Portrait of a Learner (1)

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 1WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Developmental and Learning Processes of Students with Special

Needs

Mathew Bowen

Mount Vernon Nazarene University

PEL 6053 - Educational Psychology


ISM003NW

Dr. Amy Biggs

April 10, 2013


Abstract

While every student develops differently and, sometimes, at an

individual pace, it has been noted that common developmental

stages and milestones are present throughout a lifetime. Past

experiences and knowledge assist in the process of constructing

new knowledge and understanding social responsibility. Further,

these experiences have a significant impact on personality and

moral development, which ultimately has an impact on learning

capabilities. In regards to students with special needs,

developmental differences will be dependent on the severity and

type of disability a student has, and common barriers and

characteristics associated with the disability should be

understood when attempting to educate these students. Further,

IEP managers should have an understanding of this, as well as the

student’s personality and developmental progress when determining

which intervention techniques should be used to facilitate

learning.


Developmental and Learning Processes of Students with

Special Needs

While every person’s development is an individual experience,

with each person having personal experiences effecting growth,

commonalities exist among the development of learners. (Ormrod, 2011).

It is through these experiences in which learners effectively learn

how to construct and organize knowledge, allowing them to build upon

what they know already to interconnect various topics and events

(Slavin, 2006). As students progress through the various developmental

stages they will routinely set new milestones and develop new ways in

which they organize information (Samartzi, 2011). According to most

developmental theorists, this remains true for every student, even

though they differ in their beliefs in how learning, personality

development and socialization are facilitated (Ormrod, 2011). In

regards to students with special needs, educators must strive to

understand the barriers and complications commonly associated with the

student’s disability, as well as the student’s personality, to best

understand the intervention methods that will fit best with the

students (Rosenberg, Sidelar & Hardman, 2004).

Development of Students with Behavioral and Learning Disabilities


While there are a vast amount of factors and influences that

affect human development, common assumptions exist in regards to all

developmental areas (Ormrod, 2011). According to Ormrod, the

developmental process is “predictable” yet individual (2011, p. 20).

While the stages of development are the typically the same for all

students, the milestones can occur times due to genetics and

environment (Samartzi, 2011). Different theories regarding cognitive,

psychosocial, moral and physical development will be discussed below,

as well as their application to both typical learners and those with

disabilities.

Cognitive Development

Theories of cognitive development.

As students get older, their cognitive abilities become more

refined and increasingly developed (Ormrod, 2011). The process of how

cognitive abilities are gained and mastered is believed to be a result

of either personal experience or environment (Ormrod, 2011). It is

suggested that students heighten competency levels and problem-solving

skills throughout their personal and educational experiences

(Samartzi, 2011). Being the basis of Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive

Development, students are better able to construct knowledge from

life-like interactions and experiences, and when the relevance is

evident to the learner they are more apt to be energetic and

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 6WITH SPECIAL NEEDSenthusiastic to learn (Ormrod, 2011). According to Samartzi (2011), as

students gain an increasingly amount knowledge as they grow older,

they become better able to apply logical reasoning and justification.

Further, knowledge organization becomes increasingly more

sophisticated, giving the students the ability to easily relate new

information and experiences to old ones or create new schemas, thus

giving students the control of their own education (Ormrod, 2011).

Unlike Piaget’s theory, Lev Vygotsky felt that parents, teachers

and other adult members of society are crucial to a child’s

development (Gredler, 2009). Vygotsky believed that children learned

best when joined in an educational experience by an adult, which

ultimately would facilitate learning and development (Ormrod, 2011).

This “sociocultural perspective” (Ormrod, 2011, p. 41) places a heavy

emphasis on cultural influence and effective knowledge construction.

New tasks should be within what Vygotsky called a learner's zone of

proximal development, which allows students to learn new tasks by

practicing with an adult to master the skill (Ormrod, 2011). As

educators, Vygotsky’s theory places an emphasis on collaboration among

a students educational influences, as parents and teachers should all

have an understanding of the direction of a pupil's’ education as well

as the student's current skill set and capabilities (Riddle, 1999).


Figure 1.1: Slavin, 2006

While Piaget and Vygotsky differed in their beliefs on how

learning is facilitated, both theories emphasized a hierarchical,

constructivist approach and recognized the effect of social influences

(Slavin, 2006). Cognitive theorists understood the profound impact of

a student’s environment on cognitive development, and even though

learning stages are somewhat predictable, all observed that learning

is also affected by socioeconomic status, level of guardian education,

and personal experiences (Ormrod, 2011). Personal experiences make

continual impressions on a student, who, according to Piaget’s Stages

of Development and Vygotzky’s scaffolding theory, are constantly

learning through constructing knowledge from these experiences

(Slavin, 2006). Also, by high school, students begin to understand how

they are best able to compartmentalize the knowledge and correlate it

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 8WITH SPECIAL NEEDSto proper schemas (Ormrod, 2011). Biologically, this is promoted by

the constant changes and refinement of neurological connections that

develop and strengthen during periods of stimulation (Healy, 2010).

Cognitive development with regards to students with special

needs.

Also evident in both theories is the understanding that

development is an individualistic process and the rate of development

will be different for all learners (Ormrod, 2011). Further, it is also

known that the style of learning is also not the same for every

student, but by having an understanding for students’ zones of

proximal development, educators can understand what tasks are

realistic for the student to achieve (Riddle, 1999). In regards to

students with special needs, this should be heavily considered when

evaluating student progress and achievement (Halfon, Houtrow, Kandyce

& Newacheck, 2012). Impairments and disabilities by definition impede

on a students ability to develop at the typical rate of an average

learner, thus making the need for educators to understand student

skills and capabilities even more important as the general norms of

development for their age range may not exemplify the specific

development (Halfon et al., 2012).

The level in which a student with special needs is able to

effectively construct and organize knowledge will vary among different

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 9WITH SPECIAL NEEDSsituations and disabilities. Physical and mental disabilities will

most likely have a profound impact on this ability, and progress is

most likely dependent on the severity of a student's disability

(Healy, 2010). For instance, these students often have weak

neurological connections and damaged receptors, which inhibits their

ability to make logical connections of related events and experiences

(Strittmatter, 2013). This inability to interconnect and organize

knowledge will effect the students learning capacity, thus making it

necessary for educators to adapt their curriculum, pedagogical

technique and the physical organization of the classroom to

accommodate for these differences (Halfon et al., 2012). All

accommodations should be arranged with the students IEP manager, as

well as discussed with the students parents, however, educators should

attempt to be proactive in taking both short-term and long-term

intervention techniques to foster positive cognitive growth in these

students.

The education community has attempted to make strides to

recognize the special needs of individual learners with measures for

inclusion and individualize education programs (IEP’s) (Ormrod, 2011).

With federal legislative measures such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB)

and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

establishing extensive training measures for special education

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 10WITH SPECIAL NEEDSteachers and inclusionary methods to intervention, educational

institutions need to set precedence to how IEP’s will be structured

for students with special needs (Ormrod, 2011). The argument for

inclusion highlights the benefits of the increased social interactions

among students and states that special needs students can learn best

through these interactions, leading to more positive behavior and

increased performance (Ormrod, 2011). Students with behavioral and

emotional disabilities, however, may not be comfortable in the social

setting of a typical classroom, as they may be apprehensive and

fearful when associating with other students, ultimately impairing the

education of that student (Rosenberg et al., 2004). This can be

limited though when effective measures are taken to limit issues

through effective IEP construction and response to intervention

(Ormrod, 2011). These measures should attempt to limit negative

behaviors by promoting growth and participation through positive

social and personal interactions (Rosenberg et al., 2004).

Psychosocial and Moral Development

According to theorists, psychosocial development is a lifelong

process where humans experience continual cognitive, personal and

social growth through life experiences and their physical growth

(Studer, 2007). However, much like cognitive development, students

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 11WITH SPECIAL NEEDSdevelop schema and organize knowledge they gain from these

experiences, which has a monumental impact on personality and moral

development (Ormrod, 2011). This social and moral growth plays a

critical role in developing a student’s personality and sense of self.

Influences on psychosocial and moral development.

Perhaps most influenced by a student’s environment are their

psychosocial characteristics, and ultimately is the leading factor in

personality and social development (Ormrod, 2011). Cultural beliefs

and parental behaviors are often major indicators in how a student

will react in any situation, and those with positive influences often

experience effective social and cognitive development (Ribeiro &

Hauser, 2009). According to Ormrod (2011), students who have close,

personal relationships in which learning is both facilitated and

encouraged with their guardians they are more likely to have positive

relationships and social interactions. This need for cognition will

likely assimilate with children, especially at a young age, which will

help establish a sufficient foundation for the child’s cognitive,

psychosocial and moral development (Njus & Johnson, 2008). Also, these

developmental characteristics will likely result in heightened levels

of self-esteem and positive self-identification (Ormrod, 2011).


By high school, these external influences have majorly impacted

the socialization on learners and help in establishing their personal

frame of reference in which they view the world around them. According

to Ormrod, students will become increasingly ideological and

explorative at this stage, although it is likely that they will also

have periods of confusion, anxiety and, possibly, depression (2011).

While these times can be rigorous on learners, they also help them

determine their identity in the world and their desire for creating

close, personal relationships.

A student’s moral reasoning will also be impacted by all of these

experiences, as well as society as a whole. According to Lawrence

Kohlberg, at this point in a students development, most should have an

understanding for the necessity of rules within society and that they

should be obeyed to contribute to the greater good of society (Ormrod,

2011). Further, to correlate with their increasing need for intimate

relationships, high school students often strive to please those close

to them by conforming actions to social norms and peer influences

(Passini, 2010).

Much like cognitive development, the theoretical observations of

psychosocial development establish that it is a never-ending process,

one that continually changes due to new experiences (Slavin, 2006).

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 13WITH SPECIAL NEEDSErik Erikson found that humans go through eight stages of development

throughout their lives, all of which play a major role in shaping

one’s sense of self (Ormrod, 2011). Throughout the eight stages a

common theme that is evident is the influence of environment and

personal relationships. Students often shape their own actions based

upon those of their peers and of the adults in their lives. Children

in from families with lower economic capabilities and education

backgrounds are more likely to display negative behaviors and

dysfunctional social skills, resulting in the need for intervention

(Mowat, 2011). Further, children from this background are often at

risk to dropout, especially when in urban or rural areas (See figure

1.2)

Social and moral development of students with special needs.

As with cognitive development, students’ psychosocial and moral

development will be dependent on the type and severity of their

respective disabilities (Lehr, Katzman, Clinton & Sullivan, 2006).

Most of these students are often behind their counterparts in their

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 14WITH SPECIAL NEEDSdevelopment due to certain characteristics that enable them to reason

in a normal manner. This can profoundly impact their relationships

with others at early ages, due to other student’s inability to

understand the impact of the disability on these students, and

sometimes leading to reclusive feelings and actions (Ormrod, 2011).

With specific, targeted interventions, however, these issues can

be limited and students with disabilities may be able to increase

their social and moral awareness. With effective character education,

teachers can help these students begin to understand societal

expectations and socially accepted behaviors (Lehr et al., 2006). To

further facilitate character development, inclusionary methods help

students with disabilities get an understanding in how their peers act

in a social setting, which often mirror the expectations of both

classroom and society rules. Inclusion should be conducted as much as

possible early in a student’s education career, however, the students

disability will determine the amount of time they will spend in a

regular classroom (IAN, 2010).


Figure 1.3: IAN Research, 2010

IAN’s research has found that students with autism or mental

handicaps often do not benefit as much as students with mild to

moderate disabilities due to their difficulty understanding the

emotions and feelings of others. Students with severe behavioral

issues can also be an issue in inclusive classrooms due to the

possibility of “externalizing behaviors” that can negatively impact

students around them (Ormrod, 2011, p. 162). For those students who

are able to cope in this setting, they are able to guide their actions

by modeling them after those of his classmates, especially those

within close proximity (IAN, 2010). Teachers should be aware of other

students who could potentially be positive role models for the

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 16WITH SPECIAL NEEDSstudents with special needs, and attempt to facilitate moral and

social growth by sitting each within close proximity of each other.

Physical Development

Perhaps more than any other category, physical development is

probably influenced the heaviest by a student’s genetics and heredity

(Mannheim, 2011). By the adolescent stage, students are at the peak of

pubescent development and will experience growth spurts, body hair

growth, breast and productive organ development and other constant

physical changes. These changes will happen constantly throughout this

stage of growth, and can be effected by external factors.

Factors impacting physical development.

Obviously, one of the greatest factors on physical development is

gender, as boys and girls have different physical compositions and

growth patterns (Spurr, Bally, Ogenchuk & Walker, 2012). Females

typically hit puberty at an earlier age than their male counterpart,

often leading to increased growth and hormonal development at a

younger age, which can have an impact on student learning (Mannheim,

2011). Also impacting physical growth is socioeconomic status, which

plays a role due to its correlation to proper nutrition. Typically,

students from families in higher economic classes often enjoy

healthier, more wholesome diets, ultimately leading to effective

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 17WITH SPECIAL NEEDSphysical growth and development (Spurr et al., 2012). However, this

impact is seen early in the student’s development.

As with other areas of development, the physical development of

students with special needs vary depending on the disability. Students

with certain physical handicaps and even mental handicaps may

experience certain physical deformations or abnormalities (Ormrod,

2011). For instance, students with Downs Syndrome often experience

growth retardation and early onset puberty, although the impact of

puberty is diminished in these students (Myrelid, Gustafsson, Ollars &

Anneren, 2002). However, the physical development of students with

behavioral and learning disabilities doesn’t typically differ from the

development of the typical student because of the minor impact of the

disability on growth functions.

Conclusion

Conclusively, when looking at students with special needs,

educators should have an understanding of their disability, current

developmental level (zone of proximal development) and background

before fully determining intervention methods to facilitate

development (Lehr et al., 2006). All of these weigh heavily on the

development of the learner both inside and outside of the classroom,

and can ultimately impact achievement. Intervention Specialists should

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 18WITH SPECIAL NEEDSbe aware of the specific complications that can exist with certain

disabilities and how they can affect learning, thus allowing them to

understand what interventions have historically been successful and

where to begin. Throughout the IEP process, especially as the student

progresses both cognitively and socially, intervention methods will

evolve to meet student progress levels and increase overall student

achievement. Further, in regards to classroom management, it is best

for teachers to understand the social and physical characteristics

that accompany the development stage of their students. This will

allow teachers to be proactive in limiting common problematic

characteristics in certain age groups, such as, high school students

can often be distracted by their personal relationships with

classmates (Ormrod, 2011). With a proactive approach and an extensive

understanding of developmental process, teachers can use growth to

enable and encourage learning.


References

Halfon, N., Houtrow, A., Kandyce, L. & Newacheck, P. W. (2012).

The changing landscape of

disability in childhood. Future of Children, 22(1), 13 - 42.

Retrieved from

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/

pdfviewer?sid=ef347c67-138a-46f6-bf26-aa0a455138cc

%40sessionmgr110&vid=2&hid=127

Healy, J. M. (2010). Different learners: Identifying, preventing, and treating

your child’s

learning problems. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Interactive Autism Network (2010). IAN back to school report 2010.

Retrieved from

http://www.iancommunity.org/cs/ian_research_reports/ian_back_to_s

chool_report_2010

Lehr, D., Katzman, L., Clinton, L. & Sullivan, E. E. (2006).

Character education and students

with disabilities. Journal of Education, 187(3)

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 20WITH SPECIAL NEEDSMannheim, J. K. (2011). Adolescent development. Retrieved from

http://www.umm.edu/

ency/article/002003.htm

Mowat, J. G. (2011). The development of intrapersonal

intelligence in pupils experiencing

social, emotional and behavioral difficulties. Educational

Psychology in Practice, 27(3), 227–253. Retrieved from

http://0web.ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/

pdfviewer/pdf viewer?sid=2d63ed3f-

dc194569a5f1a8a934792784%40session

mgr113&vid=2&hid=127

Myrelid, A., Gustafsson, J., Ollars, B. & Anneren, G. (2002).

Growth charts for Down’s

syndrome from birth to 18 years of age. Archives of Disease in

Childhood, 87(2), 97-103.

doi: 10.1136/adc/87/2/97

Njus, D. & Johnson, D. R. (2008). Need for cognition as a

predictor of psychosocial


development. Journal of Psychology, 142(6), 645-655. Retrieved

from

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?

sid=9c84c0a7-

78fd-4f67-8f7e-69cea8b1078f%40sessionmgr113&vid=2&hid=127

Ormrod, J. E. (2011). Educational psychology: Developing learners. Boston,

MA: Pearson

Education.

Passini, S. (2010). Moral reasoning in a multicultural society:

Moral inclusion and moral

exclusion. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 40(4), 435-451.

Retrieved from

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?

sid=0901d5fb-

519f-47ae-b74f-3ee2149978ba%40sessionmgr111&vid=4&hid=127

Ribeiro, L. A. & Hauser, S. T. (2009). Ego development and

psychosocial functioning in young


adults with and without psychiatric history. Journal of Adult

Development, 16(4), 263-

269. Retrieved from http://0-

web.ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer

/pdfviewer?sid=344d36ea-9296-4364-

b29a277ddee818e1%40sessionmgr104&

vid=4&hid=127

Riddle, E. M. (1999). Lev Vygotsky’s social development theory. Retrieved

from

http://funwithfcs.uvjvs.wikispaces.net/file/view/LevVygotsky.pdf

Rosenberg, M. S., Sindelar, P. T. & Hardman, M. L. (2004).

Preparing highly qualified

teachers for students with emotional or behavioral

disorders: The impact of NCLB

and IDEA. Behavioral Disorders, 29(3), 266 - 278. Retrieved

from

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/detail?

sid=529025e8-878b-4b94-a146448fc81a3a0d


%40sessionmgr115&vid=1&hid=127&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ

%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=13644087

Samartzi, S. (2011). Children’s cognitive development of lived

experienced time and physical

time. Studia Phychologica, 53(3), 307 - 311. Retrieved from

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/detail?

sid=16a7308c-e56c-4908-

809734cff44a3d86%40sessionmgr112&vid=1&hid=127&bdata=JnNpdGU

9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=67257947

Slavin, R. E. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice.

Boston, MA: Pearson Education

Spurr, S., Bally, J., Ogenchuk, M. & Walker, K. (2012). A

framework for exploring adolescent

wellness. Pediatric Nursing, 38(6), 320-326. Retrieved from

http://0-web.

ebscohost.com.library.mvnu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?

sid=e20955

fe-5ed0-4b60-9d21-4350c0298c75%40sessionmgr112&vid=4&hid=127

DEVELOPMENTAL AND LEARNING PROCESSES OF STUDENTS 24WITH SPECIAL NEEDSStrittmatter, S. M. (2013). Neural repair and plasticity. Retrieved

from

http://medicine.yale.edu/neurology/people/stephen_strittmatter-

3.profile

Studer, J. R. (2007). Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages applied

to supervision.

Guidance & Counseling, 21(3), 168-173.

Portrait of a Learner (1)

Documents

Transcript of Portrait of a Learner (1)