (‘this evening’) canall be interpreted within the same context as the speaker whoutters the example bellow:

1. a.       Are you planning to be here this evening?

2. b.      I asked her if she was planning to be there thatevening.

This very regular difference in English reported discoursemarks a distinction between the ‘near speaker’ meaning ofindirect speech. The proximal deictic forms of a direct speechreporting communicate, often dramatically, a sense of being inthe same context as the utterance. The distal deictic forms ofindirect speech reporting make the original speech event seemmore remote.

It should not be a surprise to learn that deicticexpressions were all to be found in the pragmaticswastebasket. Their interpretation depends on the context, thespeaker’s intention, and they express relative distance. Giventheir small size and extremely wide range of possible uses,deictic expressions always communicate much more than aresaid.

In conclusion Deixis

There are some very common words in our language thatcan’t be interpreted at all if we don’t know the context,especially the physical context of the speaker. These arewords such as here and there, this or that, now and then,yesterday, today or tomorrow, as well as pronouns such as you,me, she, him, it, them. Some sentences of English arevirtually impossible to understand if we don’t know who isspeaking, about whom, where and when. For example: You’ll haveto bring it back tomorrow because she isn’t here today. Out ofcontext, this sentence is really vague. It contains a largenumber of expressions (you, it, tomorrow, she, here, today)that rely on knowledge of the immediate physical context fortheir interpretation (i.e. that the delivery driver will haveto return on February 15th to 660 College Drive with thepackage labeled ‘flowers, handle with care’ addressed to LisaLandry).

Expressions such as tomorrow and here are obviousexamples of bits of language that we can only understand interms of the speaker’s intended meaning. They are technically

known as deictic expressions, from the Greek word deixis(pronounced like ‘day-icksis’), which means ‘pointing’ vialanguage. We use deixis to point to things (it, this, theseboxes) and people (him, them, those idiots), sometimes calledperson deixis. Words and phrases used to point to a location(here, there, near that) are examples of spatial deixis, andthose used to point to a time (now, then, last week) areexamples of temporal deixis.

All these deictic expressions have to be interpreted interms of which person, place or time the speaker has in mind.We make a broad distinction between what is marked as close tothe speaker (this, here, now) and what is distant (that,there, then). We can also indicate whether movement is awayfrom the speaker’s location (go) or toward the speaker’slocation (come). If you’re looking for someone and sheappears, moving toward you, you can say Here she comes! If,however, she is moving away from you in the distance, you’remore likely to say There she goes! The same deictic effectexplains the different situations in which you would tellsomeone to Go to bed versus Come to bed.

Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER 3

Reference and Inference

Reference is clearly tied to the speaker’s goals (forexample, to identify something) and the speaker’s beliefs(i.e. can the listener be expected to know that particularsomething?) in the use of language. For successful referenceto occur, we must also recognize the role of inference.Because there is no direct relationship between entities andwords, the listener’s task is to infer correctly which entitythe speaker intends to identify by using a particularreferring expression. It is not unusual for people to want torefer to some entity or person without knowing exactly which‘name’ would be the best word to use. We can even use vagueexpressions (for example, ‘the blue thing’, ‘that icky stuff’,‘ol’what’s his name’, ‘the thingamajig’), relying on thelistener’s ability to infer what referent we have in mind.Speakers even invent names. There was a man who deliveredpackage to our office whose ‘real’ name I didn’t know, butwhose identity I could infer when the secretary referred tohim as in. Example: Mister Aftershave is late today.

The example above may serve to illustrate that referenceis not based  on an objectively correct (versus incorrect)naming, but on some locally successful (versus unsuccessful)choice of expression. We might also note from example thatsuccessful reference is necessarily collaborative, with boththe speaker and the listener having role in thinking what theother has in mind.

So, reference as an act by which a speaker (or writer)uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identifysomething. To perform an act of reference, we can use propernouns (Chomsky, Jennifer, Whiskas), other nouns in phrases (awriter, my friend, the cat) or pronouns (he, she, it). The

words Jennifer or friend or she can be used to refer to manyentities in the world. As we observed earlier, an expressionsuch as the war doesn’t directly identify anything by itself,because its reference depends on who is using it. We can alsorefer to things when we’re not sure what to call them. We canuse expressions such as the blue thing and that icky stuff andwe can even invent names. For instance, there was a man whoalways drove his motorcycle fast and loud through myneighborhood and was locally referred to as Mr. Kawasaki. Inthis case, a brand name for a motorcycle is being used torefer to a person.

Inference

For example, in a restaurant, one waiter can ask another,Where’s the spinach salad sitting? and receive the reply, He’ssitting by the door. If you’re studying linguistics, you mightask someone, Can I look at your Chomsky? and get the response,Sure, it’s on the shelf over there. These examples make itclear that we can use names associated with things (salad) torefer to people, and use names of people (Chomsky) to refer tothings. The key process here is called inference. An inferenceis additional information used bythe listener to create aconnection between what is said and what must be meant.

Referential and Attributive uses

It is important to recognize that not all referringexpressions have identifiable physical referents. Indefinitenoun phrases can be used to identify a physically presententity as in example 2a, but they can also be used to describeentities that are assumed to exist, but are unknown, as in 2b,or entities that, as far as we know, don’t exist as in 2c.

2. a. There’s a man waiting for you

b. he wants to marry a woman with lots of money.

c. We’d love to find a nine-foot-tall basketball player.

It would be distinct from a referential use whereby Iactually have a person in mind and, instead of using her nameor some other description, I choose the expression in 2b,perhaps because I think you’d be more interested in hearingthis woman has lots of money than that she has a name.

The point of this distinction is that expressionsthemselves cannot be treated as having reference 9as is oftenassumed in semantic treatments), but are, or are not,‘invested’ with referential function in context by speaker orwriter. Spekares often invite us to assume, via attributiveuses, that we can identify what they’re talking about, evenwhen the entity or individual described may not exist.

Names and References

The version of reference being presented here is one inwhich there is a basic ‘intention-to-identify’ and a‘recognition-of-intention’ collaboration at work. This processneed not only work between one speaker and one listener; itappears to work, in terms of convention, between all membersof a community who share a common language and culture. Thatis, there is a convention that certain referring expressionswill be used to identify certain entities on a regular basis.It is our daily experience of the succesful operation of this

convention that may cause us to assume that referringexpressions can only designate very specific entities. Forexample, it would not be strange for one student to askanother question in 4a and receive the reply in 4b.

4    a. Can I borrow your Shakespeare?

b. Yeah, it’s over there on the table.

There appears to be a pragmatic connection between propernames and objects that will be conventionally associated,within a socio-culturally defined community, with those names.Using a proper name referentially to identify any such objectinvites the listener to make the expected inference.

The role of co-text

In many of the preceding examples, our ability toidentify intended referents has actually depended on more thanour understanding of the referring expression. It has beenaided by the linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying thereferring expression.

Of course, co-text is just a linguistic part of tehenvironment in which a referring expression is used. Thephysical environment, or context, is peerhaps more easilyrecognized as having a powerful impact on how referringexpressions are to be interpreted.

Anaphoric reference

The preceding discussion has been concerned with singleacts of reference. In most of our talk and writing, however,we have to keep track of who or what we are talking about formore than one sentence at a time. After the initialintroduction of some entity, speakers will use variousexpressions to maintain reference.

Anaphora

We usually make a distinction between introducing newreferents (a puppy) and referring back to them (the puppy, it).

We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a puppy in a small bath.

The puppy started struggling and shaking and the boy got really wet.

When he let go, it jumped out of the bath and ran away.

In this type of referential relationship, the second (orsubsequent) referring expression is an example of anaphora(‘referring back’). The first mention is called theantecedent. So, in our example, a boy, a puppy and a small bath areantecedents and The puppy, the boy, he, it and the bath are anaphoricexpressions. Anaphora can be defined as subsequent referenceto an already introduced entity. Mostly we use anaphora intexts to maintain reference. The connection between anantecedent and an anaphoric expression is created by use of apronoun (it), or repetition of the noun with the (the puppy), orthe use of other nouns that are related to the antecedent byinference, as in the following examples.

We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very small.

I caught a bus and asked the driver if it went near the downtown area.

In the first example, we must make an inference like ‘ifX is a house, then X has a kitchen’ in order to interpret theconnection between antecedent a house and anaphoric expressionthe kitchen. In the second example, we must make an inferencelike ‘if X is a bus, then X has a driver’ in order to make theconnection between a bus and the driver. In a context whereboth speakers easily make these types of inferences, it ispossible to hear someone complain: I was waiting for the bus,but he just drove by without stopping. When the antecedent isbus, we might expect it as the pronoun, but use of the pronounhe obviously assumes an inference involving the driver.

Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER 4

Presupposition and entailment

It is worth noting at the outset that presupposition andentailment were considered to be much more central topragmatics in the past than they are now. In more recentapproaches, there has been less interest in the type oftechnical discussion associated with the logical analysis ofthese phenomena. Without some introduction to that type ofanalytical discussion, however, it becomes very difficult tounderstand how the current relationship between semantics andpragmatics developed.

A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to bethe case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, notsentences, have presuppositions. AN entailment is somethingthat logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance.Sentence, not speakers, have entailments.

Characteristic presupposes usually explain as constancyunder denial is mean presupposes a pronouncement untilconstant (constant true) although that pronouncement sentencebe denial. There are several type in presupposes that is :

Presupposes factive: usage special express take for be of theopinion truth information that obvious after that.

Presupposes non-factive: something of presupposes that assumptionnot true. Example of verb like “dream”, “imagine”, and“pretend”.

Presupposes lexical : usage special express by speaker take for beof the opinion a another concept (not obvious).

Presupposes structural : structural of certain sentence alreadyanalysis as presupposes in a constant manner and conventionalthat part of structure already truth of assumption.

Presupposes counterfactual: that what be of the opinion mustn’tnot true but form be the opposite from true or be the oppositewith reality.

What a speaker (or writer) assumes is true or known by alistener (or reader) /an assumption made by the speaker (orwriter), can be described as a presupposition.

If someone tells you Your brother is waiting outside, there is anobvious presupposition that you have a brother. When did you stopsmoking?, there are at least two presuppositions involved. Inasking this question, the speaker presupposes that you used tosmoke and that you no longer do so. Questions like this, withbuilt-in presuppositions, are very useful devices forinterrogators or trial lawyers.

One of the tests used to check for the presuppositionsunderlying sentences involves negating a sentence with aparticular presupposition and checking if the presuppositionremains true. Whether you say My car is a wreck or thenegative version My car is not a wreck, the underlyingpresupposition (I have a car)  remains true despite the fact thatthe two sentences have opposite meanings.

This is called the ‘constancy under negation’ test foridentifying a presupposition. If someone says, I used toregret marrying him, but I don’t regret marrying him now, thepresupposition (I married him) remains constant even though theverbregret changes from affirmative to negative.

TYPE EXAMPLE PRESUPPOSES

Factive:  I’m regret leave it >> I’m leave it

Non-factive : he pretend happily >> he not happily

Lexical: he planning escape >> he try to escape

Structural: when he die? >> he die

Counterfactual:  if I’m not sick >> I’m sick

PROJECTION PROBLEM

There is something base hope that presupposition insimple sentence will be in right way when the simple sentencebecome a part in a complex sentence. This is one of theversion from the common concept that the meaning from thewhole sentence is combination from the part of each that partsentence, but, a part meaning from the presupposition isunable become the meaning from some complex sentence, and thisis called projection problem.

Shirley : It’s so sad. George regrets getting Mary pregnant.

Jean : But he didn’t get her pregnant. We know that now.

If we combine two narration from (13), we can get thechronological, George regrets getting Mary pregnant; But hedidn’t get her pregnant !

After we identify a different presupposition, we can seethat presupposition in isn’t hold out like presupposition fromthe narratives that were be combined.

a. George regrets getting Mary pregnant ( = p )

b. George got Mary Pregnant ( = q )

c. p >> q

d. He didn’t get her pregnant ( = r )

e. George regrets getting Mary pregnant, but he didn’tget her pregnant ( = p & r )

f. p & r >> Not q

One of the method to analyze whole sentences which ispresented in (14.e) is a narrative by somebody is reportingsomething happen in soap opera. That people didn’t assume theq presupposition is right.

THE ARRANGED IN ORDERLY ENTAILMENT

Actually entailment is not m pragmatic concept (becauseis related by the speaker’s purpose), but it is regarded alogic concept, and it is symbolic by II -. There some exampleof entailment.

Rover chased three squirrels ( = p )

a. Something chased three squirrels ( = q )

b. Rover did something to three squirrels ( = r )

c. Rover chased of three something ( = s )

d. Something happened ( = t )

In preset a relationship between entailment and as p II–q, in simple way we can say that the narrative in sentence,the speaker must confess that the correctness in some backentailment.

Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER 5

COOPERATION AND IMPLICATION

The chapter before it said that speaker and listener areinvolved in a conversation. Generally they cooperate with eachothers. For example when someone says “my car”, automaticallythe listener assumes that the listener really has a car andthe listener also plans to say the reality that he really hasa car.

Implication is an addition purpose that is explained bythe speaker. For example, when someone asks to his friendabout hamburger, “How do you like a hamburger?” then hisfriend answers “Hamburger is hamburger”. The implication isthe speaker thinks that all hamburgers are same.

COOPERATION PRINCIPLE

Think that you are sitting on the bench in a park andthere is a dog under it, then a man comes to you and asks you“does your dog bite?” and you answers “No, my dog doesn’tbite!” then the man touch the dog feathers and the dog biteshim. The man says to you “Hey’ you said that your dog doesn’tbite!” and you says “yes, my dog doesn’t bite, but that is notmy dog”.

The story above shows us that you and the man are right.But the problem is from the understanding of the man thatthinks the dog under the bench is your dog although not. Theman needs more information than you give about the dog. It isa misunderstanding.The point is the cooperation principle must give a goodunderstanding to the speaker and the listener. Cooperationprinciple can be divided by 4 subs. Here are the subs:

1. Maxim of quality

• Don’t say what you believe to be false

• Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence

Example:Background:A friend’s father considers whether or not to buy your frienda new car, and you are aware that the old car has broken downbefore.

A : should I buy my son this new sport car?

B improper : I do not know if that is such a good idea,his car runs fine.

B proper : yeah, that sounds like a good idea, his carhas broken down before.

2. Maxim of quantity

• Make your contribution as informative as is required

• Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequiredExample:Background:A man stops his vehicle in the middle of the road to brieflyask you for directions.

A : where is the post office?

B improper : there are two in town, but the closest one isbrand new. Down the road, about 50 meters past the secondleft. Also, you should not stop your car in the middle of theroad anymore.

B improper : continue on, and make the second left up there.You will see it.

3. Maxim of relation

• Be relevant

Example:

A : ugh, I wonder what time it is…..

B improper : it is 6.30

B proper : it is 6.30. So, you have the whole night ahead ofyou! Have you eaten at Hardy’s before?

4. Maxim of manner

• Avoid obscurity of expression.

• Avoid ambiguity

• Be orderly.

Example:

A : can you take out the trash?

B improper : well, it is probable that I would take out thetrash more often if someone were not flagrantly wasteful, suchthat, the majority of trash was not always coming from thatperson.B proper : Sure, but we need to talk about how we areassigning the chores around here when I get back.

CONVERSATION IMPLICATION

The basic assumption of conversation is the members shouldfollow the maxim rules in a conversation. For example:

Charlene : I hope you brought the bread and the cheese.

Dexter : Ah, I brought the bread.

After knowing the response of Dexter, Charleneautomatically realized that Dexter only brought the bread. Hedidn’t bring the cheese. Dexter only said that he brought thebread without saying that he didn’t bring the cheese in orderto make Charlene assume that he didn’t bring the cheese.

GENERAL CONVERSATION IMPLICATION

This implication is more general than conversationimplication because it is not specific. For example:

Someone says: “I was sitting in a garden one day. A childlooks over the fence”

The implication shows that the garden and the child arenot his. If the garden and the child are his, he will says “mygarden” and ”my child”.

SCALED IMPLICATION

This implication is decided by value scale. Theinformation that is explained implies the value of scale. Forexample:

Someone says: “I am studying linguistics and I have completedsome of the required course”The speaker uses word “some” shows us that the speaker has notfinished all the linguistics courses. We will know more aboutthe implication if the speaker explains more about thelinguistics, for example:

He says: “They are sometimes really interesting”.

It shows that speaker is not only has not completed thecourses, but also he is sometimes interested in linguistics.

PRIVATE CONVERSATION IMPLICATION

This implication needs a private knowledge. For example:

Rick : Hey, coming to the wild party tonight?

Tom : My parents are visiting

To make Tom’s answer becomes relevant, Rick must have alittle knowledge that is assumed that Tom has another activitytonight. It also shows that Tom won’t join the wild partybecause his parents will visit him. And it won’t be wild.

CONVENTIONAL IMPLICATION

This implication is real using the words are spoken. Nothidden. It is free. The words that areusually used are “but and even”. For example:Roger : Marry suggested black, but I choose white.

The implication is the sentence “I choose white”. It shows theimplication. The implication is real and not hidden.

Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER 7

POLITENESS AND INTERACTION

A linguistic interaction is necessarily a socialinteraction. Factors which relate to social distance andcloseness are established prior to interaction. They typicallyinvolve the relative status of the participants, based onsocial values tied to such things as age and power. We takepart in a wide range of interactions ( mostly with strangers )where the social distance determined by external factors isdominant. However, there are other factors, such as amount ofimposition or degree of friendliness, which are oftennegotiated during in interaction. These are internal to theinteraction and can result in the initial social distancechanging and being marked as less, or more, during its course.These internal factors are typically in the process of beingworked out within the interaction. Both types of factors,external and internal, have an influence not only on what wesay, but also on how we are interpreted. Recognizing theimpact is normally carried out in terms of politeness. 

Politeness

Within interaction, however, there is a more narrowlyspecified type of politeness at work. Face means the publicself-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and socialsense of selves that everyone has and expects everyone else torecognize.

Politeness can then be defined as the means employed toshow awareness of another person’s face. Showing awareness foranother person’s face when that other seems socially distantis often described in terms of respect or deference. If yousay something that represents a threat to another person’sself-image, that is called a face-threatening act. For

example, if you use a direct speech act to get someone to dosomething (Give me that paper!), you are behaving as if youhave more social power than the other person. If you don’tactually have that social power (e.g. you’re not a militaryofficer or prison warden), then you are performing a face-threatening act. An indirect speech act, in the formassociated with a question (Could you pass me that paper?),removes the assumption of social power. You’re only asking ifit’s possible. This makes your request less threatening to theother person’s face. Whenever you say something that lessensthe possible threat to another’s face, it can be describedas a face-saving act.

Face Wants

Within their everyday social interactions, peoplegenerally behave as if their expectations concerning theirpublic self-image, or their face wants, will be respected.Alternatively, given the possibility that some action might beinterpreted as a threat to another’s face, the speaker can saysomething to lessen the possible threat. This is called a facesaving act. Because it is generally expected that each personwill attempt to respect the face wants of others, there aremany different ways of performing gace saving acts.

Negative and Positive Face

A person’s negative face is the need to be independent, tohave freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others. Aperson’s positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked,by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and toknow that his or her wants to shared by others.

Self and other : say nothing

One way to see the relevance of the relationship between thispoliteness concepts and language use is to take a singlespeech event and map out the different interpretation

associated with different possible expressions used withinthat event.

For Example : – self : ( Looks in bag )

- other : ( offer pen ) Here,use this.

Say something : off and on record

Example :

a. Uh,,,I forgot my pen.

b. Hmm,,,I wonder where I put my pen.

{ They are technically described as being off record. }

An address forms are technically described as being on recordmy be followed by expressions like ‘ please ‘ and ‘ wouldyou?’.

Example :

- Have some more cake.

- Give me that wet umbrella.

However, generally speaking, bald on record expressionsare associated with speech events where the speaker assumesthat he or she has a power over the other ( for example, inmilitary contexts ) and can control the other’s behavior withwords.

Positive and Negative Politeness

A positive politeness is a face saving act which is concernedwith the person’s positive face will tend to show solidarity,emphasize that both speaker want the same thing, and that theyhave a common goal. For example : ( How about letting me useyour pen? ). Meanwhile a negative politeness is a face savingact which is oriented to the person’s negative face will tendto show deference, emphasize the importance of the others time

or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition orinteruption. For example : ( I’m sorry to brother you, but canI ask you for a pen or something?).

Strategies

A solidarity strategy will be marked via inclusive termssuch as ‘ we ‘ and ‘ let’s ‘. For example : – Come on let’s goto the party. Everyone will be there. We’ll have fun. Thelanguage associated with a deference strategy emphasizes thespeaker’s and the hearer’s independence, marked via an absenceof personal claims.

For example : – There’s going to be a party, If you can makeit. It will be fun.These general types of strategies are illustrated here viautterances which are actually central to the speech event( for example, invitation ). Face saving behavior, however, isoften at work well before such utterances are produced, in theform of pre-sequences.

Pre-sequencesThe basic assumption, from the perspective of politeness, isthat face typically at risk when the self needs to accomplishsomething involving other. The advantage of the pre-requestelement is that it can be answered either with a ‘ go ahead ‘response. For example ; him : Are you busy? (= pre-request)

her : Oh, sorry. (=stop)

Pre-sequences are also commonly used in making invitations.

For example ; him : What are you doing this Friday ? (=pre-invitation)

her : Hmm, nothing so far. (=go ahead)

him : Come over for dinner. (=invitation)

her : Oh, I’d like that. (=accept)

Children often use pre-announcements to check if their parentsare willing to pay attention.

For example ;

child : Mom, guess what happened ? (=pre -announcement)

mother : ( silence )

child : Mom you know what ? (=pre-announcement)

mother : Not right now, Jacy, I’m busy. (=stop)

Throughout this discussion of politeness in interaction, wehave been assumsing a well-known and easily recognizablestructure for the interaction.

Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER 8

THE STRUCTURE OF CONVERSATION AND REFERENCE

The word interaction can be applied to some socialmeeting with a various kinds. The kinds of conversation ismaybe look different depend on its different interactioncontext. The structure of conversation is anything that wehave been assumption as something that we already know well bydiscussion first.

CONVERSATION ANALYSIS

There are a lot of allusions that used to describe thestructure of conversation. They can say that a conversation islike a dance, or traffic current on the cross road, thatinvolve alloy of kinds of movements. But, the analyticalapproaches that have been used most are based on the analogy.On that part there is an extinct commodity that called achance to talk ”floor” that usually we define it as a right totalk or turn. And when someone tries to take control of thatsituation we called it the taking over of turn, it is as aform of social action. The possibility of turn changingproblem is called with TRP (Transition Relevance Place). Theinteraction designs of conversation are different from onesocial group to another.

OVERLAPS AND BACKCHANNEL

Most of conversations are involve 2 persons or more.Overlap is both speakers try to talk at the same time. If twopersons try to talk but doesn’t find a flow or rhythm, itmeans that they have more understanding than words to talk.You can see the first the example of conversation that showsmiscorrelations.

1. Mr. Straits : What’s your major Dave?

Dave : English-well I haven’t really decided yet. (3seconds)Mr. Straits : So-you want to be a teacher?Dave : No-not really-well not if I can help it. (2, 5seconds)Mr. Straits : What-//Where do you-go ahead?Dave : I mean it’s a-oh sorry// I-emm-.• The short interval (-) show a form of uncertainty,while the long one become silence. Two or the last lineshows overlap with a conventional way. And signed with(//) on the first conversation.The second Example shows a silence between both speakersbecause of each speaker doesn’t take their part well.

2. Jan : Dave I’m going to the store. (2 seconds)Jan : Dave? (2 seconds)Jan : Dave-is something wrong?Dave : What? What’s wrong?Jan : Never mind.

Most of speakers (younger).overlap speaking usuallyappear in the language use function. The third example showsan effect from the speaker that overlaps and makes a sensecomparison of two voices that gather in harmony.

3. Min : Did you see him in the video?Wendy : Yeah-the part on the beach.Min : Oh my God//he was so sexy.Wendy : He was just being so cool.Min : And all the waves//crashing around him.Wendy : Yeah that was really wild.• In the example above an overlap shows a close relationbetween both speakers.

4. The next example, overlap shows a competition.Joe : When they were in//power last-wait CAN I FINISH?Jerry : That’s my point I said.• In the fourth example the speakers look like to talk,but actually they are in competition to get their each

right to talk. The first speaker wants some rules ofconversation structure.

The TRP signs that very conspicuous are the structural ofintervals. Anyone who wants a right to speak must waitfor the TRP possibility before come in. They must realizethe existence of interval in the last of syntax unit. Thefifth example shows that each speaker has filled theireach interval, and put it inside of syntax unit. In thisexample we can see that the speakers were tried to defendtheir turn.

5. I wasn’t talking about-um his first book that was-uhreally just like a start and so-uh isn’t-doesn’t countreally.There’s another way to defend a right to talk. You cansee that in the sixth example.

6. a. There are three points I’d like to make first…

b. There’s more than one ways to do this-one examplewould be…

c. Didn’t you know about Melvin? Oh-it was the lastOctober…

d. Did you hear Cindy’s new car?-She got it in…

• The statements in the (6a) and (6b) are related withthe fact or opinion, while the statements in (6c) and (6d) wasthe beginning.

There are some different kinds of ways to show that theywere hearing such as smile, expression and another signs. But,the most common vocal indication is backchannel signals, likein the example below.

6. Caller : If you use your long distance service a lot thenyou’ll…Marry : Uh-uh

Caller : Be interested in the discount I’m talking about,because…Marry : YeahCaller : It can only save your money to switch to acheaper service.Marry : Mmmm• These kinds of signals (‘uh-uh’, ‘yeah’, ‘mmm’) givefeed back to the speaker thatspeak, the listener follow what they’ve said and notrefuse it.

SPEAKING STYLE

There are some variations that can create somemisunderstanding. Some of individual hope that their role inthe conversation will be very active. So that most of thespeakers will relatively fast, almost without interval betweenthe turn of speak. These kinds of speaking style called withhigh involving style. It means that the speaker use slowerway, hoping for long intervals between the turn of speak.These kinds of speaking style called high solidarity style,where no need interruption and force.

ADJACENCY PAIRS

There are many kinds in the structure of dialogue,t hatare greeting, Introduce, etc.

Example: Anna: Hello Bill : Hi

Anna: How are you? Bill : Fine

Anna: See you! Bill :Bye

The name of automatic formation like that is AdjacencyPairs. There are two parts of pairs ,that are first part andsecond part which expression by to different peoples, andthere is empty statement in the second part.

Example: First part Second part

A: How are you? B: The usual

A: What’s up? B: Nothing much

The others example of adjacency pairs is expressing ofgratitude and offering/service help.

Example: First part Second part

A:Thanks B:You’re welcome

A:Could you help me with this? B:Sure

Sometimes, not all first part accept part two because there isothers statement include in there, so the pattern is:

Agent: Do you want the early flight? (Q-1)

Client: What time does it arrive? (Q-2)

Agent: Nine forty-five. (A-2)

Clint: Yeah that’s great. (A-1)

STRUCTURE OF PREFERENCE

In the structure of preference, second part divided two,that are social measure which like and social measure whichdislike.

Pattern:

First part Second part(like) (Dislike)

Value Agree Disagree

Inviting Accept Refuse

Offering Accept Refuse

Proposal Agree DisagreeRequest Accept RefuseThe answer for second part which like of the request,offering, value or proposal is agree and accept.

Example: First part Second part

A. Can you help me? Sure

B. Isn’t that really great? Yes, it is

• It’s an example that the speaker given’t like answer.

Example:Sandy : But I’m not sure they’ll have good food there. Hmmm Iguess the food isn’t great.Jack : People mostly go for the music.

• It’s an example that the second speaker give disagreestatement.

Example:

Cindy : So chiroprodists do hands I guess.

Julie : Wel out there they mostly go for the music.

• It’s an example that the second speaker which dislike isuncertain in the offering statement.

Example:

Becky : Come over for some coffee later.

Wally : OH.. I’d love to-but you see –I’m supposed to get thisfinished-you know.

Ahmad Sarifudin (1114025022)

SUMMARY CHAPTER 9

WORD AND CULTURE

The chapter before, Interpretation based on the structureof conversation, especially aspect procedure to take serve tostring the speaker, after the speaker get it, speaker muststack the structure and what they want their speak, they mustsummarize their message what they get or didn’t get it byhearer, if speaker decide to write the message, so they mustto face to give bait interactive back.

In result, must depend on mechanism structural moreexplicit to stack their text. Speaker have 2 function thatused to language they are:

1. Textual Function that compose a text that fit and goodrow.

2. Idealisional Function are describe think andexperience.

WORD ANALYSIS

Survey about range space that more wide than form andfunction that spoken and written, if analysis limit intoelements linguistic matter, so it’s focus in process note(Oral or Written) where language used to context to clarifydesire.

Generally, Interest wide in word struture this perspektifstuctural focus in topic. Example : Context explisite betweensentence into text that compose a cohesion or element toarrange text are identify explain. Specifically, study focusin aspect about how to spoken and writen, we must understandthe social interaction matter and analyze conversation tomemorize the form and structure text.

COHERENCE

Coherence in spoken and written discourse how to create it andhow to describe. Generally, user wide language are assumptioncoherence. It’s containing meaning of experience certain withindividual because experience would be certain withfamiliarity and expect.

Pressing of familiarity and knowledge as coherenceelements was needed because made interpretation was notobserve with another alternative.

Example :

Man Robs Hotel with sandwich

If you made an interpretation to that sandwich (may be intobag) sandwich used as weapon,

consider that as knowledge background was aspect by writer.

KNOWLEDGE OF BACKGROUND

Our ability to interpretation are automatic that didn’twrite or not oral based on the first knowledge structure. Thefunctions of structure are intimate point from the oldexperience used to interpretation new experience. The termgenerally is scheme. Scheme are knowledge structure before onthe mind.

If any fixed design, that sure schema, it means frame.Frame that had together by every people on social group willbecame prototype version. And then, if the characteristic ofschema type more dynamic considered, so the type more alwaysdescribed as script.

Script is knowledge structure before that involverotation system of incident. We use script for makinginterpretation about the happened of incident. Another case

became the rotation of incident that assumption for havingtogether is background of knowledge.

A script concept according to simple recognize from someact rotation that hope on an incident. Because every part ofscript explanation that assumption ready to know, may be theexplanation didn’t revealed. For member that have someculture, about script assumption that have together will givewide road for reveal without said. But the member fordifferent culture, this assumption may be it can became falseaccomplish.

CULTURE SCHEMA

Almost cannot avoid if background knowledge structure,our schema to explain the world, will be fixed by culture. Weare develop culture schema in experience context base of us.

PRAGMATIC FLASH CULTURE

Different study hope based on culture schema, is part of widefolded room that common know as pragmatic flash culture.Concept and terminology may be give based analytic skeleton,but realization of concept may be different according tosubstantial.

The different approach to connect between quality andquantity on knowing pragmatic that more comprehensive. Studyabout culture way different pronounce sometimes meanscontrastive pragmatic. The research focus according to morespecial to communicative act from people that not the originalpronouns, while try for communication on their secondlanguage.

The study like that more reveal if we speak withsomething called dialect pragmatic, is aspect that showingsomething that we assumption can understand without said.