PHILOSOPHY101

FROMPLATOANDSOCRATESTOETHICSANDMETAPHYSICS,ANESSENTIALPRIMERONTHE

HISTORYOFTHOUGHT

PAULKLEINMAN

Avon,Massachusetts

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

PRE-SOCRATICSOCRATES(469–399B.C.)PLATO(429–347B.C.)EXISTENTIALISMARISTOTLE(384–322B.C.)THESHIPOFTHESEUSFRANCISBACON(1561–1626)THECOWINTHEFIELDDAVIDHUME(1711–1776)HEDONISMPRISONER’SDILEMMAST.THOMASAQUINAS(1225–1274)HARDDETERMINISMJEAN-JACQUESROUSSEAU(1712–1778)THETROLLEYPROBLEMREALISMIMMANUELKANT(1724–1804)DUALISMUTILITARIANISMJOHNLOCKE(1632–1704)EMPIRICISMVERSUSRATIONALISM

GEORGWILHELMFRIEDRICHHEGEL(1770–1831)RENÉDESCARTES(1596–1650)A-THEORYTHELIARPARADOXTHOMASHOBBES(1588–1679)PHILOSOPHYOFLANGUAGEMETAPHYSICSJEAN-PAULSARTRE(1905–1980)FREEWILLPHILOSOPHYOFHUMORTHEENLIGHTENMENTFRIEDRICHNIETZSCHE(1844–1900)THESORITESPARADOXLUDWIGWITTGENSTEIN(1889–1951)AESTHETICSPHILOSOPHYOFCULTUREEPISTEMOLOGYTWINEARTHARTHURSCHOPENHAUER(1788–1860)KARLMARX(1818–1883)MARTINHEIDEGGER(1889–1976)VOLTAIRE(1694–1778)RELATIVISMEASTERNPHILOSOPHYAVICENNA(980–1037)BERTRANDRUSSELL(1872–1970)PHENOMENOLOGYNOMINALISMGOTTFRIEDWILHELMLEIBNIZ(1646–1716)ETHICS

PHILOSOPHYOFSCIENCEBARUCHSPINOZA(1632–1677)PHILOSOPHYOFRELIGIONCopyright

INTRODUCTION

WhatIsPhilosophy?

Theveryquestionsoundsphilosophical,doesn’t it?Butwhatexactlydoes thatmean?Whatisphilosophy?Thewordphilosophymeans“loveofwisdom.”Indeed,itisaloveofwisdom

thatguidesphilosopherstoexplorethefundamentalquestionsaboutwhoweareandwhywe’rehere.Onthesurface,philosophyisasocialscience.Butasyouread this book, you’ll discover that it is so muchmore than that. Philosophytouchesoneverysubjectyoucouldpossiblythinkof.It’snotjustabunchofoldGreekguysaskingeachotherquestionsover andover again (though ithas itsfairshareofthataswell).Philosophyhasveryrealapplications;fromtheethicalquestions raised ingovernmentpolicy to the logic forms required in computerprogramming,everythinghasitsrootsinphilosophy.Throughphilosophy,weareabletoexploreconceptslikethemeaningoflife,

knowledge, morality, reality, the existence of God, consciousness, politics,religion,economics,art,linguistics—philosophyhasnobounds!Inaverybroadsense,therearesixmajorthemesphilosophytoucheson:

1. Metaphysics:Thestudyoftheuniverseandreality2. Logic:Howtocreateavalidargument3. Epistemology:Thestudyofknowledgeandhowweacquireknowledge4. Aesthetics:Thestudyofartandbeauty5. Politics:Thestudyofpoliticalrights,government,andtheroleofcitizens

6. Ethics:Thestudyofmoralityandhowoneshouldlivehislife

Ifyou’veeverthought,“Oh,philosophy.I’llneverbeabletounderstandthatstuff,” thenfearnot.This is thecrashcourse inphilosophythatyou’vealwayswanted. Finally, you’ll be able to open your mind without making your eyesbleed.WelcometoPhilosophy101.

PRE-SOCRATIC

TheoriginsofWesternphilosophy

TherootsofWesternphilosophycanbefoundintheworkofGreekphilosophersduringthefifthandsixthcenturies.Thesephilosophers,laterreferredtoaspre-Socratic,startedtoquestiontheworldaroundthem.Ratherthanattributingtheirsurroundings to theGreekgods, thesephilosophers searched formore rationalexplanationsthatcouldexplaintheworld,theuniverse,andtheirexistence.Thiswasaphilosophyofnature.Pre-Socraticphilosophersquestionedwhere

everythingcamefrom,whateverythingwascreatedfrom,hownaturecouldbedescribedmathematically,andhowonecouldexplaintheexistenceofpluralityinnature.Theysoughttofindaprimaryprinciple,knownasarchê,whichwasthe basic material of the universe. Due to the fact that not everything in theuniverse looks the same or remains in the same exact state, pre-Socraticphilosophersdetermined that theremustbeprinciplesofchange that thearchêcontained.

WHATDOESPRE-SOCRATICMEAN?

Thetermpre-Socratic,meaning“beforeSocrates,”waspopularizedin1903byGerman scholar Hermann Diels. Socrates was actually alive during the sametimeasmanyof thepre-Socraticphilosophers,and therefore the termdoesnotimplythatthesephilosophiesexistedpriortothoseofSocrates.Rather,thetermpre-Socratic relates to the difference in ideology and principles.While manypre-Socraticphilosophersproducedtexts,nonehavefullysurvivedandmostofwhat we understand about the pre-Socratic philosophers is based on thefragmentsoftextthatremainandthequotesoflaterhistoriansandphilosophers,whichwereusuallybiased.

IMPORTANTPRE-SOCRATICSCHOOLS

TheMilesianSchoolThe first pre-Socratic philosophers existed in the city ofMiletus, along the

westerncoastofAnatolia(modernTurkey).FromMiletuscamethreeimportantpre-Socraticphilosophers:Thales,Anaximander,andAnaximenes.

ThalesOneof themost importantpre-Socraticphilosophers,Thales (624–546b.c.),

claimed the archê, or the single element, was water. Thales determined thatwatercouldexperienceprinciplesofchangelikeevaporationandcondensation,therefore allowing for it to be gaseous or solid.He also knew thatwaterwasresponsible for moisture (which heat was generated from) and nourishment.Thalesevenbelievedtheearthfloatedonwater.

AnaximanderFollowing Thales, the next major philosopher to come out of Miletus was

Anaximander (610–546 b.c.). Unlike Thales, Anaximander claimed the singleelementwasactuallyanundefined,unlimited,and indefinitesubstance,knownasapeiron.Fromthis,opposites likemoistanddryandcoldandhotseparatedfromeachother.Anaximanderisknownforbeingthefirstphilosopherthatweknowoftohaveleftwritingsofhiswork.

AnaximenesThe last important pre-Socratic philosopher of the Milesian school was

Anaximenes(585–528b.c.),whobelievedthesingleelementwasair.AccordingtoAnaximenes,air iseverywhereandhas theability toundergoprocessesandbecometransformedintootherthings,suchaswater,clouds,wind,fire,andeventheearth.

ThePythagoreanSchool

Philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras (570–497 b.c.), perhaps mostfamousforthePythagoreantheoremnamedafterhim,believedthatthebasisofallrealitywasmathematicalrelationsandthatmathematicsgovernedeverything.To Pythagoras, numbers were sacred, and with the use of mathematics,everything could be measured and predicted. The impact and image ofPythagoraswasastounding.Hisschoolwascult-like,withfollowerslisteningtohiseveryword…andevenhisstrangerules,whichcoveredanythingfromwhatand what not to eat, how to dress, and even how to urinate. Pythagorasphilosophizedonmanyareas,andhisstudentsbelievedthathisteachingswerethepropheciesofthegods.

TheEphesianSchoolThe Ephesian school was based on the work of one man, Heraclitus of

Ephesus (535–475 b.c.). Heraclitus believed that everything in nature isconstantly changing, or in a state of flux. He is perhapsmost famous for hisnotionthatonecannotstepinthesamerivertwice.Heraclitusbelievedthatthesingleelementwasfireandthateverythingwasamanifestationoffire.

TheEleaticSchoolThe Eleatic school was based in Colophon, an ancient city not far from

Miletus. From this region came four important pre-Socratic philosophers:Xenophanes,Parmenides,Zeno,andMelissus.

XenophanesofColophonXenophanes (570–475 b.c.) is known for his critique of religion and

mythology. In particular, he attacked the notion that the gods wereanthropomorphic (or tookahuman form).Xenophanesbelieved therewasonegodthat,whileitdidnotphysicallymove,hadtheabilitytohear,see,andthink,andcontrolledtheworldwithhisthoughts.

ParmenidesofElea

Parmenides (510–440b.c.)believed realitydidn’thave todowith theworldone experienced and that itwas only through reason, not the senses, that onewould be able to arrive at the truth. Parmenides concluded that the work ofearlierMilesianphilosopherswasnotonlyunintelligible; theywereasking thewrongquestionstobeginwith.ToParmenides,itmadenosensetodiscusswhatisandwhat isnot, for theonly intelligible thing todiscuss,and theonly thingthatistrue,iswhatis(whatexists).ParmenideshadanincredibleimpactonPlatoandallofWesternphilosophy.

HisworkledtheschoolofEleatobecomethefirstmovementtousepurereasonastheonlycriterionforfindingtruth.

ZenoofEleaZeno of Elea (490–430 b.c.) was Parmenides’ most famous student (and

possibly his lover), who devoted his time to creating arguments (known asparadoxes)thatdefendedParmenides’ideas.InZeno’smostfamousparadoxes,the paradoxes ofmotion, he attempted to show that ontological pluralism, thenotionthatmanythingsexistasopposedtoone,willactuallyleadtoconclusionsthatareabsurd.ParmenidesandZenobelievedthatrealityexistedasonething,and that things like plurality and motion were nothing more than illusions.Though the work of Zeno would later be disproved, his paradoxes still raiseimportant questions, challenges, and inspirations for philosophers, physicists,andmathematicians.

MelissusofSamosMelissusofSamos,wholivedaround440b.c.,wasthelastphilosopherofthe

Eleaticschool.ContinuingtheideasofParmenidesandZenoofElea,MelissusofSamosdistinguishedbetweenisandseems.Whenathing isX,accordingtoMelissus of Samos, it has to always be X (and never not X). Therefore,accordingtothisidea,whensomethingiscold,itcanneverstopbeingcold.Butsince this is not the case, and properties are not retained indefinitely, nothing

(exceptfortheParmenideanReal,realityexistingasonecontinuous,unchangingthing)actuallyeveris;rather,itseems.

TheAtomistSchoolTheAtomistschool,startedbyLeucippusinthefifthcenturyb.c.andpassed

down by his student,Democritus (460–370 b.c.), believed that every physicalobjectismadeupofatomsandvoid(emptyspacethatatomsmovein)thatarearrangedindifferentways.This idea isnot toofarfromtheconceptsofatomsthat we know today. This school believed that atoms were incredibly smallparticles(sosmallthattheycouldnotbecutinhalf)thatdifferedinsize,shape,motion, arrangement, and position, and that when put together, these atomscreatedwhatisseeninthevisibleworld.

SOCRATES(469–399B.C.)

Thegame-changer

Socrates was born in Athens, Greece, around 469 b.c. and died in 399 b.c.Whereaspre-Socraticphilosophersexaminedthenaturalworld,Socratesplacedemphasis on the human experience. He focused on individual morality,questionedwhatmadeagoodlife,anddiscussedsocialandpoliticalquestions.His work and his ideas became the foundation ofWestern philosophy.WhileSocratesiswidelyregardedasoneofthewisestmentohaveeverlived,heneverwrotedownanyofhisthoughts,andallthatweknowabouthimisbasedonthewrittenworks of his students and contemporaries (mainly theworks of Plato,Xenophon,andAristophanes).Becauseeverything thatweknowaboutSocrates isbasedonaccounts from

others (which were often fictionalized) and these accounts differ, we do notactuallyknowmuchabouthimorhisteachings.Thisisknownasthe“Socraticproblem.”Fromthetextsofothers,weareabletogatherthathewasthesonofastonemasonandamidwife;hemostlikelyhadabasicGreekeducation;hewasnot aesthetically good-looking (during a time when external beauty was veryimportant);heservedinthemilitaryduringthePeloponnesianWar;hehadthreesons with a much younger woman; and he lived in poverty. He might haveworkedasastonemasonbeforeturningtophilosophy.The one detail that has beenwell documented, however, is Socrates’ death.

While Socrates was alive, the state of Athens began to decline. HavingembarrassinglylosttoSpartainthePeloponnesianWar,Athenshadanidentitycrisis of sorts and became fixated on physical beauty, ideas of wealth, andromanticizingthepast.BecauseSocrateswasanoutspokencriticofthiswayoflife, he grew to have many enemies. In 399 b.c., Socrates was arrested andbroughttotrialwithchargesofbeingunreligiousandcorruptingthecity’syouth.Socrates was found guilty and was sentenced to death by poisonous drink.

Ratherthanfleeintoexile(whichhehadthechancetodo),Socratesdrankthepoisonwithoutanyhesitation.

SOCRATES’CONTRIBUTIONTOPHILOSOPHY

A quote often attributed to Socrates is, “The unexamined life is not worthliving.”Socratesbelieved that inorder foraperson tobewise, that individualmust be able to understand himself. To Socrates, an individual’s actionsweredirectly related to his intelligence and ignorance. He believed people shoulddeveloptheirself,ratherthanconcentrateonmaterialobjects,andhesoughttounderstandthedifferencebetweenactinggoodandbeinggood.Itwasinthenewanduniquewaythatheapproachedknowledge,consciousness,andmoralitythatSocrateswouldforeverchangephilosophy.

TheSocraticMethodSocrates is perhapsmost famous for hisSocraticmethod.First described in

Plato’sSocraticDialogues,Socratesandapupilwouldhaveadiscussiononaparticular issue, and through a series of questions, Socrates would set out todiscover the driving force behind how that individual’s beliefs and sentimentswere shaped and in so doing, get closer to the truth. By continually askingquestions,Socrateswasable toexposecontradictions in thewayan individualthought,whichallowedhimtocometoasolidconclusion.Socratesusedtheelenchus,amethodinwhichhewouldrefutetheclaimsof

theotherperson.Herearethestepsoftheelenchus:

1. AnindividualwouldassertastatementtoSocrates,whichSocrateswouldthenrefute.Or,Socratesmightasktheotherpersonaquestion,suchas,“Whatiscourage?”

2. Oncetheotherpersonprovideshisanswer,Socrateswouldthinkofascenariowherehisanswerwasnotthecase,askinghimtoassumehisoriginalstatementwasfalse.Forexample,iftheotherpersondescribescourageas“enduranceofthesoul,”Socratesmightrefutethisclaimbysayingthat“Courageisafinething,”while“Ignorantenduranceisnotafinething.”

3. Theotherpersonwouldagreewiththisclaim,andSocrateswouldthenchangethestatementtoincludetheexceptiontotherule.

4. Socratesprovesthattheindividual’sstatementisfalseandthatthenegationisinfacttrue.Astheotherpersoncontinuestoalterhisanswer,Socratescontinuesrefuting,andthroughthis,theindividual’sanswergetsclosertotheactualtruth.

TheSocraticMethodTodayThe Socratic method is still widely used to this day, most notably in law

schoolsthroughouttheUnitedStates.First,astudentwillbeaskedtosummarizeajudge’sargument.Then,thestudentwillbeaskedifheagreeswiththejudge’sargument.Theprofessorwill thenactasdevil’sadvocatebyaskingaseriesofquestionstomakethestudentdefendhisdecision.ByusingtheSocraticmethod,studentsareabletostartthinkingcriticallyand

using logic and reasoning to create their arguments, while also finding andpatchingupholesintheirpositions.

PLATO(429–347B.C.)

OneofthefoundersofWesternphilosophy

PlatowasborninAthens,Greece,around429b.c.toparentswhoweremembersoftheGreekaristocracy.Becauseofhissocialclass,Platowastaughtbymanydistinguishededucators.However,noindividualwouldhaveasgreatanimpactonhimasSocratesandhisability todebateandcreateadialogue. In fact, thewritten works of Plato are where much of the information we know aboutSocratescomesfrom.Whilehewasexpectedbyhisfamilytopursueacareerinpolitics,twoevents

would lead Plato away from this lifestyle: the PeloponnesianWar (in which,uponSparta’svictory,severalofPlato’srelativeswerepartofadictatorship,butwereremovedforbeingcorrupt)andtheexecutionofSocratesin399b.c.bythenewAtheniangovernment.Plato then turned toward philosophy and began writing and traveling. He

studiedunderPythagoras inSicily and,upon returning toAthens, founded theAcademy, a school where he and other likeminded individuals taught anddiscussedphilosophyandmathematics.AmongPlato’sstudentswasAristotle.

PLATO’SPHILOSOPHYTHROUGHWRITTENCONVERSATIONS

Like Socrates, Plato believed philosophy was a process of continuousquestioninganddialogues,andhiswritingappearedinthisformat.TwoofthemostinterestingthingsaboutthesedialoguesarethatPlato’sown

opinions on the subject matters he wrote about were never explicitly stated(thoughwithin-depthresearch,onemightbeabletoinferhisstance)andthathewasneveracharacterinhiswriting.Platowantedreaderstohavetheabilityto

formtheirownopinionsonthesubjectsandnotbetoldhowtothink(thisalsoproveshowskillfulawriterhewas).Forthisreason,manyofhisdialoguesdonot reach a concise conclusion. Those that do, however, allow for possiblecounterargumentsanddoubts.Plato’sdialoguesdealtwithavarietyofsubjectmatters,includingthingssuch

asart,theater,ethics,immortality,themind,andmetaphysics.There are at least thirty-six dialogues written by Plato, as well as thirteen

letters(thoughhistoriansdisputetheletters’authenticity).

THETHEORYOFFORMS

Oneof themost importantconceptsPlatodevelopedwashis theoryofForms.Platostatesthatrealityexistsontwospecificlevels:

1. Thevisibleworldthatismadeupofsightsandsounds2. Theintelligibleworld(theworldofForms)thatgivesthevisibleworldits

being

For example, when a person sees a beautiful painting, that person has theabilitytoidentifybeautybecausehehasanabstractconceptofwhatbeautyis.Therefore,beautiful thingsare seenasbeautifulbecause theyareapartof theForm of beauty.While things in the visible world can change and lose theirbeauty,theFormofbeautyiseternal,neverchanges,andcannotbeseen.Platobelievedthatconceptslikebeauty,courage,goodness,temperance,and

justiceexist inanentireworldofForms,outsideofspaceandtime,unaffectedbywhathappensinthevisibleworld.WhiletheideaofFormsappearsinmanyofPlato’sdialogues,Plato’sconcept

of Forms differs from text to text, and sometimes these differences are never

completely explained. Through Plato’s theory of Forms, Plato incorporatesabstractthoughtasameanstoachieveagreaterknowledge.

THETRIPARTITETHEORYOFTHESOUL

InTheRepublicandanotherwell-knowndialogue,Phaedrus,Platodiscusseshisunderstandingof rationality and the soul.The soul, according toPlato, canbebrokendownintothreeparts:reason,spirit,andappetite.

1. Reason:Thisisthepartofthesoulresponsibleforthinkingandunderstandingwhensomethingistrueversusfalse,realversusnotapparent,andmakingrationaldecisions.

2. Spirit:Thisisthepartofthesoulresponsibleforalldesiresthatwantvictoryandhonor.Ifanindividualhasajustsoul,thespiritshouldenforcereasonsothatreasonleads.Frustrationofthespiritwillleadtofeelingsofangerandfeelingmistreated.

3. Appetite:Thisisthepartofthesoulwhereverybasiccravingsanddesirescomefrom.Forexample,thingslikethirstandhungercanbefoundinthispartofthesoul.However,theappetitealsofeaturesunnecessaryandunlawfulurges,likeovereatingorsexualexcess.

Toexplainthesedifferentpartsofthesoul,Platofirstlookedatthreedifferentclassesinajustsociety:Guardian,Auxiliary,andLaborers.AccordingtoPlato,reason should rule an individual’s decisions; spirit should aid reason; andappetiteshouldobey.Bymaintainingtherelationshipamongthesethreepartsinthecorrectway,anindividualwillachieveindividualjustice.Similarly,Platobelievedthatinaperfectsociety,reasonwouldberepresented

byaGuardianclass(rulerswholedbasedonphilosophy,whichsocietywouldwholeheartedly follow); spirit would be represented by the Auxiliary class

(soldierswhowould force the restof society toobey theGuardianclass); andappetitewould be represented by the Laborers, theworkers andmerchants ofsociety.

THEIMPORTANCEOFEDUCATION

Platoplacedgreatemphasisontheroleofeducationandbelievedittobeoneofthemostimportantpiecesincreatingahealthystate.Platosawthevulnerabilityof a child’smind and understood how easily it could bemolded.He believedchildrenshouldbetaughtearlyontoalwaysseekwisdomandtoliveavirtuouslife.Platoevenwentsofaras tocreatedetaileddirectionsonwhatexercisesapregnantwomancouldperformsothatshewouldhaveahealthyfetusandwhattypesofartandexercisechildrenshouldimmersethemselvesin.ToPlato,whoconsidered the Athenian people to be corrupt, easily seduced, and gullible torhetoric,educationwasessentialtohavingajustsociety.

PLATO’SCAVE

Knowledgeversusthesenses

Inoneofhismostwell-knowntexts,TheRepublic,Platosetsouttodemonstratehow human perception existswithout anyone being aware of the existence ofForms, and how true knowledge is only gained through philosophy. Anyknowledgegainedbythesensesisnotknowledgeatall,butsimplyopinion.

THEALLEGORY

TheAllegoryoftheCavereadsasaconversationbetweenSocratesandPlato’sbrother, Glaucon. In the dialogue, Socrates asks Glaucon to imagine a worldwhere an illusion is perceived as reality. To further his point, he creates thefollowingexample:There exists a cavewhere, inside, a group of prisoners has been locked up

sincebirth.Theseprisoners cannotmove.Theirnecksand legsare chained sothattheycan’tshiftorturnaroundandtheycanonlyseewhatisinfrontofthem:astonewall.Behindandabovetheprisonersisafire,andbetweenthefireandtheprisoners isa lowwallwherepeoplewalk,carryingobjectsontheirheads.The lightof the fire casts shadowsof theobjectsonto thewall in frontof theprisoners. These shadows are all the prisoners can see. The only sounds theyheararetheechoesfromthecave.Now,because theseprisonershaveneverbeenexposed to theactualobjects

and all their lives they have only witnessed the shadows, they mistake theseshadowsforreality.Theechoesof thecave, to them,arenoisescreatedby theshadows. If a shadow of a bookwere to appear, for example, these prisonerswouldclaimthattheyhaveseenabook.Theyarenotsayingthisisashadowofa book, because their reality doesn’t know shadows. Eventually, one of theprisonerswouldunderstandthenatureofthisworldandwouldbeabletoguesswhatshadowwouldcomenext,whichwouldleadtopraiseandrecognitionfromtheotherprisoners.Now,let’ssupposeoneof theprisoners issetfree.Ifapersonweretoshow

thatprisoneranactualbook, theprisonerwouldnotbeabletorecognizeit.Totheprisoner,abook is the shadow thatwascaston thewall.The illusionofabookseemsmorerealthanthebookitself.Socratescontinues,ponderingwhatwouldhappenifthatfreedprisonerwere

tothenturntowardthefire.Theprisonerwouldsurelyturnawayfromsomuch

lightandturnbacktothedarkshadows,whichheholdstobemorereal.Now,what if this was taken one step further, and the prisoner was forced to gooutside?Theprisonerwouldbeangry,distressed,andunable to see the realitybeforehimbecausehewouldbesoblindedbythelight.

Plato’sAllegoryoftheCaveinPopularCulture

If thisstorysoundsvaguelyfamiliar, that’sbecauseyoumighthaveseen some variation of it before. The 1999blockbustermovieTheMatrix is loosely based on Plato’s Allegory of the Cave. To quoteKeanuReeves’scharacterNeo,“Whoa.”

Afteralittlewhile,however,theprisonerwouldadjustandunderstandthattherealityinthecavewasincorrect.Hewouldlooktowardthesunandunderstandthatthisentitywaswhatcreatedseasons,years,andeverythingthatwasvisiblein thisworld(andwaseven thecauseofwhatheandhis fellowprisonershadbeenseeinginthecavetoacertainextent).Theprisonerwouldnotlookbackatthosedaysinthecavewithfondmemories,forhewouldnowunderstandthathisformer perceptionwas not actually reality. The freed prisoner then decides toreturntothecaveandsettheothersfree.Whentheprisonerreturns,hestrugglesto adjust to the darkness of the cave. The other prisoners find this behaviorstartling (for thedarknessof thecave is still theironly reality), and insteadofofferingpraise, they findhim tobe stupid andwill not believewhat the freedprisoner has to say.The prisoners threaten to kill the freed prisoner if he setsthemfree.

WHATITMEANS

PlatocomparestheprisonerschainedinsidethecavetopeoplethatareunawareofhistheoryofForms.Peoplemistaketheappearanceofwhatisinfrontofthemas reality and live in ignorance (and quite happily, for ignorance is all thesepeople know). However, when parts of the truth start to emerge, it can befrighteningandcanmakepeoplewant to turnback. Ifonedoesnot turnawayfromthetruthandcontinuestoseekit,hewillhaveabetterunderstandingoftheworldaroundhim(andwillneverbeable to return to that stateof ignorance).Thefreedprisonerrepresentsthephilosopher,seekingagreatertruthoutsideoftheperceivedreality.AccordingtoPlato,whenpeopleuselanguage,theyarenotnamingphysical

objects thatcanbeseen; rather, theyarenamingsomething thatcan’tbeseen.These names correlate to things that can only be grasped in the mind. Theprisoner believed that the shadowof a bookwas actually a bookuntil hewasfinallyabletoturnaroundandseethetruth.Now,replacetheideaofabookwithsomethingmoresubstantial,likethenotionofjustice.Plato’stheoryofFormsiswhat allows people to finally turn around and discover the truth. In essence,knowledgegainedthroughthesensesandperceptionisnotknowledgeatall,butopinion. It is only through philosophical reasoning that one is able to pursueknowledge.

EXISTENTIALISM

Theindividualandthehumanexperience

Existentialism is not a school of thought so much as a trend that appearsthroughout philosophy during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Prior tothis time, philosophical thought had grown to become increasingly morecomplex and abstract. In dealing with ideas of nature and truth, philosophersbegantoexcludetheimportanceofhumanbeings.However, starting with Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche in the

nineteenthcentury, severalphilosophersemergedplacinganewfoundfocusonthe human experience. Though there are significant differences betweenphilosophersofexistentialism(atermthatwouldnotbeuseduntilthetwentiethcentury),theonecommonthemeamongallofthemisthenotionthatphilosophyshouldfocusontheexperienceofhumanexistenceinthisworld.Inotherwords,existentialismseeksoutthemeaningoflifeandfindingoneself.

COMMONTHEMESOFEXISTENTIALISM

Thoughexistentialist thoughtvaries fromphilosopher tophilosopher, there areseveral common themes. One of the key ideas of existentialism is that themeaning of life and discovering oneself can only be attained by free will,personalresponsibility,andchoice.

TheIndividualExistentialismdealswith thequestionofwhat itmeans toexist as ahuman

being.Existentialistsbelieve thathumanshavebeen thrown into thisuniverse,and therefore it is existing in this world, and not consciousness, that is theultimate reality.Aperson is an individualwhohas the ability to think and act

independently and should be defined by his actual life. It is through anindividual’sownconsciousnessthatvaluesandpurposearedetermined.

ChoiceExistentialistphilosophersbelievethatallhumanshavefreewill.Theability

tohavefreewill leadstolifechoices.Structuresandvaluesofsocietyhavenocontrolover aperson.Personal choices areunique to every individual andarebasedonoutlook,beliefs,andexperiences,notexternalforcesorsociety.Basedonthesechoices,peoplebegin todiscoverwhoandwhat theyare.There isnopurpose for desires such as wealth, honor, or pleasure, for these are notresponsibleforhavingagoodlife.Thenotionofpersonalresponsibilityisakeycomponentofexistentialism.It

is entirelyup to the individual tomakedecisions—and thesedecisionsarenotwithouttheirownconsequencesandstress.However,itisinthemomentswhenanindividualfightsagainsthisverynaturethatheisathisbest.Inessence,theverychoiceswemake in lifedetermineournature,and thereare things in thisworldthatareunnaturalandirrational.

AnxietyExistentialists place great emphasis on moments when truths about our

existence and nature bring a new awareness into what life means. Theseexistential moments of crisis produce feelings of anxiety, angst, and dreadafterward,andare the resultof the freedomand independent responsibilityweallhave.Because humans have been thrown into this universe, there is a certain

meaninglessness to our existence.Our freedommeanswe are uncertain of thefuture, and our lives are determined by the choices wemake.We believewehave an understanding about the universe around us, and when we discoversomethingthattellsusdifferently,weexperienceanexistentialcrisisthatforces

ustore-evaluateaspectsofourlives.Theonlywaytohavemeaningandvalueisthroughmakingchoicesandtakingresponsibility.

AuthenticityTo be authentic, one must truly be in harmony with his freedom. In

existentialism, the notion of authenticity means really coming to terms withoneself,andthenlivingaccordingly.Onemustbeabletocometotermswithhisidentity while also not letting his background and history play a part in hisdecision-makingprocess.Makingchoicesshouldbedonebasedonone’svalues,sothatthereisaresponsibilitythatcomeswiththedecision-makingprocess.Ifonedoesnotlivewithinabalanceofhisfreedom,heisinauthentic.Itisin

the inauthentic experience that people allow ideas like determinism, believingchoices aremeaningless, and acting as “one should” to persuade their choice-making.

TheAbsurdAbsurdityisoneofthemostfamousnotionsaffiliatedwithexistentialism.Itis

oftenarguedinexistentialismthatthereisnoreasontoexistandthatnaturehasno design. While sciences and metaphysics might be able to provide anunderstandingofthenaturalworld,theseprovidemoreofadescriptionthananactual explanation, and don’t provide any insight into meaning or value.Accordingtoexistentialism,ashumans,weshouldcometotermswiththisfactandrealizethattheabilitytounderstandtheworldisimpossibletoachieve.Theworldhasnomeaningotherthanthemeaningthatweprovideit.Furthermore, if an individual makes a choice, it is based on a reason.

However,sinceonecannevertrulyunderstandmeaning,thereasoningisabsurd,andsotooisthedecisiontofollowthroughwiththechoice.

RELIGIONANDEXISTENTIALISM

While thereare somevery famousChristianand Jewishphilosopherswhouseexistentialist themes in their work, on the whole, existentialism is commonlyassociated with atheism. This does not mean that all atheists are necessarilyexistentialists; rather, those who subscribe to existentialist thought are oftenatheists.Whyisthisthecase?ExistentialismdoesnotsetouttoprovethatGoddoesor

does not exist. Rather, the main ideas and themes of existentialism (such ascomplete freedom) simplydonotmeshwellwith thenotionof therebeinganomnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent being. Even thoseexistentialists who maintain a belief in a higher being agree that religion issuspicious. Existentialism asks human beings to search and discover theirmeaning and purpose fromwithin themselves, and this is not possible if theybelieveinsomeexternalforcecontrollinghumanity.

ARISTOTLE(384–322B.C.)

Wisdomstartswithunderstandingyourself

Aristotle was born around 384 b.c. Though little is known about his mother,Aristotle’s fatherwascourtphysician to theMacedoniankingAmyntas II (theconnectionandaffiliationwiththeMacedoniancourtwouldcontinuetoplayanimportantrolethroughoutAristotle’slife).BothofAristotle’sparentsdiedwhenhe was young, and at the age of seventeen, Aristotle’s guardian sent him toAthenstopursueahighereducation.ItwasinAthensthatAristotlewouldenrollinPlato’sAcademyandstudyunderPlato.Hewouldremainthereforthenexttwentyyears,studyingwithPlatoasbothastudentandcolleague.WhenPlatodiedin347b.c.,manybelievedAristotlewouldtakehisplaceas

directoroftheAcademy.However,bythattime,Aristotlehaddifferingviewsonseveral of Plato’s works (for example, he disagreed with Plato’s theory ofForms),andAristotlewasnotofferedtheposition.In338b.c.,AristotlereturnedtoMacedoniaandbegantutoring the thirteen-

year-oldsonofKingPhilipII,Alexander(laterknownas“theGreat”).When,in335 b.c., Alexander became king and conqueredAthens,Aristotle returned toAthens.WhilePlato’sAcademy (whichwasnowdirectedbyXenocrates)wasstillthemajorschoolinthecity,Aristotledecidedtocreatehisownschool,theLyceum.With the death of Alexander the Great in 323 b.c., the government was

overthrownandanti-Macedoniansentimentwashigh.Facingchargesofimpiety,Aristotle fledAthens to avoidbeingprosecuted and remainedon the islandofEuboeauntilhisdeathin322b.c.

LOGIC

WhileAristotlefocusedonmanydifferentsubjects,oneofhismostsignificantcontributionstotheworldofphilosophyandWesternthoughtwashiscreationoflogic. ToAristotle, the process of learning could be placed into three distinctcategories:theoretical,practical,andproductive.Logic,however,didnotbelongtoanyoneofthesecategories.Instead,logicwasatoolusedtoattainknowledge,andwasthereforethevery

first step in the learning process. Logic enables us to discover errors andestablishtruths.Inhisbook,PriorAnalytics,Aristotleintroducedthenotionofthesyllogism,

which turnedout tobeoneof themost important contributions to the fieldoflogic.Asyllogismisatypeofreasoningwherebyaconclusioncanbededucedbasedonaseriesofspecificpremisesorassumptions.Forexample:

AllGreekpeoplearehuman.Allhumansaremortal.Therefore,allGreekpeoplearemortal.

To further break down what a syllogism is, one can summarize it in thefollowingway:

IfallXareY,andallYareZ,thenallXareZ.

Syllogismsaremadeupofthreepropositions:thefirsttwoarepremises;thelastistheconclusion.Premisescaneitherbeuniversal(usingwordslikeevery,all,orno)orparticular(forexample,usingthewordsome),andtheycanalsobeaffirmativeornegative.Aristotle then set out to create a set of rules that would produce a valid

inference.Oneclassicexampleis:

Atleastonepremisehastobeuniversal.

Atleastonepremisehastobeaffirmative.Ifoneofthepremisesisnegative,theconclusionwillbenegative.

Forexample:

Nodogsarebirds.Parrotsarebirds.Therefore,nodogsareparrots.

Aristotlebelievedthreerulesappliedtoallvalidthoughts:

1. Thelawofidentity:ThislawstatesthatXisX,andthisholdstruebecauseXhascertaincharacteristics.Atreeisatreebecausewecanseetheleaves,thetrunk,thebranches,andsoon.Atreedoesnothaveanotheridentityotherthanatree.Therefore,everythingthatexistshasitsowncharacteristicstruetoitself.

2. Thelawofnoncontradiction:ThislawstatesXcan’tbeXandnotXsimultaneously.Astatementcanneverbetrueandfalseattheexactsametime.Ifthiswerethecase,acontradictionwouldarise.Ifyouweretosayyoufedthecatyesterdayandthensayyoudidnotfeedthecatyesterday,thereisacontradiction.

3. Thelawoftheexcludedmiddle:Thislawclaimsastatementcanbeeithertrueorfalse;therecannotbemiddleground.Thislawalsoclaimssomethinghastoeitherbetrueorbefalse.Ifyousayyourhairisblond,thestatementiseithertrueorfalse.However,laterphilosophersandmathematicianswoulddisputethislaw.

METAPHYSICS

Aristotle rejected Plato’s theory of Forms. Instead, Aristotle’s response tounderstanding thenatureofbeingwasmetaphysics (thoughheneverused thisword,insteadcalingit“firstphilosophy”).While Plato saw a difference between the intelligible world (made up of

thoughts and ideas) and the sensibleworld (madeupofwhat couldvisiblybeseen) and believed the intelligible world was the only true form of reality,Aristotle believed separating the two would remove all meaning. Instead,Aristotle believed the world was made up of substances that could either beform,matter,orboth,andthatintelligibilitywaspresentinallthingsandbeings.Aristotle’sMetaphysicsiscomposedoffourteenbooksthatwerelatergrouped

together by editors. It is considered to be one of the greatest works everproduced on the subject of philosophy.Aristotle believed that knowledgewasmadeupofspecifictruthsthatpeoplegainfromexperience,aswellasthetruthsthatarisefromscienceandart.Wisdom,asopposedtoknowledge,iswhenoneunderstandsthefundamentalprinciplesthatgovernallthings(thesearethemostgeneraltruths)andthentranslatesthisinformationintoscientificexpertise.Aristotlebreaksdownhowthingscometobethroughfourcauses:

1. Thematerialcause:Thisexplainswhatsomethingismadeof.2. Theformalcause:Thisexplainswhatformsomethingtakes.3. Theefficientcause:Thisexplainstheprocessofhowsomethingcomes

intobeing.4. Thefinalcause:Thisexplainsthepurposesomethingserves.

While other sciences might study reasons for a particular manifestation ofbeing(forexample,abiologistwouldstudyhumanswithregardto thembeingorganisms, while a psychologist would study humans as beings withconsciousness),metaphysicsexaminesthereasonwhythereisbeinginthefirstplace.Forthisreason,metaphysicsisoftendescribedas“thestudyofbeingquabeing”(quaisLatinfor“insofaras”).

VIRTUE

Another one of Aristotle’s most impactful works was Ethics. According toAristotle,thepurposeofethicsistodiscoverthepurposeoflife.Aristotlecomesto realize that happiness is the ultimate and final good and that people pursuegood things in order to achieve happiness. Aristotle claimed that the way toattainhappiness(andthereforetheverypurposeoflife)isthroughvirtue.Virtuerequiresbothchoiceandhabit.Unlikeotherwaystoattainhappiness,

suchaspleasureorhonor,withvirtue,whenanindividualmakesadecision,thedecisioncomes from that individual’sdisposition,which isdeterminedby thatperson’spastchoices.Avirtuouschoice is, then, themeanbetween the twomostextremechoices.

Betweenactingcoldtosomeoneandbeingoverlysubservientorattentiveisthevirtuouschoice,friendliness.To Aristotle, the ultimate type of happiness is living a life of intellectual

contemplation, and using reason (which is what separates humans from otheranimals)isthehighestformofvirtue.However,foronetoachievesuchalevelof virtue, a person needs the proper social environment, and a proper socialenvironmentcanonlybeattainedbyanappropriategovernment.

THESHIPOFTHESEUS

Whenisashipnolongerthesameship?

To understand the classic paradox of the ship of Theseus, one must firstunderstandwhataparadoxis.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

PARADOX:Inphilosophy,aparadoxisastatementthatbeginswithapremise thatseemstrue;however,upon further investigation, theconclusion ends up proving that the seemingly true premise isactuallyfalse.

ThefirsttimetheshipofTheseusparadoxappearedinprintwasinthewritingof the ancient Greek philosopher (and Platonist) Plutarch. Plutarch writes ofTheseus (the founder-king of Athens) returning from a long voyage at sea.Throughout the voyage, all of the old, decaying planks ofwood the shipwasmadeofwerethrownoverboardandreplacedwithnew,strongpiecesofwood.BythetimeTheseusandhiscrewfinallyreturnedfromtheirtrip,everypieceofwoodthattheshipwasmadefromhadbeenreplaced.Thisleadstothequestion:Wastheshipthattheyreturnedonthesameshipthattheylefton,eventhoughitwasmadeofcompletelydifferentpiecesofwood?Whatiftheshipstillhadoneoftheoriginalpiecesofwoodinit?Whatifthereweretwopiecesofwoodstillintheship?Wouldthischangeone’sanswer?Anotherwaytolookatitisthis:IftheshipTheseusbeganhisjourneyonisA,andtheshipTheseusendedhis

journeyonisB,thendoesA=B?

THOMASHOBBES’SADDITION

Much later, the famous seventeenth-century philosopher ThomasHobbes tooktheparadoxonestepfurther.Now,imaginethatfollowingTheseus’sshipisascavenger.AsTheseus’screw

throws theoldpiecesofwoodoverboard, the scavenger takes themoutof thewater andbuildshisownship.Twoshipsarriveat theport:onewithTheseusand his crew, made out of new wood; the other, the scavenger’s ship, madeentirelyoutoftheoldwoodthatTheseus’screwhadthrownoverboard.Inthisscenario,whichshipisTheseus’sship?Inthisscenario,let’scalltheboatthescavengerarrivedintheletterC.WeknowthatB≠Cbecausetwoshipslandintheharborandsotheyclearly

cannotbeoneandthesame.SowhatmakessomethingtheshipofTheseus?Isit theindividualpartsthat

theshipismadefrom?Isitthestructure?Isitthehistoryoftheship?

WHEREDOWEGOFROMHERE?

One theory,knownas themereological theoryof identity (orMTI), states thatthe identity of something is dependent upon the identity of that thing’scomponentparts.Thistheoryclaimsthatanecessaryconditionofidentityisthattheremustbeasamenessofparts.Inotherwords,X=Y if allof thepartsofXarealsoapartofYandvice

versa.Forexample,objectXiscomposedofcertaincomponentsatthebeginningof

aperiodoftime(t1).Ifbytheendofthatperiodoftime(t2),theobject(whichisnowY)hasthesamecomponents,thenitcontinuedtoexist.In the ship ofTheseus paradox, according toMTI,A=C.Thismeans that

therearetwoships.TheshipTheseusbeganhisvoyageonistheexactsameas

theshipthescavengercomesinon(makingtheseoneship),andthenthereistheshipTheseuscametoportin,whichwascomposedofnewparts.However, there is a problemwith this conclusion. In this scenario, Theseus

wouldhavehadtochangeshipsinhisjourneybecausehecomestotheportinB(whichdoesnotequalC).ButTheseusnever leaveshis ship.He leavesonA,comesbackonB,andwasneveraboardtwoships(whichMTIstatestheremustbe).Theremight beother possibleways to solve this problem.Wecan abandon

whatMTIstatesaltogetherandinsteadclaimthatA=B.Inthisscenario,therearestillonlytwoships:theshipTheseusbeganhisjourneyin(A)andtheshiphecamebackin(B)areconsideredone,andthescavenger’sshipisthesecond.Thisscenarioalsoraisesproblems.TosaythatA=BwouldalsoimplythatB

≠CandthereforeA≠C.ButonecannotfeasiblysaythisbecauseeverypartofC isapartofAandviceversa. Inaddition,AandBdonothaveanyparts incommon,andyetweareclaimingthattheyarethesameship.AnothertheorythatcanbeappliedtotheparadoxofTheseus’sshipiscalled

spatiotemporal continuity (STC). This theory states that an object can have acontinuouspath in space-time, as long as the change is gradual and the shapeandformarepreserved.Thiswouldallowforthegradualchangesthataremadetotheshipovertime.However, even herewe see problems!What if every piece of the shipwas

packedinindividualboxes,shippedallovertheworldtodifferentlocations,thenshippedback,and thenopenedandreassembled?Whilenumerically itmaybethesameship,theobjectdoesnotconstantlyexistasaship-likeobjectthroughspace-time(notethatMTIdoesseemtofitinthisscenario).

WHATDOESTHESHIPOFTHESEUSMEAN?

Ofcourse,thisparadoxgoesbeyondaproblemaboutships.TheshipofTheseusis really about identity and what makes us the people that we are. Parts ofourselveschangeastheyearsgoby,andyetwestillconsiderourselvestobethesameperson.Isouridentitythesamebecauseofourstructure?Ifthatwerethecase,ifyou

were to losea limborevencutyourhair,youwouldn’tbeyouanymore. Is itbecause of your mind and feelings? If that were the case, are you no longeryourselfwhenyoulosememoriesorhaveachangeofheart?Isitbecauseofthepartswearemadeupof?Ourhistory?The ship of Theseus and its implications about what identity is are still

discussedtothisday.

FRANCISBACON(1561–1626)

Foreverchangingthewaywelookatscience

Francis Bacon is one of the most important philosophers to come out of theRenaissance era due to his immense contributions in advancing naturalphilosophyandscientificmethodology.Bacon was born in London, England, on January 22, 1561. He was the

youngestchildofhisfather,SirNicholasBacon,LordKeeperof theSeal,andhismother,LadyAnneCookeBacon,whowas thedaughterof theknight thattutoredEdwardVI.In1573,whenhewas just elevenyearsold,FrancisBaconattendedTrinity

College,Cambridge.Aftercompletinghisstudies in1575,Baconenrolled inalawprogramthenextyear.Itdidn’ttakehimverylongtorealizethatthisschoolwas too old-fashioned for his tastes (Bacon recalled that his tutors favoredAristotle,whilehewasmuchmoreinterestedinthehumanisticmovement thatwas spreading across the land due to theRenaissance).Bacon left school andbecame an assistant to the ambassador in France. In 1579, when his fatherpassedaway,BaconreturnedtoLondonandresumedstudyinglaw,completinghisdegreein1582.In1584,FrancisBaconwaselectedtoParliamentasamemberforMelcombe

inDorsetshire,andhewouldcontinuetoworkinParliamentforthenextthirty-sixyears.Eventually,underJamesI,FrancisBaconbecameLordChancellor,thehighestpoliticaloffice.ItwasasLordChancellor,atthepinnacleofhispoliticalcareer,thatBaconencounteredagreatscandalthatwouldendhispoliticalcareerentirely,makingwayforhisphilosophicalpursuits.In 1621, Francis Bacon, then–Lord Chancellor, was accused of accepting

bribesandarrested.Baconpledguiltytohischargesandwasfined£40,000andsentencedtoserveaprisonsentenceintheTowerofLondon.Whilehisfinewaswaived and he would only spend four days in prison, Baconwould never be

allowed toholdpoliticalofficeorsit inParliamenteveragain, thusendinghispoliticallife.It was at this point in Francis Bacon’s life that he decided to dedicate the

remainderofhislife(fiveyears)tophilosophy.

THEPHILOSOPHICALWORKOFFRANCISBACON

FrancisBaconisperhapsbestknownforhisworkinnaturalphilosophy.UnlikePlato (who claimed knowledge could be gained through understanding themeaningofwordsandcontent)andAristotle(whoplacedemphasisonempiricaldata),Bacon emphasized observation, experimentation, and interaction and setout tocreatemethods thatwould relyon tangibleproof inaneffort toexplainsciences.

Bacon’sFourIdolsFrancis Bacon believed the works of Aristotle (which up to that point,

scholastic thinkers had agreed with) actually prevented the ability to thinkindependently and acquire new ideas about nature.Bacon argued that throughthe advancement of science, the quality of human life could improve, andtherefore, people should no longer rely on the work of ancient philosophers.Francis Bacon became so disillusioned with the philosophical thinking of histimethathecategorizedthethoughtprocessofpeopleasfourcategoriesoffalseknowledge,whichhereferredtoas“idols.”Thefouridolswere:

1. Idolsofthetribe:Thesearethefalsenotionsthatarisefromhumannaturethatarecommontoeveryone.Forexample,humannaturecausespeopletoseekoutevidencethatsupportstheirownconclusions,causespeopletotry

tohavethingsfitintopatterns,andcausesbeliefstobeaffectedbywhatpeoplewanttobelieve.

2. Idolsofthecave:Theseareinterpretationsthatcomeaboutasaresultofindividualmakeupanddisposition.Forexample,somepeoplemightfavorsimilaritieswhileothersfavordifferences,andsomemightfavornotionsthatsupporttheirearlierconclusions.

3. Idolsofthemarketplace:Thesearefalsenotionsthatarisefromtheuseoflanguageandwordsasameanstocommunicatewithoneanother.Forexample,wordscanhaveavarietyofmeanings,andpeoplehavetheabilitytonameandimaginethingsthatdonotactuallyexist.

4. Idolsofthetheater:FrancisBaconbelievedthatphilosophiesweren’tanybetterthanplays.ToBacon,sophisticphilosophyliketheworkofAristotlefocusedmoreonsmartbutfoolishargumentsratherthanthenaturalworld;empiricalphilosophyonlyfocusedonasmallrangeofexperimentsandexcludedtoomanyotherpossibilities;andsuperstitiousphilosophy,whichwasphilosophyestablishedbyreligionandsuperstition,wasacorruptionofphilosophy.ToFrancisBacon,superstitiousphilosophywastheworsttypeoffalsenotion.

TheInductiveMethodWithhisbeliefthatknowledgeshouldbepursuedandhiscriticismofpresent-

dayphilosophies,FrancisBaconsetout tocreateanewandorganizedmethodthatwould eventually becomehismost impactful contribution to theworld ofphilosophy.Inhisbook,NovumOrganum,hedetailshis inductive,alsoknownasscientific,method.The inductive method combined the process of carefully observing nature

with systematically accumulating data. While the deductive method (like theworkofAristotle)beganbyusingoneormoretruestatements(oraxioms)asabase and then attempted to prove other true statements, the inductivemethodbegins by taking observations from nature and attempts to uncover laws and

theoriespertainingtohownatureworks.Inessence,thedeductivemethoduseslogicandtheinductivemethodusesnature.

Bacon’sEmphasisonExperiments

Bacon emphasized the importance of experimentation in his workand believed experiments needed to be carefully recorded so thattheresultscouldbebothreliableandrepeatable.

Theprocessoftheinductivemethodisasfollows:

1. Accumulateaseriesofspecificempiricalobservationsaboutthecharacteristicbeinginvestigated.

2. Classifythesefactsintothreecategories:instanceswhenthecharacteristicbeinginvestigatedispresent,instanceswhenitisabsent,andinstanceswhenitispresentinvaryingdegrees.

3. Throughcarefulexaminationoftheresults,rejectnotionsthatdonotseemtoberesponsiblefortheoccurrenceandidentifypossiblecausesresponsiblefortheoccurrence.

THECOWINTHEFIELD

Challengingthedefinitionofknowledge

Imaginethefollowingscenario:Afarmerworriesbecausehisprizecowhaswanderedawayfromhisfarm.A

milkmancomestothefarm,andthefarmerexpresseshisconcern.Themilkmantells the farmer he shouldn’t worry because he’s actually seen the cow in anearbyfield.Thefarmerlooksatthefieldinthedistancejusttobesure,andhesees what seems to be a large shape that is black and white. The farmer issatisfiedbywhathehasseenandnowknowsthelocationofhiscow.Later, themilkman decides to go to the field to double-check that the cow

reallyisthere.Thecowisinfactinthefield,buttothemilkman’ssurprise,thecow is actually completely hidden in a grove of trees. However, in the samefield, there is a large black-and-white piece of paper caught in a tree. Uponseeing this, the milkman realizes that the farmer mistook this large piece ofpaperforhiscow.Thisthenraisesthequestion:Wasthefarmerrightwhenhesaidheknewthe

cowwasinthefield?

THEGETTIERPROBLEMANDTHETRIPARTITETHEORYOFKNOWLEDGE

The cow in the field is a classic example of what is known as a “Gettierproblem.” Gettier problems, discovered by Edmund Gettier in 1963, arechallengestothetraditionalphilosophicalapproachtodefiningknowledgeasatruebeliefthatisjustified.Gettiercreatedaseriesofproblems(basedonactualorpossiblesituations)wherean individualhasabelief thatendsupbeing trueandhasevidencetosupportit,butitfailstoactuallybeknowledge.

According toPlato, inorder forone tohaveknowledgeof something, threeconditions have to be satisfied. This is known as the tripartite theory ofknowledge.According to the tripartite theory of knowledge, knowledge is when a true

beliefisjustified.Therefore,ifapersonbelievessomethingtobetrue,andthen

itendsupbeingtruethroughjustification,thenthatpersonknowsit.Thethreeconditionsofthetripartitetheoryofknowledgeare:

1. Belief:Apersoncan’tknowsomethingtobetruewithoutfirstbelievingthatitistrue.

2. Truth:Ifapersonknowssomething,thenitmustbetrue.Ifabeliefisfalse,thenitcannotbetrue,andtherefore,itcannotbeknown.

3. Justification:Itisnotenoughtosimplybelievesomethingtobetrue.Theremustbeajustificationthroughsufficientevidence.

WiththeGettierproblems,EdmundGettierwasabletoshowthatthetripartitetheory of knowledge was incorrect. While his problems differed in specificdetails,theyallsharedtwosimilarcharacteristics:

1. Whilejustificationispresent,thejustificationisfalliblebecausethereisthepossibilitythatthebeliefcouldendupbeingfalse.

2. Eachproblemfeaturesluck.InalloftheGettierproblems,thebeliefbecomesjustified;however,itisduetothepresenceofpureluck.

ATTEMPTSTOSOLVEGETTIERPROBLEMS

There are four main theories that attempt to fix the tripartite theory ofknowledge. Now, instead of three conditions (which can be looked at as atriangle),knowledgehasanextracondition(andisnowviewedasasquare).

Thefourmaintheoriesare:

1. NoFalseBeliefCondition:Thistheorystatesabeliefcannotbebasedonabeliefthatisfalse.Forexample,awatchstopsworkingat10a.m.,andyouareunawareofthisfact.Twelvehourslater,at10p.m.,youlookatthewatch.Thetimeonthewatchisactuallycorrect,butyourbeliefthatthewatchisworkingisincorrect.

2. CausalConnectionCondition:Betweenknowledgeandabelief,therehastobeacausalconnection.Forexample,considerthefollowingsituation.TombelievesFrankisinhisbedroom.TomseesFrankstandinginhisbedroom.Therefore,Tomisjustifiedinhisbelief.UnknowntoTom,however,isthefactthatTomdidn’tseeFrankatall.Instead,itwasFrank’stwinbrother,Sam,whowasstandingandseenbyTom,andFrankisactuallyhidingunderneathTom’sbed.WhileFrankwasintheroom,itwasnotbecauseTomknewthis.Accordingtothecausalconnectioncondition,Tomshouldn’tbeabletoconcludethatFrankisinthebedroombecausethereisnoconnectionbetweenseeingSamandknowingFrankisintheroom.

3. ConclusiveReasonsCondition:Areasonforabeliefmustexistthatwouldnotexistifthebeliefitselfwerefalse.Forexample,ifapersonbelievesthereisatableinfrontofhim,thereasonwouldnotexistiftherewasnotatableinfrontofhim.

4. DefeasibilityCondition:Thistheorystatesthataslongasthereisnotevidencepointingtothecontrary,abeliefisknown.InthescenariowithTom,Frank,andSam,TomisentitledtosayFrankisinthebedroombecauseheisn’tawareofevidencepointingtothecontrary.

While these four theories attempt to fix the tripartite theory of knowledge,theyalsohave theirproblems. It is for this reason thatEdmundGettier’sworkhasbecomesoinfluential.Fromhiswork,thequestionarises:Willweevertrulyunderstandknowledge?

DAVIDHUME(1711–1776)

OneofthemostimportantcontributorstoWesternphilosophy

DavidHumewasborn toamodest family inEdinburgh,Scotland, in1711.Attheageoftwo,Hume’sfatherdiedandhismotherwaslefttocareforhimandhisbrotherandsister.Attheageoftwelve,HumewassenttotheUniversityofEdinburgh,wherehedevelopedapassion forclassicsand spent thenext threeyearsstudyingphilosophyandtryingtocreatehisownphilosophicalprogram.His studies proved to be extraordinarily taxing on Hume, and it began to

compromisehispsychologicalhealth.Afterworkingforashorttimeasaclerkforasugar importer,Humefinally recoveredandmoved toFrance tocontinueworkingonhisownphilosophicalvision.Between1734and1737,whilelivingin La Flèche, France, Hume wrote one of his most impactful philosophicalworks,ATreatiseofHumanNature.ThisworkwaslaterpublishedinEnglandasthreebooksbetween1739and1740,withHumeremovingpartsthatwouldseemcontroversialforthetime(suchashisdiscussionofmiracles).HumewantedtoworkintheBritishacademicsystem.HisTreatisewaspoorly

received,however,andwhilehisnexttwo-volumecompilation,Essays,Moral,Political,andLiterary,wasmodestlysuccessful,Hume’sreputationforbeinganatheistandskepticruinedanychancesofacareerineducation.

ATREATISEOFHUMANNATURE

Hume’smostinfluentialworkwasbrokendownintothreebooksandcoveredawiderangeofphilosophicalsubjects.

BookI:OftheUnderstandingHume argues that empiricism, the notion that all knowledge comes from

experiences,isvalidandthatideasareessentiallynodifferentfromexperiencesbecausecomplexideasaretheresultofsimplerideas,andthesimplerideaswereformed from the impressions our senses created. Hume then also argues thatwhensomething isa“matterof fact,” it isamatter thathas tobeexperiencedandcannotbearrivedatthroughinstinctorreason.With these arguments,Hume takeson thenotionofGod’s existence, divine

creation, and the soul.According toHume, since people cannot experience orgetanimpressionfromGod,divinecreation,orthesoul,thereisnorealreasontobelieveintheirexistence.ItisinhisfirstbookthatHumeintroducesthreetoolsusedforphilosophical

inquiry:themicroscope,therazor,andthefork.

Microscope:Inordertounderstandanidea,onemustfirstbreakdowntheideaintothesimplestideasthatitismadeupof.Razor:Ifatermcannotcomefromanideathatcanbebrokendownintosimplerideas,thenthattermhasnomeaning.Humeusesthenotionoftherazortodevalueideassuchasmetaphysicsandreligion.Fork:Thisistheprinciplethattruthscanbeseparatedintotwotypes.Onetypeoftruthstatesthatonceideas(suchasatruestatementinmath)areproven,theyremainproven.Theothertruthrelatestomattersoffactandthingsthatoccurintheworld.

BookII:OfthePassionsInHume’ssecondbook,hefocusesonwhathereferstoaspassions(feelings

likelove,hatred,grief,joy,etc.).Humeclassifiespassionslikeheclassifiesideasand impressions. He first makes a distinction between original impressions,whicharereceivedthroughthesenses,andsecondaryimpressions,whichcomefromoriginalimpressions.Original impressionsare internal and fromphysical sources.Theyappear in

theformofphysicalpainsandpleasuresandarenewtousbecause theycomefromphysicalsources.AccordingtoHume,thepassionsarefoundintheworldof secondary impressions. Hume then makes the distinction between directpassions (likegrief, fear,desire,hope, joy, andaversion)and indirectpassions(likelove,hatred,pride,andhumility).Hume states that morality is not based on reason because moral decisions

affectactions,whiledecisionsmadefromreasondonot.Anindividual’sbeliefsin regard to cause and effect are beliefs relating to the connections amongobjects that people experience. The actions of an individual are affected onlywhen theobjectsareof interest,and theyareonlyof interest topeople if theyhavetheabilitytocausepainorpleasure.Therefore, Hume argues, pleasure and pain are what motivate people and

createpassions.Passionsarefeelingsthatinitiateactions,andreasonshouldactas a “slave” to passion. Reason can influence an individual’s actions in twoways: It directs passions to focus on objects, and it discovers the connectionsamongeventsthatwilleventuallycreatepassions.

BookIII:OfMoralsBased on the ideas he set forth in his first two books, Hume takes on the

notion of morality. First, Hume distinguishes between virtue and vice. Humeclaimsthesemoraldistinctionsareimpressions,notideas.Whiletheimpressionofvirtueispleasure,theimpressionofviceispain.Thesemoralimpressionsareonly the result of human action and cannot be causedby inanimate objects oranimals.Humearguesthatanindividual’sactionsareonlydeterminedtobemoralor

immoral based on how they affect others (and not how they affect theindividual). Therefore, moral impressions should only be considered from asocialpointofview.Withthisnotioninmind,Humeclaimsthatthefoundationofmoralobligationissympathy.Morality is not amatter of fact that is the result of experience.Hume uses

murderasanexample.Ifoneweretoexaminemurder,onewouldnotexperiencepain, and therefore, one couldn’t find the vice.Youwould only uncover yourown dislike ofmurder. This shows thatmorality does not exist in reason, butrather,inpassions.Because of David Hume’s criticism of philosophical theories, ideas, and

methodologies that relied heavily on rationalism, he became one of the mostimportant minds in Western philosophy. His work touched on an incrediblenumber of philosophical topics, including religion, metaphysics, personalidentity,morality,andconceptsofcause-effectrelations.

HEDONISM

It’sallaboutpleasureandpain

Thetermhedonismactuallyrefers toseveral theoriesthat,whiledifferentfromoneanother,allsharethesameunderlyingnotion:Pleasureandpainaretheonlyimportant elements of the specific phenomena the theories describe. Inphilosophy, hedonism is oftendiscussed as a theoryof value.Thismeans thatpleasureistheonlythingintrinsicallyvaluabletoapersonatalltimesandpainistheonlythingthatisintrinsicallynotvaluabletoanindividual.Tohedonists,themeaningofpleasureandpainisbroadsothatitcanrelatetobothmentalandphysicalphenomena.

ORIGINSANDHISTORYOFHEDONISM

Thefirstmajorhedonisticmovementdatesbacktothefourthcenturyb.c.withthe Cyrenaics, a school of thought founded by Aristippus of Cyrene. TheCyrenaics emphasized Socrates’ belief that happiness is one of the results ofmoralaction,butalsobelievedthatvirtuehadnointrinsicvalue.Theybelievedthat pleasure, specifically physical pleasure over mental pleasure, was theultimategoodand that immediategratificationwasmoredesirable thanhavingtowaitalongtimeforpleasure.Following theCyrenaicswas Epicureanism (led by Epicurus),whichwas a

formofhedonismquitedifferent fromthatofAristippus.Whileheagreed thatpleasure was the ultimate good, Epicurus believed that pleasure was attainedthroughtranquilityandareductionofdesireinsteadofimmediategratification.According to Epicurus, living a simple life full of friends and philosophicaldiscussionwasthehighestpleasurethatcouldbeattained.

During theMiddle Ages, hedonism was rejected by Christian philosophersbecause it did notmeshwithChristian virtues and ideals, such as faith, hope,avoidingsin,andhelpingothers.Still,somephilosophersarguedhedonismhaditsmeritsbecauseitwasGod’sdesirethatpeoplebehappy.Hedonismwasmostpopularintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesdueto

the work of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who both argued forvariations of prudential hedonism, hedonistic utilitarianism, and motivationalhedonism.

VALUEANDPRUDENTIALHEDONISM

Inphilosophy,hedonismusuallyreferstovalueandwell-being.Valuehedonismstates thatpleasure is theonly thing that is intrinsicallyvaluable,whilepain istheonlythingthatisintrinsicallyinvaluable.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

INTRINSICALLY VALUABLE: The word intrinsically is thrownarounda lotwhendiscussinghedonism, and it is a very importantword tounderstand.Unlike theword instrumental, use of thewordintrinsically implies thatsomething isvaluableon itsown.Money isinstrumentallyvaluable.Havingmoneyonlyhasrealvaluewhenyoupurchasesomethingwithit.Therefore,itisnotintrinsicallyvaluable.Pleasure,ontheotherhand,isintrinsicallyvaluable.Whenapersonexperiencespleasure,evenifitdoesnotleadtosomethingelse,theinitialpleasureitselfisenjoyable.

According to value hedonism, everything that is of value is reduced topleasure. Based on this information, prudential hedonism then goes one stepfurtherandclaimsthatallpleasure,andonlypleasure,canmakeanindividual’slifebetter,andthatallpain,andonlypain,canmakeanindividual’slifeworse.

PSYCHOLOGICALHEDONISM

Psychologicalhedonism,alsoknownasmotivationalhedonism,isthebeliefthatthe wish to experience pleasure and avoid pain, both consciously andunconsciously,isresponsibleforallhumanbehavior.VariationsofpsychologicalhedonismhavebeenarguedbySigmundFreud,Epicurus,CharlesDarwin,andJohnStuartMill.Strongpsychologicalhedonism(thatistosay,absolutelyallbehaviorisbased

onavoidingpainandgainingpleasure)hasgenerallybeendismissedbytoday’sphilosophers.Thereiscountlessevidencetoshowthatthisisjustsimplynotthecase(likewhenaseeminglypainfulactisdoneoutofasenseofduty),anditisgenerally accepted that decisions can be made based on motives that do notinvolveseekingpleasureorstayingawayfrompain.

NORMATIVEHEDONISM

Normativehedonism,alsoknownasethicalhedonism,isatheorythatstatesthathappiness should be sought out.Here, the definition of happiness is “pleasureminus pain.” Normative hedonism is used to argue theories that deal withexplaininghowandwhyanactioncanbemorallypermissibleorimpermissible.Normativehedonismcanbebrokendownintotwotypes,whichusehappiness

todecidewhetheranactionismorallyrightorwrong:

1. HedonisticEgoism:Thistheorystatesthatpeopleshouldactinthewaythatbestsuitstheirowninterests,whichwould,ineffect,makethemhappy.Consequencesdonothavetobeconsidered(andhavenovalue)foranyoneotherthantheindividualperformingtheaction.However,underhedonisticegoism,desensitizationneedstooccur.Ifapersonstealstosuithisowninterest,heshouldfeelnodifferencebetweenstealingfromarichorpoorperson.

2. HedonisticUtilitarianism:Thistheorystatesthatanactionisright(morallypermissible)whenitproducesormostlikelyproducesthelargestnethappinessforeveryonethatitconcerns.Utilitarianismthuspertainstothehappinessofeveryonewhocouldbeaffectedandnotjustanindividual(everyoneisgivenequalweight).Accordingtohedonisticutilitarianism,stealingfromthepoorwouldbemorallyimpermissiblebecauseitwouldleavethepoorpersonunhappyandthethiefwouldonlybeslightlyhappier(andifhefeelsguilty,hishappinessisevenless).

Though hedonistic utilitarianism seems like an appealing theory because ittreats everybody equally, it has faced criticism for holding no intrinsic moralvaluetothingslikefriendship,justice,truth,etc.Consider this example: A child is murdered in a small town. The town

believes your best friend is themurderer, but you knowhe is innocent. If theonly way to promote the greatest happiness for everyone is to kill your bestfriend,accordingtohedonisticutilitarianism,youshoulddoso.Itdoesn’tmatterthat the killer is still out there—all that matters is the largest net happiness,whichwouldberealizedbykillingwhoeverthetownbelievesisthesuspect.

PRISONER’SDILEMMA

Whatchoiceistherightchoice?

Theprisoner’sdilemma isoneof themost famous illustrationsofwhypeoplemight act theway theydo.Theprisoner’s dilemma is actually a part of gametheory,afieldinmathematicsthatlooksatvariousoutcomesfromsituationsthatrequirestrategy.However,theprisoner’sdilemmagoesfarbeyondsimplybeingamathematicalnotion.Itraisesimportantquestionsaboutmorality,psychology,andphilosophy,andcanevenbeobservedintherealworld.

THEORIGINSOFTHEPRISONER’SDILEMMA

In 1950, RAND Corporation hired mathematicians Merrill Flood andMelvinDresheraspartoftheirongoinginvestigationintogametheoryandhowitcouldbe applied to global nuclear strategy. Based on the puzzles that Flood andDresher created, Princeton professor AlbertW. Tucker tweaked their work tomakeitmoreaccessibletothemasses,thuscreatingwhatisnowknownastheprisoner’sdilemma.

THEPRISONER’SDILEMMA

Twoprisoners,prisonerAandprisonerB,aretakenintocustody.Thepolicedonot have a sufficient amount of evidence, so they decide to put A and B inseparaterooms.Thepoliceofficerstelleachprisonerthatifheturnsintheotherpersonandtheotherpersonremainssilent,hewillbeabletogofreewhiletheprisonerwhoremainedsilentwill face jail time. IfbothAandBconfess, theywill both have to face some jail time (though a shorter sentence than the one

facedbythepersonwhodidnotspeak).IfbothprisonerAandBremainsilent,theywillbothfaceanevenshorterprisonsentence.Forexample:

Accordingtothisdiagram,ifprisonerAandprisonerBbothconfess,theywilleach have to serve six years. If prisoner A remains quiet while prisoner B

confesses(whichimplicatesprisonerAin theprocess),prisonerAhastoservetenyearswhileprisonerBcangohome.Likewise, ifprisonerAconfessesbutprisonerB remainsquiet, thenprisonerAcangohomewhileprisonerB facestenyears inprison.Lastly, ifbothremainquiet, theywilleachface twoyears.Anotherwaywecanviewthisis:

C represents a player cooperating (in this case, remaining silent) and Drepresents a player defecting (confessing). R stands for the reward that theplayerswouldreceiveifbothdecidedtocooperate;Prepresentsthepunishmentbothplayerswouldreceivefordefecting;Tisthetemptationthataplayerwouldhave for defecting alone; and lastly, S represents the “sucker” payoff that theplayerwouldhaveforcooperatingalone.

WHATITMEANS

Thedilemma in the prisoner’s dilemma is this: PrisonerA and prisonerB arebetter off confessing; however, theoutcome fromhaving themboth confess ismuchworsethanitwouldhavebeenifbothhadremainedsilent.Prisoner’sdilemmaisaperfectillustrationoftheconflictthatarisesbetween

group rationality and individual rationality. If a groupof people act rationally,theywillactuallydofarworsethanifagroupofpeopleactedirrationally.Intheprisoner’sdilemma,itisassumedthatallplayersarerationalandknowthattheotherplayerinvolvedisrational.Therationalthoughtwouldbetodefect.Butbychoosingtoprotectthemselvesandactingintheirowninterest,theprisonerswillactuallybeworseoff.

MULTIPLEMOVES

Now,let’saddanotheroptiontothegame.Playersnowhavetheoptiontodefect,cooperate,orneither(N).Wenowseethatdefectingisnolongerthedominantchoice,andthattheplayerswillactuallyfarebetterbychoosingtocooperateiftheotherplayerchoosesneither.

MULTIPLEPLAYERSANDTHETRAGEDYOFTHECOMMONS

Thestructureofprisoner’sdilemmacanappearingrandersettings,suchasbiggroupsorevensocieties.It isherethatweseehowmoralitycomesintoeffect.Perhaps the best example to showcase a multiplayer prisoner’s dilemma is asituationknownasthe“tragedyofthecommons.”Inthetragedyofthecommons,agroupofneighboringfarmersallpreferthat

their cows not graze on their own individual properties (which are not verysuitable), but on the commons. However, if the commons reaches a certainthreshold, the landwillbecomeunsuitable forgrazing.Byactingrationally (in

their own self-interest) and trying to reap thebenefits of the land, the farmerswilldepletethelandandcreateanegativeimpactforeveryone.Likeprisoner’sdilemma, an individual rational strategy creates irrational outcomes that affectthegroup.Sowhatdotheprisoner’sdilemmaandtragedyofthecommonstellusabout

morality?Essentially,theseexamplesprovethatpursuingone’sownself-interestandgratificationwillactuallyturnouttobeself-defeatinginthelongrun.

EXAMPLEOFPRISONER’SDILEMMAINTHEREALWORLD

A classic example of the prisoner’s dilemma in the real world is currently amajor issue in today’s fishing industry. Currently, industrial fishermen arecatchingfishatanextremelyfastrate.Whilethismightseemlikeitisgoodforcurrent profits, the rate atwhich these fish are being caught is faster than theamountoftimeneededforthefishtoreproduce.Asaresult,thefishermennowhaveadepleted supplyof fish tochoose from, thuscreatingahardship for allfishermen.Inorder toensure the livelihoodof the industry in the long term, fishermen

shouldcooperatewithoneanotherandforgohighprofitsintheimmediatefuture(thus,goingagainsttheirownself-interest).

ST.THOMASAQUINAS(1225–1274)

Philosophyandreligion

ThomasAquinaswasbornaround1225inLombardy,Italy, to theCountessofTeano.When he was just five years old, Aquinas was sent to the monasteryMontecassinotostudywithBenedictinemonks.Hewouldremainthereuntiltheageofthirteen,when,duetogreatpoliticalunrest,Montecassinobecameabattlesiteandhewasforcedtoleave.Aquinas was then transferred to Naples, where he studied at a Benedictine

housethatwasaffiliatedwiththeUniversityofNaples.There,hespentthenextfive years learning about thework ofAristotle and became very interested incontemporarymonasticorders.Inparticular,Aquinasbecamedrawntotheideaof living a life of spiritual service, as opposed to the more traditional andshelteredlifestylehewasaccustomedtoseeingwiththemonksatMontecassino.ThomasAquinasbegan to attend theUniversityofNaples around1239.By

1243, he had joined an order ofDominicanmonks in secret, and received thehabit in 1244.Whenhis family learnedof this, theykidnappedhim,heldhimcaptiveforayear,andtriedtomakehimseetheerrorofhisways.Theirattemptdidnotwork,however,andwhenhewasreleasedin1245,Aquinasreturnedtothe Dominican order. Between 1245 and 1252, Aquinas studied with theDominicans in Naples, Paris, Cologne (where he was ordained in 1950), andeventuallyreturnedtoParistoteachtheologyattheUniversityofParis.AtatimewhentheCatholicChurchhadanoverwhelmingamountofpower

andpeoplestruggledwiththenotionofhavingphilosophyandreligioncoexist,Thomas Aquinas brought faith and reasoning together. He believed thatknowledge, whether obtained through nature or through religious studies, allcamefromGodandcouldworktogether.

PROOFSFORTHEEXISTENCEOFGOD

Throughouthislife,Aquinaswroteanincrediblenumberofphilosophicaltextsthat touched on many different subjects, ranging anywhere from naturalphilosophyandtheworkofAristotletotheologyandtheBible.Hismostfamousand extensive work, Summa Theologiae, provides the most detail in terms ofAquinas’s philosophical views. Aquinas began Summa Theologiae sometimeafter1265andwroteituntilhisdeathin1274.SummaTheologiae isbrokenup into threeparts,witheachpart featuring its

ownsubdivisions.ItisinPart1thatAquinas’smostfamousphilosophicaltext,theFiveWays,isfound.Inthis,ThomasAquinassetsouttoprovetheexistenceofGod.Aquinasbeginsbyacknowledgingthatthoughphilosophyisnotarequirement

inpromotingGod’sknowledge,itcanhelptheology.Hethentriestoanswerthefollowingquestions:

1. Is“Godexists”self-evident?2. Canthisbedemonstrated?3. DoesGodexist?

Aquinas thenprovides fiveproofs that show theexistenceofGod.WithhisFive Ways, Thomas Aquinas combines the ideas of theology with rationalthoughtandobservationsfromthenaturalworld,inordertoprovetheexistenceofGod.

Proof1:TheArgumentoftheUnmovedMoverWecanseethattherearethingsinthisworldthatareinmotion.Anythingthat

isinmotionwasputinmotionbysomethingelsethatwasinmotion.Andthatobjectisinmotionbecauseitwasputintomotionbyanotherobjectthatwasinmotion, and so on and so forth. However, this cannot infinitely keep goingbackward because there would never be an original mover (and thus, therewouldneverbethesubsequentmovement).Sotheremustbeanunmovedmoverthatisfirst,andthatisunderstoodtobeGod.

Proof2:TheArgumentoftheFirstCauseEverythingiscausedbysomething,andnothingcanbecausedbyitself.Every

causeistheresultofapreviouscause,andthatpreviouscausewastheresultofanotherpreviouscause.This cannot infinitelykeepgoingbackwardbecause ifthereisnoinitialcause,thentherearenosubsequentcauses.Sotheremustbeanuncausedfirstcause,whichisunderstoodtobeGod.

Proof3:TheArgumentfromContingencyWe observe in nature that things come to exist and then cease to exist.

However,everythingthatexistsneedstocomefromsomethingthatexists,andifit is possible for something to not exist, then it wouldn’t exist before, and itwouldn’texistnow.Sotheremustbeabeingwhoseexistencedoesnotrelyontheexistenceofothers,andthisisunderstoodtobeGod.

Proof4:TheArgumentfromDegreeWeobserve that beingshavevaryingdegrees of characteristics (moregood,

less good, more noble, less noble, etc.). These varying degrees are being

comparedtoamaximum(thenoblest,thebest,etc.),andaccordingtoAristotle,the greatest state of being is when there is the greatest state of truth (themaximum).Sotherehastobeacausetotheperfectionswefindinbeings,andthisperfectionormaximumisunderstoodtobeGod.

Proof5:TheTeleologicalArgumentWe observe unintelligent and inanimate objects in nature acting toward a

purpose,eveniftheseobjectsarenotawareofthisfact(suchasthefoodchainor theprocessesofsensoryorgans).Thoughunaware, theseobjectsareclearlyacting towardapurposeaccording toaspecificplan,and therefore, theremustbe a being guiding them that has the knowledge to direct them toward theirpurpose.ThisisunderstoodtobeGod.

ETHICSANDTHECARDINALVIRTUES

In the second part of Summa Theologiae, Aquinas creates a system of ethicsbasedontheworkofAristotle.LikeAristotle,Aquinasbelievedthatagoodlifeisdescribedbyattemptingtoreachthehighestend.AndlikeAristotle,Aquinasalsospokeofvirtue.ToAquinas,therewerecardinalvirtuesthatallotherformsofvirtuecamefrom.Thesewerejustice,prudence,courage,andtemperance.While these cardinal virtues are a template for a moral life, according to

Aquinas, theyarenotenoughforone toreachtruefulfillment.WhileAristotlebelievedthatthehighestendwashappinessandthatthewaytoachievethiswasthroughvirtue,Aquinasbelievedthehighestendwaseternalblessedness,whichwasachievedbyaunionwithGodintheafterlife.Itisbylivingthroughthesecardinalvirtuesthatonemovestowardtruefulfillment.Aquinasmadeadistinctionbetweenaneternalhappiness thatcouldonlybe

reachedintheafterlife,andanimperfecthappinessthatcouldbereachedinthislife.Becauseeternalhappiness isaunionwithGod, there isonlyan imperfect

happinessinthislifesincewecanneverknoweverythingthereistoknowaboutGodinthislife.

THEIMPACTOFST.THOMASAQUINAS

ThomasAquinas had an incredible impact onWestern philosophy.During hislifetime, the church was extremely influenced by the works of Plato and haddismissed the importance ofAristotle.Aquinas, however, came to realize justhow important Aristotle was and incorporated Aristotle’s work into Catholicorthodoxy, forever changing the shape of Western philosophy. In 1879, theteachingsofThomasAquinasbecameincorporatedintoofficialchurchdoctrinebyPopeLeoXIII.

HARDDETERMINISM

Thereisnofreewill

Hard determinism is the philosophical theory that, because every event has acause,allhumanactionispredeterminedandthereforechoicesmadebyfreewilldonotexist.Thoughtheassertionoftheharddeterministthatnothingcanoccurwithoutacausemayseemrational, theconclusion thatnooneeveracts freelyhassparkedmuchdebateinthephilosophicalworld.

THEFOURPRINCIPLESOFFREEWILLANDDETERMINISM

Inorder tobetterunderstandharddeterminism, it is necessary to analyze fourgeneralprinciplesinvolvedinthediscussionoffreewillanddeterminism:

1. ThePrincipleofUniversalCausation:Thisstatesthateveryeventhasacause.Inotherwords,if“XcausesY”istrue,thenXandYareevents;XprecedesY;andifXhappens,Yhastohappen.

2. TheFreeWillThesis:Thisstatesthatsometimespeopleactfreely.3. ThePrincipleofAvoidabilityandFreedom:Ifapersonactsfreely,then

hecouldhavedonesomethingotherthanwhatheinfactdid.Yet,ifnoonecouldhavedoneanythingotherthanwhatheinfactdid,thennooneeveractsfreely.

4. TheAuxiliaryPrinciple:Thisassertsthatifeveryeventhasacause,thennoonecouldhavedoneanythingotherthanwhatheinfactdid.Therefore,ifsometimesapersoncouldhavedonesomethingotherthanwhatheinfactdid,thensomeeventsareuncaused.

Though all four principles initially appear to be intuitively plausible and acase can be made for believing each, it is ultimately apparent that they areincompatible with one another. In other words, not all principles can be true.Much philosophical debate has subsequently been dedicated to determiningwhichoftheseprinciplesaretrueandwhicharefalse.Hard determinism responds to this incompatibility of the principles by

accepting theprincipleofuniversalcausation, theprincipleofavoidabilityandfreedom,andtheauxiliaryprincipleastrueandrejectingthefreewill thesisasfalse:

Premise1:Everyeventhasacause(principleofuniversalcausation).Premise2:Ifeveryeventhasacause,thennoonecouldhavedoneanythingotherthanwhatheinfactdid(auxiliaryprinciple,partone).Premise3:Ifnoonecouldhavedoneanythingotherthanwhatheinfactdid,thennooneeveractsfreely(principleofavoidabilityandfreedom,parttwo).Therefore,nooneeveractsfreely(denialoffreewilltheory).

Premise1 is the thesisofdeterminism:Everyevent is subject to the lawofcausality.Therationaleforthispremiseisitsappealtocommonsense;itseemsimpossibletoevenimaginewhatitwouldmeanforaneventtobe“uncaused.”Premise2definescausality:Ifaneventiscaused,thenitmusthappen.Ifitmusthappen, then nothing else could have happened instead. Premise 3 simplyexpresses what is meant by “free.” Surely if an act must occur, the personcommittingtheacthasnochoiceandisthusnotactingfreely.

ARGUMENTSAGAINSTHARDDETERMINISM

Followingareseveralanglesusedtotrytodisproveharddeterminism.

ArgumentfromChoiceOneargumentagainstharddeterminismis the“argument fromchoice.” It is

statedassuch:

Premise1:Sometimeswedowhatwechoosetodo.Premise2:Ifsometimeswedowhatwechoosetodo,thensometimesweareactingfreely.Premise3:Ifsometimesweareactingfreely,thenharddeterminismisfalse.Therefore,harddeterminismisfalse.

Premise 1 defines choice as a decision ormental event, and its rationale issimple observation; we see people making choices every day. For example,peoplechoosewhatclothestowear,whatfoodtoeat,whattimetowakeup,etc.Premise2defines“actingfreely”aschoosingwhatwedo.Ifsomeonechoosestodosomething,thefactthatheismakingachoicemeansthatheisactingfreely.Premise3isthenegationofharddeterminism.Becausethe“argumentfromchoice”isavalidargument,itseemsatfirsttobe

asolidobjectiontoharddeterminism.Furtheranalysisofitsdefinitionofactingfreely, however, demonstrates the argument to be unsound. Because the“argumentfromchoice”doesnotdenythateventsarecaused,eachassertionthatitmakesissubjecttothelawsofcausality.Withthisinmind,itbecomesclearthatthemainproblemwiththeargumentisitsleapfromthefirstpremisetothesecond.Though people do, indeed, make what appear to be choices about various

aspectsoftheirlives,itdoesnotfollowthattheyareactingfreely.Achoiceisacausedevent.Therefore,aperson’schoicetoactinsomewayisnot,itself,thesoleorfirstcauseofthataction;itis,rather,thelasteventinasetofconditionsthatcausestheaction.Apersonmaychoosetoweararedshirt,buthischoicetodosois,itself,causallydetermined.Thoughthecausesforaperson’schoiceare

“internal and invisible” and sometimes unknown, they do verymuch exist. Aperson’s brain had to react in exactly theway it reacted because the choice itmadewas a determined event.According to philosopherPaulRée, the personchooses to wear a red shirt because of “causes whose historical developmentcouldbetracedbackadinfinitum.”Evenifapersonthinkshecouldhavedoneotherwise,itisonlyunderadifferent,thoughperhapsveryslightlydifferent,setofconditionsorcausesthathecouldhaveactedinadifferentmanner.Therefore,because a choice is a caused event, it is predetermined and must happen.Becausethechoicemusthappen,itisnotanactoffreewill.

ArgumentfromDriveResistanceA second argument against hard determinism is the “argument from drive

resistance.”Itisstatedassuch:

Premise1:Sometimesweresistourpassions.Premise2:Ifsometimesweresistourpassions,thensometimesweareactingfreely.Premise3:Ifsometimesweareactingfreely,thenharddeterminismisfalse.Therefore,harddeterminismisfalse.

Premise 1 is a simple observation; people have passions or desires to, forexample, commit murder, engage in adultery, or drive recklessly. People,however, are able to prevent themselves from engaging in such activities.Premise2givesadefinitionof“actingfreely.”Apersonactsfreelyifheisabletochoosetoactinawaythatdoesnotyieldtopassions.Thispremisesuggeststhat by resisting passions, people are able to avoid the infinite number ofhistoricalcausesand toultimatelyact freely.Premise3 is thenegationofharddeterminism.Likethe“argumentfromchoice,”the“argumentfromdriveresistance”does

notdenythateveryeventhasacauseandfor thisreasonisvalidbutunsound.

ThestrongestobjectiontothisargumentistodenyPremise2;thoughpeopleareable to resist their passions, it does not follow that they are acting freely. Forexample, a person may resist the desire to commit murder. However, just ascommitting amurder has a cause, so too does not committing amurder. Theperson may resist the desire to murder because another desire, such as notwantingtobepunishedforhisactions,pityingthefateofhisvictim,etc.,causeshimtodoso.Apersoncanneverresistallofhisdrives.Bythedefinitionoffreewillgivenbythe“argumentfromdriveresistance,”therefore,apersonisneveractingfreely.Additionally,resistanceisequallysubjecttothelawsofcausality.Itisnotmerelythecauseofnotmurdering;itisaneventandthustheeffectofsome other cause. If a person happens to resist committing murder, he waspredeterminedtoresistcommittingmurderandcouldnothaveactedinanyotherway.Ultimately, resistingone’sdrivesdoesnot freeapersonfromthe lawsofcausality.

ArgumentfromMoralResponsibilityThe third argument against hard determinism is the “argument from moral

responsibility.”Itisstatedassuch:

Premise1:Sometimeswearemorallyresponsibleforouractions.Premise2:Ifsometimeswearemorallyresponsibleforouractions,thensometimesweareactingfreely.Premise3:Ifsometimesweareactingfreely,thenharddeterminismisfalse.Therefore,harddeterminismisfalse.

The argument defines moral responsibility in this way: X is morallyresponsibleforactionAifXdeservespraiseorblamefordoingA.Premise1isasimpleobservation; itappeals toourcommonsensethat ifapersoncommitsmurder,heshouldbeblamedandpunished.If,ontheotherhand,apersonsavesanother person’s life, he should be praised for doing so. Premise 2 defines

“actingfreely.”Ifpeopledeservepraiseorblameforanaction,itisonlyrationalthattheymusthavefreelychosentoactinthewaythattheydid.For,iftheyhadnot acted freely, then they would not be praised or blamed. Premise 3 is anegationofharddeterminism.The“argumentfrommoralresponsibility,”likethetwoargumentsbeforeit,is

validyetunsound.Itpresupposesthatto“deserve”praiseorblameforanaction,apersonmustbetheonlycauseofthataction.Inotherwords,apersondoesnot“deserve”praiseifheisforcedinto(bythecause)anactofkindnessanddoesnot“deserve”blameifheisforcedintoanactofcruelty.However,becausethisargument accepts that events are caused, it must also accept that actions thatseemtodeservepraiseorblameare,themselves,causedevents;apersoncannotbethesolecauseofanevent.Themainproblemwith this argument, therefore, is its first premise; though

there are circumstances underwhich itmay seem logical to praise or blame aperson, it is actually not the case that a person is ever actually morallyresponsibleforhisactions.Ifapersoncommitsmurder,hehadnochoicebuttocommit murder. The murder was a caused event and had to happen. If themurderhad tohappen, then themurdererdoesnotdeservepraiseorblame forhisaction.Toargueinfavorofmoralresponsibility,therefore,wouldbetoclaimthatsomeeventsareuncaused,anotionthatgoesagainstourcommonsense.Many philosophers have responded to the rejection of Premise 1 by

highlighting the implications ithas forour current justice system. Ifweare todenythatmoralresponsibilityexists,theysay,thenwehavenojustificationforpunishment andwemust, therefore, abolish theuseof anyprisonordetentioncenter. A hard determinist would see this conclusion as rash; though moralresponsibilitymaynotexist,therearecertainlyotherdeservingjustificationsforpunishment.For instance, theprisonsystemcanserveasasafetyprecaution,aviolencedeterrent,acenterforrehabilitation,ortosatisfyvictimgrievances.Theveryfactthateventsarecausedallowsforthebeliefthatprisonsmaywellbethe

causeofareductioninviolence.Thedesirenottobepunishedcouldbeaneventinasetofconditionsthatpreventsapersonfromkillinganotherperson.Harddeterminismassertsthatnothinghappenswithoutacause,thatnoactis

free from the law of causality. Though there aremany arguments against thistheory,theyultimatelyfailtodisproveharddeterminism.

JEAN-JACQUESROUSSEAU(1712–1778)

Freedomfighter

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born on June 28, 1712, in Geneva, Switzerland.Rousseau’smotherdiedsoonafterhisbirth,andbytheageoftwelve,abandonedby his father, Rousseau traveled from home to home, staying with familymembers, employers, patrons, and lovers. Around 1742, Rousseau, who wasnowlivinginParisandworkingasamusicteacherandmusiccopier,befriendedDiderot, one of themajor figures of the Enlightenment. Eventually, Rousseauwould also become known as a key figure of the Enlightenment, though hisrelationship with its ideals and others associated with the movement werecomplex.Rousseau’sfirstrecognitioncamein1750,withhisDiscourseontheSciences

andArts.TheAcademyofDijonheldanessaycontestbasedonthequestionofwhetherornottherestorationofthesciencesandartshadthetendencytopurifymorals,andRousseau,whowontheprize,arguedthatmoralsandgoodnesswerecorrupted by the advancement of civilization (an idea that would be commonthroughout his later philosophical texts). Rousseau continued to producenoteworthy texts (suchashis famouspolitical text,Discourseon theOriginofInequality) and grew in popularity. In 1762, however, his popularity camecrashingdownwiththepublicationofhisbooksTheSocialContractandÈmile.Thebooksweremetwithgreat controversyandoutcry,which includedpublicburnings in Paris and Geneva, and the French monarchy ordered his arrest.Rousseau fled France and ultimately resided in the Swiss town of Neuchâtel,wherehenotonly renouncedhisGenevancitizenshipbutalso startedworkingonhisfamousautobiography,Confessions.Rousseau eventually returned to France and sought refuge with British

philosopherDavidHume.On July 2, 1778,Rousseau died suddenly. In 1794,duringtheFrenchRevolution,thenewrevolutionarygovernment,whoseviews

werevastlydifferentthanthemonarchy’s,orderedthatRousseau’sashesweretobeplacedinthePantheoninParis,andthathewastobehonoredasanationalhero.The common theme throughoutmost of Jean-JacquesRousseau’s important

philosophical work relates to the ideas of freedom, morality, and the state ofnature.Hiswork laid thefoundationsof theFrenchandAmericanRevolutionsandhadanincredibleimpactonWesternphilosophy.

DISCOURSEONTHEORIGINOFINEQUALITY

Inoneofhismostfamouspolitical/philosophicaltexts,DiscourseontheOriginof Inequality, Jean-Jacques Rousseau explains the essential elements of hisphilosophy.First,Rousseau laysout thedifferent typesof inequality that existforpeople.Hethentakesthesetypesofinequalityandtriestodeterminewhichare “natural” and which are “unnatural” (meaning they could therefore beprevented).Rousseau believed that man, like every other animal found in nature, is

motivated by twoprinciples: self-preservation and pity. Inman’s natural state,manishappy,needslittle,andknowsnothingofgoodandevil.Theonlythingthat separates man from any other animal is a sense (though unrealized) ofperfectability.It is this idea of perfectability that allows man to change over time. As

humans socializewith other humans, themind develops and reason begins toform. However, socialization also leads to a principle Rousseau refers to as“amour propre,” which is what drives humans to compare themselves to oneanotherandseekdominationoverotherhumansinordertocreatehappiness.As human societies become more complex and amour propre develops

further, things like private property and labor are divided amongst the people,andthisallowsfor theexploitationof thepoor.Thepoorwill thenseektoend

suchdiscriminationby starting awarwith the rich.However, the richdeceivethepoorbycreatingapoliticalsocietyclaimingtoprovideequality.Equalityisnot provided, however, and instead, oppression and inequality becomepermanentfixturesinsociety.

Rousseau’sNaturalInequalities

AccordingtoRousseau,theonlynaturalinequalitiesaredifferencesinphysicalstrength,becausetheseareinequalitiesthatariseinthenatural state. In modern society, man is corrupted, and theinequalities that result from laws and property are not natural andshouldnotbetolerated.

THESOCIALCONTRACT

Jean-JacquesRousseauisperhapsbestknownforhisbookTheSocialContract,where he famously said, “Men are born free, yet everywhere are in chains.”AccordingtoRousseau,whenmancameintosociety,hehadcompletefreedomand equality. Yet civil society acts as chains and suppresses man’s inherentfreedom.ToRousseau,theonlylegitimateformofpoliticalauthorityisoneinwhichall

people have agreed upon a governmentwith the intent ofmutual preservationthrough a social contract. Rousseau refers to this group of people as a“sovereign.” The sovereign should always express the collective need of thepeopleandprovidefor thecommongoodofeveryone,regardlessof individual

opinionsordesires(hecallsthisthe“generalwill”).Thegeneralwillalsoshapesthecreationoflaws.Rousseau does not dismiss the importance of government, however, and

understood that therewouldbefrictionbetweenasovereignandagovernment(whether it be amonarchy, aristocracy, or democracy). To ease such tensions,Rousseauclaimedthesovereignshouldholdperiodicassembliesandvotebasedonthegeneralwill.Theassembliesshouldalwaysbeattendedbythepeopleofthesovereign,forthesovereigntyislostonceelectedrepresentativesattendtheassemblies, and in a truly healthy state, the votes should be practicallyunanimous. Furthermore, Rousseau advocates that there should be a court tomediate conflicts among individuals, and among the government and thesovereignty.Jean-JacquesRousseau’sThe Social Contract is one of the most important

philosophical texts in Western philosophy. At a time of political inequality,Rousseaumadeitclear that therightof thegovernmentwastogovernby“theconsentofthegoverned.”Hisradicalideasregardingtherightsofmanandthesovereigntyofthepeoplearefrequentlyacknowledgedasbeingthefoundationsofhumanrightsanddemocraticprinciples.

THETROLLEYPROBLEM

Facingtheconsequences

Imaginethefollowingscenario:Atrolleyhaslostcontrolofitsbrakes,andthedriverhasnowayofstopping

thetrainasithurtlesdownthetracksonaverysteephill.Abitfartherdownthehill,youare standingandwatching theepisodeunfold.Younotice that a littlefarther down fromwhere you are standing, fiveworkmen standon the tracks.The trolley is headed right for them. If something is not done, these fivemenwillsurelydie.Rightnexttoyou,younoticethereisaleverthatwillmakethetrolleymove

onto another track. However, upon looking at this second track, you see thatthere is one person on it. If you switch the direction of the trolley, the fiveworkersfromthefirsttrackwillsurvive;however,theonepersononthesecondtrackwilldie.Whatdoyoudo?Nowimaginethisscenario:Youarestandingonabridgeandwatchasatrolleylosescontrolandhurtles

downthehill.Attheendofthetracksarethefiveworkmenwhoareboundtodie.Thistime,thereisnolevertomovethetrolleytoanothertrack.Thetrolleywillbepassingunderthebridgethatyouarestandingon,though,andyouknowthatdroppingaheavyweightinfrontofthetrolleywillmakeitstop.Youhappentobestandingnext toaveryfatmanandrealize that theonlyway tostop thetrolleyfromkillingthefiveworkmenisbypushingthefatmanoverthebridgeandontothetrack,which,asaresult,willkillthefatman.Whatdoyoudo?Thetrolleyproblem,whichcontinuestobeasourceofdebatetothisday,was

first introduced in 1967 by British philosopher Philippa Foot and was laterexpandeduponbyAmericanphilosopherJudithJarvisThomson.

CONSEQUENTIALISM

Thetrolleyproblemisaperfectcritiqueofconsequentialism.Consequentialismisthephilosophicalviewthatanactionismorallyrightwhenitproducesthebestoverallconsequences.Therearetwobasicprinciplestoconsequentialism:

1. Anactisrightorwrongbasedsolelyonitsresults.2. Themoregoodconsequencescreatedfromanact,thebetterandmoreright

thatactis.

Whileconsequentialismcanprovideguidanceforhowoneshouldlivehislife(weshouldlivetomaximizetheamountofgoodconsequences)andhowtoreactduring amoral dilemma (we should choose the action thatwillmaximize the

good consequences), consequentialism has been met with its fair share ofcriticism.In consequentialism, it proves challenging to predict future consequences.

Howdoesonegoaboutassessing themoralityofaconsequence?Should itbebased onwhat an individual believedwould happen, or should it be based onwhatactuallyhappened?Therearealsoissueswithhowtomeasureandcompareconsequences that are morally “good.” According to hedonism, a form ofconsequentialism,goodismeasuredbypleasure,whileinutilitarianism,anothertypeofconsequentialism,goodismeasuredbywell-beingandwelfare.In the case of the trolley problem, we begin to see how consequentialism

unravels.Inthefirstcase,oneformofutilitarianismclaimspullingtheleveris,morally speaking, the better choice. However, another type of utilitarianismclaims that since somethingmorallywrong is alreadyhappening, participatingbypullingtheleverwouldalsobemorallywrongbecauseyouarenowpartiallyresponsibleforthedeathofapersonorpersons,whereasbefore,youwerenot.Inthecaseofthesecondscenario,manypeoplewhowerewillingtopullthe

lever were not willing to throw the fat man over the bridge. While theconsequences in both situations remain the same (you choose to save the fivepeople and one person dies), there seems to exist amoral difference betweensimplypullingtheleverandactuallythrowingapersonoverabridge.

THEDOCTRINEOFDOUBLEEFFECT

The problem of the trolley is based on a principle known as the doctrine ofdoubleeffect.Thisprinciple,firstintroducedbyThomasAquinas,isthenotionthatanactioncanbemorallypermissibleevenwhenoneoftheconsequencesismorally bad. The bad consequence of these actions is foreseen, like in theproblemofthetrolley,whereyourealizeaheadoftimethatonemanwilldieiftheleverispulled.

Soifharmingothersisconsideredimmoral,andwecanforeseethatoneoftheconsequencesinvolvesharminganotherperson,isthepersonwhopullsthelevermorallywrong?Accordingtothedoctrineofdoubleeffect,anindividualcanmorallyperform

an action that leads to foreseen harmful consequences if the following fourconditionsaremet:

1. Theremustbeintentionforthegoodconsequence.Thegoodconsequenceshouldneverbeusedasanexcuseforthebadconsequence,sothereshouldneverbetheintentiontohavethebadconsequenceoccur.

2. Theactionitselfmustbemorallyneutralorgood,andnevermorallywrong.Soifyouweretoisolatetheactionfromthegoodandbadconsequences,itshouldneverbebad.

3. Thegoodconsequencemustbethedirectresultoftheaction,andnottheresultofthebadconsequence.Amorallygoodconsequencecanneveroccurbecausetheactioninitiallycreatedabadconsequence.

4. Thebadconsequencecanneveroutweighthegoodconsequence.Eveniftheintentwasgood,iftheresultleadstothebadconsequenceoverpoweringthegoodconsequence,thenthisconditionhasbeenviolated.

Acommonreal-lifeexampleofthedoctrineofdoubleeffectiswhensomeoneiskilledoutofself-defense.Ifsomeonekillshisattacker, theactionismorallypermissible because the good consequence outweighs the foreseen badconsequence(killinganotherperson).The doctrine of double effect is rejected by consequentialists because

accordingtoconsequentialism,thereisnorelevancetowhatapersonintended;onlytheconsequencesofhisactionsmatter.To this day, the questions of morality proposed by the trolley problem

continuetosparkdebateinthephilosophicalworld.

REALISM

Thetheoryofuniversals

Realism is the philosophical theory that claims universals exist in the worldindependentofmindandlanguage.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

UNIVERSALS:First introducedbyPlato,universalsare repeatableand common characteristics that exist in the world and are oftendivided into two categories—properties (like squareness, forexample)andqualities(likesimilarity).Thoughfew,ifany,propertiesandqualitiesaresharedbyeverything,realistsassertthatuniversalsdo reveal a genuine commonality in nature and provide asystematizedordertotheworld.

So,accordingtorealism,aredappleandaredcherryhaveauniversalessenceof“redness.”Realistsclaimthattheproperty“redness”does,infact,existeveniftherearenomindstoperceiveit.Inthisexample,theappleandthecherryareparticulars. In otherwords, they are not themselves universals, but are said torepresentthem.

TYPESOFREALISM

There are many different types of realism that touch on morality, politics,religion, science, and metaphysics. Two of the most well-known forms of

realisminclude:

1. ExtremeRealism:Thisistheoldestformofrealism,initiallycreatedbyPlato.ToPlato,universals(whichhereferstoasForms)areimmaterialandexistoutsideofspaceandtime.

2. StrongRealism:ThisformofrealismrejectsPlato’sideaofForms,andinsteadclaimsthatuniversalsnotonlyexistinspaceandtime;theycanalsoexistinmanyentitiesatthesametime.Therednessintheappleandcherryisactuallythesameuniversalredness,andnotdistinctfromentitytoentity.

Realismattemptstoanswerthe“problemofuniversals,”whichisthequestionofwhetherornotuniversalsexistinthefirstplace.

OBJECTIONSTOREALISM

Realism is a much-debated subject in philosophy. While there are manyobjectionstorealism,theseargumentsdolittletodisproverealismentirely,andcannotbeusedtodenytheexistenceofuniversals.

ArgumentfromOddityPhilosopherBertrandRussell’s“argumentfromoddity”states:

Premise1:Universalsareextremelyoddentities(afterall,theirverynatureandexistenceisstrangeandhardtoidentify).Premise2:Ifuniversalsareextremelyoddentities,thentheydon’texist.Premise3:Ifuniversalsdon’texist,thenrealismisfalse.Therefore,realismisfalse.

In The Problems of Philosophy, Russell describes a relation between twoplaces: “Edinburgh is north of London.” This relation seems to exist

independently of human perception. Russell asserts, however, that there areobjectionsagainstthisconclusion;antirealists(thosewhosubscribetothebeliefthatthereisnothingoutsideofthemindandeveniftherewere,wewouldnotbeabletoaccessit)claimthatuniversalsdonotexistinthesamesenseasphysicalobjectsorparticulars.WhileitiseasytosaywhereandwhenLondonexists(onaspecificpartofthe

earth,fromthetimeitwascreateduntilthetimeitisdestroyed),itisimpossibleto say the sameof the relation“northof”because that entitydoesnot exist intime or space. Therefore, as stated by the first premise of the argument, it isrationaltobelievethatuniversalsareverystrangeentities.Theargumentgoesonto say that because universals are odd in that they do not exist in anyspatiotemporal sense, it follows that universals donot exist at all (Premise2).Because it is impossible toknowwhenorwhereauniversal is, it is logical todenyitsexistence.Ifuniversalsdonotexist,thenthetheorythatclaimstheydoexist,realism,isfalse(Premise3).Premise3isthenegationofrealism.Becausethe“argumentfromoddity”isavalidargument,itseemsatfirsttobe

a solid objection to realism. Further analysis of its definition of existence,however, demonstrates the argument to be far less sound. The main problemwith the argument is its leap from the first premise to the second. Thoughuniversalsmayindeedbeoddinthattheydon’texistinaspatiotemporalrealm,it does not mean that they do not exist at all. It may seem rational to viewspatiotemporalexistenceas theonly typeofexistence,but this isnot thecase.Indeed,whilephysicalobjects,thoughts,emotions,etc.,exist,universalscanbesaidtosubsist.Universalssubsistrather thanexist(meaningtheyexistwithoutspace or time), says Russell, because they are timeless and unchangeable.Ultimately,thoughuniversalsexistinanoddway,theydo,indeed,exist.

ProblemofIndividuationAsecondobjection to realism iscalled the“problemof individuation.”This

objectionstates:

Premise1:Ifrealismistrue,thenthereareuniversals.Premise2:Ifthereareuniversals,thenitispossibletoindividuateuniversals.Premise3:Itisnotpossibletoindividuateuniversals.Therefore,realismisnottrue.

Toindividuateauniversalmeanstoknowofa“criterionofidentity”forthatuniversal.Inotherwords,toindividuateauniversalmeanstoknowanecessarilytrue,noncircularstatementoftheform.Thefirstpremisesimplystatesthetheoryofrealism.Premise2assertsthatif

universalsexist, then itmustbepossible toknow their form(in thesamewayonecansay,forexample,XisthesameeventasYifandonlyifXandYsharethe same cause and effect). When attempting to individuate a universal, theresultbecomesacircularargument,thereforeprovingPremise3tobetrue.Likethe“argumentfromoddity,”the“problemofindividuation”isavalidbut

unsoundargument.Itmayverywellbethecasethatuniversalscan,indeed,beindividuated, but we have not yet determined a way to articulate their form.Unless the “problem of individuation” can prove that universals absolutelycannotbeindividuatedatanypointinthefuture,ratherthansimplystatingthattheyhavenotbeenindividuatedinthepast,theargumenthasnologicalmerit.

IMMANUELKANT(1724–1804)

Humanreasonandmodernthought

ImmanuelKant is one of the singlemost important philosophers to have everlived.HisworkforeverchangedtheshapeofWesternphilosophy.BornonApril22, 1724, in Königsberg, East Prussia, Kant came from a large and modestfamily.AsKantgrewolder, thepopularProtestantmovementPietismplayedalargeroleinhisfamily’slife(andwouldsubsequentlyinfluencehislaterwork).At eight years old, Kant attended the Collegium Fridericianum, where he

studied classicism. Kant remained there until 1740, when he enrolled in theUniversity of Königsberg, studying mathematics and philosophy. When hisfatherdied in1746,Kantfoundhimselfsuddenlywithoutmoneyandbegantotakeworkasaprivate tutor topayforhiseducation.Heworkedasa tutor forseven years, and it was during this time that Kant published many of hisphilosophicalideas.Kantworked as a lecturer at theUniversityofKönigsberg for fifteenyears,

untilfinally,in1770,hebecameaprofessorinlogicandmetaphysics.Whenhewasfifty-sevenyearsold,KantpublishedtheCritiqueofPureReason,whichisoneof the singlemost important philosophical texts everwritten. Inhisbook,Kantdetailedhowthehumanmindorganizesexperiencesintwoways:howtheworldappears,andhowonethinksabouttheworld.Kant continued to teach at the University of Königsberg and write major

philosophicaltextsforthenexttwenty-sevenyears.However,aswordspreadofhis unorthodox methods of teaching religious texts, the Prussian governmentbegantopressureKant.In1792,thekingofPrussiabarredImmanuelKantfromwritingaboutandteachingreligioussubjects,whichKantobeyeduntiltheking’sdeathfiveyearslater.Kant taughtat the sameschooluntilhis retirement in1796.Thoughhis life

wasrelativelyordinary,hiscontributionstophilosophywereanythingbut.

THECRITIQUESOFIMMANUELKANT

TheworkofImmanuelKantisimmenseandincrediblycomplex.However,thecommon theme throughout all of his work is his use of a critical method tounderstandandcometotermswithphilosophicalproblems.Kantbelievedthatinphilosophy, one should not speculate about the world around him; rather, weshouldallcritiqueourownmentalabilities.Weshouldinvestigateallthatwearefamiliarwith,understandanddefinethelimitsofourknowledge,anddeterminehowourmentalprocessesaffecthowwemakesenseofeverything.Ratherthanspeculatingontheuniversearoundus,Kantbelievedthatbylookinginwardwewoulddiscover theanswers to themanyquestionsposedbyphilosophy.Thus,Kant shifts away from metaphysics and toward epistemology (the study ofknowledge).

TranscendentalIdealismTo understand Kant’s philosophy of transcendental idealism, onemust first

understandKant’sdistinctionbetweenphenomenaandnoumena.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

PHENOMENA: According to Kant, phenomena are the realities orappearances that are interpreted from our minds. NOUMENA:These,accordingtoKant,arethethingsthatexistregardlessofourminds’interpretations.

Kantclaimsthatweonlyhavetheabilitytoknowtheworldthatispresentedtousfromourmindsandthat theexternalworldcannever trulybeknown.Inother words, the only knowledge that we know, and ever will know, is

knowledge of phenomena. This means that knowledge of noumena is, andalwayswillbe,unknown.

Inphilosophy,idealismreferstothevariousnotionsthatsharethebeliefthatthe world is composed not of physical things, but of mental ideas. In Kant’stranscendental idealism, however, Kant does not deny that an external realityexists.Nordoesheassumethatthingsarelessfundamentalthanideas.Instead,Kantclaimsthatourmindscontextualizeandlimitreality,andthatwewillneverbeabletotranscendtheselimitations.

TheSyntheticAPrioriKantattemptstoanswerthequestionofhow,whenthenatureofexperienceis

individual and particular (for example, we each experience sights and soundsindividually), therecanbeuniversal truths fromexperience.Howcanwe infercauseandeffectwhenwecannotexperience(see,smell,touch,etc.)thelawofcausation?Kantmakesadistinctionbetweentwotypesofpropositions:

1. Analyticproposition:Thisiswhentheconceptiscontainedwithinthesubject.Forexample,“allsquareshavefourcorners.”Inthissentence,fourcornersispartofthedefinitionofasquare.

2. Syntheticproposition:Thisiswhentheconceptisnotcontainedwithinthesubject.Forexample,“allwomenarehappy.”Inthissentence,happinessisnotpartofthedefinitionofawoman.

Kantthenmakesadistinctionbetweentwomorepropositions:

1. aprioriproposition:Thisiswhenthejustificationofapropositiondoesnotrelyonanyexperience.Forexample,“8+6=14”or“allmicearerodents.”

2. aposterioriproposition:Thisiswhenthejustificationofapropositionreliesonexperience.Forexample,theproposition“allwomenarehappy”requiresexperiencetosaywhetherornotitistrue.

Kantaskshowsyntheticaprioriknowledgecanbepossible(inotherwords,how one can know something is universal and necessary without it beingdefinitionalorself-evident).Kantconcludesthatsyntheticaprioriknowledgeisinfactpossible.Andhere’show:According to Kant, experience is organized in our mind based on certain

categories. These categories then become features of experience that are bothnecessary anduniversal. For example, it is not thatwe can’t find causation innature.Rather,causationisafeatureinourminds,sowealwaysperceiveit.Wecan’tnotfindcausation.Thesyntheticapriori,accordingtoKant,ishowpeopledevelopsubstantiveknowledge.

KANT’SVIEWSONETHICS

Kantwas a deontologist,meaning he firmly believed that an action should bedetermined as moral or immoral based on the motive behind the action (asopposed to consequentialists, who judge an action’s morality based on itsconsequences).According toKant, sincewehave the ability to deliberate andprovidereasonsforanaction,moraljudgmentshouldbeplacedonthosereasonswhyanactionwasperformed.Whileitisimportantthatouractionshavegoodconsequences and we should always try for that result, consequences are notaffected by reason, and therefore, reason is not completely responsible for theconsequencesofaparticularactionthatwasendorsedbyreason.Reason can only be held accountable for endorsing a particular action.

Therefore,we canonly judgemotives andactions asbeingmoral or immoral.Sincemoralityisdeterminedfromreason,thismeansthatgoodnessandbadnessalsostemfromreason.Kantclaimsthatactingbadlyisviolatingthemaximscreatedfromone’sown

personal reason, or creating maxims that cannot consistently be viewed asuniversal laws. In other words, badness is the result of laws of reason beingviolated.Fromthisnotion,wecanconcludethatimmoralityisactuallyatypeofirrationalitybecausethelawsofreasonarebeingviolated.Byactingimmorally,Kantbelieves thatwebecome less rationalhumanbeings, thusweakeningourhumanity. We can only stop ourselves from doing things against our betterjudgmentbybehavingrationally.

DUALISM

Themindandthebodyseparated

Dualism attempts to answer the mind-body problem, which asks what therelationship is between an individual’s physical properties and an individual’smentalproperties.Accordingtodualism,themindandbodyaretwoseparatethings.Whilethe

body(ormatter)isthephysicalsubstancethatanindividualismadeof,themind(orsoul)isanonphysicalsubstancethatexistsapartfromthebodyandincludesconsciousness.Therearethreemajortypesofdualism:

1. SubstanceDualism:Substancecanbebrokendownintotwocategories:mentalandmaterial.AccordingtoRenéDescartes,whomadethistheoryfamous,thematerialsubstancedoesnothavetheabilitytothink,andthementalsubstancehasnoextensioninthephysicalworld.

2. PropertyDualism:Themindandbodyexistaspropertiesofonematerialsubstance.Inotherwords,consciousnessistheresultofmatterbeingorganizedinaspecificway(likethehumanbrain).

3. PredicateDualism:Inordertomakesenseoftheworld,thereneedstobemorethanonepredicate(thewaywegoaboutdescribingaproposition’ssubject).Accordingtopredicatedualism,mentalpredicatescannotbereducedintophysicalpredicates.Forexample,inthesentence“Troyisannoying,”onecannotreducetheactof“beingannoying”intoaphysicalthing(predicate).“Annoying”cannotbedefinedbyitsstructureorcomposition,anditcanlookdifferentindifferentsituations.

ARGUMENTSFORDUALISM

There are several arguments that support the claims of dualism. In particular,dualismisverypopularamongthosewhobelieveintheexistenceofasoulthatisseparatefromone’sphysicalbody.

TheSubjectiveArgumentOne of the more famous arguments supporting substance dualism is the

subjectiveargument.Thisarguesthatmentaleventsfeaturesubjectivequalities,

whilephysical eventsdonot.Foramental event,onecanaskquestionsaboutwhatsomethinglooks,feels,orsoundslike.However,thosesensationscannotbereducedintoaphysicalevent.Eventhoughyoucansee,touch,orhearphysicalevents,whenyouaredescribingasensationsuchas“whatsomethingfeelslike,”youcannotactually reduce it to somethingphysical. It is still a sensationwithsubjectivequalities.

TheSpecialSciencesArgumentThe special sciences argument supports the notion of predicate dualism. If

predicate dualism is true, then “special sciences” must exist. These sciencesshouldnotbeabletobereducedanyfurtherusingthelawsofphysics.Becausepsychology,whichcannotbefurtherreducedbythelawsofphysics,existsasaform of science, this must imply that the mind exists. Even the science ofmeteorology proves the special science argument to be true, because studyingweather patterns is only of interest to people, and therefore, this sciencepresupposesthatthemindcaresandisinterestedinweather.Therefore,inorderforthematerialworldtobeperceivedmentally,theremustbeaperspectivefromthemindaboutthematerialworld.

ArgumentfromReasonAccordingtotheargumentfromreason,ifourthoughtsaresimplytheresult

of physical causes, then there is no reason to believe that these thoughts arebasedonreasonorarerational.Aphysicalmaterialisnotrational,andyetweashumans have reason.Therefore, themindmust not simply be from amaterialsource.

ARGUMENTSAGAINSTDUALISM

Therearemanyargumentsagainstdualism.Manyoftheseargumentsfallundera broader belief known as monism, which states that instead of two separatesubstances,themindandbodyarepartofonesubstance.

MonisminaNutshell

IdealisticMonism(alsoknownasIdealism):Theonlysubstancethatexistsisthementalsubstance(consciousness).MaterialisticMonism(alsoknownasPhysicalism):Thephysicalworldistheonlyreality,andanythingmentalstemsfromthephysical.NeutralMonism:Thereexistsonesubstancethatisneitherphysicalnormental,butiswherephysicalandmentalattributescomefrom.

ArgumentfromBrainDamageThis argument against dualism questions how the theory works when, for

example,braindamagefromtraumatothehead,pathologicaldiseases,ordrugabuseleadstoacompromisedmentalability.Ifthementalandthematerialtrulywereseparatefromoneanother,thementalshouldbeunaffectedbysuchevents.Infact,scientistshavediscoveredthatthereismostlikelyacausalrelationship

betweenthemindandthebrain,andthatbymanipulatingordamagingthebrain,mentalstatesareaffected.

CausalInteractionTheargumentofcausalinteractionquestionshowsomethingimmaterial(the

mental)hastheabilitytoaffect thematerial.It isstillveryunclearwheresuchinteractionswouldoccur.Ifyouweretoburnyourfinger,forexample,achainofevents would unfold. First, the skin is burned; then nerve endings becomestimulated.Eventually,theperipheralnervesleadtoaspecificpartofthebrain,andtheresultisthefeelingofpain.However,ifdualismweretrue,painwouldnotbeabletobelocatedinaparticularspot.However, thepain is located inaparticularspot,thefinger.Additionally, the theory of causal interaction deals with how an interaction

occurs between themental and the physical.Let’s sayyoumoveyour armupanddown.Todoso,youfirsthavetheintentiontomoveyourarmupanddown(themental event).Themessage travels via neurons, and thenyoumoveyourarmupanddown.However,thementaleventofintendingtomoveyourarmisnot enough tomove your arm.Theremust be a force thatmakes the neuronssendthemessage.Dualismlackstheexplanationofhowanonphysicaleventcancreateaphysicalevent.

ArgumentfromSimplicityPerhapsthemostcommonargumentagainstdualismisalsothesimplest.The

argument from simplicity ponderswhy someonewould attempt to explain theexistenceofthemindandbodyintwopartswhendoingsoinonepartissimpler.This is expressed through the principle known as “Occam’s razor,” which

states that, when explaining a phenomenon, one shouldn’t multiply entitiesbeyondwhatisnecessary.Therefore,itshouldberationalforhumanstowantthesimplestexplanation.

Whilepartsofdualismhavetheirstrengths,thereisnodenyingthatdualismdoesnotanswerallofthequestionsthatarisefromthemind-bodyproblem.

UTILITARIANISM

Measuringhappiness

Inanalyzingmoralbehavior,twoquestionsareoftenraised:

1. Whatmakesanactrightorwrong?2. Whichthingsaregood,andwhicharebad?

Utilitarianism,introducedbyJeremyBenthamandlateralteredbyJohnStuartMill,isthemostcommonconsequentialisttheory.Itholdsthattheonlythingofvalue,andtheonlythingthatisgoodinitself,ishappiness.Thoughotherthingshavevalue,theirvalueismerelyderivedfromtheircontributiontohappiness.

JEREMYBENTHAM(1748–1832)

English philosopher Jeremy Bentham, influenced by the work of Hume andHobbes, introduced the foundation of utilitarianism in his 1789 book,IntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislation. Inhisbook,Benthamcreatedtheprincipleofutility,inwhichanactionisapprovedofwhenithasthetendencytoprovideandenablethemosthappiness.According toBentham,happiness isdefinedas thepresenceofpleasureand

the absence of pain. He created a formula, known as the felicific (meaning“happiness-making”) calculus, with which to measure the value of differentpleasures and pains. When measuring pleasure and pain, Bentham looks atduration, intensity, certainty versus uncertainty, and nearness versus farness.Bentham then reasons that what makes an act right is the extent to which itincreases the pleasure and decreases the pain. His theory is identified ashedonisticbecause itbelievespleasureandpain tobe theonly thingsofvalue

and is referred to as “act utilitarianism” because it applies utility directly toactions.For Bentham, utilitarianismwas based on the consequences of actions that

were taken. Most importantly, Bentham emphasized the happiness of thecommunityasthemostimportantthing,sincethehappinessofthecommunityisthe sum of the happiness of the individual people within the community.Therefore, the principle of utility determined that the moral obligation toperformanactionwasbasedondoingwhateverproducedthegreatestamountofhappinessinthelargestnumberofpeopleaffectedbytheaction.ForBentham,itwasaboutquantityoverquality.Nomatterhowcomplexorsimplethepleasure,each was treated the same. Bentham firmly believed more, quantitativelyspeaking,isbetter.

Bentham’sViewsonCrime

Benthambelievedsocialpoliciesshouldbeevaluatedbasedonthegeneral well-being of those affected, and that punishing criminalseffectivelydiscouragedcrimebecause itmade individualscomparethe benefits of committing a crime to the pain involved in thepunishment.

JOHNSTUARTMILL(1806–1873)

JohnStuartMill,anadmirerandfollowerofBentham’s,extendedandalteredthetheoriesofJeremyBenthaminhis1861book,Utilitarianism.

WhileMillagreedwithandenhancedmuchofBentham’stheory,hedisagreedwith the belief that quantity of pleasure is better than quality.Mill noted that,with Bentham’s disregard for qualitative differences, there was no differencebetweenthevalueofahuman’spleasureandthevalueofananimal’spleasure.Thus,themoralstatusofhumansisthesameasthemoralstatusofanimals.WhileMillbelieved thatpleasuresdiffered inquality,heproved thatquality

could not be quantified (thus showing that Bentham’s felicific calculus wasunreasonable).ToMill,only thosepeoplewhohadexperiencedhighpleasuresand lowpleasureswouldbeable to judge theirquality,and thisprocesswouldleadtothecreationofamoralworththatwouldpromotehigherpleasures(whichhe believed were mostly intellectual), even if the lower pleasures (which hebelievedweremostlybodily)weremomentarilymoreintense.According toMill, happiness is difficult to attain. Thus, instead of seeking

pleasure,peoplearemorally justified to insteadseekoutaway to reduce theirtotalamountofpainwiththeiractions.Mill’sformofutilitarianismalsoallowedfor the ability to sacrifice pleasure and experience pain if the result is for thegreatergoodofeveryone.Millrespondstocriticswhoclaimthatutilitarianismaskstoomuchofpeople

byexplainingthatmostgoodactionsarenotintendedfortheworld’sbenefit,butforthebenefitofindividualswhomakeuptheworld.Thisprivateutilityiswhatmostpeopleattendto,anditisrarethatanypersonhasthepowertobeapublicbenefactor.

TYPESOFUTILITARIANISM

Whiletherearemanytypesofutilitarianism,thetwomostwell-knownformsareactutilitarianismandruleutilitarianism.

ActUtilitarianism

In act utilitarianism, only the results and consequences of a single act aretakenintoaccount,andanact isdeemedmorallyrightwhenitcreatesthebest(orlessbad)resultsforthelargestnumberofpeople.Actutilitarianismlooksateachindividualactandcalculatesutilityeachtimetheactisperformed.Moralityisthendeterminedbyhowusefultheresultsaretothelargestamountofpeopleaffected.However, act utilitarianism has its criticisms. Not only can it prove

challenging under act utilitarianism to have a complete knowledge of theconsequencesofone’sactions; theprinciplealsoallowsfor immoralacts tobejustified.Forexample,ifthereisawarbetweentwocountriesandthewarcanendbyfindingthewhereaboutsofonemanwhois inhiding,actutilitarianismstatesthat torturingtheman’schild,whoknowsofhisfather’slocation,wouldbemorallyjustified.

RuleUtilitarianismWhileactutilitarianismlooksattheresultsofasingleact,ruleutilitarianism

measurestheresultsofanactasitisrepeatedthroughtime,asifitwerearule.According to rule utilitarianism, an action is consideredmorally rightwhen itcomplieswiththerulesthatleadtothegreatestoverallhappiness.Rule utilitarianism states that an action is morally correct based on the

correctness of its rules.When a rule is correct and followed, the result is thegreatest amount of good or happiness that can be attained. According to ruleutilitarianism, while following the rules may not lead to the greatest overallhappiness,notfollowingtheruleswillnoteither.Ruleutilitarianismalsofacescriticism.Forexample,inruleutilitarianism,it

isentirelypossibletocreaterulesthatareunjust.Aperfectreal-worldexampleisslavery. Rule utilitarianism could claim that slavery is morally right if themistreatmentofaselectgroupofpeopleresultsinanoverallhappiness.

WHATISRIGHTORWRONG?

Inbothactutilitarianismandruleutilitarianism,nothingiseversimplyrightorwrongonitsown.Nomatterthetypeofutilitarianism,neitherformappearstorequire an absolute ban on lying, cheating, or stealing. Indeed, utilitarianismseemsattimestorequirethatwelie,cheat,orstealsolongasitistheroutebywhichmaximumhappinessisachieved(thoughaccordingtoruleutilitarianism,activities like lying, cheating, and stealing would undermine the trust uponwhich human society is founded, and any rule which permits these actionscannotmaximizeutilityifitisuniversallyadopted).Inutilitarianism,moralityisalwaysbasedontheconsequencesthatariseasa

resultofanaction,andneverbasedontheactualaction.Becauseofthisfocusonconsequences rather than intentions, the moral worth of an action seems tobecome a matter of luck. The final consequences of an action must becomeevident before it can be determined whether the action was good or bad.However,wecancertainlyimagineactionswithgoodintentionsthatultimatelyleadtobadconsequences,aswellasactionswithbadintentionsthatleadtogoodconsequences. Furthermore, because it is necessary to determine how manypeoplewillbeaffected,howintenselytheywillbeaffected,andtheeffectofanyavailable alternatives, utilitarianism leaves much room for miscalculation.Therefore, though utilitarianism does an adequate job of banning deceitfulbehavior,itseemstobeaweakmoraltheory.

JOHNLOCKE(1632–1704)

Therightsofman

JohnLockewas bornonAugust 29, 1632, inSomerset,England, to aPuritanfamily.Locke’sfather,alawyerwhoalsoservedasacaptainintheEnglishCivilWar,waswellconnectedwith theEnglishgovernment.Asaresult,Lockewasable to receiveanoutstandinganddiverse education. In1647,while attendingWestminster School in London, Locke was named King’s Scholar (an honorbestowedupononlyaselect few),and in1652,LockeattendedOxford’smostprestigious school, Christ Church. It was at Christ Church that John Lockebecamefamiliarwithmetaphysicsand logic,andwhilepursuinghisMasterofArts,he immersedhimself in theworkofDescartesandRobertBoyle (who isconsideredtobethefatherofchemistry)andpursuedacareerasadoctor.In1665,LockebecamefriendswithLordAshley(whowasafounderofthe

WhigpartyandwouldgoontobecomeEarlofShaftesbury),oneofEngland’smostskilledstatesmen,whocametoOxfordlookingformedicaltreatment.LordAshley invited Locke to live in London and work for him as his personalphysician, and Locke moved there in 1667. As Lord Ashley’s power andresponsibility grew, so too did Locke’s responsibilities, and he soon foundhimselfworking in tradingandcolonization.OneprojectLordAshley tookonwasthecolonizationoftheCarolinasintheNewWorld,andLocketookpartinwritingtheconstitutionfortheland.ItwasduringthistimethatLockestartedtobecomeinterestedinphilosophicaldiscussions.In1674,withLordAshleynolongeringovernment,LockereturnedtoOxford

togetabachelorofmedicinedegreeandthentraveledtoFrance,wherehespenta lot of his time learning about Protestantism. Upon returning to England in1679, Locke found himself embroiled in controversy. As Charles II andParliament fought for control and revolution seemed possible, Locke’sinvolvementinafailedassassinationattemptofthekingandtheking’sbrother

forcedLocketoleavethecountry.ItwasduringthistimethatLockealsowrotethehighlyregardedTwoTreatisesofGovernment.While living in exile in Holland, Locke finished perhaps what is his most

famous work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which he hadstartedwhile in France. Lockewas finally able to return to England in 1688,whenWilliamofOrangeinvadedEngland,forcingJamesII(whoruledafterhisbrother,Charles II,died) to flee toFrance, starting theGloriousRevolution. Itwas only after Locke’s return to England that An Essay Concerning HumanUnderstandingandTwoTreatisesofGovernmentwerepublished.The Glorious Revolution had a profound impact on England and shifted

power away from the monarchy and toward Parliament. John Locke was notonly considered to be a hero during his time; his contributions to Westernphilosophyhaveproven thathe isoneof thegreatestmindsofhumanhistory.His philosophical works touched on empiricism, epistemology, government,God,religioustoleration,andprivateproperty.

ANESSAYCONCERNINGHUMANUNDERSTANDING

JohnLocke’smostfamouswork,AnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding,deals with fundamental questions regarding the mind, thought, language, andperception, and is broken up into four books. In Essay, Locke provides asystematicphilosophythatattemptstoanswerthequestionofhowwethink.Asa result of his work, Locke shifted the philosophical dialogue away frommetaphysicsandtowardepistemology.Locke opposes the notion set forth by other philosophical schools (such as

those of Plato and Descartes) that one is born with innate, fundamentalprinciples and knowledge. He argues that this idea would mean all humans

universallyacceptcertainprinciples,andsincetherearenouniversallyacceptedprinciples(andiftherewere,theywouldnotbetheresultofinnateknowledge),thiscannotbetrue.For example, people differ in moral ideas, so moral knowledge cannot be

innate.Instead,Lockebelievedthathumansareatabularasa,orblankslate,thatgainknowledgethroughexperience.Theexperiencecreatessimpleideas(basedonthesenses,reflection,andsensation),andasthesesimpleideascombine,theybecomemorecomplex(throughcomparison,abstraction,andcombination)andformknowledge.Ideascanalsobedividedintotwocategories:

1. Primary(whichcannotbeseparatefromthematterandarepresentregardlessofwhetherapersonseesthemornot—forexample,size,shape,andmotion)

2. Secondary(whichareseparatefromthematterandareonlyperceivedwhenthematterisobserved—forexample,tasteandodor)

Lastly,Lockeobjects toPlato’sconceptofessences, thenotion thathumanscan only identify an individual to be part of a species because of its essence.Lockecreateshisowntheoryofessencesbasedonobservableproperties(whichhecallsnominalessences)andtheinvisiblestructuresthatformtheobservableproperties(whichhecallsrealessences).Forexample,wecanformanideaandcreateanessenceaboutwhatadogisbasedonwhatweobserveandbasedonthebiologyof thedog (which is responsible for theobservableproperties).ToLocke, human knowledge is limited, and humans should be aware of suchlimitations.

TWOTREATISESOFGOVERNMENT

InhisTwoTreatisesofGovernment,Lockedetailshisbeliefsonhumannatureand politics. The anchor to Locke’s political philosophy was the notion thathumanshavetherighttoprivateproperty.AccordingtoLocke,whenGodcreatedman,manonlyhadtolivebythelaws

ofnature,andaslongaspeacewaspreserved,onecoulddoashepleased.Man’sright to self-preservationmeant thatman also had the right to have the thingsthatareneededinorderforonetosurviveandlivehappily;andthosehavebeenprovidedbyGod.Sincemanistheownerofhisownbody,anyproductorgoodthatistheresult

ofhisphysicallaborshouldalsobelongtohim.Amanwhodecidestofarmandcreatefood,forexample,shouldthereforebetheownerofthatlandandthefoodproduced from the land. According to Locke’s ideas on private property, oneshouldnot takepossessionofsomething ifanother individual isharmed in theprocessbecauseGodwantseveryonetobehappy,andmanshouldnottakemorethanheneeds,for thatcouldbeusedbyanotherperson.Sinceimmoralpeopleexist, however, man should create laws to ensure and protect his rights topropertyandfreedoms.It is the sole purpose of government, Locke believed, to support the well-

being of everyone. And though some natural rights are surrendered when agovernment is established, a government has the ability to protect rightsmoreeffectively thanoneperson could alone. If the government no longer supportsthewell-beingofeveryone,itshouldbereplaced,anditisthemoralobligationofthecommunitytorevolt.According to Locke, if a proper government exists, both individuals and

societies should flourish not only materially, but spiritually. The governmentshould provide a freedom that aligns with the self-perpetuating natural lawcreatedbyGod.Thoughpublishedlater inhis life,onceLockehadreturnedtoEnglandafter

livinginexile,TwoTreatisesofGovernmentwaswrittenduringatimeofgreatpolitical tension between the monarchy and Parliament. Locke believed that

therecouldbeagreatertypeofgovernment,andhispoliticalphilosophyhadaprofoundimpactonWesternphilosophy.

EMPIRICISMVERSUSRATIONALISM

Wheredotruthscomefrom?

In epistemology, philosophers examine the nature, origins, and limits ofknowledge.Thequestionsraisedinepistemologyare:

Howcanonegainknowledge?Whatarethelimitsofknowledge?Whatisthenatureoftrueknowledge?Whatwarrantsittobetrue?

Inansweringthefirstquestionabouthowknowledgeoriginates,therearetwocontrastingtheoriesinphilosophy:empiricismandrationalism.

EMPIRICISM

Empiricism is the theory that all knowledge comes from sensory experience.Accordingtoempiricism,oursensesobtaintherawinformationfromtheworldaroundus,andourperceptionof thisrawinformationstartsaprocesswherebywebegintoformulateideasandbeliefs.Thenotionthathumansarebornwithaninnateknowledgeisrejected,anditisarguedthathumansonlyhaveknowledgethat is a posteriori, meaning “based on experience.” Through inductivereasoningofthebasicobservationsprovidedbythesenses,knowledgebecomesmorecomplex.Ingeneral,therearethreetypesofempiricism:

ClassicalEmpiricismThis is the form of empiricism associated with John Locke’s tabula rasa

theory. The notion of an innate knowledge is completely rejected, and it is

assumedthatweknownothingatbirth.Itisonlyasonebeginstoexperiencetheworldthatinformationisgatheredandknowledgeisformed.

RadicalEmpiricismRadical empiricism was made famous by American philosopher William

James. In themost radical formsofempiricism,allofone’sknowledgecomesfromthesenses.Onewouldthenbeabletoconcludefromthisthatthemeaningofastatementisconnectedtoexperiencesthatareabletoconfirmthatstatement.This isknownas theverificationistprinciple,andit ispartofa typeofradicalempiricismknownaslogicalpositivism(whichhasbecomeanunpopularformof empiricism). Because all knowledge comes from the senses, according tological positivism, it is not possible to talk about something that has not beenexperienced. If a statement cannot be linked to experience, that statement ismeaningless. For logical positivism to be true, religious and ethical beliefswouldhave tobe abandonedbecause there arenoexperiencesorobservationsone could have that would be able to confirm such claims, making themmeaningless.

ModerateEmpiricismThis form of empiricism, which seems more plausible than radical

empiricism, allows for cases where knowledge is not grounded in the senses(thoughthesearestillknownasexceptionstotherule).Forexample,in“9+4=13”weseeatruththatdoesnotrequireinvestigation.However,anysignificantformsofknowledgearestillsolelygainedfromexperience.

RATIONALISM

Rationalism is the theory that reason, not the senses, is where knowledgeoriginates. Rationalists claim that without having principles and categories

already in place, humans would not be able to organize or interpret theinformationprovidedbythesenses.Therefore,accordingtorationalism,humansmusthaveinnateconceptsandthenusedeductivereasoning.Rationalistsbelieveinatleastoneofthefollowing:

TheIntuition/DeductionThesisThisthesisstatesthattherearesomepropositionsthatareknownasaresultof

intuitionalone,whileotherpropositionscanbeknownbybeingdeduced froman intuitedproposition.According to rationalism, intuition isa typeof rationalinsight. Through deduction,we are able to arrive at conclusions from intuitedpremisesbyusingvalidarguments.Inotherwords,theconclusionhastobetrueif the premises onwhich the conclusion is based are true. Once one piece ofknowledgeisknown,onecanthendeduceothersfromthatoriginalknowledge.Forexample,onecanintuitthatthenumber5isaprimenumberandlessthan

6,andthenonecandeducethatthereisaprimenumberthatislessthan6.Anyknowledgethatisgainedfromtheintuition/deductionthesisisapriori,meaningit has been gained independent of the senses, and rationalists have used it toexplain mathematics, ethics, free will, and even metaphysical claims like theexistenceofGod.

TheInnateKnowledgeThesisThis thesis states that, as part of our rational nature,wehaveknowledgeof

some truthswithin a particular subject.Like the intuition/deduction thesis, theinnateknowledgethesisstatesthatknowledgeisacquiredapriori.Accordingtothis thesis, however, knowledge does not come from intuition or deduction;rather,itisjustpartofourverynaturetohaveit.Thesourceoftheknowledgedepends upon the philosopher.While some rationalists believe this knowledgecomes from God, for example, others believe it to be the result of naturalselection.

TheInnateConceptThesis

Thistheorystatesthataspartofournature,humanshaveconceptsthat theyemploy in a specific subject. According to the innate concept thesis, someknowledge is not the result of experience; however, sensory experience cantrigger the process that brings this knowledge to our consciousness. Whileexperience can act as a trigger, it still does not provide concepts or determinewhat the information is. This concept is different from the innate knowledgethesisbecausehere,knowledgecanbededucedfrominnateconcepts.Withtheinnateconceptthesis,themoreremovedaconceptisfromexperience,themoreplausibleitistoclaimitasinnate.Forexample,aconceptongeometricshapeswouldbemoreinnatethanaconceptonexperiencingpainbecauseitisfurtherremovedfromexperience.While empiricismand rationalismpresent twodifferent explanations for the

samequestion,theanswersaresometimesnotasblackandwhite.Forexample,philosophersGottfriedWilhelmLeibniz andBaruchSpinoza, considered tobekey figures in the rationalism movement, believed that knowledge could begained through reason in principle. However, besides specific areas likemathematics,theydidnotthinkitwaspossibleinpractice.

GEORGWILHELMFRIEDRICHHEGEL(1770–1831)

Thepowerofothers

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s father wished for his son to become aclergyman.HegelenrolledintheseminaryattheUniversityofTübingenin1788and studied theology.Duringhis time at theUniversity,Hegel became friendswithFriedrichHölderlinandFriedrichW.J.vonSchelling,whowouldgoontobecome incredibly successful as a poet and philosopher, respectively.Throughout their lives, these threemenwould have profound impacts on oneanother’swork.Aftergraduating,Hegeldecidedhewouldnotpursuebeingapastorandlived

inFrankfurt,whereheworkedasa tutor.Whenhisfatherdied,Hegelwasleftwithenoughmoneytofinanciallysupporthimselfandbegantodevotehistimeentirelytoworkingonhisreligiousandsocialphilosophies.In1800,HegelwasintroducedtotheworkofImmanuelKantandbecameveryinterestedinKant’sphilosophies. In 1801, Hegel moved with von Schelling to the city of Jena,wherebothwerehiredtoteachattheUniversityofJena.Jenawasanartisticandintellectual epicenter, and Hegel decided his philosophy would combine hisinfluences of theology, Kantian idealism, and romanticismwith contemporarypolitics and social issues. That same year, Hegel began publishing hisphilosophicaltexts.Hegelpublishedoneofhismostfamousworks,PhenomenologyofSpirit, in

1807, in which he discussed in depth his views on Spirit, consciousness, andknowledge. Hegel would later systematize his philosophical approach in histhree-volumeEncyclopediaofthePhilosophicalSciencesof1817and,in1821,hisElementsof thePhilosophyofRight,where he combined his philosophicalideaswithcritiquesofmodernsocietyandpoliticalinstitutions.In the years leading up to his death, Hegel became quite influential. The

impact of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel can be seen in theology, cultural

theory,andsociology,andhisworkisoftenconsideredaprecursortoMarxism.

DIALECTICANDSPIRIT

Prior toHegel’swork, theworddialecticwas used to describe the process ofarguingandrefutinginordertodeterminethefirstprinciples(likethedialoguesmade famous bySocrates).Hegel, however, used theworddialectic in a verydifferentway.LikeKant,Hegelwasanidealist.Hegelbelievedthemindonlyhasaccessto

ideasofwhat theworld is like, and thatwecannever fullyperceivewhat theworldis.However,unlikeKant,Hegelbelievedtheseideasweresocial,meaningthey are completely shaped by other people’s ideas. Through the use of acommon language, traditions of one’s society, and the religious and culturalinstitutions thatonebelongs to,an individual’smind is shaped.Thiscollectiveconsciousnessofasociety,whichHegelreferstoas“Spirit,” isresponsibleforshapingone’sconsciousnessandideas.Hegel,unlikeKant,believedthatthisSpiritisconstantlyevolving.According

toHegel,thespiritevolvesbythesamekindofpatternasanideawouldduringanargument, thedialectic.First, there isan ideaabout theworld (much likeathesis),whichhasaninherentflaw,givingrisetotheantithesis.Thethesisandantithesis eventually reconcile by creating a synthesis, and a new idea arisescomprisedofelementsofboththethesisandtheantithesis.ToHegel,societyandculturefollowthispattern,andonecouldunderstandall

of human history,without the use of logic or empirical data, simply by usinglogic.

SOCIALRELATIONS

HegelagreedwithKant’snotionthatbeingconsciousofanobjectalsoimpliesoneisbeingself-conscious(becausetobeconsciousofanobjectmeansthereisalsoaconsciousnessofasubject,whichwouldbeoneselfperceivingtheobject).Hegeladdstothistheorybystatingthatself-consciousnessnotonlyinvolvesanobject and a subject; it also involves other subjects because individuals trulybecome aware of themselves when someone else is watching. Therefore,according toHegel,actualself-consciousness issocial. It isonlywhenanotherconsciousnessispresentthatoneviewstheworldfromanother’seyesinordertogetaself-image.Hegel likens this to relationships of inequality and dependence, where the

subordinateintherelationship(knownasthebondsman)isconsciouslyawareofhisstatus,whiletheindependentpartner(knownasthelord)isabletoenjoythefreedomofnotbeingconcernedaboutthebondsman’sconsciousness.However,thiscreatesfeelingsofguiltforthelordbecauseinordertohavethissuperiority,he must deny the bondsman mutual identification. According to Hegel, thisdynamic—whereonecompetesforobjectificationandmutualidentification,andalsodistancesoneselfandidentifieswithanotherperson—isthebasisofsociallife.

ETHICALLIFE

HegeldescribesoneculturalexpressionofSpiritas“ethicallife.”Ethicallifeisdefinedasareflectionof thebasic interdependenceamongpeopleinasociety.Hegel lived during the Enlightenment, and as a result, he argued that thetendencyofmodernlifewasshiftingawayfromrecognizingtheessentialsocialbonds. Prior to the Enlightenment, people were regarded by their social

hierarchies. However, the Enlightenment, and its key players like Locke,Rousseau,Kant,andHobbes,placedemphasisontheindividual.Hegel believed the modern state would correct the imbalance set forth by

modern culture, and believed institutions were needed that would be able topreservefreedomwhileaffirmingethicallifeandcommonbonds.Forexample,Hegel believed it was the state’s job to provide for the poor, regulate theeconomy, and create institutions based on different occupations (almost likepresent-day trade unions) so that people can experience a sense of socialbelongingandaconnectivitytoasocietyatlarge.

RENÉDESCARTES(1596–1650)

“Ithink;thereforeIam”

RenéDescartesisconsideredbymanytobethefatherofmodernphilosophy.Hewas born in 1596 in the small French town of LaHaye, and hismother diedduringhisfirstyear.Hisfatherwasanaristocratwhoplacedgreatimportanceongivinghischildrenagoodeducation.Ateightyearsold,DescarteswassenttoaJesuit boarding school, where he would become familiar with logic, rhetoric,metaphysics,astronomy,music,ethics,andnaturalphilosophy.Attwenty-twoyearsold,DescartesearnedhislawdegreefromtheUniversity

of Poitiers (where some believe he had a nervous breakdown) and beganstudying theology and medicine. He did not pursue them long, however,claiminghewantedtodiscovertheknowledgethatwasfoundwithinhimselfortheworld.He enlisted in the army,where he travelled and, in his spare time,studied mathematics. Descartes ended up becoming acquainted with famousphilosopher and mathematician Isaac Beeckman, who was trying to create amethodthatcouldlinkphysicsandmathematics.OnthenightofNovember10,1619,Descarteshadthreedreams,orvisions,

thatwould change the course of his life and philosophy. From these complexdreams, Descartes decided he would devote his life to reforming knowledgethroughmathematicsandscience.Hebeganwithphilosophybecauseitwastherootofallothersciences.Descartes then began writing Rules for the Direction of the Mind, which

outlinedhisnewmethodofthought.Thetreatisewasneverfinished—Descartesonlycompletedthefirstofthreesections(eachcomposedoftwelverules).Itwaspublishedposthumouslyin1684.

DiscourseontheMethod

In his first and most famous work, Discourse on the Method,DescartesdiscussesthefirstsetofrulesthathecreatedinRulesforthe Direction of the Mind and how his visions made him doubteverything he knew. He then shows how his rules could solveprofoundandcomplexproblems,liketheexistenceofGod,dualism,and personal existence (where, “I think; therefore I am,” comesfrom).

AsDescartes continued towrite, his famegrew.Descartes’sMeditations onFirst Philosophy, published in 1641, tackled the objections of those whodisputedhisfindingsinDiscourseandintroducedacircularformoflogicknownasa“Cartesiancircle.”HisPrinciplesofPhilosophy,publishedin1644andreadthroughout Europe, attempted to find the mathematical foundation of theuniverse.While living inStockholm,Sweden, to tutor thequeen,Descartesdiedfrom

pneumonia. Though he was a devoted Catholic, his work clashed with thechurch’s ideology, and after his death, his books were put on the CatholicChurch’sindexofProhibitedBooks.

THEPHILOSOPHICALTHEMESOFRENéDESCARTES

ThoughtandReasonDescartesismostfamousforhisstatement“Cogitoergosum,”translatedas“I

think; therefore I am.”According toDescartes, the act of thinking is proof ofindividualexistence.Descartesarguesthatthoughtandreasonaretheessenceofhumanitybecausewhileonecannotbesureofanyotherpartofexistence,onecan always be certain that he has thoughts and reason. For thoughts to exist,

theremust be a source to do the thinking; therefore if one thinks, one has toexist.ToDescartes,humansarealsocapableofreason,andwithoutit,onewouldsimplynotbehuman.Descartesbelievedthatitisthroughtheabilitytoreasonthathumansgaintrue

knowledgeandcertaintyinscience.Hisassumptionthatreasonisanaturaltalentgifted to all people led him to write about very complex and philosophicalmattersinawaythatcouldbeunderstoodbyall.Heevensometimeswrotehisworks in French instead ofLatin (the language used by scholars) so hisworkcouldbereadbythemasses.Descartespresentedargumentsaslogicaltrainsofthoughtthatanyonewould

be able to follow. He believed that any problem could be broken up into itssimplest parts and that problems could be conveyed as abstract equations. Bydoing so, one is able to remove the issue of sensory perception (which,accordingtoDescartes,isunreliable)andallowforobjectivereasontosolvetheproblem.Sincesensoryperceptionwasunreliable,theonlythingDescartescouldtruly

besureofwasthatpeoplearethinkingthings.Therefore,reasonandthoughtarethe essenceof all people.And since there is adifferencebetweenpure reasonandsensoryperception,Descartesargues,theremustbetheexistenceofthesoul.

TheExistenceofGodOnce he was able to establish that man exists solely as a thinking thing,

Descartesbegan to look forother self-evident truths.Descartes concluded thatperception and imagination have to exist because they are “modes ofconsciousness” within the mind, but do not necessarily hold any truths.Therefore,Descartes concludes that the onlyway to have knowledge of otherthingsisbyhavingknowledgeofGod.According to Descartes, since God is perfect, it is impossible for God to

deceive someone.Descartes then claims that though he, himself, is imperfect,

thefactthathecanconceiveofthenotionofperfectionmeansperfectionmustexist;andthisperfectionisGod.

TheMind-BodyProblemDescarteswasa famousproponentof substancedualism (also referred toas

Cartesiandualism),theideathatthemindandbodyareseparatesubstances.Descartesbelieved therationalmindwas incontrolof thebody,but that the

bodycouldinfluencethemindtoactirrationally,suchaswhenoneperformsanact of passion.According toDescartes, themind and body interactwith eachother at thepinealgland,whichhecalled“the seatof the soul.”According toDescartes, like the soul, the pineal gland is a part of the brain that is unitary(thoughscientificresearchnowshowsthatittooissplitintotwohemispheres),anditslocationneartheventriclesmakesittheperfectlocationtoinfluencethenervesthatcontrolthebody.HereisDescartes’sillustrationofdualism.Sensoryorganspassinformationto

thepinealglandinthebrain,andthisinformationisthensenttothespirit.

A-THEORY

Thepast,present,andfuture

Inthephilosophicaldebateoverthenatureoftime,theA-theoryistheviewheldamongcontemporaryphilosophersthatthereexistsuchintrinsicandindivisibleproperties as pastness, presentness, and futurity. By virtue of having theseA-properties, theyclaim,events in timearepast,present,orfuture.Theoriginofthis theory is found inTheUnreality ofTime, inwhich JohnMcTaggartEllisMcTaggart discusses time through what he calls the “A-series” and the“Bseries.”

THEA-SERIES

AccordingtoMcTaggart,theA-seriesisthe“seriesofpositionswhichrunsfromthe far past through the near past to the present, and then from the presentthroughthenearfuturetothefarfuture,orconversely.”By “series of positions,” McTaggart means positions in time: Events are

positionedinthepastif theyhavealreadyhappened;theyarepositionedinthepresentiftheyarehappeningnow;andtheyarepositionedinthefutureiftheyhave not yet occurred. The property of being in the past, the present, or thefutureisatemporary,notpermanent,property.Forexample,whenithadnotyethappened, the event of landing on the moon was in the future; when it wasoccurring,itwasinthepresent;andnowitisinthepast.The “A-series” thatMcTaggart discusses thus establishes a flowof time, in

whicheacheventisatonetimefuture,atonetimepresent,andatonetimepast,but never any combination of the three at once and never any of the threeforever.Noeventisalwayspresent,alwayspast,oralwaysfuture.Hisdefinitionalsoallowsfortheexistenceofvaryingdegreesofpastandfuture(nextyearis,

for example, more future than next Tuesday) and different properties thatcorrespondtothesedifferentdegrees.Totalkabouteventsasoccurringineitherthepast,present,orfuturerequirestheuseofA-sentences,ortensedsentences.Aneventinthefuturewilltakeplace;aneventinthepresentistakingplace;andaneventinthepasthastakenplace.

PRESENTISMANDNON-REDUCTIONISM

The A-theory combines presentism and non-reductionism. Presentism is theextremeassertionthatonlythepresentisrealandthatnothingexistsotherthanwhatpresentlyexists.Forexample, thoughpastobjects,suchasdinosaurs,didexist,thereisnosenseinwhichtheydoexist.Similarly,whileitispossiblethatfutureobjects,suchas the100thpresidentof theUnitedStates,willexist, it isnotthecasethattheydoexist.Inthiscontext,then,discussionofpastorfutureobjectsisnotadiscussionofobjectsthatexistsomewhereotherthanthepresent,butofpropertiesthatdidorwillexistwhenothertimeswereorwillbepresent.ThestrengthofpresentismdependsupontheexistenceoftensesandisthusanimportantelementoftheA-theory.Non-reductionism, or “taking tense seriously,” is the idea that tense

corresponds to a fundamental and ineliminable feature of reality. A tensedproposition,oranA-sentence,isoneinwhichtenses(am,was,will,have,had,etc.)areused.Aneternalproposition,oraB-sentence,conversely,isatenselesssentence.Tenseless sentences usewords such asbefore,after, is simultaneouswith,orspecifythedate.Non-reductionistsclaimthattensedpropositionscannotbereducedtoeternalpropositionswithoutalossofinformation.Forinstance,tosay“IbelievethatIamhungry”doesnotpreservethesame

truth value if a date—“I believe that I am hungry at 3 p.m. on June 15”—isattached.Asincerestatementof“IbelievethatIamhungry”entails“IbelievethatIamhungrysimultaneouslywithmyutterance,”whereasmystatementof“I

believethatIamhungryat3p.m.onJune15”doesnot.TheA-sentenceistrueonlywhenitissimultaneouswithmysayingit.Thetenselesssentence,iftrue,istrueateverypoint in time.This reveals that tensedpropositions (A-sentences)conveytemporalbeliefsthatcannotbeexpressedbytenselessdatedsentences.

INCOMPATIBILITYOFTHEA-THEORYWITHEINSTEIN’SSPECIALTHEORYOFRELATIVITY

Despite the pervasiveness of tensed sentences in the English language, manyphilosophershavearguedthattheA-theoryoftimeisincompatiblewithspecialrelativityandisthusinvalid.AlbertEinstein’sspecialtheoryofrelativity(1905)consistsoftwopostulates:

1. Thespeedoflightisthesameforallobservers,nomattertheirrelativespeed.

2. Thespeedoflightisthesameinallinertialframes.

Itfollowsfromthesetwopostulatesthatsimultaneityisnotabsolutebutmust,instead,berelativizedtoaninertialframe.Foranypairofevents,therecanbenosingle fact of the matter as to which event happened first, or whether bothoccurred at the same time. The precedence of one event to the other dependsupontheframeofreference:Relativetooneframeofreference,Event1mightbe simultaneouswithEvent 2; relative to another frame of reference, Event 1mightoccurearlierthanEvent2;andrelativetoathirdframeofreference,Event1mightoccurlaterthanEvent2.So,while twoeventsmightoccursimultaneouslyforoneobserver, theywill

occuratdifferenttimesforanobservermovinginadifferentinertialframe.Aneventthatispresentrelativetooneframeofreferencemaywellbepastorfuturerelativetoanotherframeofreference.Becausetherearenogroundsforselecting

anysingleframeofreferenceas the“real”frameofreference, therecanbenoabsolute,frame-independentdistinctionbetweenpast,present,andfuture.

RAILWAYEMBANKMENTEXAMPLE

The relativity of simultaneity is found in Einstein’s description of an eventoccurringonarailwayembankment:Alongtraintravelsataconstantvelocityasdepicted in the following picture. A person traveling on the train regards allevents in reference to the train.Twostrokesof lightningoccur,oneatpointAandoneatpointB.ThedistancebetweenpointAandpointBismeasured,andan observer is placed at the midpoint, M. The observer is given two mirrorsinclinedat90°sothathecanobservepointAandpointBatthesametime.Iftheobserver sees the two flashes of light at the same time, the two strokes oflightning are simultaneous.The passenger, however,will see the light fromBearlier than from A. Events that are simultaneous with reference to theembankment,then,arenotsimultaneouswithreferencetothetrain.

As shown in this example, the absence of an absolute simultaneity poses aproblemfortheA-theoryandtheuseoftenses.Ifthespecialtheoryofrelativityiscorrect,existenceaccordingtopresentismbecomesaframe-dependentmatter.According to twodifferent frames of reference, a single event both exists anddoesnotexist.

ATTEMPTEDRECONCILIATIONWITHSPECIALRELATIVITY

Some A-theorists have attempted to reconcile the A-theory with the specialtheory of relativity. Though the special theory of relativity is well confirmed,thesephilosophersargue,itremainsanempiricaltheoryandshouldnotbeusedtoassessmetaphysicalclaims.Inthissense,currentphysicsdoesnotcompletelyruleoutabsolutesimultaneity;itjustcannotcurrentlyconceiveofit.An“ideal”physicscoulddetectthiscurrently“unobservable”absolutesimultaneity.Alternatively, A-theorists argue, an absolute simultaneity might never be

detectable by physics. The undetectability of absolute simultaneity, however,doesnotprecludeitsexistence.AfinalobjectionposedbyA-theoristsisthattherelativityofsimultaneityisitselfonlyanapparenteffect.Whethertwoeventsareobservedsimultaneouslyisonething;whethertheytakeplacesimultaneouslyisanother.

THELIARPARADOX

Thecontradictionsoflanguage

OneofthemostfamousparadoxesinphilosophythatisstillwidelydiscussedtothisdaycomesfromtheancientGreekphilosopherEubulidesofMiletus,fromthefourthcenturyb.c.EubulidesofMiletusstatesthefollowing:“Amansaysthatheislying.Iswhathesaystrueorfalse?”Nomatterhowoneanswersthisquestion,problemsarisebecausetheresultis

alwaysacontradiction.Ifwesaythemanistellingthetruth,thatwouldmeanthatheislying,which

wouldthenmeanthatthestatementisfalse.Ifwesay theman’sstatement is false, thatwouldmeanthathe isnot lying,

andthereforewhathesaysistrue.However,itisnotpossibletohaveastatementbebothtrueandfalse.

EXPLAININGTHELIARPARADOX

Theproblemof the liar paradoxgoes beyond the simple scenario of the lyingmanthatEubulidesportrayed.Theliarparadoxhasveryrealimplications.Overtheyears,therehavebeenseveralphilosophersthathavetheorizedabout

themeaningoftheliarparadox.Theliarparadoxshowsthatcontradictionscanarise from common beliefs regarding truth and falsity, and that the notion oftruth is a vague one. Furthermore, the liar paradox shows the weakness oflanguage.Whiletheliarparadoxisgrammaticallysoundandadherestotherulesofsemantics,thesentencesproducedfromtheliarparadoxhavenotruthvalue.Somehaveevenusedtheliarparadoxtoprovethattheworldisincomplete,andthereforethereisnosuchthingasanomniscientbeing.

Tounderstandtheliarparadox,onemustfirstunderstandthevariousformsitcantake.

TheSimple-FalsityLiarThemostbasicformoftheliarparadoxisthesimple-falsityliar.Thisisstated

assuch:FLiar:“Thissentenceisfalse.”IfFLiaristrue,thenthatmeans“Thissentenceisfalse”istrue,sotherefore

FLiarhastobefalse.FLiarisbothtrueandfalse,creatingacontradictionandaparadox.IfFLiarisfalse,thenthatmeans“Thissentenceisfalse”isfalse,andsoFLiar

has to be true. FLiar is both false and true, creating a contradiction and aparadox.

TheSimple-UntruthLiarThesimple-untruthliardoesnotworkfromfalsehood,andinsteadconstructs

aparadoxbasedonthepredicate“nottrue.”Thesimple-untruthliarappearsas:ULiar:“ULiarisnottrue.”Likethesimple-falsityliar,ifULiarisnottrue,thenitistrue;andifitistrue,

thenitisnottrue.EvenifULiarisneithertruenorfalse,thatmeansitisnottrue,and since that is precisely what ULiar states, ULiar is true. Thus, anothercontradictionappears.

LIARCYCLES

Up until now, we’ve only seen examples of liar paradoxes that are self-referential.However,evenremovingtheself-referentialnatureoftheparadoxesstillcreatescontradictions.Theliarcyclesisstatedas:

“Thenextsentenceistrue.”

“Theprevioussentenceisnottrue.”

If the first sentence is true, then the second sentence is true, which wouldmake the first sentence not true, thus creating a contradiction. If the firstsentenceisnottrue,thenthesecondsentenceisnottrue,whichwouldmakethefirstsentencetrue,thuscreatingacontradiction.

POSSIBLERESOLUTIONSTOTHELIARPARADOX

The liar paradox has been a source of philosophical debate. Over time,philosophers have created severalwell-known solutions that allowone to “getoutof”theliarparadox.

ArthurPrior’sSolutionPhilosopherArthurPriorclaimedtheliarparadoxwasnotaparadoxatall.To

Prior, every statement has its own implied assertion of truth. Therefore, asentence like “This sentence is false” is actually the same as saying, “Thissentenceistrue,andthissentenceisfalse.”Thiscreatesasimplecontradiction,andbecauseyoucannothavesomethingbetrueandfalse,ithastobefalse.

AlfredTarski’sSolutionAccording tophilosopherAlfredTarski, the liarparadoxcanonlyarise ina

languagethatis“semanticallyclosed.”Thisreferstoanylanguagewherethereis theabilitytohaveonesentenceassert thetruthorfalsityof itselforanothersentence.Inordertoavoidsuchcontradictions,Tarskibelievedthereshouldbelevelsoflanguages,andthattruthorfalsitycouldonlybeassertedbylanguagethat isatahigher level than thatsentence.Bycreatingahierarchy,Tarskiwasable to avoid self-referential contradictions.Any language that is higher up inthehierarchymayrefertolanguagethatislower;however,notviceversa.

SaulKripke’sSolutionAccording to Saul Kripke, a sentence is only paradoxical depending on

contingentfacts.Kripkeclaimedthatwhenthetruthvalueofasentenceistiedtoafactabouttheworldthatcanbeevaluated,thissentenceis“grounded.”Ifthetruth value cannot be linked to an evaluable fact about the world, it is“ungrounded,” and all ungrounded statements have no truth value. Liarstatements and statements similar to liar statements are ungrounded and,therefore,containnotruthvalue.

JonBarwise’sandJohnEtchemendy’sSolutionTo Barwise and Etchemendy, the liar paradox is ambiguous. Barwise and

Etchemendy make a distinction between “negation” and “denial.” If the liarstates, “This sentence is not true,” then the liar is negating himself. If the liarstates, “It is not the case that this sentence is true,” then the liar is denyinghimself.AccordingtoBarwiseandEtchemendy,theliarthatnegateshimselfcanbe false without contradiction, and the liar that denies himself can be truewithoutanycontradiction.

GrahamPriest’sSolutionPhilosopherGrahamPriestisaproponentofdialetheism,thenotionthatthere

are true contradictions.A true contradiction is one that is simultaneously trueand false. In believing this to be the case, dialetheism must reject the well-knownandacceptedprincipleofexplosion,whichstatesallpropositionscanbededuced from contradictions, unless it also accepts trivialism, the notion thateverypropositionis true.However,becausetrivialismis instinctivelyfalse, theprinciple of explosion is almost always rejected by those who subscribe todialetheism.

THOMASHOBBES(1588–1679)

Anewphilosophicalsystem

ThomasHobbeswasbornonApril5,1588, inMalmesbury,England.Thoughhis father disappeared when he was young, Hobbes’s uncle paid for hiseducation, and by the time he was fourteen years old, Hobbes studied atMagdalenHall inOxford. In1608,Hobbes leftOxfordandbecamea tutorfortheoldestsonofLordCavendishofHardwick.In1631,whiletutoringanotherfamily member of the Cavendish family, Hobbes began to focus on hisphilosophical ideas and wrote his first published piece, Short Tract on FirstPrinciples.Hobbes’sassociationwiththeCavendishfamilyprovedtobequitebeneficial.

Hewasable tosit inonparliamentarydebates;contribute todiscussionsabouttheking,landowners,andParliamentmembers;andgetafirsthandlookathowgovernment was structured and influenced. During an incredibly tumultuoustimebetween themonarchyandParliament,Hobbeswasa staunchmonarchistandevenwrotehisfirstpoliticalphilosophy,TheElementsofLaw,NaturalandPolitic,indefenseofKingCharlesI.Intheearly1640s,astheconflictescalatedintowhatwouldbecometheEnglishCivilWars(1642–1651),Hobbesfled thecountryandmoved toFrance,wherehewouldremainforelevenyears. Itwaswhile he lived in France that Hobbes produced his most important work(including his most famous book, Leviathan, published two years after theexecutionofKingCharlesI).ThomasHobbeswasanincrediblyindividualisticthinker.DuringtheEnglish

CivilWars,whilemostinfavorofthemonarchybegantosoftentheirargumentsby expressing support for theChurch of England,Hobbes,whowas themostprominent royalist, proclaimed his distaste for the church, which led him tobecome banned by the king’s court. Even as a staunch supporter of the

monarchy,Hobbesdidnotbelievetheking’srighttorulewasfromGod;rather,itwasasocialcontractagreeduponbythepeople.Hobbeswasconvincedthatthereneededtobeanoverhaulofphilosophy,and

setouttomakeatotalizingphilosophicalsystemthatcouldprovideanagreed-upon basis for absolutely all knowledge.The root of his philosophical systemwashisbeliefthatallphenomenaintheuniversecouldbetracedbacktomatterandmotion.However,herejectedthattheexperimentalmethodandobservationof nature could act as a base for knowledge. Instead, his philosophy wasdeductiveandbasedeverythingonuniversallyaccepted“firstprinciples.”

THEPHILOSOPHIESOFTHOMASHOBBES

ViewsonKnowledgeHobbes believed that basing philosophy and science on the observations of

nature alone was too subjective because humans have the ability to view theworldinmanydifferentways.HerejectedtheworkofFrancisBaconandRobertBoyle, who used inductive reasoning from nature to draw scientific andphilosophicalconclusions.Instead,hebelievedthepurposeofphilosophywastoestablishasystemoftruthsthatwerebasedonfoundational,universalprinciplesthatcouldbedemonstratedbyanyonethroughlanguageandagreeduponbyall.Insearchingforaphilosophybasedonuniversalprinciples,Hobbesturnedto

geometryasamodelandclaimedittobethefirstuniversalprinciple.Becauseofitsdeductivereasoning,Hobbesbelievedgeometrytobeamodeloftruescienceandusedthisnotionofdeductivereasoningtocreatehispoliticalphilosophy.

ViewsonHumanNatureThomasHobbesdidnotbelieveindualismortheexistenceofasoul.Humans,

accordingtoHobbes,arelikemachines;madeofmaterialandwhosefunctionscouldbeexplainedbymechanicalprocesses(forexample,sensationiscausedby

themechanicalprocessesofthenervoussystem).Assuch,Hobbesclaimedthathumans avoid pain and pursue pleasure in an effort to seek out our own self-interest (which makes humans’ judgment extremely unreliable), and that ourthoughtsandemotionsarebasedoncauseandeffectandaction-reaction.Hobbesbelieved that human judgment needs to be guided by science, which, inLeviathan,hereferstoas“theknowledgeofconsequences.”Society,accordingtoHobbes,wasasimilarmachinethat,whileartificial,also

followed the same laws, and all phenomena in the entire universe could beexplainedthroughtheinteractionsandmotionsofmaterialbodies.

Fear,Hope,andtheSocialContractHobbesdidnotbelievemoralityexistsinahuman’snaturalstate.Sowhenhe

speaksofgoodandevil,herefersto“good”asanythingpeopledesireand“evil”as anything people avoid.Based on these definitions,Hobbes then goes on toexplainvariousbehaviorsandemotions.Hope,accordingtoHobbes’sdefinition,isthepossibilityofgainingsomeapparentgood,andfearisrecognizingthatanapparent good cannot be attained (though this definition is only maintainablewhenconsideringhumansoutsideoftheconstraintsoflawsandsociety).Sincegood and evil are based on individual desires, rules regarding what makessomethinggoodorevilcannotexist.It is the constant back-and-forth between feelings of hope and fear that

Hobbesbelievedwasthedefiningprincipleofallhumanaction,andheclaimedthatoneofthetwoarepresentinallpeopleatanygiventime.Hobbesdepictsthe“stateofnature”ashumanshavinganinstinctivedesireto

gainasmuchgoodandpowerastheypossiblycan.Thisdesireandalackofanylaws thatpreventone fromharmingothers create a stateof constantwar.Andthisconstantwarinthestateofnaturemeanshumansmustbelivinginconstantfearofoneanother.However,whenreasonandfearcombine,itmakeshumansfollowthestateofnature(thedesiretogainasmuchgoodasonecan)andmakes

humansseekoutpeace.Furthermore,goodandevilcannotexistuntilasociety’ssupremeauthorityestablishestheserules.Hobbes claims the only way peace can truly be achieved is by coming

togetherandcreatingasocialcontractinwhichagroupofpeopleagreetohaveone supreme authority rule over a commonwealth.Within the social contract,fearservestwopurposes:

1. Itcreatesthestateofwarwithinthestateofnaturesothatasocialcontractisrequired.

2. Itupholdsthepeacewithinacommonwealth(byallowingforthesupremeauthoritytoinstillfearineveryonethroughpunishingthosewhobreakthecontract).

ViewsonGovernmentWhile, in his earlier works, Hobbes claimed society needs a supreme

sovereign power, in Leviathan, Hobbes makes his stance clear: An absolutemonarchy is the best type of government and the only type that can providepeaceforall.Hobbesbelievedthatfactionalismwithinsociety,suchasrivalgovernments,

differing philosophies, or the struggle between church and state, only leads tocivilwar.Therefore,tomaintainpeaceforall,everyoneinasocietymustagreetohaveone authoritative figure that controls thegovernment,makes the laws,andisinchargeofthechurch.

PHILOSOPHYOFLANGUAGE

Whatislanguage?

Towardtheendofthenineteenthcentury,astheoriesinlogicbegantoadvanceandphilosophiesregardingthemindbegantochangedrasticallyfrompreviousaccounts,arevolutioninunderstandinglanguageoccurred.Thiseventisreferredto as the “linguistic turn.” Philosophers began to focus on the meaning oflanguage,theuseoflanguage,thecognitionoflanguage,andhowlanguageandrealityrelatetooneanother.

COMPOSITIONOFASENTENCEANDLEARNING

Thephilosophyof languageattempts tounderstandhowmeaningcomesaboutfromtheparts thatmakeupasentence. Inorder tounderstand themeaningoflanguage,therelationshipbetweenentiresentencesandpartsthataremeaningfulneed to first be examined. According to the principle of compositionality, asentencecanbeunderstoodbasedonanunderstandingofstructure(syntax)andthemeaningofthewords.Therearetwoacceptedmethodsinunderstandinghowmeaningcomesabout

withinasentence:

Thesyntactictreefocusesongrammarandwordsthatmakeupthesentence,whilethesemantictreefocusesonmeaningsofwordsandthecombinationsofthesemeanings.Inregardtolearninglanguage,therearethreemainschoolsofthought:

1. Innatism:Thenotionthatsomesyntacticsettingsareinnateandbasedoncertainpartsofthemind.

2. Behaviorism:Thenotionthataverylargeamountoflanguageislearnedthroughconditioning.

3. HypothesisTesting:Thenotionthatchildrenlearnsyntacticrulesthroughpostulationandtestinghypotheses.

MEANING

The roots of the “linguistic turn” occurred in the mid-nineteenth century, aslanguage started tobeviewedas the focalpoint in representing theworldandunderstandingbelief,andphilosophersbegantoplaceemphasisonthemeaningoflanguage.

JohnStuartMillInhisworkinempiricism,JohnStuartMillexaminedthemeaningofwordsin

relationtotheobjectstheyreferto.Millclaimedthatinorderforwordstoholdmeaning, one must be able to explain them based on experience. Therefore,wordsstandforimpressionsmadefromthesenses.While some disagreed withMill’s empiricist viewpoint, many philosophers

agreedwithMill’sbeliefthatdenotationshouldbethebasisofmeaning,ratherthanconnotation.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

DENOTATION:Whenthedefinitionofaword is the literalmeaningof what it is describing. For example, using the word snake todescribe the actual reptile this word is affiliated with.CONNOTATION:Whenthedefinitionofawordsuggestsaqualityorattribute.Forexample,usingthewordsnaketomean“evil.”

JohnLockeAccordingtoJohnLocke,wordsdonotrepresentexternalthings;rather,they

representideaswithinthemindofthepersonsayingthem.Whiletheseideasarepresumed to then represent things, Locke believed the accuracy of therepresentationdoesnotaffectthatword’smeaning.With that in mind, Locke set out to eliminate the natural shortcomings of

languagethatnaturallyarise.Hesuggestedthatpeopleshouldneverusewordswithouthavingaclearideaofthosewords’meanings;peopleshouldattempttoidentify the samemeanings ofwords used by others so as to have a commonvocabulary; people should be consistent with their use of words; and if ameaningofawordisunclear,oneshouldthendefineitmoreclearly.

GottlobFregeTheworkofGermanphilosopher andmathematicianGottlobFrege focused

mainlyonlogic.However,ashisinvestigationsinlogicbecamemorein-depth,Fregerealizedthat,tocontinuepursuinghiswork,hefirstneededtounderstandlanguage.Bydoingso,hecreatedsomeofthemostgroundbreakingworkinthephilosophyoflanguage.Fregequestionsidentity,names,andtheexpressiona=b.Forexample,Mark

TwainisSamuelClemens.However,ifa=bisinformative,howcomea=aistrivialanddoesn’tactuallyprovideanynewinformation?Fregebelievedthatitisnotsimplytheobjectsthatarerelevanttothemeaning

of a sentence, but how the objects are presented.Words refer to things in theexternal world—however, names hold more meaning than simply beingreferencestoobjects.Fregebrokesentencesandexpressionsupintotwoparts:thesenseandthereference(ormeaning).ToFrege,thesenseofasentenceistheobjective, universal, and abstract thought the sentence is expressing and the“modeofpresentation”oftheobjectthatisbeingreferredto.Thereference,or

meaning, of a sentence is the object in the real world that the sentence isreferringto.Thereferencerepresentsatruth-value(whethersomethingistrueorfalse)andisdeterminedbysenses.Fregeexpressesthistheoryasatriangle:

The intersectionof lineaand lineb is thesameas the intersectionof lineb

and line c. Therefore, this statement is informative because we are presentedwith twodifferentmodesofpresentation.Tosay the intersectionof lineaandlinebisthesameastheintersectionoflineaandlinebonlypresentsonesinglemodeofpresentation,andisthereforetrivial.Fregeconcludesthattherearethreepartstoaname(thoughallthreearenot

necessarilyneededineverycase):

1. Sign:Thewordorwordsused(forexample,MarkTwain).2. Sense:Thewaytogetatwhatisbeingreferredtobythesign(forexample,

thepsychologicalimplicationswehaveofMarkTwain—heisahumorist;heistheauthorofTomSawyer;etc.).

3. Referent:Theactualobjectbeingreferredto(forexample,MarkTwainisalsoSamuelClemens,whoisalsotheauthorofTomSawyer).

THEUSEOFLANGUAGE

Intentionality is another important topic with regard to the philosophy oflanguage.Intentionalityisdefinedastheparticularmentalstatesthataredirectedtoward objects or things in the real world. Intentionality is not about one’sintention to do something or not do something, but rather, the ability of ourthoughtstobeaboutsomething.Forexample,youcanhaveabeliefaboutrollercoasters,butarollercoasteritselfcannotbeaboutanything.Therefore,mentalstateslikefear,hope,anddesirehavetobeintentionalbecausetheremustbeanobjectthatisbeingreferenced.Nineteenth-century German philosopher Franz Brentano argued that only

mental phenomena could show intentionality. Later, twentieth-centuryphilosopherJohnSearlequestionedhowthemindandlanguagehastheabilitytoforce intentionalityontoobjectswhen suchobjects arenot intentionalon theirown. In his theory of speech acts, Searle concludes that actions have

intentionality as well, because language is a form of human behavior and anactiononitsown.Therefore,bysayingsomething,oneisactuallyperforminganaction,andintentionalityispresentinactions.In a much-debated discussion on artificial intelligence, Searle argued that

machineswould never have the ability to think. Searle claimed thatmachineslackintentionalityandthatonlyanorganizedmind,likethatofahumanbeing,isabletoperformintentionality.

METAPHYSICS

Firstphilosophy

Aristotle was a firm believer in metaphysics. He referred to it as the “firstphilosophy,” and in many regards, metaphysics is the foundation of allphilosophies.Metaphysicsfocusesonthenatureofbeingandexistence,andasksverycomplicatedandprofoundquestionsrelatingtoGod,ourexistence,ifthereisaworldoutsideofthemind,andwhatrealityis.Originally,Aristotlebrokemetaphysicsupintothreebranches,whichcontinue

tobethemajorbranchesofmetaphysicstothisday.Theyare:

1. Ontology:Thestudyofexistenceandbeing,includingmentalandphysicalentities,andthestudyofchange.

2. UniversalScience:Thestudyoflogicandreasoning,consideredtobethe“firstprinciples.”

3. NaturalTheology:ThestudyofGod,religion,spirituality,andcreation.

EXISTENCEEXISTS

Inmetaphysics, existence is defined as a state of continued being. “Existenceexists” is the famous axiom to come out ofmetaphysics; it simply states thatthere is something insteadofnothing.The rootofevery thoughtapersoneverhas is thenotion thathe isawareof something,which isproof that somethingmustexist.Therefore,ifsomethingmustexist,thatmustmeanthatexistencehasto exist. Existence is necessary and required for there to be any type ofknowledge.Whenonedeniestheexistenceofsomething,heissayingthatsomethingdoes

not exist. However, even the very act of denying can only be possible ifexistence exists. In order for anything to exist, it must have an identity.

Everythingthatexistsexistsassomething,forotherwiseitwouldbenothingandwouldnotexist.Inorderforonetohaveathoughtofbeingawareofsomething,onehastobe

conscious. Therefore, according toRenéDescartes, consciousness has to existbecauseonecannotdenytheexistenceofhismindwhileusinghismindtomakethat denial. However, Descartes’s axiom was incorrect because he believed apersonhastheabilitytobeawarewithouttherebeingsomethingtobeawareof.Thiscannotbethecase,however.Consciousness,rather,isthefacultytoperceivewhatexists.Beingconscious

meansone isperceivingsomething, so to function,consciousness requires thattherebesomethingoutsideofitself.Therefore,consciousnessnotonlyrequiresexistence; it is also dependent upon existence. Descartes’s axiom ofconsciousnessasbeingawareofbeingconsciouscannot, therefore,bethecasebecausetobeconsciousrequirestheexistenceofsomethingexternal.

OBJECTSANDPROPERTIES

In metaphysics, philosophers try to understand the nature of objects and thepropertiesof theseobjects.Accordingtometaphysics, theworldismadeupofthings, knownasobjectsorparticulars, that canbe eitherphysical or abstract.These particulars share certain qualities or attributes in common with oneanother, and philosophers refer to these commonalities as universals orproperties.When philosophers attempt to explainwhether properties can exist inmore

than one place simultaneously, they run across what is referred to as the“problem of universals.” For example, a red apple and a red car can existsimultaneously,soistheresomekindofpropertythatexiststhatis“redness”?Ifrednessdoesexist,whatisit?Differentschoolsofthoughtanswerthatquestionintheirownways:

AccordingtoPlatonicrealism,rednessdoesexist,butitexistsoutsideofspaceandtime.Accordingtomoderateformsofrealism,rednessexistswithinspaceandtime.Accordingtonominalism,universalslikerednessdonotexistindependently;theyexistasnamesalone.

These ideas of existence and properties lead to one of the most importantaspectsofmetaphysics:identity.

IDENTITY

Inmetaphysics,identityisdefinedaswhatevermakesanentityrecognizable.Allentities have specific characteristics andqualities that allowone to define anddistinguishthemfromotherentities.AsAristotlestatesinhislawofidentity,inordertoexist,anentitymusthaveaparticularidentity.In discussingwhat the identity of an entity is, two very important concepts

arise:changeandcausality.Many identities can appear to be unstable. Houses can fall apart; eggs can

break; plants can die; etc. However, these identities are not unstable; theseobjectsare simplybeingaffectedbycausalityandarechangingbasedon theiridentities. Therefore, identity needs to be explained based on the entity’sbuilding blocks and how those interact with one another. In other words, theidentity of an entity is the sum of its parts. One can describe a house bydescribing how the different parts ofwood, glass, andmetal interactwith oneanotherinaspecificwaytoformthehouse,oronecandefineahouse’sidentitybasedonitsformationofatoms.Toalteranidentity,achange(causedbyanaction)needstooccur.Thelawof

causality states that all causes have specific effects that are dependent on the

originalidentitiesoftheentities.Currently,threemaintheoriesdiscusstheissueofchange:

1. Perdurantism:Thisisthenotionthatobjectsarefour-dimensional.Accordingtoperdurantism,objectshavetemporalparts(partsthatexistintime),andateverymomentofexistence,objectsonlypartlyexist.Soforexample,therewouldbeaseriesofstagesforthelifeofatree.

2. Endurantism:Thisisthenotionthatobjectsarethesameandwholethroughouteverymomentoftheobjects’history.Soforexample,asatreelosesleaves,itisstillconsideredtobethesametree.

3. MereologicalEssentialism:Thisnotionexplainsthatpartsofanobjectareessentialtothatobject.Therefore,theobjectisnotabletopersistifanyofitspartschange.Accordingtomereologicalessentialism,whenatreelosesitsleaves,itisnolongerthesametree.Becausemetaphysicstouchesonourexistenceandwhatittrulymeanstobeintheworld,ittouchesonawidevarietyofphilosophicalissues.Anditisforthisveryreasonthatmetaphysicsisoftenconsideredtobethefoundationofphilosophy,or“firstphilosophy.”

JEAN-PAULSARTRE(1905–1980)

Pioneerofexistentialism

Jean-Paul Sartre was born on June 21, 1905, in Paris, France.When Sartre’sfather died in 1906, Sartre and hismothermoved inwith hismother’s father,Karl Schweitzer, who was a respected philosophical and religious writer. Hisgrandfather’s religious beliefs proved to be a point of contention for Sartregrowingup,andthoughheresentedhisgrandfather’spresence,hewasopentobeingtutoredbySchweitzer.Sartre studied philosophy at the prestigious university École Normale

Supérieure in 1924, and in 1928, he met fellow classmate and lifelongcompanion Simone de Beauvoir (who would go on to writeThe Second Sex,which is considered to be one of the most important feminist texts everproduced).Upongraduating,Sartreenlistedinthearmyandthentookateachingjob in France.By 1933, Sartre hadmoved toBerlin to study philosophywithEdmundHusserl, andwhile inBerlin, he also became acquaintedwithMartinHeidegger. The work of these two men would have a profound impact onSartre’sownphilosophy,andin1938,Sartre’sphilosophicalnovel,Nausea,waspublished.In1939,atthebeginningofWorldWarII,SartrewasdraftedintotheFrench

army.In1940,SartrewascapturedbytheGermansandwasheldasaprisonerofwar for ninemonths.During this time, Sartre began towrite hismost famousexistentialwork,BeingandNothingness. Sartre returned toParis in 1941, andtwoyearslater,BeingandNothingnesswaspublished,propellingSartre’sfameinthepubliceyeandestablishinghimasakeyintellectualofthepost-warera.SartrethenservedaseditorforthejournalLesTempsModernes,wherehewas

abletocontinuallywriteandhonehisphilosophy,focusingonthepoliticalandsocial world of the time and becoming a political activist. Sartre remainedcommittedtopoliticalactivismfortherestofhislife.AstaunchSocialist,Sartre

supportedtheSovietUnionduringtheColdWar(eventhoughhewascriticalofthe totalitarianism thatwas featured in Sovietism),metwith Fidel Castro andChe Guevara in support of Marxism, opposed the Vietnam War, and wasfamouslyanoutspokencriticofFrance’scolonizationofAlgeria.Sartre was a prolific writer. In 1964, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in

Literature, which he declined (making him the first person to ever do so),claimingthatnowritershouldbeturnedintoaninstitutionandthattheculturesoftheEastandWestmustbeabletoexchangewithoneanotherwithoutthehelpofaninstitution.Throughouthisextensivewritingcareer,hewrotephilosophicalbooks,films,andplays.

THEPHILOSOPHICALTHEMESOFJEAN-PAULSARTRE

Whilehispursuits inpoliticalactivism tookuphis later life,hisearlywork inexistentialismisconsideredtobesomeofthemostprofoundphilosophicalworkeverproduced.

KnowingtheSelfSartrebelievedeveryindividualpersontobea“being-for-itself”thathasself-

consciousness. According to Sartre, people do not have an essential nature.Rather, they have a self-consciousness and a consciousness, and these canalwaysbechanged.Ifapersonbelievesthathisplaceinsocietydetermineshissense of self or that his views cannot be changed, he is deceiving himself.Tellingsomeone“that’sjusthowIam”isalsoself-deception.AccordingtoSartre,self-actualization,theprocessofmakingsomethingfrom

what someone has already beenmade into, is always possible. To do so, onemust recognizewhat Sartre calls the “facticity”—the realities (based on facts)that occur outside of the individual that are acting on him. One must also

understand that he has a consciousness that exists independently from thoserealities.Sartrebelievedtheonlytypeoftrulyauthenticoutlookisunderstandingthat,

while an individual is responsible for his consciousness, consciousness of selfwillneverbeidenticaltoactualconsciousness.

Being-in-ItselfandBeing-for-ItselfToSartre,therearetwotypesofbeing:

en-soi(being-in-itself):Thingsthathaveanessencethatisbothdefinableandcomplete;however,theyarenotconsciousoftheircompleteessenceorofthemselves.Forexample,rocks,birds,andtrees.pour-soi(being-for-itself):Thingsthataredefinedbythefactthattheyhaveconsciousnessandareconsciousthattheyexist(likehumans),andarealsoconsciouslyawarethattheydonothavethecompleteessenceassociatedwithen-soi.

TheRoleoftheOtherSartresaysthataperson(orbeing-for-itself)onlybecomesawareofhisown

existence when he sees another being-for-itself observing him. Thus, peoplebecomeconsciously awareof their identityonlywhenbeingviewedbyotherswho also possess consciousness. Thus, a person only understands himself inrelationtoothers.Sartre goes on to claim that encountering the “Other” can be tricky at first

becauseonemightthinkthattheotherconsciousbeingisobjectifyinghimwithregardtoappearance,type,andessence(evenifthatisimagined).Asaresult,apersonmaythenattempttoviewOthersassimpleanddefinableobjectsthatlackany individual consciousness. According to Sartre, it is from the idea of theOtherthatweseethingslikeracism,sexism,andcolonialism.

Responsibility

Sartrebelievedthatallindividualshaveanessentialfreedomandthatpeopleareresponsiblefortheiractions,theirconsciousness,andallaspectsoftheirself.Evenifanindividualwishesnottobeheldresponsibleforhimself,accordingtoSartre, that is a consciousdecision, andhe is responsible for the resultsofhisinaction.Basedonthisnotion,Sartreexplainsthatethicsandmoralsaresubjectiveand

relatedtoanindividual’sconscience.Therefore,therecouldneverbeanytypeofuniversalethicsormorality.

FreedomAshebegantofocusmoreonpoliticallyinclinedissues,Sartreexaminedhow

individual consciousness and freedom fit into social structures such as racism,sexism,colonialism,andcapitalistexploitation.Hesaidthatthosestructuresdonot recognize individual consciousness and freedom, and instead, objectifypeople.Sartre believed people always have freedom—nomatter how objectified an

individual is, the fact that freedom and consciousness exist means thatindividuals still have the ability to make something happen. To Sartre, theinherentfreedomofconsciousnessisbothagiftandacurse.Whilefreedomcanallowonetomakeachangeandshapehislife,thereisalsoaresponsibilitythatcomesalongwithit.

FREEWILL

Canweactfreely?

Whendiscussingfreewill,philosopherslookattwothings:

1. Whatitmeanstochoosefreely2. Whatthemoralimplicationsareofthosedecisions

However, upon examining these two notions further, more questions arise.Philosopherstakemanydifferentapproachesintryingtoanswerthesequestions.

COMPATIBILISMANDINCOMPATIBILISM

Thosewhobelieve in compatibilism (alsoknownas soft determinism)believethat humans do have free will—however, this free will is viewed as beingcompatiblewith determinism (which is causal, and as a philosophy states thatnothing is by chance; everything that happens is the result of what happenedbefore,andeverythingaboutyouandeverythingthatyoudoisinevitable).According tocompatibilism,humanscanbefreeagents (andhavefreewill)

when they are free of certain constraints. According to both determinism andcompatibilism,peoples’personalitiesandcharacteristicsaredeterminedinwaysthat are out of their hands (genetics, upbringing, etc.). However, incompatibilism,theexistenceoftheseconstraintsdoesnotmeanonecannotalsohave free will, because compatibilism works off of those things that aredetermined. The definition of freewill in compatibilism is that one is free tochoosehowtoacttowhateverextentmadepossiblebythatperson’smakeup.

But then, if it is not determinism that is considered to be a constraint incompatibilism,whatistheconstraint?Accordingtocompatibilism,aconstraintis any typeof external coercion.Freewill, therefore, is definedas freedomofaction.Aslongasanindividualisabletomakehisowndecisions(evenifthose

decisionsarealreadydetermined)freeofanexternalforce(likeimprisonment),thenthatpersonhasfreewill.Alternatively, some people do not believe in compatibilism. Those who

believeincompatibilismtobetrueclaimthatdeterminismissimplyincompatiblewith thenotionof freewill.Forexample,howcanonehave freewill ifeverydecisionispredeterminedfrombirth?Thisdoesnotnecessarilymean that incompatibilismstates freewilldoesor

doesnotexist.Infact,incompatibilismcanbebrokendownintothreetypes:

1. Harddeterminism(whichdeniestheexistenceoffreewill)2. Metaphysicallibertarianism(whichstatesfreewilldoesexistanddenies

theexistenceofcompatibilism)3. Pessimisticincompatibilism(whichstatesthatneitherfreewillnor

compatibilismistrue)

The previous image shows several offshoots of compatibilism andincompatibilism:

Semicompatibilismisthenotionthatdeterminismiscompatiblewithmoralresponsibility.Hardincompatibilismisthebeliefthatmoralresponsibilityandfreewillarenotcompatiblewithdeterminism.Illusionismisthebeliefthatfreewillisjustanillusion.

Incompatibilists who deny determinism accept that random events mustthereforeoccurintheworld(betheymental,biological,physical,etc.),andthus,randomness and accidents do exist. This then creates chains of unpredictablefutures(asopposedtotheonepredestinedfutureindeterminism).Anotherformofincompatibilism,metaphysicallibertarianism,comesinfour

differentbranchesofcausality:

Thisimageshowsthefollowingoptions:

Event-causallibertarianismisthenotionthatsomeeventsarenotaspredictablefromearliereventsandareuncaused.Softcausalityisthebeliefthatmosteventsaredetermined,whilesomeeventsarenotaspredictable.Agent-causallibertarianismisthebeliefthatnewcausalchainscanbeginthatarenotdeterminedbypasteventsorlawsofnature.Non-causallibertarianismistheideathatinordertomakedecisions,nocauseisneededatall.Thosewhobelieveincompatibilismbelievehumanscanbefreeagents(andhavefreewill)whentheyarefreeofcertainconstraints,andthatpersonalitiesandcharacteristicsaredeterminedinwaysthatareoutoftheirhands(suchasgeneticsorupbringing),while

incompatibilistsdenythatdeterminismplaysaroleinfreewillandacceptthatrandomeventsandaccidentsmustthereforeoccurintheworld(betheymental,biological,physical,etc.).

RESPONSIBILITY

When discussing free will, one must also discuss the idea of responsibility;particularly the distinction between responsibility and moral responsibility.Responsibilityiswhenonetakesonataskorburdenandacceptstheassociatedconsequences. For example, if you take on the responsibility of organizing aconferenceforwork,thenyounotonlytakeonthetaskoforganizingtheevent,butyouarealso takingon the responsibilityof itsoutcome;be it a successorfailure. This is responsibility. Moral responsibility, on the other hand, isresponsibility based on one’s moral codes. Let’s say that on the day of theconference, a big snowstorm hits and none of the speakers can make theconference.Youareresponsibleforthesuccessorfailureoftheconference,butareyoumorallyresponsiblefortheconference’sfailure?Itseemsthathumansdoinfactfeelresponsiblefortheiractions.Butwhyis

this the case? If one’s actions are determined by events, that is to say, one’sactionsare the resultof events andhavebeenplanned sincebeforebirth, thenlibertarianswouldaskwhypeoplefeelresponsiblefortheiractions.Similarly,ifone’sactionsaretotallyrandomanddeterminedentirelybychance,deterministswould wonder why people feel responsible for their actions. Together, thesequestionscreatethestandardargumentagainstfreewill.Yethumansdofeelresponsiblefortheiractions.Soifapersonisresponsible

forhisactions,thismustmeanthatresponsibilityiscausedbysomethingthatiswithinallofus.Therefore,aprerequisiteof responsibility is freewill,andnottheotherwayaround.Andfurthermore,aprerequisiteofmoralresponsibilityisresponsibility, and not the other way around. One does not need moral

responsibility to have responsibility, but one certainly needs responsibility tohavemoralresponsibility.

THEREQUIREMENTSOFFREEWILL

Requirementsoffreewillshouldideallysatisfybothlibertarianism(allowingfortheunpredictabilityneededforfreedomtooccur)anddeterminism(allowingforthecausalityneededformoralresponsibilitytooccur).Itishereweseehowfreemeetswill.

TheRandomnessRequirementTherandomness,orfreedom,requirementstatesthatindeterminismistrueand

chanceexists.Actionsareconsideredtobeunpredictableandarenotcausedbyexternalevents;rather,theycomefromus.Inorderfortheretobefreewill,theremustalsobealternativepossibilities,andafteranactionhasbeenperformed,thenotionthatitcouldhavebeendoneadifferentwaymustbepresent.Therefore,accordingto therandomnessrequirement,peoplecreatenewcausalchainsandnewinformationisproduced.

TheDeterminismRequirementThe determinism, or will, requirement states that adequate determinism

(determinism thathas the ability to allow for statisticalpredictability)mustbetrue and that our actions cannot be directly caused by chance. Furthermore, aperson’swillmustalsobeadequatelydetermined,andone’sactionshavetobecausallydeterminedbyanindividual’swill.

TheMoralResponsibilityRequirementThe moral responsibility requirement is the result of combining the

randomnessrequirementwiththedeterminismrequirement.Itstatesthatpeopleare morally responsible for their actions because there are alternative

possibilities.Onecouldhavedonethingsinadifferentway—actionscomefromus,andouractionsarecausallydeterminedbyone’swill.Theissueoffreewillisonethataffectsallofus.Arewetrulyfreewhenwemakeadecision?Whataretheimplicationsthatcomeaboutfromourdecisions?

PHILOSOPHYOFHUMOR

Theserioussideoflaughter

Whenphilosophers lookathumor, theyattempt to explain its function,how ithinders or enhances human relations, and what makes something humorous.Traditionally,manyphilosophershavelookeddownuponhumor,andPlatoevenreferred to laughter as an emotion that interrupted one’s rational self-control.Platocalledlaughtermalicious,anddescribedenjoyingcomedyasbeingatypeofscorn.InPlato’sidealstate,humorwouldbeundertightcontrol;theGuardianclasswould have to avoid laughing; and no “composer of comedy”would beallowedtomakecitizenslaugh.Plato’s objections to humor and laughter carried over to Christian thinkers

and,later,toEuropeanphilosophers.IntheBible,laughterisoftenreferredtoasa sourceofhostility, and inmonasteries, laughterwas condemned.As thoughtreformed in theMiddleAges, theviewof humor remained the same.Puritansdespised humor and laughter, and when they came to rule England in theseventeenthcentury,comedieswerecompletelyoutlawed.

THEORIESONHUMOR

These ideas of comedy and laughter are also found in the work of Westernphilosophy. InThomasHobbes’sLeviathan,Hobbes calls humans competitiveand individualistic, and says that by laughing, we are expressing superioritythrough grimaces. Similarly, in Descartes’s Passions of the Soul, laughter isconsideredtobeanexpressionofridiculeandscorn.Herearesomeschoolsofthoughtabouthumor.

TheSuperiorityTheory

From the work of Hobbes and Descartes comes the superiority theory.According to this theory, when one laughs, he is expressing feelings ofsuperiority. These feelings can be expressed over others or even over one’sformerstate.Thisphilosophicaltheorywasthedominantoneuntil theeighteenthcentury,

when philosopher Francis Hutcheson critiqued the ideas of Thomas Hobbes.Hutcheson claimed that feeling superior is neither a sufficient nor a necessaryexplanation of laughter and that there are cases when one laughs in whichfeelings of glory or self-comparison are simply not present. For example, onecanlaughatafigureofspeechthatseemsodd.Inothercasesofhumor,weseethepointsHutchesonwasmaking.Whenwe

watchCharlieChaplin,we laugh at the incredibly clever stunts he performed.LaughingatthesestuntsdoesnotrequireonetocomparehimselftoChaplin,andevenifonedoescomparehimself,hedoesnotlaughbecausehebelieveshimselftobesuperior.Peoplealsohave theability to laughat themselveswithout laughingat their

former selves,which the superiority theorycannotexplain. Ifone searches forhisglassesonlytodiscoverthathehasbeenwearingthemthewholetime,thisisreasonto laugh.However, this typeof laughterdoesnot fitwith themodelsetforthbythesuperioritytheory.

TheReliefTheoryOne theory that came about during the eighteenth century thatweakens the

superioritytheoryisknownastherelieftheory.Therelieftheoryclaimslaughterbehavesinthenervoussystemthewayapressure-reliefvalveworksinasteamboiler.Therelieftheoryfirstappearsin1709inLordShaftesbury’sAnEssayonthe

FreedomandWitofHumor,anditisnotableforbeingtheveryfirsttimehumorisdiscussedasbeingasenseoffunniness.

During this time period, scientists understood that the brain has nerves thatconnectittomusclesandsenseorgans.However,scientistsalsobelievednervescarried liquidsandgases, likebloodandair,which theyreferred toas“animalspirits.” InAn Essay on the Freedom and Wit of Humor, Shaftesbury claimsthese animal spirits build pressure within the nerves, and that laughter isresponsibleforreleasingtheanimalspirits.Asscienceadvancedand thebiologyof thenervoussystembecameclearer,

the relief theory adapted.According tophilosopherHerbertSpencer, emotionsactuallytakeonaphysicalformwithinthebody,andthisisknownasnervousenergy. Spencer claimed that nervous energy leads to muscular motion. Forexample, the nervous energy from anger creates small movements (likeclenchingyourfist),andastheangerincreases,sotoodothemusclemovements(likethrowingapunch).Thus,thenervousenergybuildsupandisthenreleased.According to Spencer, laughter also releases nervous energy. However,

Spencer identifiesonemajordifferencebetween the releaseofnervous energyfromlaughterversusotheremotions:Themusclemovementscausedbylaughterarenot thebeginning stagesof largeractions.Laughter,unlikeemotions,doesnotrevolvearoundhavingamotivationtodosomething.Thebodilymovementsassociatedwithlaughteraresimplyareleaseofpent-upnervousenergy.Spencerthengoesontoclaimthatthenervousenergythatlaughterreleasesis

the energy of inappropriate emotions. For example, if you are reading a storythat starts off by causing anger but then ends in a joke, the anger from thebeginningneedstobere-evaluated.Sothatnervousenergy,whichisnolongerapplicable,isthenreleasedintheformoflaughter.PerhapsthemostfamousversionoftherelieftheoryisSigmundFreud’s.He

lookedat threedifferent typesof situations thatwould result in laughterbeingthe release of nervous energy from a psychological activity: “joking,” “thecomic,” and “humor.”According to Freud, in joking (the telling of jokes andfunny banter), the unnecessary energy represses feelings; in the comic (forexample,laughingataclown),theunnecessaryenergyisthatenergydevotedto

thinking (a large amount of energy is required to understand the clumsymovementsof theclown,whileasmallamountofenergy is required forus toperformourownmovementssmoothly,thuscreatingasurplusofenergy);andinhumor, the release of energy is similar to the release described by HerbertSpencer (anemotionbecomesprepared, then isneverutilizedandneeds tobelaughedoff).

TheIncongruityTheoryThesecondchallengetothesuperioritytheory,whichalsocameaboutduring

the eighteenth century, is the incongruity theory. According to this theory,laughteriscausedbytheperceptionofsomethingthatisincongruous,meaningitviolatesourexpectationsandourmentalpatterns.Thisiscurrentlythedominanttheory explaining humor; it has been backed by influential philosophers andpsychologists, including Søren Kierkegaard, Immanuel Kant, and ArthurSchopenhauer(itwasevenhintedatbyAristotle).James Beattie, the first philosopher to use the term incongruous when

referencingthephilosophyofhumor,claimedthatlaughteriscausedbythemindtaking notice of two or more incongruous circumstances that unite in onecomplex assemblage. Kant, who never used the term incongruous, examinedhow jokes toy with one’s expectations. To Kant, jokes (for example, a setupfollowedbyapunchline)evoke,shift,and thendissipateone’s thoughts.Kantnotes that the thrust of ideas then creates a physical thrust of one’s internalorgans,andthisis,inturn,anenjoyablephysicalstimulation.Following Kant’s work, Arthur Schopenhauer’s version of the incongruity

theoryclaimedthatthesourcesofhumoraretheabstractrationalknowledgewehave of something and the sense perceptions of those things. Schopenhauerclaimed humor is the result of suddenly realizing the incongruity between aconceptofsomethingandtheperceptionofsomethingthatshouldbethesame.As the theory of incongruity developed throughout the twentieth century, a

flaw of older versions was discovered—the implication that, with regard to

humor, the perception of incongruity is sufficient. This cannot be, becauseinsteadofamusement,onecouldtheoreticallyexperienceanger,disgust,orfear,for example. Therefore, humorous amusement is not simply responding toincongruity;itisenjoyingit.

NervousEnergy?

While there isaconnectionbetween laughterandmuscles,almostno philosopher today explains humor as a release of pent-upnervousenergy.

Oneofthemostrecentformsofincongruity,createdbyMichaelClark,statesthatfirstoneperceivessomethingtobeincongruous;thenoneenjoysperceivingit; and then one enjoys the incongruity.The incongruity is enjoyed simply foritself(oratleastsomeofit).Thistheorydoesabetterjobofexplaininghumorthan the relief and the superiority theories, since it accounts for all types ofhumor.

THEENLIGHTENMENT

Defyingtradition

TheEnlightenment refers to a radical shift in thought that occurred inEurope(particularly France, Germany, and Britain) during the late seventeenth andeighteenth centuries. This movement completely revolutionized the ways inwhichpeopleviewedphilosophy,science,politics,andsocietyasawhole,andforever changed the shape ofWestern philosophy. Philosophers began to defytraditionand thepre-established thoughtsof theancientGreeks,whichopenedthe floodgates to a new form of philosophical inquiry—one based on humanknowledgeandreason.

ORIGINSOFTHEENLIGHTENMENT:THESCIENTIFICREVOLUTION

The beginning of the Enlightenment can be traced to the 1500s, when thescientificrevolutionstartedinEurope.From500to1350,verylittlehadchangedwithregardtoscience.Beliefsystemsandteachingswerebasedontheworkofthe ancient Greeks, and these philosophies had been incorporated into thedoctrine of the Catholic Church. When the Renaissance occurred, there wassuddenly a renewed interest in the natural world. As people discovered theirfindingsdidnotmatchthedoctrineofthechurch(whichhad,upuntilthatpoint,beenacceptedastrue),morepeoplebegantoinvestigatetheworldaroundthem,andscientificdiscoveriesrelatingtothenaturalworldflourished.This scientific exploration reached its apex during the 1500s and 1600s, in

what is known as the scientific revolution. Advancements in science andmathematicsfromNicolausCopernicus,JohannesKepler,SirIsaacNewton,andGalileoGalilei not onlyquestioned theworkofAristotle and the church; they

made people view nature and humanity in completely different ways. Theintroduction of the scientific method, which is based on observation andexperimentation,allowedscientiststoexplainvarioustheoriesthroughtheuseofreasonandlogic,andremovedtraditionfromscience.

STUDYOFTRUTH

Philosophers during theEnlightenment set out to discover truths about nature,knowledge,andhumanity.Theydidthisthroughseveraldifferentchannels.

SkepticismDuringtheEnlightenment,skepticismplayedakeyroleinmanyphilosophical

advancements due to the fact that the very nature of the movement was toquestion established truths. Philosophers used skepticism as a tool to advancenewsciences.WhenDescartestriedtocreateanewsystemofknowledgeinhisMeditations on First Philosophy, he made a secure foundation by usingskepticismtodeterminewhichprinciplescouldbeknownastruewithabsolutecertainty.Since theEnlightenmenthadroots inbeingcriticalandsuspiciousofdoctrines,itonlymadesenseforskepticismtoinfluencethephilosophiesofthethinkersofthistime.

EmpiricismThe Enlightenment is sometimes referred to as the “Age of Reason,” and

empiricism, the belief that all of our knowledge comes from our experiences,played a key role in the history of themovement.While philosophers of thistimedidnot see reasonas itsownsourceofknowledge, theyexploredhumancognitive faculties (theabilitiesof thehumanmind) innewways.Perhaps themost influential empiricist to come out of this time period was John Locke,whosemostimportanttheorywasthatthemindisatabularasa,orblankslate,at birth and that only when one has experiences does one begin to formknowledge.The othermajor empiricist to come out of theEnlightenmentwasSir Isaac

Newton,whowouldgoontocompletelyrevolutionizescienceandmathematics(includingcreatingcalculusandidentifyingtheexistenceofgravity).Newton’sresearch began with observations of phenomena in nature, and he then usedinductiontofindthemathematicalprinciplesthatwouldbeabletodescribesuchphenomena.AsthedifferencebetweenNewton’s“bottom-up”approach(which

started with an observation from a phenomena in nature and then used theprocess of induction to create a mathematic law or principle, and led tosuccessful results) and the approach of identifying first principles (whichwasoften unending and never seemed to achieve desirable results) became clear,many philosophers during the Enlightenment began to favor the Newtonianmethodintheireffortstoacquireknowledge.

RationalismOneofthemostsignificantphilosophicalchangesthatcameaboutduringthe

Enlightenment was the embracing of rationalism (the notion that we gainknowledge independent of the senses). The work of René Descartes, whoattemptedtofindfundamentaltruthsbyassumingpropositionstobefalseandbycastingdoubtonthesenses,wasparticularlyinfluential.NotonlydidDescartesquestion the ideas of Aristotle; he radically changed how one could viewknowledge,whichmadewayfornewformsofscience.ThroughCartesianphilosophy(thetermforRenéDescartes’sviews),various

controversialquestionsarosefromtheintellectualcommunity:

Arethebodyandmindtwosubstancesthatareseparateanddistinctfromoneanother?Howarethetworelated(withregardtoboththehumanbodyandtheunifiedworld)?WhatroledoesGodplayincementingourknowledge?

It is from the various questions posed byCartesian philosophy that BaruchSpinoza,oneoftheEnlightenment’smostinfluentialphilosophers,emerged.Baruch Spinoza tackled the Cartesian theory of dualism and developed the

theory of ontological monism (the notion that there is only one kind ofsubstance,beitGodornature,thathastwoattributesthatcorrespondtothemindand body). By identifying God with nature and denying the existence of a

supreme being, Baruch Spinoza lays the foundation of the naturalism andatheismthatcanbeseenthroughoutthephilosophiesoftheEnlightenment.In addition to Descartes and Spinoza, there were several other key

philosophersoftheEnlightenmentthatfocusedonrationalism.InGermany,oneof the most influential philosophers was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, whoemphasized the principle of sufficient reason—the idea that there must be asufficient reason for the existence of everything that exists. The principle ofsufficient reasonplays into thevery idealsof theEnlightenment,as itpresentstheuniverseasbeingcompletelyintelligiblethroughtheuseofreason.Based onLeibniz’swork,ChristianWolff set out to answer the question of

howtheprincipleofsufficientreasoncouldbegroundedthroughtheuseoflogicand theuseof theprincipleofnoncontradiction (whichposits that a statementcanneverbetrueandfalseat theexactsametime).Wolffdidsobycreatingarationalist systemofknowledge,with thegoalof showing that firstprinciples,known as a priori, could demonstrate the truths of science. What makes thework of Wolff quintessential to the Enlightenment movement is not that heattemptedtousereasontoprovehisargument;it’sthatheattemptedtoprovehisargumentusinghumanreason.

AESTHETICS

During the Enlightenment, modern philosophical aesthetics first appears andflourishes.GermanphilosopherAlexanderBaumgarten,whohadbeenastudentof Christian Wolff, created and named aesthetics. According to Baumgarten,aestheticswasascienceofthebeautiful.Baumgartenequateshisscienceofthebeautifulwith a scienceof the sensible—therefore, aestheticswascreatedas ascienceofsensiblecognition.TheEnlightenmentembracedaestheticsforseveralreasons: the movement revolved around a rediscovery of the senses and thevalue of pleasure, and as art and art criticism flourished, the notion of beauty

becameextremelyimportantamongphilosophers.Thewayinwhichwecometounderstandbeauty,itwasbelieved,revealsinformationabouttherationalorderofnature.

GermanRationalismIn Germany during the eighteenth century, aesthetics was largely based on

ChristianWolff’s rationalistmetaphysics.Wolffwasaproponentof theclassicprinciple that beauty is truth. ToWolff, beauty is truth interpreted as feelingpleasure.Wolff sees beauty as thatwhich has perfection. This perfection thenleads to harmony and order. When one deems something beautiful (throughfeelingsofpleasure),one issensingsomesortofperfectionorharmony.Thus,the sensitive cognition of perfection is beauty.Wolff states that while beautymayrelatetotheobjectivefeaturesofthosethingsaroundus,opinionsonbeautyarerelativebasedonone’ssensibility.

FrenchClassicismThe French outlook on beauty during the Enlightenment was very much

inspired by Descartes’s model of the physical universe (deducing knowledgefrom prior knowledge in order to establish a single principle). Like Germanrationalism, French classicism based aesthetics on the classic principle thatbeautyistruth.Truth,forFrenchphilosophers,wasviewedasobjectiverationalorder.Philosophersviewedartasanimitationofnatureinitsidealstate,andinFrench classicism, aesthetics was modeled from the science of nature. LikeDescartes’smodel, philosophersofFrenchclassicismattempted to systematizeaestheticsinsearchofauniversalprinciple.

SubjectivismandEmpiricismWhilethebasisofaestheticswasformedinFranceandGermany,someofthe

mostimportantworkregardingaestheticsduringtheEnlightenmentoccurredinEnglandandScotland.Throughempiricismandsubjectivism,theunderstanding

ofaestheticsshiftedtotheviewer’sunderstandingofbeauty, inwhichboththeexperienceofandtheresponsetobeautywereexamined.One of the major figures of this time, Lord Shaftesbury, agreed with the

classicprinciple thatbeautyis truth.However,Shaftesburydidnotbelievethistruth to be an objective rational order that one has the ability of knowing. ToShaftesbury, the response to aesthetics is that of a disinterested unegoisticpleasure,meaningitisindependentofone’sthoughtsonhowtopromotehisownself-interest (this revelationwouldpave thewayforhis theoryonethicsbasedonthesameidea).Heclaimedthatbeautyisatypeofharmonythatisfreefromthehumanmind,and thatour immediateunderstandingofbeauty is a formofparticipationwiththisharmony.Shaftesbury then shiftedhis focus to thenatureofone’s response tobeauty,

and believed that this response elevated one morally, above self-interest. Byshiftingawayfromwhatmakessomethingbeautifulandtowardthebehaviorofhuman nature with regard to beauty, Shaftesbury connected aesthetics withbeauty,morality,andethicsandfurtheredtheinterest inhumannaturethathadbecomeassociatedwiththeEnlightenment.As theEnlightenmentprogressed, laterphilosopherssuchas ImmanuelKant

and David Hume contributed immensely to notions of empiricism andsubjectivity,specificallywithregardtotheroleofimagination.

POLITICS,ETHICS,ANDRELIGION

The Enlightenment is perhaps most significant for its accomplishments inpolitics. During this time, three distinct revolutions occurred: the EnglishRevolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution. AsphilosophersduringtheEnlightenmentbegantoshifttowardthoughtsregardinghuman nature and became critical of established truths from the church andmonarchy,thesociopoliticalatmospherealsofellunderscrutiny.

Sympathizers of these revolutions believed that the political and socialauthoritywasbasedonobscuretraditionsandreligiousmyths,andtheybegantospread ideas of freedom, equality, human rights, and the need for a legitimatepoliticalsystem.Philosopherscametonotonlycriticizegovernment; theyalsocreatedtheoriesonwhatgovernmentshouldbelike.Itisherethatweseepeoplestarttoembraceideassuchastherighttoreligiousfreedomandtheneedforapoliticalsystemwithchecksandbalances.Duringthistime,thepoliticalworksofJohnLockeandThomasHobbeswerethemostinfluential.As outlooks on politics and society began to change, so too did the way

people viewed ethics and religion. With the increase of industrialization andurbanization,aswellasthebloodywarsfoughtinthenameofreligion,people(andcertainlyphilosophers)begantoquestionthemotivationsbehindhappiness,morality, and religion. Instead of finding happiness by uniting with God ordeterminingwhatmakessomethinggoodbasedonwhatone’sreligiontellshim,philosophersbegantoturntowardhumannatureandaskedquestionslike:Whatwouldmakeonehappyinthislife?Philosophers of the Enlightenment called for religion to rid itself of

superstition,supernaturalism,andfanaticismandadvocatedforamorerationalform.AngertowardtheCatholicChurchgrew,andProtestantismbegantogrowinpopularity.ReligionduringtheEnlightenmentbegantotakeonfourtypes:

1. Atheism:Theidea,asstatedbyDenisDiderot,thathumansshouldlooknottowardasupernaturalbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesofnaturalorder,butrather,withintheirownnaturalprocesses.AtheismwasmorecommoninFrancethaninanyotherlocationduringtheEnlightenment.

2. Deism:Thisisthebeliefthatthereisasupremebeingthatcreatedandgovernstheuniverseandhasalwayshadaplanforcreationsinceitsinception;however,thissupremebeingwillnotinterferewithcreation.DeismismostcommonlythoughtofasthereligionassociatedwiththeEnlightenment.Deismrejectstheideaofmiraclesorspecialrevelations,

andinsteadarguesthatnaturallightisthetrueproofthatthereisasupremebeing.DeistsrejectedthedivinityofJesusChrist,insteadclaiminghimtobemorelikeanexcellentmoralteacher.Deismalsoallowedfornewdiscoveriesinnaturalscience,believingthatGodcreatedthisorder.

3. ReligionoftheHeart:ThisisthebeliefthattheGodassociatedwithdeismistoorationalisticanddistantfromtheconstantstrugglesofhumanity(andtherefore,notservingthepurposereligionissupposedtoserve).Religionoftheheart,notablyembracedbyphilosophersRousseauandShaftesbury,isareligionbasedonhumansentiments.Whilesometimesconsideredtobeaformofdeism,religionoftheheartisa“natural”religion,notableforitslackof“artificialformsofworship”andmetaphysicalgrounding.Instead,emphasisisplacedonnaturalhumanemotions.

4. Fideism:OneofthesinglemostimportantworkstocomeoutoftheEnlightenmentwasDavidHume’sDialoguesConcerningNaturalReligion.InDialogues,whichwaspublishedin1779afterHume’sdeath,Hume(anatheist)criticizesthesuppositionthattheworldmusthavebeencreatedandauthoredbyasupremebeingbecausehumanexistenceandreasonexist.Fideismstatesthatnomatterwhat,rationalcriticismcannotgetridofreligiousbeliefbecausereligiousbeliefisso“natural.”Essentially,accordingtofideism,onedoesnotneedreasonstohavereligiousbelief;alloneneedsisfaith.Someformsoffideismevengosofarastosaythatreligiousbeliefscanbelegitimateevenifthosebeliefsopposeorconflictwithreason.Throughitsrejectionofthetraditional,pre-establishedthoughtoftheancientGreeksanditsemphasisonhumanknowledgeandreason,theEnlightenmentcompletelyrevolutionizedthewaysinwhichpeopleviewedphilosophy,science,politics,andsocietyasawhole,andforeverchangedtheshapeofWesternphilosophy.

FRIEDRICHNIETZSCHE(1844–1900)

Life-affirmation

Friedrich Nietzsche was born on October 15, 1844, in Röcken, Germany.Nietzsche’s father, aLutheranpastor,diedwhenNietzschewas just fouryearsold.Sixmonthsafterhisfather’spassing,Nietzsche’stwo-year-oldbrotherdied,leavingNietzschewithhismotherandtwosisters.Nietzschelatersaidthat thepassingofhisfatherandbrotherhadaprofoundimpactonhim.Fromtheageoffourteentonineteen,FriedrichNietzscheattendedoneofthe

best boarding schools in Germany, and as he continued his education at theUniversity of Bonn and the University of Leipzig, he gravitated towardphilology (an academic discipline that revolved around the interpretations ofbiblical and classical texts). During this time, Nietzsche, who had beencomposing music since he was a teenager, became acquainted with famouscomposerRichardWagner(whoalsohappenedtobeanidolofNietzsche’s),andtheclosefriendshipthatresultedbetweenthetwomenwouldprovetohaveanincredibleimpactonNietzschethroughouthislife(twentyyearslater,Nietzschewouldrecalltheirfriendshipasbeingthe“greatestachievement”ofhislife).Bythetimehewastwenty-fouryearsold,havingnotevencompletedhisdoctorate,NietzschewasofferedafacultypositionattheUniversityofBaseldepartmentofphilology.After a brief stint serving as amedical orderly in 1870 during the Franco-

Prussian War (where he contracted dysentery, syphilis, and diphtheria),NietzschereturnedtotheUniversityofBasel,andin1872,Nietzschepublishedhis firstbook,TheBirthofTragedy.The book,while praised byWagner,wasmetwithnegativecriticism,particularlybyUlrichvonWilamowitz-Möllendorff,whowouldgoontobecomeoneoftheleadingGermanphilologistsofthetime.Nietzsche remained at the University of Basel until 1879. By 1878, it had

becomeclear thatNietzschewasmore interested inphilosophy thanphilology,

andhisbookHuman,All-Too-Humanmarks theshift inhisphilosophicalstyle(and the endof his friendshipwithWagner,whose anti-SemitismandGermannationalism disgustedNietzsche). At the age of thirty-four, Nietzsche’s healthhaddeterioratedsomuchthathehadtoresignfromtheuniversity.From1878to1889,ashishealthseverelydeclined,Nietzschemovedaround

betweenGerman,Swiss,andItaliancitiesandwroteelevenbooks.OnJanuary3,1889,Nietzschesuffered fromanervousbreakdown(possiblyasa resultofsyphilis)whenhewatchedamanwhipahorseonthestreet.Nietzschecollapsedonthestreetandneverregainedhissanity.HewouldspendthenextelevenyearsinavegetativestateuntilhisdeathonAugust25,1900.

THEPHILOSOPHICALTHEMESOFFRIEDRICHNIETZSCHE

During his period of insanity, Nietzsche’s half-sister, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, cared for him. Elisabeth, who had been married to a prominentGermananti-Semiteandnationalist, selectivelypublishedNietzsche’swritings.Though completely unaware, Nietzsche had taken on celebrity status inGermanyandwasviewedlaterasaNaziiconbecausewhatwaspublishedwasamisleading selection of his work that was then used to promote the Naziideology.ItwasonlyonceWorldWarIIendedthattheworldcametoknowthetruebeliefsofFriedrichNietzsche.

NihilismNietzsche is perhapsmost famous for his quote, “God is dead.”During the

latenineteenthcentury,with the riseof theGermanstateandadvancements inscience, many German philosophers viewed their present-day life with greatoptimism.Nietzsche,ontheotherhand,viewedtheseastroublingtimesmarkedbyafundamentalcrisisinvalues.

Inhisbook,ThusSpokeZarathustra,NietzschetellsthestoryofamannamedZarathustrawho,at theageof thirty,goes into thewildernessandenjoys it somuch,hedecidestolivethereforthenexttenyears.Uponreturningtosociety,hedeclaresGodtobedead.FromThusSpokeZarathustra,Nietzschearguedthatthe advancements of science made it so that people no longer turned to theprominent sets of values brought about byChristianity, and that therewas nolonger that powerful grasp on civilization, brought about by Christianity, thatdetermineswhatmakessomethinggoodandwhatmakessomethingevil.While hewas actually a critic ofChristianity,Nietzschewas an even larger

criticofatheism,andfeareditwouldbethenextlogicalstep.Nietzschedidnotclaim that science introducesanewsetofvalues topeople that replaces thosevalues set forth by Christianity. Instead, he claimed that it is nihilism, theabandonmentofanyandallbeliefs,thatwillcometoreplacethemoralcodesetforthbyChristianity.Nietzschebelievedthatthereisalwaysaneedforpeopletoidentifyasource

ofvalueandmeaning,andheconcluded that if sciencewasnot that source, itwouldappear inotherways, suchasaggressivenationalism.Nietzschedidnotargue that there is a need to return to the traditions of Christianity. Rather,Nietzschewantedtodiscoverhowtogetoutofthisformofnihilismthroughanaffirmationoflife.

TheWilltoPowerNietzsche’stheoryofthewilltopowercanbebrokenupintotwoparts.First,Nietzsche believed that everything in thisworld is in flux, and that a

fixedbeingsimplydoesnotexist.Matter,knowledge,truth,andsoon,isalwayschanging,and theverycoreof thischange issomethingknownas the“will topower.”Theuniverse,accordingtoNietzsche,ismadeupofwills.Second, the will to power is an individual’s fundamental drive for power,

whichcomesaboutthroughdominanceandindependence.Thewilltopowerismuch stronger than thewill to sexor thewill to survive, and it can appear in

differentways.Whilethewilltopower,accordingtoNietzsche,couldappearasviolence or physical dominance, it could also be turned inward andmake onepursuemasteryofhisownself(asopposedtomasteryofsomeoneelse).Nietzschebelievedthatthenotionoftheegoorsoulissimplyagrammatical

fiction.ToNietzsche,“I”isactuallyamixofcompetingwillsthatconstantlyandchaoticallytrytoovercomeeachother.Sincetheworldisinfluxandchangeisthemostfundamentalpartoflife,anyattemptsatviewinglifeasobjectiveandfixed,whether in regard tophilosophy,science,or religion,areviewedas life-denying.Therefore, in order to live based on a life-affirming philosophy, one must

embracechangeandunderstandthatchangeistheonlyconstant.

TheRoleofManAccording to Nietzsche, there are animals, humans, and then the overman.

Whenhumanslearnedtocontroltheirinstinctsandnaturalimpulsesinordertoattaingreatergains(likecivilizations,knowledge,andspirituality),theystoppedbeing animals.Ourwill to power shifted from outward (controlling others) toinward (self-mastery); however, this process of self-mastery is difficult, andthere is a constant temptation for humanity to give up (two such examples ofhumanity giving up, according to Nietzsche, are nihilism and Christianmorality). In attempting to gain self-mastery, humans are on their way tobecomingtheoverman,anentitythatpossessesself-mastery(whichislackinginanimals)andgoodconscience(whichislackinginhumans).Theovermanhasadeep love of life and willingly accepts the constant struggle and sufferingwithout ever complaining. Therefore, according toNietzsche, humanity is notthedestination;itisatransitionintobecomingtheoverman.

TruthNietzschebelievedthat“truth,”theideathattherecanonlybeonecorrectway

toconsidersomething,isproofthatourthoughtprocesshasbecomeinflexible.

According toNietzsche,being flexibleand recognizing that therecanbemorethanoneway toconsideramatter is a signofahealthymind,and tohaveaninflexiblemindistosay“no”tolife.

ValuesIn Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche attempts to expose morality’s

psychologicalfoundations.ToNietzsche,humanswouldbeahealthierspeciesifthey did not have morality. He equated morality to fiction, and believed thatvalues needed to be re-evaluated, for they are not objective. Nietzsche wasparticularly critical of Christian morality, and claimed that on a fundamentallevel, Christian morality is opposed to life and even an enemy of life. Forexample, according toNietzsche,Christianity’snotionof theafterlifedevaluesan individual’s natural instincts and makes this life not seem as important,thereforepromotingweakness.Inexposingthetruthofmorality,NietzschedidnotwishtoreplaceChristian

moralitywithsomeotherform.Rather,hebelievedthat,afterrealizingthetruthbehindmorality, peoplewould start to becomemore honest and realisticwithregardtotheirmotivesandattitudetowardlife.

EternalRecurrencePerhaps Nietzsche’s most intricate theory was his metaphysical theory of

eternal recurrence.While complex, the core of his theory, like the rest of hiswork,revolvesaroundanaffirmationoflife.

The idea of eternal recurrence has been around for centuries. A classicdepiction of eternal recurrence from the Renaissance era is the Ouroboros, adragonorsnakeeatingitsowntail.

OnepartofNietzsche’stheoryofeternalrecurrenceisthenotionthattimeiscyclical,meaningpeoplewillliveeachmomentoftheirentirelifeoverandoveranendlessamountoftimes,andeachtimewillbethesame.Everymomentoneexperiences, therefore, occurs for an eternity, andwe should embrace this factandfeelsupremejoyaboutthis.The second part of Nietzsche’s theory of eternal recurrence is that “being”

doesnotexistbecauseeverythingisconstantlychanging—therefore,everythingis constantly “becoming.”Nietzsche asserts that reality is intertwined and thatwe cannot distinguish “things” from other “things” due to the fact thateverything is constantly changing. Therefore, one cannot judge one part ofrealitywithout judgingallofreality.Bycomingtotermswiththefact thatourlivesareinaconstantstateofbecoming,wecaneithersay“yes”or“no”toalloflife. Considered to be one of the first existentialist philosophers, FriedrichNietzschehad an influenceonphilosophy thatwas truly incredible.Above allelse,Nietzsche’s emphasis of “life-affirmation” and his challenges tomoralityandChristianitymadehimoneofthemostimportantphilosophersofhistime.

THESORITESPARADOX

Little-by-little

ThesoritesparadoxisanotherfamousparadoxcreatedbyEubulidesofMiletus.This paradox tackles the idea of vagueness.Theword sorites comes from theGreekwordsoros,whichmeans“heap.”Thesoritesparadoxstates:Imagineyouhaveaheapofsand.Whileasinglegrainofsanddoesnotmake

aheap,manygrains,like1,000,000grains,forexample,domakeaheap.

1. Ifyouweretoremoveasinglegrainofsandfromthe1,000,000grainsofsand,thenyouwouldstillhaveaheap.

2. Ifyouweretoremoveanothergrainofsand,thenyouwouldstillhaveaheap.

3. Ifyouweretoremoveanothergrainofsand,thenyouwouldstillhaveaheap.

Eventually, you can remove enough grains of sand so that it is no longerconsideredaheap,butatwhatpointisthatthecase?Is500grainsofsandstillconsideredaheapbut499grainsofsandnot?ThesoritesparadoxisalsoseeninanotherparadoxcreatedbyEubulides:the

BaldMan.Thisparadoxstates:

1. Ifamanhasonehaironhishead,thenheisconsideredbald.2. Ifamanthathasonehaironhisheadisconsideredbald,thenamanwith

twohairsonhisheadisconsideredbald.3. Ifamanthathastwohairsonhisheadisconsideredbald,thenamanwith

threehairsonhisheadisconsideredbald.

Therefore,amanwith1,000,000hairsonhisheadisconsideredbald.Even though amanwith 1,000,000 hairswould certainly not be considered

bald,accordingtologic,heshouldbeconsideredassuch.Soatwhatpointisthe

mannolongerconsideredbald?PhilosophersGottlobFrege andBertrandRussell argued that ideal language

should have precision and that natural language has a defect, vagueness. Bygettingridofvagueness,onewouldeliminatesoriticalterms,thusgettingridofthesoritesparadox.Later, American philosopherWillard van Orman Quine believed vagueness

could be eliminated from natural language entirely. While this would affectordinarywaysinwhichpeopletalk,the“sweetsimplicity,”asQuinedescribesit,wouldbeworthit.

PROPOSEDSOLUTIONS

There are four responses that philosophers typically use to explain the soritesparadox:

1. Denyingthatlogicisapplicabletothesoritesparadox2. Denyingsomeofthepremiseswithinthesoritesparadox3. Denyingthevalidityofthesoritesparadox4. Acceptingthesoritesparadoxassound

Let’slookateachpossiblesolution.

DenyingThatLogicIsApplicabletotheSoritesParadoxDenyingthatlogicisapplicabletothesoritesparadoxdoesnotseemtobethe

bestpossiblesolution.Itseemsthatinorderforlogictohaveanyimpact,itmustbe applied to natural language and not only to an ideal form of language.Therefore, the soritical terms cannot be avoided and must be dealt with inanotherway.

DenyingSomePremises

Denying some of the premises of the sorites paradox is the most commonsolution today. In these solutions, logic can be applied to natural language;however,thereareissuesregardingthepremisesonwhichthesoritesparadoxisbased.

TheEpistemicTheoryIntheepistemictheory,oneconditionalisassumedtobefalseandthereisa

certaincutoffpointinanysoritesparadoxwherethepredicatenolongerapplies(and instead, the negation applies). If we were to again use the Bald Manparadoxasanexample:

1. Amanthathasonehaironhisheadisconsideredbald.2. Ifamanthathasonehaironhisheadisconsideredbald,thenamanthat

hastwohairsonhisheadisconsideredbald.3. Ifamanthathastwohairsonhisheadisconsideredbald,thenamanthat

hasthreehairsonhisheadisconsideredbald.

Therefore,amanthathas1,000,000hairsonhisheadisconsideredbald.Imaginenowthatwerejectoneoftheotherpremisesbesidesthefirstpremise.

Forexample, let’s imagine thecutoffpoint tobeat130hairs.Thismeans thatanyonewith129hairsonhisheadwouldbebald,whileanyonewith130hairsonhisheadwouldnotbebald.Naturally,many find the epistemic theory to be questionable. If one of the

premises is false, howwould anyone knowwhich premise it is?Additionally,howwouldonefindoutthisinformation?Ifweusethewordbald,thatwordhasmeaningbecauseofhowweuseit.Buthowcanweusethatwordtodetermineastandardwhenwecan’tknowwhatthatstandardis?

TheTruth-ValueGapTheoryAnother theory, the truth-value gap theory, states that we cannot know the

cutoff point because there is no specific cutoff point. Intuition tells us there

existsagroupofpeopleforwhichsayingtheyarebaldissimplytrue,andthereexists another group of people forwhich saying they are bald is simply false.However,therealsoexistsagroupofpeopleinthemiddle.Forthesepeopleinthe middle, calling them bald is not saying anything true or false. For thesepeople,thewordbaldisundefined.Accordingtothetruth-valuegaptheory,becausesentencescanbeundefined

insteadof true,not allof thepremisesare true.However, even the truth-valuegaptheoryrunsintoproblems.If you were to look at the sentence “It is either raining or not raining,”

normallyyouwouldconsiderthistobealogicaltruth.However,underthetruth-valuegaptheory,iftherewereaborderlinecaseofrain,both“Itisraining”and“Itisnotraining”wouldbeundefined,andthereforeneitherwouldbetrue.

SupervaluationismSupervaluationism attempts to solve the problem of the middle group

discussedinthetruth-valuegaptheory.Whenlookingatthebaldnessexample,thereareexamplesofthinlyhairedmenforwhomitwouldnotbetruetosaythattheyarebald(asdictatedbytherulesofbeing“bald”);however,itwouldnotbefalsetosaytheyarebald,either.Therefore,itseemstobeuptoustodeterminethesecases.Insupervaluationism,drawingthelinebetweenbaldnessandnon-baldnessis

referredtoasa“sharpening”ofthetermbald.Whilesimplesentencesregardingborderlinescenarioscanlackatruth-value,compoundsofthesesentenceswillinfacthavetruth-values,andsupervaluationismwillallowforstandardlogictoberetained (even with the existence of truth-value gaps). With this idea ofsharpening,supervaluationismstatesthefollowing:

Asentenceistrueifandonlyifitistruewithregardtoallsharpenings.Asentenceisfalseifandonlyifitisfalsewithregardtoallsharpenings.

Asentenceisundefinedifandonlyifitistruewithregardtosomesharpeningsandfalsewithregardtoothersharpenings.

So according to supervaluationism, premises of the sorites paradox will betrue regarding some sharpenings, false regarding other sharpenings, andtherefore, somewill be undefined.This allows for there to be valid reasoningwithafalseconclusion.However, even supervaluationism has its problems as a theory.

Supervaluationismstates“Itiseitherrainingornotraining”isalwaystrueevenifneitherevent is true. Ifwe return to the ideaofbaldness, supervaluationismwouldassertthatthestatement“Ifyouhave130hairsonyourhead,youarenotbald,butifyouhaveoneless,youarebald”isfalse,whilealsoclaiming“Thereisanumberofhairswithwhichyouarenotbald,andifyouhaveoneless,youarebald”istrue.Thereisclearlyacontradictionhere.

DenyingtheValidityoftheSoritesParadoxThethirdoptioninattemptingtosolvethesoritesparadoxstatesthatonecan

accept all of the premises but deny the conclusion. According to this option,sentences are not considered to be absolutely true or false; instead, they areconsidered to be true to a certain degree.Therefore, each statement should bedeterminedbythedegreesoftruthwithinitsparts.

AcceptingtheSoritesParadoxasSoundThelastoptionistoembracethesoritesparadoxandacceptitassound.Ifone

embraces the sorites paradox, then it seems that both positive and negativeversionsmustbeaccepted.Nooneisbaldandeveryoneisbald.Anynumberofgrainswillmakeaheapandnonumberofgrainscanmakeaheap.Since thiscannot be the case, however, embracing the sorites paradox must be morerestricted by accepting classical reasoning and denying terms likebaldness orheapness,sothatthesewordsapplytonothing.

LUDWIGWITTGENSTEIN(1889–1951)

Theanti-systematicphilosopher

LudwigWittgensteinisconsideredtobeoneofthemostimportantphilosophersof thetwentiethcentury,andhis influenceisparticularlysignificant inanalyticphilosophy.WittgensteinwasbornonApril26,1889,inVienna,Austria,tooneof Austria’s richest families. In 1908, Wittgenstein attended ManchesterUniversity to study aeronautical engineering, and he soon became extremelyinterestedintheworkofGottlobFregeandthephilosophyofmathematics.From 1911 to 1913, based on the advice of Frege,Wittgenstein studied at

Cambridge under Bertrand Russell. At Cambridge, Wittgenstein and Fregeworked together on understanding the foundations of logic. Periodically,WittgensteinwouldleaveforNorway,wherehewouldstayformonthsatatimeandattempttosolvetheproblemstheyhaddiscussed.AtthestartofWorldWarIin 1914,Wittgenstein joined theAustrian army. In 1917, hewas captured andspent the remainder of the war as a prisoner of war. During his time at war,Wittgenstein began to write one of his most important philosophical works,Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, which was published in both German andEnglish after the war. This would eventually become known as “earlyWittgenstein.”By 1920, Wittgenstein had stopped pursuing philosophy, believing that his

workinTractatushadsolvedallofphilosophy’sproblems.Hegavehisshareofhis family’s fortune away to his siblings, and for the next nine years, he triedseveraldifferentprofessionsinVienna.In1929,aftertalkingtomembersoftheViennaCircleaboutthephilosophyofmathandscience,Wittgensteindecidedtoreturn toCambridge and study philosophy.His return toCambridgemarked adramatic shift in his philosophy, and the various lectures, conversations, andletters from this timeare sometimes referred toas“middleWittgenstein.” It isduringthis“middle”phasethatWittgensteinrejectsdogmaticphilosophy(which

includednotonlytraditionalphilosophicalworks,butalsotheideasputforthinhisownbook).Wittgenstein spent the 1930s and 1940s conducting seminars atCambridge.

During this time period (referred to as “later Wittgenstein”), Wittgensteindeveloped his most significant works, which included revolutionary ideasregardingashiftfromformallogictoordinarylanguage,askepticismtowardthepretensions of philosophy, and reflections on mathematics and psychology.Though he had planned to put all of his ideas into a second book entitledPhilosophical Investigations, in1945,whilepreparing the finalmanuscript, hewithdrew the book from publication (but allowed for it to be publishedposthumously). Wittgenstein spent the next few years traveling and furtherdevelopinghisphilosophyuntilhisdeathin1951.

EARLYWITTGENSTEIN

The philosophy of earlyWittgenstein is based on his book,Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.Wittgenstein draws heavily from thework of Bertrand RussellandGottlobFrege,andopposesRussell’sandFrege’suniversalistviewoflogic,in which logic is the ultimate set of laws and is the foundation upon whichknowledgeisbuilt.There are seven basic propositions in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, as

translatedbyD.F.PearsandB.F.McGuinness:

1. Theworldisallthatisthecase.2. Whatisthecase—afact—istheexistenceofstatesofaffairs.3. Alogicalpictureoffactsisathought.4. Athoughtisapropositionwithsense.5. Apropositionisatruth-functionofelementarypropositions(anelementary

propositionisatruth-functionofitself).

6. Thegeneralformofatruth-functionis .7. Whatwecannotspeakaboutwemustpassoverinsilence.

Essentially,Wittgensteinarguesthatlogichasnolaws,andcannotbeasetoflaws, because logic is something completely different from the sciences. Thevery assumption that logic has laws is the result of assuming that logic is ascience, but logic is something else entirely.Logic is strictly formandhas nocontent. While on its own, logic says absolutely nothing, logic is whatdeterminesthestructureandformofallthatistalkedabout.Wittgenstein then tackles the role of language. According to Wittgenstein,

languageisonlyappropriatetousefordescribingfactsintheworld.Hearguesthatlanguageisunsuitableforspeakingofthingssuchasvalue,ideasthatrelateto something outside of theworld, or things that discuss theworld in general(thus claiming that a largepart of philosophy, including aesthetics, ethics, andmetaphysics,cannotbedealtwiththroughlanguage).Forexample,one’sethicalviewis theresultof theway inwhichoneviews

the world and lives. So therefore, how could this be put into words and beexpressedasalaw?Wittgensteinassertsthatone’sethicalview(aswellasmuchof philosophy) is something that can only be shown and not stated. He thenredefinesthepurposeofphilosophyandstatesthatphilosophyisnotadoctrine,and therefore, it should not be approached in a dogmatic fashion. Thephilosopher, according to Wittgenstein, should use logical analysis to showwhere traditional philosophers went wrong (he refers to all propositions asnonsense) and should correct those who say things that are not sayable. Byreferring to propositions as nonsense, Wittgenstein even admits that his ownbookhasbecomedangerouslyclosetononsense.

LATERWITTGENSTEIN

WhileWittgenstein’s Tractatus claimed philosophy should not be approacheddogmatically,Wittgensteincame to the realization thathisveryownworkwasdogmatic. Thus, his later works, and particularly his book PhilosophicalInvestigations, aremost notable for their complete rejection of dogmatism. Indoingso,hemovesawayfromlogicandtowardwhathebelievesshouldbethefoundation of every philosopher, ordinary language. In his book,Wittgensteindetailsanewway toviewlanguageandclaims that thepurposeofphilosophyshouldbetherapeutic.Indiscussingthemeaningofwords,Wittgensteinclaimsthatthemeaningsof

words are determined by how one uses the words, and not by some type ofabstractlinkbetweenrealityandlanguage(adrasticchangefromWittgenstein’searlierperspective).Meaningsofwordsarenotfixedorlimited.Themeaningofawordcanbevagueorfluidandstillbejustasuseful.Tosupporthisclaimsthatwordsarenotfixedandhaveamultitudeofuses,

Wittgensteinintroduceswhathecalls“language-games”andreturnstotheideafrequently throughout his book. While he refers to language-games,Wittgensteinneverfullydefineswhatthetermmeans,soastofurthershowthefluidity and diversification of language. Though there is no specific or rigiddefinition, there is no difficulty in understanding the term and using it in thecorrectway. Thus,Wittgenstein proves that ordinary language is adequate theway it currently stands, and that trying todigbeneath the surfaceof languageresultsinnothingmorethanunwarrantedgeneralizations.A large part of Philosophical Investigations pertains to the language of

psychology.When we use words like thinking, intending, understanding, andmeaning, the temptation is to believe that these words indicate our mentalprocesses.Byexamininghowthesewordsareused,Wittgensteinconcludesthatthese words do not refer to a mental state at all; instead, they refer to anindividual’sbehavior.Wittgensteincomestoseethatlanguageandcustomsarenotfixedbylawsbut

bytheuseoflanguageinsocialcontexts(whichWittgensteinreferstoas“forms

of life”).Therefore, individuals learnhow touse language, at itsvery core, insocialcontexts,whichiswhyweareabletounderstandoneanother.Thisisalsothereasonthatit isnotpossibleforonetocreatehisownlanguagetodescribeinner sensations (for therewould be noway of knowingwhether awordwasusedcorrectly,andthus,thelanguagewouldbemeaningless).Wittgensteindiscusses interpretation through thedifferencebetween “seeing

that” and “seeing as.”Look at the examplemade famousbyWittgenstein, the“duckrabbit.”

“Seeing that” is when something is seen in a straightforward manner (forexample,weseethatitisaduck),and“seeingas”iswhenonebeginstonoticeparticular aspects (for example,we see it as a rabbit). In seeing somethingassomething,we are actually interpreting.Wedonot interpret the thingswe seeexceptwhenwe acknowledge that there ismore than one interpretation to behad.WhileboththeearlyandlaterworkofWittgensteinsupportananti-theoretical

stanceonwhatphilosophyshouldandshouldnotbe,Wittgensteindramaticallyshifts from using logic to prove the impossibility of philosophical theories toencouragingthetherapeuticnatureofphilosophy.

AESTHETICS

Beautyandtaste

Aesthetics first began in the eighteenth century and currently consists of twomajor parts: the philosophy of beauty and the philosophy of taste.While thephilosophyofartisindeedapartofaesthetics,aestheticstouchesonmuchmore.Notonlydoesaestheticsfocusonthevalueandnatureofart;italsoinvolvesthereactions to natural objects that then become expressions in language—thus,objects are deemed beautiful or ugly. But these terms are incredibly vague,whichleadstothequestions:Howandwhydoesoneconsidersomethingtobebeautifulorugly?

TASTE

Duringtheeighteenthcentury,theconceptoftasteemergedasaresponsetotheriseofrationalistthought.Insteadoftherationalistperspectiveonbeauty,whichclaimed that we make judgments of beauty through using the principles andconceptsofreason,theoriesoftastebegantoemergefromBritishphilosopherswhomostlyworkedinempiricism.

ImmediacyThesisThese theories, referred toas the immediacy thesis, claim that judgmentsof

beautyhave the immediacyandstraightforwardnessakin tosensory judgmentsand are not, or not mainly, brought about by other types of principles. Theimmediacythesisstatesthatwedonotconcludethroughreasonthatsomethingisbeautiful;instead,we“taste”thatitisbeautiful.While a rationalistmight object to this theory by stating that there is a big

differencebetweenfindingamealexcellentandfindingaplay tobeexcellent,thetheoryoftastestatesthataplayismorecomplicated,andsoitinvolvesmore

cognitive work, which includes applying various concepts and principles.Therefore,determiningthebeautyofsomethinglikeaplayisnotimmediateandcannotbeamatteroftaste.Thetheoryofbeautyisimmediate,unliketheearlierideasthatwerebasedonrationalist thought,andthatwhenitcomestojudgingwhether a play is beautiful, it simply cannot be amatter of taste because thisaction requires more cognitive processes and is not immediate. According toHume,tasteisunlikethefiveexternalsenses.Rather,tasteisaninternalsense,meaningitdependsuponexistingoperationsinorderforbeautytobeperceived.

DisinterestDuring the time the theory of taste was developed, a popular idea among

philosopherswasthatofegoism,meaningonetakespleasureinanactionortraitinorder to serve a self-interest.However, thosewhobelieved in the theoryoftaste argued that the resulting pleasure from beauty is actually disinterested,meaningitisnotself-interested.Peopleareabletojudgesomethingasbeautifulornotbeautifulwithout serving theirown interests.Philosophersbelieved thatdeterminingvirtueworksinasimilarway.Kantquestionedthisnotionthatbothvirtueandtastearedisinterested.Kant’sview,whichisthecurrentview,wasthatwhiletasteisdisinterested,thepleasurethatcomesfromdeterminingwhetheranaction is morally goodmust be interested because that judgment represents adesiretoperformthataction.

THEAESTHETIC

Theimmediacythesisandthenotionofdisinterestrelatingtobeautycanthenbeappliedto“artisticformalism,”theideathatthepropertiesthatmakesomethingart,anddeterminewhetheritisgoodorbad,areformal(meaningtheyareonlycapableofbeingunderstoodthroughhearingorseeing).

Theaestheticexperiencecanbedescribedasthestudyofspecificstatesofthemind,suchasattitudes,emotions,andresponses.In1757,philosopherEdmundBurkepublishedthefamoustreatiseOntheSublimeandBeautiful.Thispieceisoneofthemostsignificantwrittenworksinaesthetics,andintroducestwoveryimportantterms(amongmany)todescribetheaestheticexperience:sublimeandbeautiful.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

SUBLIME: Judging something as sublime originates in one’sfeelings toward nature, and in the indication of being fragile andalone in this world, which does not belong to us and resists ourdemands.BEAUTIFUL:Judgingsomethingasbeautifuloriginatesinsocial feelings (particularly romantic feelings),and inone’shope tobecomfortedthroughloveordesire.

THEPHILOSOPHYOFART

Thephilosophyofartplaysakeyroleinaesthetics.Therearevariouselementswithinthephilosophyofart,includingthequestionsofwhatartis,whatshouldbejudged,andwhatthevalueofartis.

WhatIsArt?Howonedefinesartisapersistentquestionthroughoutthephilosophyofart,

and its meaning constantly evolves. From the days of Plato to around theeighteenth century, a central component to art’s definition was the role ofrepresentation. However, as romanticism began to grow in the eighteenth and

nineteenth centuries, art shifted away from representation and towardexpression. As the twentieth century approached, there was yet another shifttoward abstraction and appreciating the form.Toward the later decades of thetwentieth century, even abstraction was abandoned, and philosophers of artarguedthatartshouldnothavea tightdefinition.This idea,knownas the“de-definition”ofart,wascreatedbyphilosopherMorrisWeitz,whohadbasedhisworkonthatofWittgenstein.

JudgingArtWhenyou seeHamlet, are you judgingShakespeare’smanuscript?Are you

judging the actors’ performance? Do you judge every part of the production,down to the costumes? Are different things judged based on different sets ofstandards?Thesequestionsariseforall typesofart—music,painting,drawing,etc.

ValueThere are two ways to value art: intrinsically and extrinsically. Those who

believearthasanextrinsicvalueappreciateartasawaytoexpressarecognizedmoral good and to educate the emotions, while those who believe art hasintrinsic value believe that art is valuable in and of itself. According to LeoTolstoy,whotookanextrinsicapproach,art’svaluesharedthevalueofempathy.Others, such asOscarWilde, took an intrinsic approach, believing in “art forart’ssake.”

PHILOSOPHYOFCULTURE

Thepassingofinformation

Whendiscussing“culture,”philosophersspeakofthewayinwhichinformationis passed on to humans through methods that are not genetic or epigenetic(meaning external things that affect genetics).This idea includes the symbolicandbehavioralsystemsthatpeopleusetocommunicatewithoneanother.

THEIDEAOFCULTURE

Culturedidnotalwayshavethemeaningthatweknowoftoday.Whilethetermitself has existed at least since the days of Cicero (106–43 b.c.), culture wasoriginallyusedwhendiscussingthephilosophyofeducationandreferredtotheeducationalprocessapersonwouldgo through.Thus, thedefinitionofculturethatweknowoftodayisamuchnewerconcept.

PhilosophyofEducationPhilosophyofeducationdealswithattemptingtounderstandwhattheproper

toolsareforpeopletobestowapartoftheircultureontoothers.Whenchildrenareborn, theyare illiterateandwithoutknowledge,and it is fromtheirsocietyand culture that they learn to become a part of that society and culture.Therefore, education remains one of the most important elements of culturalprocesses.

EXAMPLESOFCULTURALINFLUENCE

Culture allows people to know and believe in different things, and to havedifferingtastes.Thisbegsthequestionofwhetherornotculture,therefore,can

shape normative facts or act as a cover over normative universals. There aremanyexamplesofculturethathavegreatinfluenceoverus.

LanguageLanguageiscultural(andcandifferfromculturetoculture),andtherefore,its

effectsonthoughtmustbeconsideredculturaleffects.

PerceivingandThinkingLanguage(whichisaffectedbyculture)hasgreatinfluenceoverourthought

processes, and therefore, it also affects our perception. Cultures can either bebasedonindividualism(suchasthosefoundinNorthAmerica,WesternEurope,andtheEnglish-speakingAustralasia)orcollectivism(suchasthosefoundintheMiddleEast,SouthAsia,EastAsia,SouthAmerica,andtheMediterranean).

PhilosophicalDefinitions

COLLECTIVISM: Individuals see themselves as a part of acollective, and motivations primarily stem from duties to thecollective. INDIVIDUALISM: Individuals aremotivated by their ownneeds and preferences, and do not see themselves as part of acollective.

EmotionsEmotionsarenotonlyfundamentaltoculture;theyarefundamentaltobeinga

mammal (dogs, for example, can show joy, sadness, and fear). Emotions are,therefore, evolved responses that help individuals cope, andmust be a part ofhuman nature. Culture can influence how different emotions come about, andsometimes the same action can arouse two completely different emotions

depending on the culture. Culture can also influence how emotions areexpressed.

MoralityMoralityisclearlyshapedbyculture,andoneculture’smoralviewsmightbe

completely different than another culture’s. This leads to the idea of culturalrelativism.

CULTURALRELATIVISM

Ethicalandmoralsystemsaredifferentforeveryculture.Accordingtoculturalrelativism, all of these systems are equally valid, andno system is better thananother.Thebasisof cultural relativism is thenotion thatno true standardsofgood and evil actually exist. Therefore, judgingwhether something is right orwrongisbasedonindividualsocieties’beliefs,andanymoralorethicalopinionsareaffectedbyanindividual’sculturalperspective.Thereexistsan inherentcontradiction incultural relativism,however. Ifone

embraces the idea that there is no right orwrong, then there exists noway tomake judgments in the first place. To deal with this contradiction, culturalrelativism creates “tolerance.” However, with tolerance comes intolerance,which means that tolerance must imply some sort of ultimate good. Thus,tolerance also goes against the very notion of cultural relativism, and theboundariesoflogicmakeculturalrelativismimpossible.

EPISTEMOLOGY

Thestudyofknowledge

EpistemologycomesfromtheGreekepisteme,meaning“knowledge,”andlogos,meaning “study of.” Therefore, when talking about epistemology, we arediscussingthestudyofknowledge.Philosophersthatstudyepistemologylookattwomaincategories:thenatureofknowledgeandtheextentofknowledge.

THENATUREOFKNOWLEDGE

Bydeterminingthenatureofknowledge,philosopherslookatwhatitmeanstosayyouknowordon’tknowsomething. Inorder tounderstand this,onemustfirst comprehend what knowledge is and how to then distinguish betweenknowingsomethingandnotknowingsomething.

THEEXTENTOFKNOWLEDGE

In order to determine the extent of knowledge, philosophers attempt tounderstand how much we can and do know and how knowledge is acquired(through things like our senses, reason, and the influence of other people).Epistemology also looks at whether or not our knowledge has a limit andwhethertherearethingsthataresimplyunknowable.Canitbepossiblethatwedon’tknowasmuchaswebelieveweknow?

TYPESOFKNOWLEDGE

Whilethewordknowcanbeusedinmanywaysinlanguage,whenphilosophersdescribe knowledge, they claim knowledge is factive, meaning one can onlyknowsomething if that is thecase.With thisnotion inplace, thereare severaldifferenttypesofknowledgethatphilosophersdistinguishbetween:

ProceduralKnowledgeSometimesreferredtoas“know-how”orcompetence,proceduralknowledge

is the knowledge a person has through performing some kind of task orprocedure(forexample,knowinghowtorideabike).

AcquaintanceKnowledgeAcquaintanceknowledge,alsoknownasfamiliarity,istheknowledgeattained

through experience with something. The information from acquaintanceknowledgeisonlysense-databecauseanotherobjectcanneverbetrulyknownbyaperson.

PropositionalKnowledgePropositionalknowledge iswhatepistemologists tend to focusonmore than

procedural or acquaintance knowledge. Propositions are declarative statementsthatappear todescribe statesofaffairsor facts (though thepropositioncanbetrueor false).Forexample,both“whalesaremammals”and“5+5=13”arepropositions,eventhough“5+5=13”isnotcorrect.Propositionalknowledgeisalsoknownas“knowledge-that,”wherestatementsaredescribedthroughtheuseof“that-clauses.”Forexample,“Heknowsthattheclothingstoreisinthemall,”or“HedoesnotknowthatAlbanyisthecapitalofNewYork.”Propositional knowledge involves knowledge of many different subject

matters, includingmathematicalknowledge,geographicalknowledge,scientificknowledge, etc. Therefore, any truth can be known (though there may existtruths that are simply unknowable). One purpose of epistemology is tounderstand theprinciplesofknowledgeso thatonecandeterminewhatcanbeknown and what cannot be known (this is part of meta-epistemology, which

attempts to understand what we can know pertaining to knowledge).Propositional knowledge can also be broken up into a priori knowledge(knowledge prior to any experience) and a posteriori knowledge (knowledgeafteranexperience).

WHATITMEANSTOKNOWSOMETHING

In discussing propositional knowledge, philosophers begin to ask manyquestionsaboutknowledge,suchaswhatitmeanstoactuallyknowsomething,whatthedifferenceisbetweenknowingsomethingandnotknowingsomething,andwhatthedifferenceisbetweenapersonwhoknowssomethingandanotherpersonwhodoesnotknow that same something.Sinceknowledgehas awiderange, epistemologists attempt to find an understanding of knowledge that isuniversal and can be applied to all propositions. There are three agreed-uponrequirements:belief, truth, and justification.While thesenotionswere toucheduponinthesegmentdiscussingtheGettierproblem,wewillnowlookatthemingreaterdetail.AstheGettierproblem,theremustbeafourthcondition,thoughthedetailsof

whatthisconditionentailsisstillupfordebate.

BeliefKnowledge exists solely in the mind and is therefore a mental state.

Additionally, knowledge is a type of belief, for if an individual does not havebeliefsregardingacertain thing, thentherecanbenoknowledgeof that thing.

When a belief is actively entertained by an individual, it is known as anoccurrent belief. The majority of an individual’s beliefs, however, are non-occurrent, meaning the beliefs are not being entertained but are in thebackground. Similarly, the majority of an individual’s knowledge is non-occurrentknowledge,meaning that inaperson’smind,onlyasmallportionofknowledgeisactive.

TruthNot all beliefs are knowledge. While belief is necessary for knowledge to

exist,itisnotallthatisneeded;thereneedstobesomethingelsethatallowsforone’s thoughts tomatch upwith the realworld.When thoughts do notmatchwith the realworld, then they cannot be considered knowledge. For example,onecannotknowabridgeissafetocrosswithoutfirstcrossingitsafely.Ifyoubelievethebridgeissafetocross,butasyoubegintocrossit,itcollapses,thenyoucannotsaythatyouknewitwassafe.Onecanbelievethebridgeissafetocross,andthenonlyaftersafelycrossingitcanonethendeclarethattheyknowitis safe. In the process of acquiring knowledge, people attempt to increase theamountoftruebeliefstheyhave(andminimizetheamountoffalsebeliefsintheprocess).Therefore,forabelieftobedeemedknowledge,itmustbetrue.Truth,then,is

considered tobeaconditionofknowledge—if truthdidnotexist, thenneitherwouldknowledge.Eveninsituationswheretruthdoesexist,ifthereisnotruthwithinaspecificdomain,thenthereisnoknowledgeinthatspecificdomain.Forexample,ifitistruethatbeautyisintheeyeofthebeholder,thendeterminingwhether something is beautiful cannot be considered knowledge because thatbeliefcannotbetrueorfalse.Therefore,knowledgenotonlyrequiresbelief,butfactualbelief.

Justification

Evenwhenonehasfactualbeliefs,hestilldoesnothaveknowledge.Inorderfortheretobeknowledge,theremustbejustificationofthesetruebeliefs.Thismeans that in order to acquire knowledge, a true belief must have soundreasoningand solidevidence to support its claims.Guessing, faulty reasoning,and misinformation, therefore, cannot be considered knowledge (even if theresultsarethatofthetruebelief).Whilejustificationisimportant,itdoesnotimplyabsolutecertaintyisneeded

for there to be knowledge of something.Humans, after all, are fallible,whichleadstothenotionoffallibility.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

FALLIBILITY:Thephilosophicalideathatnobeliefcanevertrulybesupportedandjustified.Thisisnottosaythatthereisnosuchthingasknowledge;rather,thisideaclaimsthatevenifanindividual’struebeliefisfalse,itisstillpossibletohaveknowledge.

As evidenced by the Gettier problem, the idea of knowledge becomesproblematic. We run into further problems when discussing the idea ofjustification. In thinking about how justification is construed, philosophersdiscusstwomajorapproaches:internalismandexternalism.

InternalismInternalismistheideathatsincebeliefsandtheformingofbeliefsaremental

processes, justification depends entirely on internal factors. According to thistheory, an individual’s other mental states are the only factors involved indeterminingthejustificationofabelief.

ExternalismSome claim that if one only focuses on internal factors, beliefs will be

mistakenlyjustifiedandluckwilloccur.Externalismclaimsthattheremustbeatleast some external factors that help determine whether or not a belief isjustified. The most popular form of externalism, reliabilism, states that thesourceofbeliefsshouldbetakenunderconsideration.Thesourcecancomefroma variety of things, like testimony, reason, sense experience, or memory.According to reliabilism, a belief can be justified if it comes from a reliablesource.

TWINEARTH

Takingmeaningoutofthehead

Imaginethefollowingscenario:Thereisanimaginaryplanet,knownasTwinEarth,thatisabsolutelyidentical

to planet Earth down to the smallest detail,with even the inhabitants on bothplanets being the same. However, there is one difference between Earth andTwin Earth: Wherever there is water on Earth, Twin Earth has a substance,knownasXYZ,inthoseplaces.Forthepurposesofthisstory,thisisEarthcirca1750, before the discovery of H2O (the chemical makeup of water). On thisimaginaryplanet,insteadofwaterinrain,lakes,andoceans,itisthesubstanceXYZ.Furthermore,XYZhassimilarobservablepropertiestowater,butithasadifferentmicrostructure.InhabitantsofTwinEarth(whorefertotheirownplanetas Earth), who are identical to the inhabitants of Earth, speak their own“English”andrefertoXYZas“water.”

Now,whenOscar,aninhabitantofEarth,andhistwin,aninhabitantofTwinEarth(alsonamedOscar),saythewordwater,dotheymeanthesamething?Accordingtophilosopher(andcreatoroftheTwinEarththoughtexperiment)

HilaryPutnam,OscarandTwin-OscardonotmeanthesamethingbecausewhileOscar is referring toH2O,Twin-Oscar is referencingXYZ.Fromthis,Putnamconcludesthatthementalprocessesfromthebraincannotsufficeindeterminingwhatatermreferencesandthatonehastounderstandthecausalhistorythatledtothemeaningofthattermbeingacquired.Putnam’sTwinEarththoughtexperimentisoneofthemostpopularexamples

ofhistheoryinphilosophyoflanguageknownas“semanticexternalism.”

SEMANTICEXTERNALISM

Hilary Putnam attempts to understand how syntax, the arrangement ofwords,gains meaning (semantics). According to Putnam’s semantic externalism, themeaningofawordisdetermined(eitherpartiallyorentirely)byfactorsthatareexternaltothespeakingindividual.Whileothertheoriesbelievedtheprocessofgainingmeaningwasinternal(withinthehead),Putnam’ssemanticexternalismclaimedthattheprocessofgainingsemanticsisoutsidethehead.Inotherwords,asPutnamfamouslystated,“‘meanings’justain’tinthehead!”According to Putnam, themeaning of any term in a language consists of a

specificsequenceofelements:

1. Theobjectthatthetermisreferringto(inthecaseofTwinEarth,thisisthesubstancewiththechemicalmakeupofH2O).

2. Thetypicalterms(knownas“stereotypes”)thatareoftenassociatedwiththeterm(likethetermsodorless,colorless,andhydratingthatwaterisoftenassociatedwith).

3. Thesemanticindicatorsthatcategorizetheobject(likeliquid).

4. Thesyntacticindicators(forexample,amassnoun—atypeofnounthathastermsbeingreferredtothatarenotconsideredtobeseparateentities).

Based on his ideas of semantic externalism, Putnam goes on to explain hiscausaltheoryofreference.Heclaimsthatwordsgaintheirreferentsastheresultofachainofcausation thatendsat the referent.Forexample,onestillhas theability to reference the pyramids in Egypt even if he has never seen thembecausetheconceptofwhatthepyramidsarestillexists.Howcanthisbe?Itisbecausethetermhasbeenacquiredasaresultofinteractingwithothers(who,toacquire their knowledge, had interacted with others, who had acquired theirknowledge by interacting with others, etc.). This pattern continues until iteventually reaches a person who had firsthand experience with the subjectmatter. Because of this chain of causation, one is able to discuss somethingwithouteverhavingexperienceditfirsthand.

NARROWMENTALCONTENT

Hilary Putnam’s thought experiment, Twin Earth, is part of a bigger topic ofdiscussion known as “broad content,” which is the opposing viewpoint of“narrowmentalcontent.”Theideabehindnarrowmentalcontentisthatmentalcontent is internal (or intrinsic), and therefore, unlike Putnam’s semanticexternalism, it does not depend on one’s environment at all; rather, it is aproperty that is intrinsic to that particular thing. (For example, an intrinsicpropertyofapennyisthatitisround,whileapennybeinginsomeone’spocketisanextrinsicproperty.)Thenarrowcontentofone’sbeliefaboutanobjecthastobesharedbyeveryduplicateofthatindividualobject.Somewhobelievenarrowmentalcontenttobetrueclaimthatmentalcontent

andbehaviorare theresultsofacausalconsequencefromourbeliefs. Inotherwords,weact thewaywedobecauseofourbeliefsanddesires.Othersclaim

thatpeoplehaveintrospectiveaccesstotheirthoughts,meaningweshouldhavethe ability to determine whether the same content is contained in two of ourthoughts. According to this claim, the two Oscars, unaware of the chemicalmakeupofH2OandXYZ,havenowayofknowingwhethertheirthoughtsareH2O-relatedthoughtsorXYZ-relatedthoughtsbecausetheyarenotevenawaretheotherwater-likesubstanceevenexists.Tomakesenseof this,philosopherscreated the notion of “slow-switching.”What if Oscarwere tomove to TwinEarth?Atfirst,hewillcontinuetohavewater-thoughtsaboutthissubstance,butthelongerheinteractswithXYZandthelongerheisawayfromH2O,hewillcome to just thinkofXYZandnot aboutH2O.Over time, hiswater-thoughtswillhaveadifferentbroadcontent(andOscarwouldnotbeawareofthischangebecausehisthoughtswouldseemtohavethesamecontentasitalwaysdid).Inorder tohave introspectiveaccessandsee that thesecontentsaredifferent,weneednarrowmentalcontentandnotbroadcontent.Narrowmentalcontentiscontroversialtophilosophers;manyrejectitinfavor

of broadmental content. Putnam’sTwinEarth is themost famous example ofwhybroadmentalcontentmakesmoresense.BothOscarshavetheexactsameintrinsic properties; however, they are referring to different substances.Therefore, intrinsicpropertiesarenotenoughtodeterminewhattheOscarsarereferringto.AndthisbringsusbacktoPutnam’sfamousquote,“‘meanings’justain’tinthehead!”

ARTHURSCHOPENHAUER(1788–1860)

Thepessimisticphilosopher

Arthur Schopenhauerwas born on February 22, 1788, inDanzig (present-dayGdansk),Poland.WhenSchopenhauerwasayoungman,hisfather,amerchant,offeredtheacademicallyinclinedArthuraproposition:hecouldeitherpreparetogotoauniversity,orhecouldtravelacrossEuropewithhisparentsandthentakean apprenticeship with a merchant upon returning from their travels.Schopenhauerchosetotravelwithhisfamily,andonthisjourneyhewitnessedfirsthand the terrible sufferingof thepoor throughoutEurope.This experiencewouldgreatlyinfluencethepessimisticworldviewhewouldlaterbecomeknownforasaphilosopher.Upon returning fromhis trip acrossEurope,Schopenhauerbegan toprepare

forhiscareerbyholdinguphisendofthebargainandbecominganapprenticeforamerchant.WhenSchopenhauerwasjustseventeenyearsold,hisfatherdied(inwhatisbelievedtohavebeenasuicide),andtwoyearslater,Schopenhauerlefttheapprenticeshipandpursuedhisacademiccareer.WhileSchopenhauerattendedschool,hismother,whohadmovedtoWeimar,

started to become frequently engaged in intellectual and social circles.As sheworked as a writer and hostess for a salon that was frequented by manyinfluentialthinkersofthetime,sheintroducedhersontoJohannWolfgangvonGoethe(withwhomhewouldeventuallywriteatheoryoncolors)andFriedrichMajer (who sparked Schopenhauer’s interest in Eastern thought).Schopenhauer’srelationshipwithhismotherwouldgrowtobecomesotensethatwhenhewasthirtyyearsold,hismothertoldhimtonevertalktoheragain.By 1809, now attending the University of Göttingen, Schopenhauer had

studiedmedicineuntilhisthirdsemester,whenhedecidedtoshifttophilosophy.SchopenhauerwouldeventuallytransfertotheUniversityofBerlintocontinuehis philosophical studies. In 1813, due to the onslaught ofNapoleon’sGrande

Armée,SchopenhauerfledtothesmalltownofRudolstadt,wherehewouldgoon to write The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, aninvestigationintotheideaofsufficientreason.Bythenextyear,SchopenhauerhadmovedtoDresden,wherehewouldwritehisfamouscolortheory,OnVisionandColors,andanoverviewofhisphilosophicalsystem,TheWorldasWillandRepresentation.By1820,SchopenhauerhadbecomealecturerattheUniversityofBerlin.He

became extremely competitive with fellow lecturer Wilhelm Hegel, oftenschedulinghis lecturesat thesametimeasHegel’s inorder tomakeaudienceschoose one over the other. But while Hegel’s lectures were crowded withstudents,Schopenhauer’slectureshadveryfew,andSchopenhauergrewcynicalandfeltalienatedfromtheacademicworld.ItwasonlyinhislateryearsthathisworkfinallygainedtractionandbecamefashionablethroughoutEurope.

THEPHILOSOPHIESOFSCHOPENHAUER

While thephilosophicalworkofArthurSchopenhauer touchedonavarietyofsubjects, generally speaking, there is always a theme of pessimism and thepresenceofpainwithinthehumancondition.

TheFourfoldRootofthePrincipleofSufficientReasonInhispublisheddissertationof1813,Schopenhauer looksat theassumption

among philosophers that the universe is understandable, and criticizes theprincipleofsufficient reason,whichstates that things thatarerealarerational.Schopenhauer stated that inorder touse theprincipleof sufficient reason,onehastobeabletothinkofsomethingthatwouldthenneedtobeexplained,whichmeanstheremustbethepresenceofasubjecttobeginwith.Thus,theperceivingmind is theonly thing thatmakes experiencespossible.He concludes that theworld,therefore,isjustarepresentation.

Philosophyofthe“Will”Perhaps Schopenhauer’s most significant philosophical work was on

individualmotivation. Schopenhauer criticized the optimism in the theories ofKant and Hegel, which claimed that society and reason determine one’sindividual morality. Instead, Schopenhauer claimed that individuals aremotivatedbytheirowndesires,or“willtolive,”thatcanneverbesatisfied,andthat this is what guides humanity. It is here that we see Schopenhauer’scommitment to pessimism and view of humanity in a negative light, whichpersists throughout the body of his work. The “Will,” according toSchopenhauer,bringsaboutallofmankind’ssuffering,andthissufferingistheresultofconstantlydesiringmore.Schopenhauerconcludedthathumandesire(andthereforehumanaction)has

nodirectionorlogicandisfutile.Heclaimedthattheworldisnotonlyaterribleplace(withthingslikecruelty,disease,suffering,etc.);itistheworstofworlds,andifitcouldbeevenslightlyworse,itwouldceasetoexist.

AestheticsAccordingtoSchopenhauer,aestheticsseparatesintellectfromtheWillandis

notlinkedtothebody.Heconsideredarttobeeitheranactthatispredeterminedin the mind of the artist before the artist creates anything or an act that isspontaneous,while thebody isnothingmore than just anextendedpartof theWill.IftheWillthatguideshumansisbasedondesire,artallowsonetotemporarily

escape the pain of the world because aesthetic contemplation makes anindividual stop perceiving the world as just presentation. Art, therefore, goesbeyond sufficient reason. To Schopenhauer, music is the purest form of artbecausehebelievedithastheabilitytoembodytheWill.

Ethics

In Schopenhauer’smoral theory, he identified three primary incentives thatguidemoralityinhumans:egoism,malice,andcompassion.

Egoism:Thisisresponsibleforguidinghumanitytoperformactionsthatareself-interestedandmakesonedesirepleasureandhappiness.Schopenhauerbelievedthatthemajorityofhumandeedsstemfromegoism.Malice:Schopenhauerdistinguishesbetweenactsofegoismandactsofmalice,whichareindependentofpersonalgainandareperformedwiththeintentiontoharmothers.Compassion:This,accordingtoSchopenhauer,istheonlygenuinethingthatcandrivemoralacts,foronlythegoodofanactissoughtout,andcannotoccurfromasenseofdutyorpersonalbenefit.

Schopenhauer also viewed love as an unconscious element that helps the“will-to-live,”aforcethatmakesmandesiretoreproduceandthereforecontinuetoexist.

EasternPhilosophySchopenhauerisnotableforbeingoneofthefirstphilosopherstoincorporate

Eastern thought into his work, and he was particularly drawn to Hindu andBuddhistphilosophy.Hispessimisticviewpoint is incredibly influencedby theFourNobleTruthsfoundinBuddhism,andindeed,heusedthemasafoundationtobuildhispessimistictheory.

THEFOURNOBLETRUTHS SCHOPENHAUER’SADDITIONS

1.Lifemeanssuffering. TheworldisVorstellung

2.Therootofsufferingisdesire. a.Thecauseofsufferingiswilling.b.TheworldasDerWille

3.Thereishope. Thereislittlehope.

4.HopeisfoundwithintheNobleEightfoldPath. Hopeisfoundin:a.Aestheticcontemplation

b.Thepracticeofaestheticism

Schopenhauerclaims theworld isVorstellung,meaning“representation.”Sonotonly is life full of suffering; theworld isnot completely real and is just arepresentationofreality(muchlikePlato’scave).DerWilleistheWill,anditisbeneaththesurfaceappearanceofeverything.SchopenhaueralsodrewupontheholywritingsofHinduism,theUpanishads,

when formulating the central idea to his philosophy: that the world is theexpressionoftheWill.

KARLMARX(1818–1883)

Thefatherofcommunism

KarlMarxwasbornonMay5,1818,inPrussia.Marx’sfatherwasasuccessfullawyer involved in the Prussian reform movement, and valued the work ofVoltaire and Kant. Though both of Kant’s parents were Jewish, his fatherconverted toLutheranism as the result of an 1815 law that banned Jews fromhavingfullcitizenshiprights.KarlMarxattendedtheUniversityofBonnin1835,beforetransferringtothe

UniversityofBerlinattherequestofhisfather(whoconsideredittobeamoreserious school).At theUniversity ofBerlin,Marx started studying lawbeforeswitching to philosophy, and began to learn the work of Hegel. Soon, MarxwouldbecomepartofaradicalgroupofstudentsknownastheYoungHegelians,whocriticizedthereligiousandpoliticalestablishmentsofthetime.In 1841,Marx earned his doctorate from the University of Jena, where he

wrote his dissertation on ancient Greek natural philosophy. He was denied ateaching position because of his radical political ideologies.Marx then beganworkingasa journalist,andbecameeditorof theliberalnewspaperRheinischeZeitung in 1842.Onlyoneyear later, however, thegovernment shut down thepaper. Marx then married and moved to Paris, where, in 1844, he wouldcollaboratewithFriedrichEngelsinwritingacriticismofBrunoBauer(aformerfriend and Young Hegelian). Marx was soon expelled from France for onceagainwritingforanotherradicalnewspaper(thisnewspaperhadclosetiestoanorganization that would eventually turn into the Communist League), so hemovedtoBrussels.DuringhistimeinBrussels,KarlMarxbrokeawayfromtheideologyofthe

YoungHegeliansuponbeingintroducedtotheideasofsocialism.Whilelivingin Brussels, Marx developed his theory of historical materialism that wouldappear in his The German Ideology and wrote Theses on Feuerbach (which

wouldnotbepublisheduntilafterhisdeathbecausehecouldnotfindapublisherwillingtopublishthebooks).In 1846, in an attempt to connect socialists across Europe,Marx created a

Communist CorrespondenceCommittee. The ideas set forth byMarx inspiredsocialistsinEnglandtoformtheCommunistLeague,andin1847,attherequestoftheCentralCommitteethatwasmeetinginLondon,MarxandEngelswroteManifest der Kommunistischen Partei (commonly known as The CommunistManifesto).TheCommunistManifestowas published in 1848, and as a result,Karl Marx was expelled from Belgium in 1849. After being deported fromFrance and refused renaturalization by Prussia, Marx eventually ended up inLondon, where he participated in the development of the German Workers’Educational Society and created the new headquarters for the CommunistLeague.In1867,Marxpublishedthefirstvolumeofhistreatiseoneconomics,DasKapital,whichisconsideredtobehisgreatestachievement.Marxspenttheremainder of his life working on the manuscripts for the next two volumes;however, he died before their completion, and the books were subsequentlypublishedafterhisdeath.

THEPHILOSOPHICALTHEMESOFKARLMARX

Marx’s canon of work focuses on the individual’s role as a laborer and hisconnectiontotheexchangeofgoodsandservices.

HistoricalMaterialismMarx was incredibly influenced by the philosophical work of Hegel;

particularly,Hegel’sbelief thathumanconsciousnesshadevolved fromsimpleefforts in understanding objects to self-awareness and other higher, morecomplexandabstract thoughtprocesses.Hegelclaimed thathistory, too,hada

similardialecticalview;contradictionsofaspecifictimeperiodleadtoanewertimeperiodattemptingtosmoothoverthosepreviouscontradictions.While Marx agreed with much of Hegel’s view on history, Hegel was an

idealist and Marx considered himself to be a materialist. So while Hegelbelieved that ideas are the primary way in which people relate to theirsurroundingsand thatone isable tounderstandhistorybasedon ideas thatarerepresentative of that time period, Marx believed that the ways societies areorganized during a time period in history is actually the fundamental truthregardingthatsociety.Marxviewedhistoryasanevolvingpatternofaseriesofeconomicsystemsthatleadtothecreationofdifferentsocietiesthroughbringingaboutfeelingsofresentmentamongclasses.

AlienationofLaborMarx argues that a key component to one’s sense of well-being and

conception of self is labor.When one works on turning objectivematter intosomethingofsustenanceandvalue,oneviewshimselfasexternalizedandasifhehasmettherequirementsofexistence.Marxclaimedthatlaborisnotonlyanactofpersonalcreation;itisadisplayofone’sidentityandsurvival.Marxstatesthattheworkerundercapitalism,however,withitbeingasystem

based on private ownership, takes away the self-worth and identity that isessential to the worker. The worker, now distant from the product, becomesalienated from his work, himself, and his coworkers. There is no longer apersonal sense of satisfaction for the worker, and he now views his work assimplyawaytosurvive.Becausetheworkerisestrangedfromtheworkprocessand since labor is a key component to one’s self, the worker must also beestrangedfromhisselfandfromhumanityasawhole.Theconstantalienationthatisformedbycapitalismthuscreatestheantagonisticrelationshipdiscussedin historical materialism, and will eventually lead to the destruction ofcapitalism.

TheLaborTheoryofValueMarxstatesthatthemeaningofthetermcommodityis“anexternalobjectthat

fulfills needs or wants.” He also makes a distinction between use-value (thecapacity to fulfill such needs or wants) and exchange-value (the value—measured inmoney—relating to other commodities). All commodities are theproductsoflabor,andaccordingtoKarlMarx,acommodity’svalueshouldnotbedeterminedbysomethinglikesupplyanddemand;rather,itsvalueshouldbebasedontheamountoflaborthatwentintocreatingthatcommodity.Therefore,a commodity’s value in the market should be representative of the labor andproductionthatwentintoit.

LaborTheoryofValue

Marx’s labor theoryofvalue issignificantbecauseitwouldbecomethe root of his theory of exploitation,which states that profit is theresultofemployersexploitingtheirworkers.

Inorderforapersontosatisfyhisownneedsandwantsthroughthepurchaseof commodities, hemust first produce and sell a commodity of his own, andsuch transactions can only occur through the use ofmoney.Marx argued thatmotivationamongcapitalistsisdrivennotbyadesireforcommodities,butbyadesire for money. This idea is then taken advantage of, and capitalists createwagesandworkinghourstogetthemostlaborwiththeleastcost,andthensellformore than they paid, not by the commodity’s exchange-value.By creatingwhatMarxreferstoasa“surplusvalue,”capitalistsexploitworkers.

ModeofProductionandRelationsofProduction

AccordingtoMarx,asociety’sorganizationofeconomicproductionisknownas a “mode of production.”Within the mode of production is the “means ofproduction,” which is used by a society to create goods (for example, rawmaterials, factories, machines, and even the labor). Marx then describes the“relationsofproduction”astherelationshipsbetweenthosewhodonotownthemeansofproduction(liketheworkers)andthosewhodo(likethebourgeoisieorcapitalists).KarlMarxclaimedthathistory’sevolutionistheresultofthemodeof production interacting with the relations of production. As the mode ofproductioncontinuestoevolvetothefullestproductivecapacity,hostilityamongclasses inaccordancewith the relationsofproductionbegins to form (inotherwords,itbecomestheownersversustheworkers).Themodeofproductionknownascapitalism,accordingtoMarx,isbasedon

thefactthatthemeansofproductionisbasedonprivateownership.Capitalismis based on the idea of getting themost out of labor for the lowest cost, andworkersareonlypaidenoughsothattheycanbekeptaliveandcancontinuetoproduce.Marxclaimsthattheworkerswillcometounderstandtheexploitationand antagonistic nature of capitalism, and that thiswill ultimately lead to theoverthrowofcapitalismbytheworkingclass.Inreplacementofcapitalism,thenew mode of production will be based on a means of production involvingcollectiveownership;andthisiscommunism.

CommodityFetishism

Marxbelieved that as people attempt to understand theworld, theybecomefixatedonthingslikemoney(howtogetit,whohasit,howtospendit,etc.)andcommodities(thecostsofbuyingormakingaproduct,thedemandofaproduct,etc.).ThesewereviewedbyMarxas“fetishes,”thingsthatpeoplefixateonthat,in turn, prevent people from understanding the truth. These fetishes are whatprevent people from understanding the truth regarding the exploitation of theworkingclass.Thus,incapitalism,themarketpriceofacommodityineverydaylife not only depends upon exploitation; it also masks the exploitation ofworkers.Therefore,Marxclaimed,thepresenceofcommodityfetishismiswhatallowsthecapitalistmodeofproductiontocontinuewithouthavingtoconfronttheexploitationthatitcauses.

MARTINHEIDEGGER(1889–1976)

BeingandTime

Martin Heidegger was born on September 26, 1889, in Messkirch, Germany.Messkirchwasaruraltownthatwasdeeplyconservativeandreligious,andthisupbringingwouldhaveaprofoundimpactonHeidegger’sphilosophicalcareer.In1909,Heideggerbeganstudying theologyat theUniversityofFreiburg,butby1911,hehadshiftedhisfocustowardphilosophy.Thoughincrediblyinfluencedbymanyphilosophers,theimpactofAristotle’s

Metaphysics, and particularly Aristotle’s desire to understand what unites thedifferent modes of being, would have a profound effect on Heidegger. This,along with the work of Edmund Husserl, whomHeidegger worked for as anassistantin1919andwhosechairhewouldtakeoverwhenHusserlretired,ledhimtohismostfamouswork:BeingandTime.Being and Time was published in 1927 and was praised for being an

incredibly significant textof continentalphilosophy. It is still considered tobeoneofthesinglemostimportantworksofthetwentiethcentury,andisviewedasanimpetusformanyofthegreatestphilosophicalthinkers.FollowingthepublicationofBeingandTime, therewasanoticeableshift in

Heidegger’s philosophy, which Heidegger referred to as “the turn.” ToHeidegger, the turnwasnot a shift inhis thinking,but rathera shift inBeing.Heidegger described the elements of the turn in what is considered to be hissecond most important work, Contributions to Philosophy, which was notpublishedinGermanuntil1989,eventhoughitwaswrittenaround1936.HeideggerbecameamemberoftheNaziPartyin1933andwaselectedrector

ofFreiburgUniversity.Whileaccountsofhistimeasrectorvary—somesayheenthusiasticallybroughtNazipolicy into theuniversityeducation,whileothersclaim he allowed the implementation of policywhile holding an undergroundresistancemovementtowardsomeofthedetailsoftheNazipolicy(suchasanti-

Semitism)—Heideggerwas not rector for long, resigning from the position in1934. That same year, Heidegger began to grow distant from the Nazi Party,eventhoughheneverofficiallyleftit.WhenWorldWarIIended,theUniversityofFreiburg’sdenazificationcommittee investigatedHeideggerandbannedhimfromteaching.Thebanwouldlastuntil1949,whenthefollowingyearhewouldbecomeprofessoremeritus.

BEINGANDTIME

Being and Time is Martin Heidegger’s most important and complexphilosophicalwork,anditskyrocketedHeideggerintobecomingoneofthemostsignificantphilosophersofthetwentiethcentury.Heidegger examined the metaphysical question of what it means to be

“being.”HebeginsbylookingattheworkofDescartes,whoclaimedthatbeingisdividedintothreedifferenttypesofsubstances:

1. Entitiesthatdonotneedotherentities2. Rescogitans(nonmaterialsubstances)3. Resextensa(materialsubstances)

According to Heidegger, this idea of Being leads to “indefinite difference”because there is the assumption that Being can exist in all three of thesepossibilities, and that simply does not make sense. Secondly, HeideggerconcludedthatDescartes’sbeliefofBeingisincorrect,forDescartes’sfindingssimply show the world to be made up of res extensa and that Being simplymeans“knowinganotherobject.”Heidegger,ontheotherhand,believedthebestwaytounderstandBeingisby

lookinginternallyandinterrogatingourownselves.Therefore,heconcluded,theBeing is us. He referred to this asDasein, meaning “Being-there,” and this,

according to Heidegger, is Being asking itself the question of what Being is.Therefore,Daseinisaself-interpretingBeing,onethatsays“I,”andonethathasa“mineness.”Self-interpretation,therefore,isexistence.HeideggerthengoesontoclarifythattherearethreemodesofBeing:

1. Dasein2. Presence-at-hand(thingsthatexistbylooking,observingsomething,and

onlybecomingconcernedwiththebarefactsandconcepts)3. Readiness-at-hand(theBeingpossessedbythingslikeequipment,where

notonlyaretheyuseable;theyhavealwaysbeenmanipulatablebecauseoftheirBeing)

InDasein, thenormalmodeofexistence isneitherauthenticnor inauthenticbecauseitisanaverageeverydayness—itislikelifeislivingaperson,andnotthepersonlivinglife.InHeidegger’sopinion, conceptionsof the subject are incorrectbecause the

subjectbecomesconvertedintoanobject.Rather,thesubjectshouldbeseenas“Being-in-the-world.”Insteadoftheenvironmentbeingfilledwithobjects,itisfilledwiththings.ThesethingsarecalledZeug,meaning“gear,”andareusedforaccomplishingprojects.Zeugisonlysignificantormeaningfulifitiswhatitiswithinthespecificproject(s)itappearsin,orifitiswhatitiswhencomparedtootherthingsthatarepartoftheproject(s).Therefore,Zeug’sparticularBeingisthatofreadiness-at-hand.Athing’sBeingisgiventoit,asthatthing,throughthecontextofaprojectofDasein and thecontextofother things involved in thatproject. In otherwords, things already arewhat they are due to their place inreferencetootherthings.Dasein cannotmakemeaning, however, for it is not a unitary entity that is

completely self-present. The individuality of Dasein creates a unique, butflawed,perspective,becauseitisalwaysinrelationtootherthingsandalwaysinaworldinhabitedbyotherthings.Thegear(likelanguage,projects,andwords)

isnotforonepersonalone,so thereforeDasein iswhatHeidegger refers toas“they-self.”Heidegger concludes that the Being ofDasein is time.While, as a mortal,

Dasein runs from birth until death, Dasein’s access to the world is throughtraditionandhistory.

Fromlefttoright:Gewesenheitmeans“livingpast”or“been-ness.”Faktizitätmeans “thrown-ness”because, according toHeidegger, people are thrown intotheworld.Zeugmeans “equipment” and is theobject thatonehasmeaningfuldealingswith.Sorgemeans“care”or“concern,”which,accordingtoHeidegger,is thefundamentalbasisofone’sbeing-in-the-worldbecause itcreatesdrive inus. Verfallenheit means “fallen” or “estranged.” Geworfenheit means “beingthrown.” In-der-Welt-Sein means “Being-in-the-world.” Gegenwart means“present.”Mitseinmeans“Being-with.”Zukunftmeans“future.”Existenzialitätmeans“existentiality.”

THETURN

SometimeafterWorldWarII,Heidegger’sworkbegantoshiftfocus.Heideggerbegan focusing on how behavior on its own is dependent upon an alreadyexisting“opennesstobeing.”Heideggerstatedthatthemaintenanceofthisprioropennessistheessenceofbeinghuman,andclaimedthatthemodernhumanisforgetting about this openness.According toHeidegger, this type of opennesswas authenticduring thedaysofpre-Socraticphilosophers likeHeraclitus andAnaximander; however, it started to become forgotten with the philosophicalworksofPlato.Heidegger also became interested in technology and poetry, believing that

both are contrastingmethods of “revealing”Being.While the creation of newpoetryhas the ability to revealBeing,new technology“frames”existence (hisnotionknownofGestell)andfurtherrevealsthedistinctionbetweensubjectandobject.Heideggersaidthatwhiletechnologymayplayaroleinallowinghumansto have a new understanding of their Being, the framing that technology hascreated threatens mankind’s ability to reveal and experience the more primaltruth.

VOLTAIRE(1694–1778)

Thecontroversialphilosopher

François-Maried’Arouet(whowouldlatergobythenameVoltaire)wasbornonNovember 21, 1694, in Paris, France. Voltaire is considered to be one of thesinglemostimportantphilosophersoftheEnlightenmentera.TheworkVoltaireproducedduringhislifetimewassovariedthatitcanbehardtoclassifyhimasaphilosopher in the traditional sense. Besides philosophy, Voltaire also wroteplays,novels,historicalpieces,poetry,essays,andscientifictexts.Voltairewasborn intoamiddle-class family;hismothercame fromanoble

family, and his fatherwas aminor treasury official and notary. At the age ofseven, Voltaire’s mother passed away, and Voltaire became close with hisgodfather,Chateauneuf,afreethinkerwhowouldhaveanimmenseimpactonhislife and teach the young Voltaire about literature, deism, and to renouncesuperstitions.From 1704 to 1711, Voltaire attended the Collège Louis-le-Grand in Paris,

where he received a classical education and was adept at learning languages(whilehehadalready learnedGreekandLatinwhenhewasyounger, he lateralso became fluent in English, Spanish, and Italian). When he finished hisstudies, he had already made his mind up about wanting to be a writer. Hisfather, however, wanted his son to be a lawyer, believing writers contributednothing of value to society, and so Voltaire lied to his father about being anassistant to a lawyer while he composed his satirical poetry. Eventually,Voltaire’sfatherfoundoutandsenthissontolawschool,butVoltairecontinuedtopursuehispassion,andhebegancirculatinginintellectualcircles.

Voltaire’sTroublewithFrenchAuthority

Throughout his life, Voltaire had a history of opposing Frenchauthorityand,asaresult,facedseveralimprisonmentsandexiles.In1717,while still in his twenties,Voltairewas imprisoned for elevenmonthsattheinfamousBastilleprisonforwritingdefamatorypoetryabouttheregentforKingLouisXV.DuringhisstayattheBastille,hewrotehisfirstplay,Oedipe,whichbecameasuccess,andby1718,hehad takenon thename “Voltaire” (whichwasaplayonwords),andthisisoftenconsideredthepointatwhichheformallyseparatedfromhispast.

From1726to1729,afteroffendinganobleman,VoltairewasforcedtoliveinexileinEngland.WhileinEngland,VoltairewasintroducedtotheideasofJohnLocke,SirIsaacNewton,andBritain’sconstitutionalmonarchy,whichembracedfreedom of religion and freedom of speech. Upon returning to Paris, VoltairewroteofhisexperienceandviewsofBritainandpublishedPhilosophicalLettersontheEnglishin1733.ThiswasmetwithanincredibleamountofcontroversyfromtheFrenchgovernmentandchurch,andVoltairewasonceagainforcedtofleeParis.Voltaire lived in exile in northeasternFrance for the next fifteen yearswith

ÉmilieduChâtelet, his lover andcollaborator.Hecontinued towriteworks inscience, history, fiction, and philosophy (particularly in metaphysics,concentratingonthelegitimacyoftheBibleandtheexistenceofGod).NotonlydidVoltairecallforreligiousfreedomandtheseparationofchurchandstate;hehadrenouncedreligionentirely.When duChâtelet died in 1749,Voltairemoved to Potsdam towork under

Frederick the Great. By 1753, however, Voltaire once again found himself ingreat controversy when he attacked the president of the Berlin Academy ofSciences.Voltairethenspentaperiodoftimetravelingcitytocity;however,due

tohismanybans,heeventuallyendedupclosetotheSwissborder(itwasherethathewrotehisfamousCandide).Attheageofeighty-three,VoltairefinallyreturnedtoParisin1778,wherehe

receivedahero’swelcome.HediedonMay30ofthatsameyear.

THEPHILOSOPHYOFVOLTAIRE

VoltairewasgreatlyinfluencedbyJohnLockeandtheskepticalempiricismthatwasoccurringinEnglandatthetime.NotonlywasVoltaireanoutspokencriticof religion; he was also responsible for the shift away from the work ofDescartesandmockedreligiousandhumanisticformsofoptimism.

ReligionVoltairewasafirmbelieverinreligiousliberty.Thoughhewasnotanatheist

(infact,hethoughtofhimselfasadeist),hewasopposedtoorganizedreligionandCatholicism,andsawtheBibleasametaphoricalmoralreferencethatwasoutdatedandcreatedbyman.He insteadbelieved that theexistenceofGod isnot amatter of faith (and therefore, is not based on a particular faith), but ofreason.Voltaire is famous for having said, “IfGod did not exist, it would benecessarytoinventHim.”

PoliticsVoltaireviewedtheFrenchmonarchy,and itsunfairbalanceofpower, inan

incredibly negative light. According toVoltaire, the bourgeoisiewas too littleand ineffective; the aristocracy was too corrupt and parasitic; the commonersweretoosuperstitiousandignorant;andtheonlyusefulnessofthechurchwastouseitsreligioustaxtocreateabasestrongenoughtogoagainstthemonarchy.Voltaire believed that the constitutional monarchy that he witnessed in

England was the ideal form of government. He did not trust democracy

(claimingit tobe the“idiocyof themasses”)andbelievedthatwith theaidofphilosophers, an enlightenedmonarch could improve thewealth and power ofFrance(which,heargued,wasinthebestinterestofthemonarch).

HedonismVoltaire’s views on liberty, and really all of his philosophy, were based on

hedonistic morality. This was often expressed in Voltaire’s poetry, whichpresented moral freedom that was attained through sexual liberty. Voltaire’swritingpresentedmoralityasbeingrootedinthepositiveassessmentofpersonalpleasure.His ideas regarding ethicswerebasedonmaximizingpleasurewhilereducing pain. His hedonistic viewpoints even translated into his critique ofreligion;hefrequentlyattackedtheteachingsofCatholicismwithregardtothemoralcodesofsexualconstraint,priestlycelibacy,andbodilyabnegation.

SkepticismUnlikethestancesofotherphilosopherslikeDescartes(whoseworkVoltaire

detested), Voltaire’s entire philosophical stance was based on skepticism.According to Voltaire, other philosophers like Descartes were “philosophicalromanciers,” and he saw no value in creating systematic accounts in order toexplainthingsinsometypeofcoherentway.Thistypeofphilosophy,accordingtoVoltaire,wasnotphilosophyatall,butfiction.Voltaireclaimedthattheroleofthe philosopher is to understand that sometimes no explanation is the mostphilosophical explanation. The philosopher should liberate people from theirdogmaticprinciplesandirrationallaws.Voltaire used skepticism as a way to defend his ideology on liberty, and

claimedthatthereisnosuchthingasanauthoritysacredenoughtobeimmunefromcriticism.ThereisaconstanthostilityinVoltaire’swork,beitinhisviewson the monarchy, religion, or society. He used wit and satire to underminephilosophical standpoints throughouthiscareer.Forexample,hismost famous

work, Candide, parodied the religious optimism of philosopher GottfriedLeibniz.

MetaphysicsVoltaireclaimedthatscience,dueinlargeparttothesignificantadvancesof

SirIsaacNewton(whomVoltairewasagreatproponentof),wasmovingawayfrommetaphysics.Voltaire argued thatmetaphysics shouldbeeliminated fromscienceentirely,andindeed,hewasthemostvocalsupporterofthisnotion.

RELATIVISM

Beingrelativetosomethingelse

Relativism is not one specific view in particular, but rather a wide variety ofviewsthatsharetwocommonthemes:thought,evaluation,experience,orrealityisinsomewayrelativetosomethingelse,andnostandpointismoreprivilegedthananother.Relativistic ideas can be found in almost all areas of philosophical study.

Typically, arguments based in relativism start with assertions of plausiblearguments that, by the end, result in implausible conclusions.By all accounts,these arguments sound betterwhen thought of in abstractways (they seem tobecomeflawedand trivialwhenapplied to realsituations). It is for this reasonthatfewphilosophersdefendrelativism.Thisisnottosaythatrelativismiscompletelyuseless,however.Infact,some

ofthemostimportantphilosopherstohaveeverlivedhavebeenassociatedwith(oraccusedofbeing)relativists.

THESTRUCTUREOFRELATIVISM

Generallyspeaking,onecanthinkofrelativismas:YisrelativetoX.Here,Y,whichisconsideredtobeadependentvariable,canbereplacedwith

different attributes of experience, thought, evaluation, or reality, and X,consideredtobeanindependentvariable,canbereplacedwithsomethingthatisbelievedtocontributetoadifferenceinthevalueofY.“Isrelativeto”representsthetypeofconnectionoccurringbetweenXandY.

Examples of dependent variables (Y) include perception, reality, truth,practice,centralbeliefs,centralconcepts,ethics,andsemantics.

Examplesof independentvariables (X) include religion, language,historicalperiod,culture,race,gender,andsocialstatus.

TYPESOFRELATIVISM

DescriptiveRelativismDescriptiverelativismisthebeliefthatdifferentcultureshavedifferentmoral

codes(thoughts,reasoning,etc.).Principlesoftwogroupsarenotevaluated,andnothing is implied about how one group should act or behave. Rather, theprinciplesof thegroupsaredescribed.Descriptiverelativism,unlikenormativerelativism,isatheorypertainingtoanthropology.

NormativeRelativismNormativerelativismisatheoryinethics.Itstatesthatpeopleoughttofollow

the moral code of their society or culture. Therefore, immoral behavior isbehavior that goes against the moral code of that specific society or culture.There is no such thing as a universalmoral principle, formoral codes of onesociety,undernormativerelativism,arenobetterorworsethanthoseofanothersociety.Lastly,according tonormative relativism, theremustbea toleranceofothersocieties’moralcodes,meaningitiswrongtojudgeorforcemoralbeliefsontoanothersociety.

MattersofDegreeHaving differences in beliefs, concepts, or epistemic standards does not

necessarilymeanviewsaredifferent fromoneanother. In relativism, thereare

someideasthataremorecentralthanothers.Ifafeatureplaysaprominentroleinthedevelopmentofagroup’sbeliefs,itis

considered tobeacentralconcept.Whenphilosophers refer to somethingasacentralbelief,thatmeansthebeliefissocriticaltoagrouporindividualthatifitwere to be abandoned, other beliefs would be abandoned as a result. Forexample, thenotion thatphysicalobjectsstillexisteven ifnoone isaroundtoperceivethemcanbeviewedasacentralbelief,whiletheideathatkingshavethe right to rule the land based on divine right is not a lasting belief, andthereforenotacentralbelief.Centralconceptsandcentralbeliefsarerelatedtooneanotherandofteninvolveeachother.Withthatsaid,centralityisnotblack-and-whiteandoftencomesindegrees.Relativismcanalsobelocal(appliedonlytoalimitedpartofthecognitiveor

evaluativelifeofanindividualorgroup)orglobal.However,localityalsocomesindegrees.

ARGUMENTSSUPPORTINGRELATIVISM

Oftentimes, relativism is assumed more than argued for. However, the mostcommonargumentsforrelativismarethefollowing.

PerceptionIsTheory-LadenPerceptualrelativismclaimsthatperception(whatwesee,hear,feel,etc.)with

regard to a situation is, in part, the result of the beliefs, expectations, andconceptsthatwealreadyhave.Accordingtoperceptualrelativism,perceptionisnot considered to be a physiological process that makes all people perceivethingsinthesameway.Whilenotionsthataretheory-ladenaredescriptivewithregardtothewaysin

which perception is described, they alone do not come to any normativeconclusions. However, it can be extremely difficult, and even impossible, to

strictly follow the scientific idea of perception when observations are clearlycoloredandaffectedbyourexpectationsandbeliefs.The most famous hypothetical situation of this is from philosopher N. R.

Hanson.Hansonclaimedthatif,forexample,JohannesKepler(whobelievedthesolar system is heliocentric,meaning the planets revolve around the sun) andTycho Brahe (who believed in a geocentric solar system, where the sun andmoonrevolvearoundEarthand therestof theplanets revolvearound thesun)were to both look at the same sunrise, they would think that two completelydifferent thingswerehappening.WhileBrahewouldviewtheeventas thesunrising,Keplerwouldseeitasthesunstayinginplace,withthehorizondippingaway.

AlternativeFrameworksAreIncommensurableAnindividual’ssentencesandwords (whichare representativeofhisbeliefs

and concepts) are determined by how one’s culture, linguistic community,scientific foundations, etc., shaped that individual. If two of these foundationswere incrediblydifferentfromoneanother(forexample,onegroup’sscientificfoundationsdrasticallydifferfromanothergroup’sculture),thenpeoplefromtheothergroupwouldnotbeabletocommunicatewithpeoplefromthefirstgroupbecause the first group’s words and sentences would have nomeaning to thesecondgroup.Ifthistheoryisconsideredtobesound,perceptioncanthenbeusedtosupport

this claim, for differing foundations will make two groups perceive thingsdifferently.

ARGUMENTSAGAINSTRELATIVISM

Therearemanyargumentsagainstrelativism.Whichargumentisuseddependson whether the subject of debate is descriptive relativism or normative

relativism.

ArgumentsAgainstDescriptiveRelativismNoConceptsorBeliefsExistintheFirstPlaceGroupscannothavedifferingconceptsorbeliefs if therearenoconceptsor

beliefs that exist to begin with. This argument was made by AmericanphilosopherWillardvanOrmanQuine,whoclaimed that there areno facts. Ifthisisthecase,thenitalsowouldnotmakesensetohavenormativequestionspertainingtowhetherornotaconceptorbeliefisbetterthananotherindividualorgroup’s.

PerceptionIsNotCompletelyTheory-LadenThetheoryofdescriptiveperceptualrelativismstates thatperceptionmaybe

partially theory-laden;however, it isnotasseverely theory-ladenas thosewhosubscribe to extreme relativism would claim it to be. This theory furtherweakensthenotionthatperceptionistheory-ladenbecauseitalsoshowssupportforseveraldifferentformsofnormativerelativism.Theextenttowhichourperceptionsareinfluencedbyconcepts,expectations,

andbeliefs is still controversial,butmostphilosophersagree that these factorsplayacriticalrole.Afterall,westilltalkofthesunrisingandsetting.AndthisisalmostfourcenturiesafterKepler’sgroundbreakingwork!Evenduringthetimeof Kepler and Brahe, it was understood that, regardless of the scientificreasoningbehindthesunrisingandsetting,bothmenwereseeingtheexactsamething.

CompareBrahe’smodelof theuniverse toKepler’s.Even thoughbothmenseethesamething,thewayinwhichtheyperceivewhatishappeningistotallydifferent.

CognitiveUniversalsandCognitiveArchitectureThere is evidence that there are certain cultural, linguistic, and cognitive

universalsamongallpeople,regardlessoftheirspecificgroup,andtheexistenceoftheseuniversalsgoesagainstdescriptiverelativism.

ArgumentsAgainstNormativeRelativismTheMediationProblemThemostbasicpremiseofthemediationproblemisthenotionthatconcepts,

beliefs, and epistemic standards become trapped. This trapping prevents

individualsfromseeingifthebeliefsandconceptsmatchreality.Oneofthemostpopular versions of themediation problem states that one is not able to thinkwithouthavingconcepts,ortalkwithoutwords.Therefore,itisimpossibletogobeyondourconceptsorwordsinordertoassesshowtheworldtrulyis.

TheUnintelligibilityThatResultsfromExtrapolationRelativism often involves drawing conclusions about one group that is

differentfromanothergroup.However,justbecauseonecancoherentlyimagineconceptsandbeliefsthatdifferinsomesmallway,doesnotmeanthatonecanimagineconceptsandbeliefsthatdifferingreatways.Infact,whenoneattemptsto extrapolate from such differences, it might lead to incoherence andunintelligibility.

TranscendentalArgumentsThemost famous transcendental arguments weremade by Immanuel Kant,

who claimed that concepts (which he called “categories”) such as objects,property, causation, etc., must first exist in order for a person to experiencethingsinspaceandtime,andthathumansarejustifiedtousesuchconceptsandhavesuchbeliefs.

EASTERNPHILOSOPHY

Philosophiesfromtheothersideoftheworld

Easternphilosophyrefers to thephilosophies thatcameaboutfromthevariousregionsofAsia(toacertainextent,thephilosophiesthatcameoutoftheMiddleEasthavealsobeengrouped into this term).ThenotionofEasternphilosophycanbeamisleadingone,however,dueinparttothewidevarietyofculturesitencompasses. The philosophies that came out of China, for example, aredrasticallydifferentthanthosethatcamefromIndia.In a very general sense, however, if the goals of Western philosophy are

defined as seeking out and proving the notion of “truth,” then the goals ofEasternphilosophyaredefinedasaccepting“truths”andfindingbalance.WhileWestern philosophy places emphasis on the individual and the rights of theindividual, Eastern philosophy emphasizes unity, social responsibility, and theinterrelationofeverything(which,inturn,cannotbeseparatedfromthecosmicwhole). It is for this reason that,oftentimes, schoolsofEasternphilosophyareindistinguishablefromthedifferentreligionsoftheland.

INDIANPHILOSOPHY

ThevariousphilosophiestocomeoutofIndia,calleddarshanasinSanskrit,aredisciplines thatsetout to improve life.These includeorthodoxschools (Hinduphilosophies)andheterodoxschools(non-Hinduphilosophies).

OrthodoxSchoolsThe orthodox, or Hindu, schools draw philosophical principles from the

ancientHindusacredtext,theVedas.

Samkhya

The oldest of the orthodox philosophical schools is Samkhya. Thisphilosophicalsystemstatesthatallthingsinrealitycomefromprakriti(meaningenergy,matter, and creative agency) andpurusha (meaning the soul,mind, orself). Samkhya is based on dualism; however, unlike Western philosophy’sdefinition of dualism as being between the mind and body, the dualism ofSamkhyaisbasedonthesoul(aneternal,indivisible,andabsoluterealitythatispure consciousness) andmatter. Total liberation occurswhen one understandsthe differences between the soul and dispositions ofmatter (such as dullness,activity,andsteadiness).

YogaTheYoga school draws upon themetaphysics and psychologyofSamkhya;

however,itfeaturesthepresenceofadivineentity.ThegoalofYoga,aslaidoutin theYogaSutras (written in the secondcenturyb.c.), is toquiet themind inordertoattainasolitarinessordetachmentknownaskaivalya.

NyayaTheNyayaphilosophicalschoolgreatlyinfluencedmanyotherIndianschools

ofthought.TheNyayaphilosophyisbasedonasystemoflogic,andfollowersbelievethatobtainingknowledgethatisvalidcomesfrominference,perception,testimony,andcomparison.Byobtainingknowledgeintheseways,onebecomesreleased from suffering. The Nyaya school also created criteria to determinewhatknowledgeisvalidandwhatknowledgeisinvalid.

VaisheshikaCreatedinthesixthcenturyb.c.,theVaisheshikaschoolisbasedonpluralism

andatomism.AccordingtoVaisheshika,everythinginthephysicaluniversecanbereducedtoafinitenumberofatoms,andBrahman(theultimaterealitybehindthe gods and the universe) is what creates consciousness in the atoms.Eventually, the Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools merged together; however,

Vaisheshikaonly accepted the sourcesof validknowledge tobe inference andperception.

PurvaMimamsaThePurvaMimamsaschoolwasbasedoninterpretingtheVedasandbeingthe

authorityon the sacred text.PurvaMimamsa involvedanabsolute faith in thesacred text and included the performance of fire-sacrifices in order to, it wasbelieved,sustaintheuniverse.WhilethePurvaMimamsaschoolbelievedinthephilosophical and logical teachingsof other schools, they argued that theonlywayonecouldattainsalvationwasbylivinginaccordancewiththeteachingsoftheVedas.Lateron,thePurvaMimamsaschoolshiftedtoinsistthatinordertoreleaseone’ssoul,onemustpartakeinenlightenedactivity.

VedantaThe Vedanta school focused on the philosophical teachings of the mystic

contemplationsthatwerefoundwithintheVedas,knownastheUpanishads.TheVedantaschoolemphasizedtheimportanceofmeditation,spiritualconnectivity,andself-discipline.

HeterodoxSchoolsThe four heterodox, or non-Hindu, schools did not accept the authority that

waspresentintheVedas.

CarvakaThis schoolwas based onmaterialism, atheism, and skepticism. Perception,

accordingtotheCarvakaschool,istheonlyvalidsourceofknowledge.

IndianPoliticalPhilosophyPolitical philosophy in India dates back to the fourth century b.c., with the

Arthashastra, a text that discusses economic policy and statecraft. In thetwentiethcentury, anotherpoliticalphilosophywasmadepopularbyMahatma

Gandhiandwasgreatly influencedby thewritingsofJesus,LeoTolstoy, JohnRuskin, Henry David Thoreau, and the Hindu Bhagavad Gita. Gandhiemphasized a political philosophy based on ahimsa, or nonviolence, andsatyagraha,ornonviolentresistance.

BuddhismThephilosophicalprinciplesofBuddhismarebasedontheFourNobleTruths

(thetruthofsuffering,thetruthofthecauseofsuffering,thetruthoftheendofsuffering, and the truth of the path that frees one from suffering). Buddhismadvocates that in order to end suffering, onemust follow theNobleEightfoldPath. The philosophy of Buddhism touches on ethics, metaphysics,epistemology,phenomenology,andthenotionthatGodisirrelevant.

JainismOne of the most basic ideas in Jainism is anekantavada, the notion that

differentpointsofviewperceive realitydifferently, and therefore, therearenopointsofviewthatarecompletelytrue.InJainphilosophy,theonlypeoplewhohave true knowledge and know the true answer are referred to as Kevalis;anyoneelsecanonlyknowpartofananswer.Jainismplacesgreatemphasisonequality of life, spiritual independence, nonviolence, and the fact that an

individual’s behavior has immediate consequences. Self-control, according toJainphilosophy,iscrucialforonetounderstandthesoul’struenature.

CHINESEPHILOSOPHY

The four most influential philosophical schools to come out of Chinesephilosophycameaboutin500b.c.(thesametimethatancientGreekphilosophybegantoemerge),andthisperiodisreferredtoasthe“ContentionofaHundredSchoolsofThought.”Thedominantphilosophical schoolswereConfucianism,Taoism, Mohism, and Legalism. During the various Chinese dynasties, theseschools of thought, along with Buddhism, became incorporated into officialdoctrine.

ConfucianismBased on the teachings of Confucius, Confucianism was a philosophical

systemthattouchedonsubjectsrelatedtopolitics,society,andmorality,andwasquasireligious in nature (though it was not a religion and allowed for one tofollowafaithwhilestillfollowingConfucianism).Confuciuscreatedtheideaofameritocracy,theGoldenRule(whichstatesthatoneshouldtreatothersastheywouldwishtobetreated),thenotionofyinandyang(twoforcesthatopposeoneanotherarepermanently inconflict,which, in turn,createsendlesschangeandcontradiction), and the idea that in order to find middle ground, one mustreconcile opposites. Themajor ideas ofConfucianism are ren (humanness forothers),zhengming(arectificationofnames),zhong(loyalty),xiao(filialpiety,arespectforone’sparentsandelders),andli(ritual).

✦Thesymbolofyinandyang

TaoismTaoism began as a philosophy and later turned into a religion. Tao means

“way”or“path,”andisoftenusedinametaphysicalwaytorepresenttheflowoftheuniverseorthedrivebehindthenaturalorder.Taoistphilosophyfocusesonhumanism, relativism, emptiness, spontaneity, flexibility, and nonaction. LikeConfucianism,Taoismplacesgreatemphasisonyinandyang,anditalsoplacesgreat importanceon theEightTrigrams, eight interrelatedprinciplesof reality,

and feng shui, an ancient Chinese system of laws that uses colors andarrangementtoattainharmonyandbalanceinflowofenergy.

LegalismLegalismwas a political philosophy based on the idea that there should be

strict and clear laws for people to abide by, or else there will be harshpunishment.Legalismisbasedonjurisprudence,meaning“philosophyoflaw.”Legalism states that rulers should govern based onFa (law),Shu (tactic, art,method,andmanagingstateaffairs),andShi(power,charisma,orlegitimacy).

MohismMohism seeks mutual benefit by supporting the idea of universal love.

AccordingtoMohism,inordertoavoidwarandconflict,everybodymustloveoneanotherequally.ThefounderofMohism,Mozi(470–390b.c.),wasagainstthe ritualistic teachings of Confucius, and instead believed that people shouldinvolve themselves in more practical ways to survive, such as farming,fortification,andmanagingstateaffairs.

BuddhismAs Buddhism spread to China, other schools of thought like Taoism and

Confucianismwereintegratedintoit,creatingnewBuddhistschools.ThesenewtypesofBuddhismfocusedmoreonethicsandlessonmetaphysics.

KOREANPHILOSOPHY

ThephilosophicalschoolstocomeoutofKoreaweregreatlyinfluencedbyotherphilosophical schools of the area. The most significant philosophical schoolswereShamanism,Confucianism,Taoism,andBuddhism.

NativeShamanismThough later Shamanismwould become influenced by Taoist andBuddhist

thought, native Shamanism had developed in Korea for thousands of years.

Shamanism is the belief that there exist helpful and harmful spiritswithin thenaturalworld,and thatonlypeoplewith specialpowers, shamans,canaddressthesespirits.AshamaninKoreawasusuallyawoman,andwasreferredtoasamudang. Themudang would connect with the spirit world and attempt to fixhumanproblems.

BuddhismWhen Buddhism was brought to Korea from China in the year 372 a.d.,

Shamanspiritswereincorporatedintothephilosophicalschoolofthoughtinaneffort to resolve what Koreans viewed as internal inconsistencies with theChineseformofBuddhism.

ConfucianismConfucianism was also brought over to Korea from China. In fact,

Confucianism had quite a significant impact on Korean society, molding itssystem of morality and legal system, and shaping the relations between theyoung and old. The most important ideas that were encouraged by KoreanConfucian schools (also known asNeo-Confucianism)were hyo (filial piety),chung(loyalty),sin(trust),andin(benevolence).

TaoismTaoism arrived inKorea fromChina in 674 a.d.WhileKoreanTaoismwas

popularduringthebeginningoftheGoryeoDynasty(918–1392),bythemiddleperiod, Taoism, along with other philosophies and religions, becameincorporatedintoBuddhism.TaoismneverbecameitsownreligioninKorea,butitsinfluencecanstillbefoundinKoreanthought.

KoreanPhilosophyoftheModernEraIn1910,duetoJapaneserule,Shintoismbecametheofficialstatereligionof

Korea. Also during this time, however, German idealist philosophers becamevery popular. When Korea was divided into North Korea and South Korea,

NorthKoreabegantofolloworthodoxMarxism,also incorporating ideasfromChinese Maoism and the notion of the yangban (ruling class) from KoreanConfucianism.

JAPANESEPHILOSOPHY

JapanesephilosophyisafusionofJapanese,Chinese,andWesternphilosophies.While Taoism and Confucianism were present and influential in Japan, thepresenceofShintoismandBuddhismweremostimpactful.

ShintoThe native religion of Japan, and its state religion until World War II, is

known as Shinto.While Shinto itself is not necessarily a philosophy, it had aprofound impact on the philosophies that emerged from Japan. Shintoism is aformof polytheistic animism inwhich theworld is explained through powersandinvisiblespiritsknownaskami.WhenBuddhismwasintroducedtoJapaninthe sixth century from China and Korea, many elements of Buddhism wereincorporated into Shintoism.Though there are no binding dogmatic principleswithin Shinto, importance is placed on key ideas like having a deep love andrespect for nature, tradition and family, cleanliness, and festivals, known asmatsuri,thatcelebratethekami.

BuddhismBuddhismwasbrought toJapan in550a.d.Thereare threemainschoolsof

Buddhism from Japan, and with the introduction of each new school, newphilosophicalideaswereintroduced.

ZenBuddhismZenBuddhismwasbrought to Japan fromKorea (whichgot it fromChina,

whose version was based on the Indian Mahayana Buddhist teachings) and

becameitsownschoolofthoughtinthetwelfthcentury.TheprinciplesofZenBuddhism claim that every sentient being has an inherent virtue and wisdom(Buddha-nature)hiddenwithinhismind.AccordingtoZenBuddhism, throughmeditation and beingmindful of one’s day-to-day experiences, one is able touncoverhisBuddha-nature.Currently,thereexistthreeschoolsofZenBuddhisminJapan:

1. Soto(thelargestoftheschools)2. Rinzai(whichhasmanyschoolswithinit)3. Obaku(thesmallestoftheschools)

AmidistBuddhismAmidist, also known as Pure Land, Buddhism is one of the more popular

forms of Buddhism in Japan andChina, and is based on the teachings of theAmitabha Buddha. According to this type of Buddhism, enlightenment isguaranteedifonedevoteshislifetohavingarelationshipwithAmitabhaBuddha(themostbasicpracticetodosoischantingthenameofAmitabhaBuddhawithcompleteconcentration),andapersonwhoisenlightenedwillberebornin thePureLand.

NichirenBuddhismNichirenBuddhism is based on the philosophical teachings of the Japanese

monkNichiren,wholivedduringthethirteenthcentury.OneofthemainbeliefsofNichirenBuddhismisthatsincepeoplehaveaninnateBuddha-naturewithinthemselves, they are able to attain enlightenment in this lifetime and in theircurrentform.

InfluenceofWesternPhilosophyThephilosophicalmovementknownastheKyotoSchoolemergedduringthe

twentieth century. The movement was based at Kyoto University andincorporatedmanyideasofWesternphilosophyandreligionintotraditionalEast

Asian ideas. Specifically, the ideas ofHegel,Kant,Heidegger,Nietzsche, andChristianitywereusedtoreformulatemoralandreligiousunderstanding.

AVICENNA(980–1037)

ThemostinfluentialphilosopheroftheIslamicGoldenAge

IbnSina (also referred to by theLatinized nameAvicenna) lived from980 to1037 in what is now Uzbekistan. Avicenna was a Persian philosopher andphysician, and is considered to be the most important figure of the IslamicGoldenAge.Avicennawasanexceptionalphysicianandwrotemedicalbooks thatwould

haveanincredibleimpactonnotonlytheIslamicworld,butmedicalschoolsandthought across Europe. In addition to his medical writings, however, he alsowrote extensively on metaphysics, ethics, and logic, and his philosophiesregarding the soul and the essence of existence were incredibly influential inWesternphilosophy.

AVICENNAANDTHEISLAMICGOLDENAGE

The IslamicGoldenAge occurred during theMiddleAges,whenEuropewasdeeply involved in religious dogmatism andmade relatively little headway interms of philosophy.While philosophy inEuropewas stagnant, philosophy intheIslamicworldflourished, largelydue to theworkofAvicenna.Avicenna isconsideredtobeoneofthemostimportantfiguresofthisera,andhewasoneofthe main people to introduce the works of Aristotle, as well as Neoplatonicideas,totheIslamicworld.

AVICENNA’SMETAPHYSICS:ESSENCEANDEXISTENCE

Avicennaarguedthatessence(knownasMahiat)isindependentfromexistence(knownasWujud),andiseternalandunchanging.Heclaimedthatessencecamebeforeexistence,andthatexistenceissimplyaccidental.Therefore,accordingtoAvicenna,anythingthatcomesintoexistenceistheresultofanessenceallowingforthatexistence.HisnotionofessenceandexistenceissimilartoPlato’stheoryofForms(the

ideathateverythingthatexistsfallsunderapre-existingarchetypeandthatevenwhen something no longer exists, the archetype remains); however, AvicennaclaimedthatAllah(theFirstReality)istheonlythingintheworldthatwasnotprecededbyanessence.Allah,accordingtoAvicenna,isanecessarybeingthatone cannot define. If one attempts to define Allah, the very act of definingcreates opposition. For example, if onewere to say, “Allah is beautiful,” thatmustthenalsomeanthat“Allahisnotugly,”butthiscannotbethecasebecauseeverythingcomesfromAllah.

LogicAvicenna,adevoutMuslim,believed that logicandreasoncouldbeused to

prove the existence of God, and often, he used logic to interpret the Qur’an.Avicenna claimed that logic can be used to judge those concepts that areacquired via the four faculties of reason: estimation (wahm), retention (al-khayal), sense-perception (al-hiss al-mushtarak), and imagination (al-mutakhayyila).Imagination,accordingtoAvicenna,iscrucialbecauseitallowsforanindividualtobeabletocomparenewphenomenatoconceptsthatalreadyexist.Avicennaalsobelievedlogiccouldbeusedtoacquirenewknowledge,make

deductions, help an individual judgewhether or not an argument is valid, andshare knowledge with others. In order for one to attain salvation, Avicennabelievedonehastogainknowledgeandperfecthisintellect.

EPISTEMOLOGYANDTHETENINTELLECTS

Avicenna’sown theoryofcreation stems largely from the theoryofAl-Farabi,anotherfamousIslamicphilosopher.Accordingtothistheory,thecreationoftheworld followed theFirst Intellect.TheFirst Intellect begins to contemplate itsownexistence,and indoingso, theSecond Intellect iscreated.As theSecondIntellectbegins tocontemplate itsorigins fromGod, theFirstSpirit iscreated,whichthensparkstheuniverse,knownastheSphereofSpheres.AstheSphereof Spheres contemplates that it is something that has the potential to exist, itcreates matter. This matter fills the universe and creates the Sphere of thePlanets.It is from the triple-contemplation that theearly stagesofexistenceemerge.

Astheprocesscontinues,twocelestialhierarchiesarecreatedasaresultofthecontinuation of emerging intellects: the Inferior Hierarchy (which Avicennarefers to as the “Angels of Magnificence”) and the Superior Hierarchy ofCherubim. According to Avicenna, the angels, which are responsible forprophetic visions in humans, are deprived of sensory perception. They do,however, have imagination, and this imagination lets them desire the intellectthat they originated from. The angels’ journey to rejoin with their respectiveintellectcreateseternalmovementinheaven.Thefollowingsevenintellects,andtheangelscreatedbythem,correspondto

different bodies within the Sphere of Planets. They are Jupiter,Mars, Saturn,Venus, Mercury, the sun, and the moon (which is associated with the AngelGabriel, “The Angel”). It is from the ninth intellect that humans emerge(featuringthesensoryfunctionsthattheangelslack).Avicenna thenclaims that the tenthandfinal intellect ishumanintellect.He

claims that on its own, the human mind is not formed for abstract thought.Avicennaclaimsthatinhumans,thereisonlythepotentialforintellect,andthatthis potential can only come about through illumination by The Angel. This

illuminationcanvary indegrees;prophets, forexample,havebeen illuminatedsomuchthattheycanhaverationalintellect,imagination,andtheabilitytopasstheir information on to others, while other people might have only enoughillumination to teach,write, passdown information, andpass laws, andothersmightreceiveevenlessillumination.HereweseeAvicenna’sviewofhumanityashavingacollectiveconsciousness.

AVICENNA’SFLOATINGMAN

To demonstrate the self-awareness and immateriality of the soul, Avicennacreated his famous thought experiment known as the “FloatingMan.” In theFloating Man thought experiment, Avicenna asks the reader to imagine ascenarioinwhichheissuspendedintheair.Astheindividualhangsintheair,hewillexperiencecompleteisolationfromhissenses(whichmeansthathewillnotevenhavesensorycontactwithhisownbody).Avicennaarguedthatevenwiththisisolationfromthesenses,apersonwould

stillhaveself-consciousness. Ifaperson that is isolated fromsenseexperiencestillhastheabilitytodeterminehisownexistence,accordingtoAvicenna, thisshows that the soul is an immaterial substance that exists independent of thebody.Avicennaalsoclaimedthatsincethisscenarioisconceivable,itpointstotheconclusionthatthesoulisperceivedintellectually.Furthermore,Avicennabelievedthat thebrain iswherereasonandsensation

interact with one another. In the scenario of the FloatingMan, the very firstknowledge that the individual would have is “I am,” which affirms thatindividual’s essence.Because the individual is isolated from sense experience,essencecannotcomefromthebody.Therefore,theverycoreofapersonistheknowledge“I am,”whichmeansnotonlydoes the soul exist; the soul is self-aware.Avicennaconcludedthatnotonlyisthesoulanimmaterialsubstance;itisperfect.

BERTRANDRUSSELL(1872–1970)

Thelogisticphilosopher

BertrandRussellwasbornonMay18,1872,inRavenscroft,Wales.BythetimeRussellwas just fouryearsold,hehad lostbothhismotherandfather,andheandhisolderbrother livedwith theirvery strictgrandparents (hisgrandfather,LordJohnRussell,wasa formerPrimeMinisterand the firstEarlofRussell).WhenRussellwassixyearsold,hisgrandfatherhaddiedtoo, leavinghimandhisbrotherwithonlytheirgrandmother.Atayoungage,Russellwishedtofreehimselffromthehouseholdfilledwithprohibitionsandrules,andthisdesire,aswell asadistrustof religion,wouldhaveaprofound impacton the restofhislife.In 1890,Russell attendedTrinityCollege,Cambridge,where he excelled in

mathematics and philosophy. Russell initially became quite interested inidealism (the idea that reality is a product of the mind), though years afterleavingCambridge, hewould reject idealism entirely, in favor of realism (theidea that consciousness and experience exist independently from the externalworld)andempiricism(theideathatknowledgecomesfromsensoryexperiencesfromtheexternalworld).TheearlyworkofBertrandRussellfocusedonmathematics.Russell’sdefense

oflogicism(thenotionthatallmathematicscanbereducedtoappearaslogicalprinciples)was incredibly important,and if itwereproventrue, itwouldshowthat mathematics is legitimately a priori knowledge. While his philosophicalideastouchedmanysubjectsthroughoutthespanofhislife(includingmorality,the philosophy of language, metaphysics, and linguistics), Russell alwayscontinued working in logic, and wrote a three-volume book, PrincipiaMathematica,toshowthatallmathematicalprinciples,arithmetic,andnumbersstemfromlogic.

Russell,alongwithhisstudent,LudwigWittgenstein,andphilosopherG.E.Moore,areconsideredtobethefoundersofanalyticphilosophy.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY: Considered to be both a historicaltradition and amethod of practice, analytic philosophy (which hasalsobecomesynonymouswithlogicalpositivism)istheideathatoneshould practice and execute philosophy in the sameway that onewouldpracticeandexecutescientificinquiry:withprecisionandrigor.This is done through the use of logic and being skeptical ofassumptions.

Thoughhewasaphilosopher,mathematician,andlogician,BertrandRussellfirstbecamefamiliartopeopleasaresultofhiscontroversialbeliefsaboutsocialreform.RussellwasanactivepacifistduringWorldWarIandattendedseveralprotests,whichnotonlygothimdismissedfromTrinityCollege,butultimatelylanded him in jail. Later, during World War II, while tirelessly campaigningagainstAdolfHitlerandtheNaziParty,herejectedhispacifistideasformoreofa relativist approach. Russell also became an outspoken critic of Stalin’stotalitarianregime,oftheUnitedStates’sinvolvementintheVietnamWar,andof nuclear disarmament. Bertrand Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize inLiteraturein1950.

LOGICALATOMISM

Bertrand Russell created logical atomism, the idea that one can break downlanguageintoitssmallestparts,muchlikephysicalmatter.Onceasentencehasbeenbrokendown somuch so that those small parts canno longerbebrokendown,thosepartsareconsideredtobe“logicalatoms.”Ifwethenlookattheselogical atoms, we should be able to uncover underlying assumptions of asentenceandthenbeabletobetterdeterminewhetheritisvalidortrue.For example, let’s take a look at the following sentence: “The king of the

UnitedStatesisbald.”Thissentenceseemssimple;however,fromit,wecanbreakitdownintothree

logicalatoms.

1. ThekingoftheUnitedStatesexists.2. ThereisonekingoftheUnitedStates.3. ThekingoftheUnitedStatesdoesnothavehair.

SinceweknowthatthereisnokingoftheUnitedStates,thefirstatomprovesto be false.Therefore, the sentence “The king of theUnitedStates is bald” isuntrue.However,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanitisproperlyfalse,becausetheopposite of this statement, “The king of the United States has hair,” is alsountrue. Inbothcases, it isassumed that theUnitedStateshasaking.Throughlogicalatomism,weareabletoseethevalidityanddegreeoftruth.Thisraisesthe question that is still being debated to this day: If something is not true orfalse,thenwhatisit?

THEORYOFDESCRIPTIONS

Bertrand Russell’s most important contribution to linguistics is his theory ofdescriptions. According to Russell, truth cannot be represented by commonlanguage because it is too ambiguous andmisleading.Russell claimed that in

order forphilosophy tobe freeofassumptionsandmistakes, adifferent,morethorough, typeof language is required.Russell thenclaimed that this languageshould be based on mathematical logic and appear more like a series ofmathematicalequations.Intryingtoanswerthequestionsbroughtonbythesentence“Thekingofthe

United States is bald,”Russell created his theory of descriptions. ForRussell,definite descriptions are names, phrases, or words that pertain to a single,specific object (like “that table,” “Australia,” or “Steven Spielberg”). If asentence contains definite descriptions, according to Russell, it is actually ashorthandway toexpressagroupofclaimswithinaseries.Therefore,Russellwas able to show that grammar obscures the logical form of a sentence.However, in “The king of the United States is bald,” the object that is beingdescribed isnonexistentor ambiguous (whichRussell refers toas “incompletesymbols”).

SETTHEORYANDRUSSELL’SPARADOX

AsBertrandRussellattemptedtoreducealltypesofmathematicsintologic,thenotionofa“set”becameveryimportant.Russelldefinesasetas“acollectionofmembersorelements”(inotherwords,objects).Setscanbedefinednegativelyor feature subsets,which can then be added or subtracted. For example, a setmightbeallAmericans;asetdefinednegativelymightbeallthingsthatarenotAmericans;andasubsetwithinasetmightbeallNewYorkerswithinthesetofallAmericans.WhileBertrandRussellwasnotthefirstpersontocreatesettheory(thatwas

GottlobFrege),Russellcompletelyrevolutionizedthefoundingprinciplesofthetheorywithhisintroductionof“Russell’sparadox”in1901.Russell’sparadoxdealswiththesetofeverysetthatisnotamemberofitself.

Forexample, let’s lookat a setofallof thedogs that everexisted.The setof

everydogthateverexistedisnotalsoadog,buttheredoexistsomesetsthataremembersofthemselves.Ifwelookatthesetthatismadeupofeverythingthatisnot a dog, for example, this must mean that even the set has to be includedbecausethatsetisalsonotadog.Whenonetriestothinkofasetthatismadeupofsetsthataren’tmembersof

themselves,theresultisaparadox.Why?Becauseweseeasetcontainingsetsthatarenotmembersofthemselves,andyetbytheverydefinitionoftheoriginalset(asetthatismadeupofsetsthataren’tmembersofthemselves),thismeansthatitmustalsoincludeitself.However,itsverydefinitionstatesthatitcannotincludeitself,andthereforeacontradictionappears.It is fromRussell’s paradox thatwe see the imperfections of set theory.By

calling any group of objects a set, situations that are logically impossible canappear.Russellclaimsthatinordertofixthisflaw,settheoryhastobestricter.Sets,accordingtoRussell,canonlypertaintoparticularcollectionsthatsatisfyspecific axioms (thus avoiding the impossibility and contradiction that canappear from the currentmodel). It is because of theworkofBertrandRussellthatallsettheoryworkpriortoRussellisknownasnaïvesettheory,andallsettheoryworkafterRussellisknownasaxiomaticsettheory.

PHENOMENOLOGY

Thestudyofconsciousness

Phenomenology is the study of consciousness and personal experience.Phenomenologystartedtobecomeamajorbranchofphilosophicalstudyduringthe twentieth century, particularly showcased by the works of Heidegger andSartre.However,neitherHeideggernorSartrewouldhavebeenabletoachieveasmuchastheydidifitwerenotfortheworkofEdmundHusserl,thefounderofphenomenology.

THEORIGINOFPHENOMENOLOGY

MoravianphilosopherEdmundHusserlbeganhiscareerasamathematicianandfocused on the philosophy of mathematics. While he originally believedarithmeticfollowedstrictempiricism,throughthehelpofGottlobFrege,Husserlconcludedthatcertainarithmetictruthscannotbeexplainedthroughempiricism.Inhisbook,TheLogicalInvestigations,Husserlarguedagainst“psychologism,”theideathattruthsaredependentofthepsychology(mind)ofanindividual,andasserted that truths cannot be reduced by the human mind. From this idea,Husserlbegantodevelopphenomenology.Phenomenology, according to Husserl, is the idea that consciousness has

intentionality.Thismeans thatallactsofconsciousnessaredirectedatobjects,be they material or ideal (such as mathematics). Intentional objects ofconsciousness and intentional acts of consciousness are both defined throughconsciousness. In order for one to describe the object of consciousness andcontentofconsciousness,itisalsonotnecessaryfortheobjecttoactuallyexist(allowingforsomeonetodescribewhathappenedinadreaminthesamewayhecoulddescribeasceneinabook).

WhileHusserl’s earlyworkwas based on a realist approach (believing thatwhenone’sconsciousnessperceivesanobject,itmeanstherearebothobjectsofconsciousness and the objects themselves), Husserl’s later work shifted moretoward intentionality and the study of ego.Husserl’s evolving stance and turntowardtranscendentalideaswouldcometoreinventtheverysubjecthestarted.In Husserl’s 1931 book, Ideas: A General Introduction to Pure

Phenomenology, hemakes adistinctionbetween aperson’snatural standpoint,which is the ordinary viewpoint where an individual is only aware of thosethingsfactuallypresent,andaperson’sphenomenologicalstandpoint,whereanindividual sees past the external object and comes to understand theconsciousness of the object. In order to attain a phenomenological standpoint,onemusteliminatevariousfeaturesofhisexperiencebyundergoingaseriesofphenomenologicalreductions.Husserlcreatedmanyphenomenologicalreductions;however,twoofthemost

noteworthy phenomenological reductions include epoché and the reductionproper.

EpochéHusserlclaimedthatpeopletakethevariousaspectsoftheirlives(language,

culture,gravity,theirbodies,etc.)forgranted,andthattheseaspectsarekeepingpeople in captivity. The epoché, however, is the phenomenological reductionwhereonenolongeracceptstheseaspectstobetrue.Anindividualmustattainaself-consciousnessbyseeinghimselfasnolongerapartofthethingsthathehascome to accept in the world. Husserl refers to this process as “bracketing.”Bracketingdoesnotmeandenyingtheworld’sexistence—theentirepurposeofbracketing and the epoché is to abstain from all belief, and therefore one canneitherconfirmnordenytheworld’sexistence.

TheReductionProper

While the epoché describes the method one uses to no longer accept theaccepted and to become free from the captivity of the accepted world, thereduction proper is the process of recognizing the acceptance as just that: anacceptance.Itisbybeingabletoseeanacceptanceasanacceptancethatonecanattainatranscendentalinsight.Together, the reduction proper and epoché make up the process of

phenomenological reduction. Note that the reduction proper cannot actindependentlyfromtheepoché,andviceversa.

THEMETHODOFPHENOMENOLOGICALINVESTIGATION

According to Husserl, the first step of phenomenological investigation isphenomenological reduction (through epoché and the reduction proper). Thisbracketing of everything one is aware of includes allmodes of consciousness(likeimagination,recollection,judgment,andintuition).Thenextstepisknownaseideticreduction.It issimplynotenoughtohave

consciousness. Rather, one has to make the various acts of consciousnessobtainable to a point that their very essences, the structures that cannot bechangedandareuniversal,canbeattained.Atypeofintuitionthatonecanusetodothisisknownas“Wesensschau.”InWesensschau,onehastocreatemultiplevariationsandfocusinonwhatpartofthemultiplicityremainsunchanged.Thisistheessence,foritistheoneidenticalpartthroughoutallofthevariations.The third and final step is known as transcendental reduction. ForHusserl,

phenomenologymeant returningone to his transcendental ego (the self that isrequiredfortheretobeacomplete,united,andempiricalself-consciousness)asthefoundationforcreatingmeaning.Husserlclaimedthat inorder toreachthetranscendentalego,theremustbeareversalofthetranscendentalconsciousness,

andthatwithinthisconsciousnessisthecreationoftimeawarenessthatactsasaself-constitution.While Husserl would spend the rest of his career attempting to clarify

transcendental reduction, the very idea of transcendental reduction sparkedcontroversy. As a result, a division occurred within phenomenology betweenthosewhobelievedintranscendentalreductionandthosewhorefusedtobelieveintranscendentalreduction.

PHENOMENOLOGYOFESSENCES

When students of Theodor Lipps (the creator of psychologism) in Munichdecided to follow the philosophicalwork ofHusserl instead, they leftMunichand joined with Husserl’s students in Göttingen. However, when, in 1913,Husserl published his thoughts on transcendental reduction in his book Ideas,they completely disagreed with Husserl’s theories and distanced themselvesfrom his newwork. In doing so, they created a new type of phenomenology,known as phenomenology of essences, which was based on the realistphenomenologyofHusserl’searlierwork.

NOMINALISM

Rejectingcertainelements

Inphilosophy,nominalismhastwomeanings.Themoretraditionaldefinitionofnominalism,whichcameaboutduringtheMiddleAges,involvesarejectionofuniversals, entities that can be represented by different objects. The second,moremodern,useofthewordpertainstoarejectionofabstractobjects,objectsthat are not temporal or spatial. Therefore, nominalism can be seen as theopposite of realism (the belief that universals do exist) and as the opposite ofPlatonism (the belief that abstract objects do exist). It is possible for one tobelieveinonetypeofnominalismandnottheother.Both types of nominalismdealwith antirealismbecause theyboth deny the

existenceofuniversalsorabstractobjects,andthereforealsodenytherealityofthese things. In dealing with things that are alleged to be abstract objects oruniversals,nominalismtakestwoapproaches:

1. Nominalismdeniesthattheallegedentitiesexist.2. Nominalismacceptsthattheentitiesexist,butclaimstheentitiesarenot

concreteorparticular.

ABSTRACTOBJECTS

There is no set definitionofwhat an abstract object is; however, the commonexplanation is “an object that does not exist in space or time and is causallyinert”(itisassumedthatonlyobjectsthatexistinspaceandtimecanpartakeincausalrelations).Thisdefinition,however,isnotwithoutitsflaws.Forexample,whilelanguageandgamesareabstract,theyarebothtemporal(sincelanguagescanchange,develop,andcomeintobeingatdifferenttimes).Whilephilosophers

have provided other definitions of an abstract object, nominalism is driven bytherejectionofspatiotemporalobjectsthatarecausallyinert.

UNIVERSALS

Nominalists distinguish between universals and particulars. According tonominalism’s definition, universals refer to anything that is instantiated(meaning represented throughanactual thing)bymultiple entities. If it isnot,thenitisaparticular.Bothauniversalandaparticularcaninstantiateanentity,but only a universal has the ability to be instantiated bymultiple entities. Forexample, objects that are red cannot have an instance, but with the universal“redness,”anyobjectthatisredisaninstanceofthatuniversal.Realistsconsiderproperties (like redness), kinds (like the material, gold), and relations (likebetween-ness)tobeexamplesofuniversals.Nominalismaboutuniversalsrejectsthisnotion.

TYPESOFNOMINALISMABOUTUNIVERSALS

Those who follow nominalism about universals believe that only particularsexist.Toexplaintheexistenceofrelationsorproperties,twoacceptedstrategiesappear throughoutphilosophy: thefirst is to reject that theseentitiesexist,andthe second is to accept the existence of these entities while denying that theentitiesareuniversals.

TropeTheoryOfthelatterformofarguments,oneofthemostpopulartheoriesisknownas

tropetheory.Intropetheory,onebelievesintheexistenceofproperties(therebyaccepting the existence of the entity) but believes that properties are specific

entitiesknownas“tropes.”Philosophersconsiderthesetropestobeparticulars,much like an individual peach or banana is its own particular. Therefore, theyellownessofabananaisnotconsideredtobeauniversal,butratheraspecific,orparticular,yellownessthatpertainsonlytothisbanana.Thebananapossessesthisyellowness,whichmakesitatrope,becausetheyellownessisnottheresultofauniversalbeinginstantiated.

ConceptNominalismandPredicateNominalismTwoothertypesofnominalismaboutuniversalsareconceptnominalism(also

knownasconceptualism)andpredicatenominalism.Conceptnominalismstatesthat yellowness does not exist and that an entity, such as a banana, is yellowsimplybecauseitisinlinewiththeconceptof“yellow.”Similarly,inpredicatenominalism, a banana is yellow as a result of the predicate that “yellow” isapplying to it.Therefore, there is no “yellowness,”only the applicationof thepredicateyellow.

MereologicalNominalismandClassNominalismInanothertypeofnominalismaboutuniversals,mereologicalnominalism,the

propertyofbeingyellowisthetotalofallyellowentities.Therefore,anentityisyellow because it is a part of the aggregate of those things that are yellow.Similarly,classnominalismclaims thatpropertiesareconsidered tobeclasses.Therefore,theclassofeveryyellowthingandonlyyellowthingsisthepropertyofbeingyellow.

ResemblanceNominalismResemblance nominalism claims that yellow things do not resemble each

other because of the fact that they are yellow; rather, it is the fact that theyresemble each other that makes them yellow. According to resemblancenominalism,abananaisconsideredyellowbecauseitresemblesotherthingsthatare yellow.Therefore, definite resemblance conditionsmust be satisfiedby allmembersofaspecificclass.

TYPESOFNOMINALISMABOUTABSTRACTOBJECTS

Nominalismaboutabstractobjects isbroken into two types:nominalismaboutpropositionsandnominalismaboutpossibleworlds.

NominalismaboutPropositionsEntities within nominalism about propositions can be broken into two

categories: unstructured and structured. Unstructured propositions are sets ofpossibleworlds.Withintheseworlds,functionshavethevalueofTrue(arguingthepropositionistrue)andthevalueofFalse(arguingthepropositionisfalse).Onetheoryofnominalismaboutpropositionsclaimsthattherolesconnected

with propositions are in fact played by objects that are concrete. A theorypertaining to this idea is the notion that sentences take on the role ofpropositions. Philosopher Willard van Orman Quine claimed that “eternalsentences” (sentences with a constant truth-value throughout) make for bettertruth-bearers because they are independent of place, time, speaker, etc. This,however,leadstoaproblemfornominalistsbecausetheveryideaofaneternalsentenceisanabstractobject.

SemanticFictionalismAnotheroption innominalismaboutpropositions is todenytheexistenceof

propositions and all entities that have theoretical roles. If this is the case,sentences that involve the existence of propositions that seem to be truemustactuallybefalse.Even ifasentence is falsebecause therearenopropositions,however,itcanstillbeusedasadescriptiveaid.Thisdescriptiveaidallowsonetoclarifywhathewantstosayandallowsfortherepresentationofpartsoftheworld’sstructure.

NominalismaboutPossibleWorlds

Thepossibleworldstheoryisamuch-debatedphilosophicalideathataccountsfor other realities by claiming that this world is only one of many possibleworldsthatexist.Anominalistcanassumethattherearenopossibleworldsorthatpossibleworldsarenotabstractobjects.Onenominalistapproachistobelievethatnoteverypossibleworldexists,and

thatonlyactualpossibleworldsexist.Onecanthinkofactualpossibleworldsasbeing sums of spatiotemporal objects that are related to one another,which isactuallythesumofconcreteobjects.Anothernominalistwaytolookatpossibleworldsistoviewwhatispossible

as a combination of elements (universals and particulars). According to thistheory,astateofaffairsthathasauniversalasapropertyconsistsofaparticularandauniversalcomingtogether,andastateofaffairsthatconsistsofauniversalasarelationiswhenauniversalandsomeparticularscometogether.Thereisawiderangeofpossiblecombinationsforparticularsanduniversals,andtheresultisthatsomeareactualizedwhileothersarenot.

GOTTFRIEDWILHELMLEIBNIZ(1646–1716)

Theoptimisticphilosopher

GottfriedWilhelmLeibnizwas one of themost important philosophers of theseventeenth-centuryrationalistmovement.Inadditiontohisworkinrationalism,Leibnizwasquiteversatileandmadegreatstridesinsubjectslikelogic,physics,andmathematics(heinventedcalculusindependentlyofNewtonanddiscoveredthebinarysystem).LeibnizwasbornonJuly1,1646,inLeipzig,Germany.Leibniz’sfatherwasa

professorofmoralphilosophyattheUniversityofLeipzig,andwhenGottfriedwasjustsixyearsold,hisfatherdiedandlefthispersonallibrarytotheyoungLeibniz.Inhisfather’sabsence,Leibnizlearnedreligionandmoralityfromhismother.Leibnizwasanincrediblygiftedchild.Bythetimehewastwelveyearsold,

hehadalreadytaughthimselfLatinandstartedlearningGreek,andwhenhewasfourteenyearsold,hebeganattendingtheUniversityofLeipzigandtookclassesinAristotelianphilosophy, law, logic,andscholasticphilosophy.Whenhewastwenty years old, he published his first book,On the Art of Combinations, inwhich he claimed that combinations of basic elements, such as sound, colors,letters,andnumbers,arethesourceofalldiscoveryandreasoning.After graduating from another school with a law degree, instead of further

pursuingacademia,heworked inservice fornoblemen.Heworemanyhats inthis position, including acting as a legal advisor and official historian, and hewas required to travel extensively throughout Europe. On his many travels,Leibnizmetwith several ofEurope’smost important intellectualswhile at thesame timeworking on his ownmathematical andmetaphysical problems.ThementhathadaparticularinfluenceonhimduringthesetimeswerephilosopherBaruch Spinoza and mathematician, astronomer, and physicist ChristiaanHuygens.

AllofLeibniz’swork,fromhisnumerouscontributionstomathematicstohisvast and rich philosophicalwork, shares a common themeof emphasizing thetruth.Hehoped that, by emphasizing the truth throughhiswork, hewouldbeabletoformafoundationcapableofreunitingthedividedchurch.

THEPRINCIPLESOFLEIBNIZ’SPHILOSOPHY

TherearesevenfundamentalprinciplestoLeibniz’sunderstandingofreason:

1. Identity/Contradiction:Ifapropositionistrue,itsnegationmustbefalse,andviceversa.

2. SufficientReason:Inorderforanythingtoexist,anyeventtooccur,oranytruthtobehad,therehastobeasufficientreason(thoughthisissometimesonlyknownbyGod).

3. IdentityofIndiscernibles(Leibniz’sLaw):Twothingsthataredistinctfromoneanothercannothaveeverysinglepropertyincommon.IfallpredicatespossessedbyXarealsopossessedbyY,andallpredicatespossessedbyYarealsopossessedbyX,thenXandYareidentical.Toclaimthattwothingsareindiscernibleissupposingtwonamesforthesamething.

4. Optimism:Godalwayschoosesthebest.5. Pre-EstablishedHarmony:Substancescanonlyaffectthemselves;

however,allsubstances(betheymindorbody)causallyinteractwithoneanother.ThisistheresultofGodhavingprogrammedallsubstancestoharmonizewithoneanotherinadvance.

6. Plenitude:Thebestofeverypossibleworldwouldmakeeverygenuinepossibilityareality.

7. LawofContinuity:Leibnizstatesinhislawofcontinuitythat“naturenevertakesleaps.”Leibnizclaimsthatallchangegoesthroughintermediate

changeandthatthereisaninfinityinthings.Thelawofcontinuityisusedtoprovethatnomotioncancomefromtotalrest;perceptionscomefromotherdegreesofperceptionthataretoosmalltonotice.

THEORYOFMONADS

In rejectingDescartes’s theory thatmatter,which has an essence of extension(meaning it exists in more than one dimension), is considered a substance,Leibniz created his theory of monads, which became one of his greatestcontributions to metaphysics. Leibniz claimed that only those beings that arecapableofactionandhavetrueunitycanbeconsideredasubstance.Accordingto Leibniz, monads are the elements that make up the universe. These areparticles thatareindividual,eternal,un-interacting,affectedbytheirownlaws,and have a pre-established harmony in which the entire universe is reflected.These particles are the only true substances because they have unity and arecapableofaction.Monadsarenotlikeatoms.Theyhavenospatialcharacterormaterialandare

independent from one another. Monads “know” what to do at every momentbecausetheyarepreprogrammedwithindividualinstructions(viathelawofpre-establishedharmony).Monadscanalsovaryinsize,unlikeatoms.Forexample,everyindividualpersoncanbeviewedasanindividualmonad(whichcreatesanargumentagainstfreewill).Leibniz’stheoryofmonadsgetsridofthedualismfoundinDescartes’swork,

andleadstoLeibniz’stheoryofidealism.Monadsareformsofbeing,meaningonlytheyareconsideredmind-likeentitiesandsubstance.Asaresult,thingslikematter,space,andmotionarejustphenomenathataretheresultofsubstances.

OPTIMISM

Leibniz attempted to bring religion andphilosophy together in his 1710book,Théodicée. Believing that God, who is all-powerful and all-knowing, wouldnever create a world that is imperfect or choose to create a world that isimperfectwhenthepossibilityofhavingabetteroneexists,Leibnizconcludedthatthisworldmustbethemostbalancedandbestpossibleworldtherecanbe.Therefore, according toLeibniz, the flawsof thisworldhave toexist ineverypossibleworld.Otherwise,thoseflawswouldnothavebeenincludedbyGod.Leibnizbelievedthatphilosophyisnotmeanttocontradicttheologybecause

reasonandfaitharegiftsofGod.Thus,ifanypartoffaithcannotbesupportedby reason, it has to be rejected.With this in mind, Leibniz tackled a centralcriticismofChristianity:IfGodisall-powerful,all-wise,andall-good,howdidevilcomeabout?LeibnizstatesthatGodisall-powerful,all-wise,andall-good;however, humans areGod’s creations, and as such, they have limitedwisdomand power to act. Because humans are creations that have free will, they arepredisposedtoineffectiveactions,wrongdecisions,andfalsebeliefs.Godallowsforpainandsuffering(knownasphysicalevil)andsin(knownasmoralevil)toexistbecausetheyareconsequencesthatarenecessaryof imperfection(knownasmetaphysicalevil)andsothathumanscancomparetheirimperfectiontotruegoodandcorrecttheirdecisions.

ETHICS

Determiningwhatisrightandwhatiswrong

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, involves understanding what makesone’s conduct right and what makes it wrong. Ethics is much bigger thanmorality, however.Whilemorality dealswithmoral codes and the practice ofspecific acts, ethics not only touches on allmoral behaviors and theories, butalso on one’s philosophy of life. Ethics deals with questions such as how aperson should act, what people think is right, how an individual uses andpracticeshismoralknowledge,andtheverymeaningof“right.”

NORMATIVEETHICS

Normativeethicsattemptstounderstandethicalactionbycreatingasetofrules(or norms) that govern action and human conduct. Normative ethics looks athowthingsshouldbe,howoneshouldvaluethings,whatactionsarerightversuswhatactionsarewrong,andwhichthingsaregoodversuswhichthingsarebad.Followingarethreetypesofnormativeethicaltheories.

ConsequentialismMoralityofanactionisbasedontheresultsoroutcomeoftheaction.Ifthere

isagoodoutcome, thenanactionisconsideredmorallyright; if there isabadoutcome, then an action is considered morally wrong. In consequentialism,philosophersexaminewhatmakesaconsequenceagoodconsequence,howonecanjudgeaconsequenceandwhoshoulddothejudging,andwhogainsthemostfrom a moral action. Examples of consequentialism include hedonism,utilitarianism,andegoism.

Deontology

Insteadoflookingattheconsequencesofactions,deontologylooksathowtheactions themselves can be right andwrong. Thosewho believe in deontologyclaimthatoneshouldtakeintoconsiderationfactorssuchastherightsofothersand one’s own dutywhenmaking decisions. Types of deontology include thenatural rights theories of John Locke and Thomas Hobbes, which claim thathumans have universal and natural rights; the divine command theory, whichstates thatGod commandsmorally right actions and that an action ismorallyright when it is performed as a duty or obligation; and Immanuel Kant’scategorical imperative,whichargued thatonemustactbasedonduty,and thatrightnessandwrongnessarebasedonthemotivesoftheindividualandnottheconsequences.AccordingtoKant’scategoricalimperative,apersonshouldthinkof his actions (and therefore act) as if the motivating principle of that actionshouldbeconsideredauniversallaw.

VirtueEthicsInvirtueethics,philosophers lookat the inherentcharacterofan individual.

Virtueethicsseeksoutvirtues,whicharethebehaviorsandhabitsthatallowonetohaveagoodlifeorreachastateofwell-being.Italsoprovidescounseltofixconflictsbetweenvirtuesandclaimsthatinordertohaveagoodlife,onemustpractice these virtues for his entire life. Examples of virtue ethics includeeudaimonia, which was created by Aristotle and states that an action isconsidered“right”when it leads towell-beingandcanbeattained through thedailypracticeofvirtues;agent-based theories,whichclaimthatvirtue isbasedon common-sense intuitions regarding admirable traits and that these can beidentified by examining those people whom we admire; and ethics of care,which claims morality and virtues should be based on virtues that areexemplifiedbywomen (such as the ability to nurture, havepatience, and takecareofothers).

META-ETHICS

Meta-ethics examines ethical judgments and specifically tries to understandstatements, attitudes, judgments, and ethical properties. Meta-ethics is notconcerned with evaluating whether or not a specific choice is good or bad.Rather,itexaminesthenatureandmeaningoftheissue.Therearetwotypesofmeta-ethicalviews:moralrealismandmoralantirealism.

MoralRealismMoral realism is the belief that there are objectivemoral values.Therefore,

according to this meta-ethical viewpoint, evaluative statements are actuallyfactual claims, andwhether these claims are true or false is independent fromone’s beliefs and feelings. This is known as a cognitivist view, wherepropositionsthatarevalidareconveyedasethicalsentences,whichcaneitherbetrueorfalse.Examplesofmoralrealisminclude:

Ethicalnaturalism,thebeliefthatwehaveempiricalknowledgeofobjectivemoralproperties(however,thesecanthenbereducedtononethicalproperties,andthereforeethicalpropertiescanbereducedtonaturalproperties).Ethicalnon-naturalism,thebeliefthatethicalstatementsrepresentpropositionsthatareimpossibletodeduceintononethicalstatements.

MoralAntirealismAccording tomoral antirealism, there are no such things as objectivemoral

values.Therearethreetypesofmoralantirealism:

1. Ethicalsubjectivism(basedonthenotionthatethicalstatementsareactuallysubjectiveclaims)

2. Noncognitivism(thenotionthatethicalstatementsarenotgenuineclaims)

3. Theideathatethicalstatementsaremistakenobjectiveclaims(whichisexpressedthroughmoralskepticism,thebeliefthatnobodycanhavemoralknowledge,ormoralnihilism,thebeliefthatethicalstatementsareusuallyfalse).

DESCRIPTIVEETHICS

Descriptive ethics is free of any values and looks at ethics through theobservations of actual choices made. Descriptive ethics looks at the beliefspeoplehavewithregardtomorality,andthereexistsanimplicationthattheoriesofconductorvaluearereal.Thepurposeofdescriptiveethicsisnottoexaminehow reasonable a moral norm is, or to provide any sort of guidance. Rather,descriptiveethicscomparesethicalsystems(likethoseofdifferentsocieties,thepastandpresent,etc.)andcomparesone’srulesofconductthatexplainanactualaction with the ethics that one says he believes in. It is for this reason thatdescriptive ethics is frequently used by anthropologists, historians, andpsychologists.

APPLIEDETHICS

Applied ethics attempts to bring ethical theory into real-life situations and isoften used in creating public policy. Generally speaking, in applied ethics,approaches that are very strict and based on principles can solve particularproblems,cannotbeapplieduniversally,andcansometimesbeimpossibletoputintoeffect.Appliedethicscanbeusedtoexploresuchquestionsaswhathumanrightsare,whetherabortionsareimmoral,whatrightsanimalshave,etc.Therearemanydifferenttypesofappliedethics,includingmedicalethics(howmoraljudgments and values apply tomedicine), legal ethics (ethics related to those

who practice law), and media ethics (the ethical issues that pertain toentertainment,journalism,andmarketing).

PHILOSOPHYOFSCIENCE

Whatisscience?

Indiscussingthephilosophyofscience,philosophersgenerallyfocusonnaturalsciences like biology, chemistry, astronomy, physics, and earth science, andexamine the implications, assumptions, and foundations that result from thisscience.Generallyspeaking,thecriteriaforscienceare:

1. Thecreationofhypotheses.Thesehypothesesmustmeetthelogicalcriteriaofcontingency(meaninglogicallyspeaking,theyarenotnecessarilytrueorfalse),falsifiability(meaningtheyhavetheabilitytobeprovenfalse),andtestability(meaningtherearerealchancesthatthehypothesescouldbeestablishedastrueorasfalse).

2. Agroundinginempiricalevidence.3. Useofthescientificmethod.

THEDEMARCATIONPROBLEM

AccordingtophilosopherKarlPopper,thecentralquestioninthephilosophyofscience is known as the demarcation problem. Put simply, the demarcationproblem is how one can distinguish between science and nonscience (thisquestionalsodealswithpseudoscience inparticular).To thisday, there is stillnot a generally accepted account of the demarcation problem, and some evenfind it to be insignificant or find it unsolvable.While logical positivists, whocombined empiricism with logic, tried to ground science in observation andclaimedthatanythingthatisnonobservationalisnonscience(andmeaningless),Popperclaimedthatthemainpropertyofscienceisfalsifiability.

PhilosophicalDefinitions

FALSIFIABILITY: Inorder forahypothesis tobeacceptedas true,andbeforeanyhypothesiscanbeacceptedasascientifictheoryorscientifichypothesis,ithastobedisprovable.

Inotherwords,forPopper,anyscientificclaimcouldbeproventobefalse.If,after extensive effort, no such proof can be found, then itmustmean that theclaimismostlikelytrue.

THEVALIDITYOFSCIENTIFICREASONING

Scientific reasoning can be grounded in many different ways to show thattheoriesarevalid.

InductionItcanbedifficultforascientisttostatethatalawisuniversallytruebecause

evenifeverytestbringsbackthesameresults,thatdoesn’tnecessarilymeanthatfuturetestswillalsohavethesameresults.Itisforthisreasonthatscientistsuseinduction.According to inductive reasoning, if a situation holds true in everyobservedcase,thenitholdstrueinallcases.

EmpiricalVerificationScientific claims need evidence in order to back up theories or models.

Therefore,thepredictionsthatscientifictheoriesandmodelscanmakemustbeinagreementwiththeevidencethathasalreadybeenobserved(andobservationsareultimatelyresultscomingfromthesenses).Observationshavetobeagreedupon by others and be repeatable, and predictions must be specific so that a

scientist can falsify a theory ormodel (which implies the prediction) with anobservation.

TheDuhem-QuineThesisandOccam’sRazorThe Duhem-Quine thesis states that it is not possible to test a theory or

hypothesis in complete isolationbecause in order for one to empirically test ahypothesis, one must involve other background assumptions. A result of thisthesis is thenotion that any theory canhave the ability to be compatiblewithempirical information if enough ad hoc hypotheses are included. It is for thisreasonthatOccam’srazor(thenotionthatthesimplestofexplanationsshouldbechosen among competing theories) is used in science. In agreeing with theDuhem-Quinethesis,KarlPoppershiftedfromfavoringanaivefalsificationtofavoring the theory that scientific theories should be falsifiable, meaning if ahypothesiscannotcreatetestablepredictions,itisnotconsideredscience.

THEORYDEPENDENCE

Basicobservationscanbeinterpretedindifferentwaysbasedonanindividual’stheories.Forexample,while it iscommonknowledge today thatEarth rotates,earlierscientistsbelievedthesunmovedandEarthstayedstill.Therefore,whenan observation (which involves cognition and perception) is interpreted by atheory, it isreferredtoas theory-laden.AccordingtophilosopherandphysicistThomasKuhn,itisimpossibletoisolateahypothesisfromthetheory’sinfluence(which isgrounded inobservation).Kuhnstates thatnewparadigms(basedonobservations) are chosen when they do a better job than older paradigms inexplainingscientificproblems.

COHERENTISM

Accordingtocoherentism,theoriesandstatementscanbejustifiedastheresultofbeingapartofacoherentsystem.Thissystemcanpertaintothebeliefsofaparticularscientistortothescientificcommunity.

PSEUDOSCIENCE

Pseudoscience refers to those theories and doctrines that fail to follow thescientificmethod.Essentially,pseudoscienceisnonsciencethatposesasscience.Whiletheoriessuchasintelligentdesign,homeopathy,andastrologymayserveother purposes, they cannot be considered a true type of science because theycannot be falsified and their methods conflict with results that are generallyaccepted. The disciplines used for investigating sciences simply cannot beapplied to these types of theories. This is not to say that all nonscience isconsidered to be pseudoscience, however. Religion and metaphysics are twosuchexamplesofnonscientificphenomena.

BARUCHSPINOZA(1632–1677)

Thenaturalisticphilosopher

Baruch Spinoza is considered one of the great rationalist philosophers of theseventeenthcentury.SpinozawasbornonNovember24,1632,inAmsterdam’sPortuguese-Jewishcommunity.Spinozawasanincrediblygiftedstudent,anditisbelievedthathiscongregationwasgroominghimtobecomearabbi.Whenhewasseventeenyearsold,however,Spinozahadtostophisstudiestohelprunhisfamily’s business. On July 27, 1656, Spinoza was excommunicated fromAmsterdam’s Sephardic community for reasons still unknown (though it isbelievedthatitwasaresponsetoSpinoza’semergingthoughtsthatwouldcometodefinehisphilosophy).The philosophy ofBaruch Spinozawas incredibly radical, and he had very

naturalisticviewsonmorality,God,andhumanbeings.SpinozadeniedthatthesoulisimmortalandrejectedtheideathatGodisprovidential.Instead,hearguedthattheLawwasnotgivenbyGodorbindingonJewsanylonger.By1661,Spinozahadlostall faithandreligiouscommitmentandno longer

lived inAmsterdam.While living inRijnsburg, he composed several treatises;however, only his 1663 exposition on Descartes’s Principles of Philosophywouldbepublishedunderhisnameduringhislifetime.By1663,Spinozabeganto write his most profound philosophical text, Ethics; however, he stoppedwritingittoworkonhiscontroversialTheological-PoliticalTreatise,whichwaspublished anonymously in 1670. The controversy surrounding Theological-PoliticalTreatisemadeSpinozaabstainfrompublishinganymoreofhiswork,andin1676,SpinozametwithLeibniztodiscusshisrecentlycompletedEthics,whichhedarednotpublish.Uponhisdeathin1677,Spinoza’sfriendspublishedhiswritingposthumously;however,hiswritingwasbannedthroughoutHolland.

SPINOZA’STHEOLOGICAL-POLITICALTREATISE

Inhismostcontroversialwork,Theological-PoliticalTreatise,BaruchSpinozaattempted to show the truths behind religion and scripture, and undermine thepoliticalpowerthatreligiousauthoritiesheldoverthepeople.

Spinoza’sViewonReligion

SpinozacritiquednotonlyJudaism,butallorganizedreligions,andclaimed thatphilosophymustbeseparate fromtheology,especiallywithregardtoreadingscripture.Thepurposeoftheology,accordingto Spinoza, is to maintain obedience, while the purpose ofphilosophyistounderstandrationaltruth.

For Spinoza, “Love thy neighbor” is God’s onlymessage, and religion hasturned into superstition, with words on a page meaning more than what thewords represent. To Spinoza, the Bible was not a divine creation; rather, oneshould look at it like they would any other historical text, and because (hebelieved)itwaswrittenovermanycenturies,itscontentisunreliable.Miracles,accordingtoSpinoza,donotexistandallhavenaturalexplanations;however,heclaimed, people choose to not seek out such explanations. While Spinozabelieved that prophesies did come from God, he claimed that they were notprivilegedknowledge.Spinozaargued that inorder to showGodrespect, theBibleneeds tobe re-

examinedinordertofinda“truereligion.”Herejectedtheideaof“chosen-ness”found in Judaism, andargued thatpeople areon the same level and that thereshouldbeone,nationalreligion.Spinozathenrevealedhispoliticalagendaand

claimed that the ideal form of government is a democracy, because in ademocracythereistheleastabuseofpower.

SPINOZA’SETHICS

Inhismostextensiveandsignificantwork,Ethics,BaruchSpinozatakesonthetraditionalideaofGod,religion,andhumannature.

GodandNatureIn his Theological-Political Treatise, Spinoza began to describe his beliefs

thatGodisnatureandthatnatureisGod,andthatitisincorrecttoassumethatGod has human characteristics. In Ethics, Spinoza further expands upon histhoughtsonGodandnature.Everythingthatexistsintheuniverse,accordingtoSpinoza,isapartofnature(andtherefore,God),andallthingsinnaturefollowidentical basic laws. Spinoza takes a naturalistic approach (which was quiteradicalatthetime)andclaimsthathumanscanbeunderstoodandexplainedinthesamewaysasanythingelseinnature,forhumansarenodifferentfromthenaturalworld.Spinoza rejected the idea that God created the world out of nothing at a

particulartime.Instead,heclaimedthatoursystemofrealitycanbeconsidereditsowngroundandthatthereisnosupernaturalelement,justnatureandGod.

TheHumanIn the second part of Ethics, Spinoza focuses on the nature and origin of

humans.SpinozaclaimedthatthetwoattributesofGodthathumansareawareof having are thought and extension. Modes of thought include ideas, whilemodes of extension include physical bodies, and the two act as separateessences.Bodilyeventsaretheresultsofacausalseriesofotherbodilyeventsanddeterminedonlyby the laws that correspond to extension,while ideas are

onlytheresultofotherideasandfollowtheirownsetoflaws.Therefore,thereisnotanytypeofcausalinteractionbetweenthementalandthephysical;however,they are correlated and parallel to one another, so that with every mode ofextension,thereisacorrespondingmodeofthought.Because thought and extension are attributes ofGod, they are twoways in

which one can understand nature and God. Unlike Descartes’s dualism,Spinoza’stheorydoesnotclaimthatthereexisttwoseparatesubstances.Rather,thoughtandextensionaretwoexpressionsofonething:ahuman.

KnowledgeSpinozaclaimedthat,likeGod,themindofahumanhasideas.Theseideas,

whicharebasedonperceptual,sensory,andqualitative(likepainandpleasure)information,donot leadone tohave trueor adequateknowledgeof theworldbecause they are being perceived through the order of nature. Thismethod ofperception is a never-ending source of error and is referred to as “knowledgefromrandomexperience.”AccordingtoSpinoza,thesecondtypeofknowledgeisreason.Whenonehas

anadequateidea,heattainsitthrougharationalandorderlymanner,andtheseideas have a true understanding of a thing’s essence. An adequate idea ofsomething is able to grasp all of the causal connections and show that it is acertainway,whyitisacertainway,andhowitisacertainway.Onecanneverhaveanadequateideathroughsenseexperiencealone.Spinoza’s notion of the adequate idea shows a great optimism in human

capabilities unlike those seen before. According to Spinoza, humans have thecapabilitytoknowallthereistoknowofnatureand,therefore,knowallthereistoknowofGod.

ActionsandPassionsSpinozawent togreat lengths toprove thathumansareapartofnature.By

showing this,Spinoza implied thathumansdonothave freedom, for themind

andideasarearesultofacausalseriesofideasthatfollowthought(whichisanattributefromGod),andactionsarecausedbynaturalevents.Spinoza then divides affects (emotions like anger, love, pride, envy, etc.,

whichalsofollownature)intopassionsandactions.Whenaneventiscausedasthe result of our nature (like knowledge or adequate ideas), then the mind isacting.Whenaneventwithinourselvesoccursastheresultofsomethingoutsideof our nature, thenwe are being acted upon and being passive.Regardless ofwhetherweareactingorbeingactedupon,achangeoccurswithinourmentalorphysicalcapacities.Spinozaclaimedthatallbeingshaveanessenceofstrivingtopersevere,andthatanaffectisachangeinthispower.According to Spinoza, humans should strive to free themselves of passions

and become active. However, since being free of passions is not entirelypossible,humansmusttrytorestrainandmoderatethem.Inbecomingactiveandrestraining passions, humans become “free” in the sense thatwhatever occurswillbetheresultofone’sownnature,andnotfromexternalforces.Thisprocesswillalsofreehumansfromtheupsanddownsoflife.ForSpinoza,humansneedto free themselves from relyingon imagination and the senses. Passions showhowexternalthingscanaffectourpowers.

VirtueandHappinessInEthics,Spinozaarguedthathumansshouldcontrolevaluationsandattempt

tominimizetheinfluenceofpassionsandexternalobjects.Thisisdonethroughvirtue, which Spinoza describes as the pursuit and understanding of adequateideasandknowledge.Intheend,thismeansstrivingforknowledgeofGod(thethirdtypeofknowledge).KnowledgeofGodcreatesaloveforobjectsthatisnotapassion,butblessedness.Thisistheunderstandingoftheuniverse,aswellasvirtueandhappiness.

PHILOSOPHYOFRELIGION

Understandingreligion

Thephilosophicalstudyofreligiondealswiththenotionsofmiracles,prayer,thenatureandexistenceofGod,howreligionandothervalue-systemsrelatetooneanother,andtheproblemofevil.Thephilosophyofreligionisnottheology,soitdoesnotconcernitselfwiththequestionof“WhatisGod?”Rather,philosophyofreligionlooksatthethemesandconceptsfoundinreligioustraditions.

RELIGIOUSLANGUAGE

Religiouslanguagecanoftenbeviewedasmysterious,imprecise,andvague.Inthe twentieth century, philosophers began to challenge the standard religiouslanguage and attempted to reject any claims thatwere nonempirical, claimingthemtobemeaningless.Thisschoolofthoughtwasknownaslogicalpositivism.According to logical positivists, only those claims that contained empirical

inferences or were frommathematics and logic could be deemedmeaningful.Thismeantthatmanyreligiousstatements,eventhosethatpertainedtoGod(like“YahwehisacompassionateandgraciousGod”),couldnotbeverifiedandwerethereforedeemedmeaningless.In the second half of the twentieth century, asmany philosophers began to

findtheclaimsoflogicalpositivismtobeproblematicandtheworkinlanguageby Ludwig Wittgenstein and the work in naturalism by Willard van OrmanQuinebecameincreasinglymorepopular,logicalpositivismbegantowane.Bythe1970s,theschoolofthoughthadpracticallycollapsed,openingthedoorfornewtheoriesandinterpretationsofreligiouslanguage.After logical positivism, there were two schools of thought pertaining to

religious language: realism and antirealism. Those who believed in realism

believed that the languagecorresponds towhat actuallyhappened,while thosewhobelieved in antirealismbelieved that the languagedoesnot correspond toreality(rather,religiouslanguagereferstohumanbehaviorandexperience).

THEPROBLEMOFEVIL

Themostsignificantargumentagainsttheismisknownas“theproblemofevil.”Theproblemofevilcanbestatedinmanydifferentways:

TheLogicalProblemofEvilFirst identified by Epicurus, the logical problem of evil is perhaps the

strongestobjection to theexistenceofGod.According toEpicurus, thereexistfourpossibilities:

1. IfGodwishestopreventevilandisnotableto,thenGodisfeeble.2. IfGodisabletogetridofevilbutdoesnotwantto,thenGodis

malevolent.3. IfGoddoesnotwishtogetridofevilandisnotabletogetridofevil,then

Godismalevolentandfeeble,andtherefore,heisnotGod.4. IfGodwantstogetridofevilandisabletogetridofevil,thenwhydoes

evilexistintheworld,andwhyhasGodnotgottenridofit?

St.ThomasAquinasrespondedtothelogicalproblemofevilbystatingthatitis not clearwhether or not the absenceof evilwouldmake theworld a betterplace,forwithoutevil,therewouldbenomeaningtokindness,justice,fairness,orself-sacrifice.Anotherargumentagainstthelogicalproblemofevil,knownasthe“unknownpurposedefense,”statesthatsinceGodcanneverbetrulyknown,humanshavelimitationswhentryingtoguessGod’smotivations.

TheEmpiricalProblemofEvil

CreatedbyDavidHume,theempiricalproblemofevilclaimsthatifonewerenotexposedtopriorcommitmentssuchasreligiousconvictions,theexperienceofevil in theworldwould leadone toatheismand thenotionofaGod that isgoodandomnipotentcouldnotexist.

TheProbabilisticArgumentfromEvilThis is the argument that theveryexistenceof evil isproof that there isno

God.

THEODICY

TheodicyisabranchofphilosophythattriestoreconcilethebeliefinaGodthatis benevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent with the existence of evil andsuffering.TheodicyacceptsthatGodisabletoendevilandthatevilexists,andtries to understandwhyGod has not stopped it. One of themostwell-knowntheodicy theories isLeibniz’s claim that thisworld is themostoptimal amongotherpossibleworldsandthatbecauseitwascreatedbyaGodthatisperfect,itmustbethemostbalancedandbestpossibleworldtherecanbe.

ARGUMENTSFORTHEEXISTENCEOFGOD

Thereare threemain typesofargumentsfor theexistenceofGod:ontological,cosmological,andteleological.

OntologicalArgumentsOntological arguments use a priori abstract reasoning to claim that the

concept of God and the ability to speak of God implies that Godmust exist.When we speak about God, we are talking about a perfect being; nothing is

greater.SincewewouldbebetterhavingaGodthatexistsratherthanaGodthatdoesn’tandwerefertoGodasaperfectbeing,weimplythatGodexists.Ontologicalargumentsareflawed,fortheycanbeusedtoshowtheexistence

ofanyperfectthing.AccordingtoKant,existenceisapropertyofconceptsandnotofobjects.

TheCosmologicalArgumentThe cosmological argument claims that since the world and universe exist,

thisimpliesthattheywerebroughtintoexistence,andarekeptinexistence,byabeing.Theremustbea“firstmover,”whichisGod,becauseaninfiniteregressissimplynotpossible.Therearetwotypesofcosmologicalarguments:

1. Modal(whichstatesthattheuniversemightnothaveexistedandthereforethereneedstobeanexplanationforwhyitdoes)

2. Temporal(whichstatesthattheremusthavebeenapointintimewhentheuniversebegantoexist,andthisexistencemusthavebeencausedbysomethingoutsideoftheuniverse,whichisGod)

TheTeleologicalArgumentThe teleological argument, which is also referred to as intelligent design,

claimsthatbecausethereisorderintheworldanduniverse,theworldmusthavebeencreatedbyabeingthathadthespecificpurposeofcreatinglifeinmind.

MIRACLES

In philosophy of religion, there is much debate over what can and cannot beconsidered a miracle. When discussing miracles, philosophers refer to eventsthatareunusualandcannotbeexplainedthroughnaturalcauses.Theseevents,accordingtosomephilosophers,mustthereforebetheresultofadivinity.

DavidHumeobjected to thenotionofmiracles,calling thema“violation tothelawsofnature.”Humearguedthat theonlyevidencetosupportmiraclesiswitness testimony, while evidence to support the laws of nature is acquiredthrough the uniform experience of people over time. Therefore, a miracle’switnesstestimonyneedstobegreaterthanthesupportforthelawsofnature,andsincethere isnotsufficientevidencetoshowthis, it isunreasonable tobelievethatthesetypesofviolationstothelawsofnaturecanoccur.Others have objected toHume’s take onmiracles, however, believing them

nottobeviolationstothelawsofnature.Thesephilosophersarguethatthelawsof nature describe what is likely to occur under specific conditions, andtherefore,miracles are just exceptions to the usual processes. Philosophers ofreligionarguethatHumehasaninadequateunderstandingofprobabilityandthatlooking at the frequency of an event occurring is not enough to determineprobability.

Platowasoneof the foundational figures inWesternphilosophy.Hismusingstooktheformofdialogues—discussionsthatrangedacrosstopicsasdiverseasart,ethics,metaphysics,andtheatre.Plato is perhaps most well known for his Allegory of the Cave,althoughhisworkrangedfarbeyondthisonethoughtexperiment.

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Thesymbolofyinandyang isacentralonetothephilosophyofTaoism. Tao, which means “way,” is concerned primarily withunderstandingandyieldingtothenaturalorderandebbandflowofexistence.

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Socrateswas perhaps the firstWestern philosopher to focus onthe value of humanexperience, insteadof simply examining theworldfromadistance.Heplayedaroleineducatingmanyofthebrightestminds of his age, and his development of the Socraticmethodwasoneofthekeymilestonesinallofhumanthoughtandknowledge.

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DavidHumewasaleadingproponentofempiricism,theideathatvalid knowledge comes from experience. This basis in rational,empirical study set the stage for many of the scientific andphilosophicaladvancesofthelatereighteenthcentury.

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In philosophical terms, Buddhism examines the human failingsthatBuddhistsbelieveleadtocontinualrebirthinthe“falseworld”that we all inhabit. In order to escape the cycle of death andreincarnation,itisnecessarytoquenchpassionanddesire,andtoseetheworldclearlyforwhatitis—theelusiveenlightenment.

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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was one of the most influential andimportant seventeenth-century philosophers, a key voice in thedevelopmentofrationalism.Hewastalentedacrossawiderangeof disciplines, however, and is credited with inventing calculusindependentofSirIsaacNewton,alongwithdiscoveringthebinarysystem.

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This image is an encapsulation of Descartes’s famous “Cogitoergo sum”dictum— “I think; therefore I am.”This argumentwasthecornerstoneofDescartes’sphilosophy,andaccepting thisasfact allowed him to move outward and attempt to prove theexistenceofGod,a“philosophicalperfection.”

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St.ThomasAquinaswrotean incrediblenumberofphilosophicaltexts, which touched on many different subjects, ranging fromnatural philosophy and thework of Aristotle to theology and theBible.Hismost famousandextensivework,SummaTheologiae,iswhereAquinas’smostfamousphilosophicaltext,theFiveWays,isfound.Inthis,AquinassetsouttoprovetheexistenceofGod.

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