PETROLOGY OF MANSEHRA GRANITIC COMPLEX ...

PETROLOGY OF MANSEHRA GRANITIC COMPLEX, HAZARA AREA, NORTHWESTERN HIMALAYA, PAKISTAN

By

Mustansar Naeem M.Sc. (Applied Geology)

A thesis submitted to the University of the Punjab in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Under the Supervision of

Prof. Dr. Nasir Ahmad M.Sc. (Pb.), Ph.D. (U.K)

Prof. Dr. M. Nawaz Chaudhary

M.Sc. (Pb.), Ph.D. (U.K)

Prof. Dr. Jean-Pierre Burg ETH, University of Zurich, Switzerland

INSTITUTE OF GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB LAHORE, PAKISTAN

2012

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DEDICATION

To

the sweat memories of my beloved parents and grandparents &

my wife who suffered a lot throuout the course of my reseach

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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL-1

It is hereby certified that this thesis is based on the results of experimental work carried out by Mr. Mustansar Naeem under my supervision. I have personally gone through all the data/results/materials reported in the manuscript and certify their correctness/ authenticity. I further certify that the materials included in this thesis have not been used in part or full in a manuscript already submitted or in the process of submission in partial/complete fulfillment for the award of any other degree from any other institution. Mr. Mustansar Naeem has fulfilled all conditions established by the University of the Punjab for the submission of this dissertation and I endorse its evaluation for the award of PhD degree through the official procedure of the University.

SUPERVISOR

Nasir Ahmad, PhD Professor

Institute of Geology University of the Punjab

Lahore- Pakistan

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It is hereby certified that this thesis is based on the results of experimental work carried out by Mr. Mustansar Naeem under my supervision. I have personally gone through all the data/results/materials reported in the manuscript and certify their correctness/ authenticity. I further certify that the materials included in this thesis have not been used in part or full in a manuscript already submitted or in the process of submission in partial/complete fulfillment for the award of any other degree from any other institution. Mr. Mustansar Naeem has fulfilled all conditions established by the University of the Punjab for the submission of this dissertation and I endorse its evaluation for the award of PhD degree through the official procedure of the University.

SUPERVISOR

Muhammad Nawaz Ch., PhDProfessor Emeritus

Institute of Geology,University of the Punjab

Lahore-Pakistan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deep gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Dr. Nasir Ahmad,

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Nawaz Chaudhry and Professor J. P. Burg for their

continuous encouragement, expert guidance, helpful suggestions and well-

focused research program.

I am extremly grateful to Prof. Dr. J.P.Burg, Ur. S., O. Müntener and A. Ulianov

for extending generous help regarding CL imaging and LA ICP-MS analysis for

U-Pb zircon systematics.

Financial support of the Higher Education Commission, under indigenous Ph.D.

Scheme is gratefully acknowledged. Prof. Dr. Izhar ul Haque Khan, University of

Education, Lahore is highly appreciated for providing generous analytical facilities

during the course of this study.

I express my gratitude to Professor Dr. Akhtar Ali Saleemi Director Institute of

Geology, University of the Punjab Lahore, for help, support and usefull

suggestions.

Special recognition goes to my students (Ahmed Humanyun Imtiaz, Hafiz Asif

Saleem, Sami Mahmood, Umar Hayat, Zubair Khaliq Chattah, Nasar Ahmed,

Muhammad Akram and Farooq Rehman) for their assistance during field

sampling.

Services of Mr. Sami Ullah Khan are acknowledged for the preparation of thin

sections. I am grateful to Mr. Tasneem Ahmed Lodhi for his help in the

preparation of maps and figures.

I would like to express my heartiest gratitude to my wife and children for their

patience and encouragement during this research work.

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ABSTRACT

The Mansehra Granitic Complex (MGC) is mainly comprised of Mansehra

Granite (MG), Hakale Granite (HG), microgranitic (MIG) and leucogranitic (LG)

bodies along with pegmatites and aplites. Geochemical classification diagrams

place these granites in the high calc-alkaline, quartz-rich, peraluminous granitoid

field. The Mansehra Granite is a porphyritic and massive body that is locally

foliated, whereas the Hakale Granite is sub-porphyritic to non-porphyritic pluton.

The Susalgali Granite Gneiss is sheared Mansehra Granite. Harker’s variation

diagrams show that MG and HG are derived from magmas of the common non-

homogeneous source rock Tanawal Formation through fractional crystallization

process in a closed system without considerable contamination. Field

relationships, geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of the MGC reveal

the peraluminous S-type nature of this Complex.

The zircon saturation temperature of MG (749-852 ºC), HG (709-779 ºC), LG

(749-754 ºC) and MIG (692-696 ºC) is comparable with crystallization

temperatures of the peraluminous S-type Lesser Himalayan Indian granites

(~670-817 ºC). The geochemical characteristics of the MG revealed that the

magma was probably generated through biotite dehydration melting of the

metasediments of Tanawal Formation at pressure > 5 kbr and temperature > 700

ºC, while HG melt was most likely originated at relatively shallower crustal level

and lower temperature by muscovite fluid-absent melting of pelites. The

occurrence of andalusite in the contact aureole of Mansehra Granite, association

of perthitic microcline along negative Nb, Sr and Ti anomalies in spidergrams and

higher Rb/Sr ratios in granitic rocks of the MGC may reveal the upper crustal

signatures and low pressure shallow emplacement (< 15 km) of these bodies.

The leucogranitic bodies associated with the MGC are most likely the products of

Na2O-rich residual melt of the MG, whereas microgranites may have been

derived from boron-rich residual magma of the HG by insurgent boiling and

subsequent quenching.

In the light of U-Pb zircon systematics of the MGC, a middle Mesoproterozoic to

early Neoproterozoic age (ca. 1300-985 Ma) has been proposed for the granite

protolith in Hazara area. Whereas, the inherited age components of ca. 985-920,

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880-800 and 690-500 Ma may be interpreted as the ages of post-depositional

metamorphic fabric development in the source Tanawal Formation. U-Pb zircon

dating of Lesser Himalayan granites also revealed inherited age components at

ca. 980 ca. 800 Ma and ca. 700-500 Ma. The age segments of ca. 490 Ma, ca.

475 Ma and ca. 466 Ma (middle to upper Ordovician) represent the intrusive ages

of the MG, LG and HG, respectively. The mean age of Mansehra Granite (ca.

480 Ma) is younger than the reported Rb/Sr age of 516±16 Ma (Le Fort et al.,

1980). The U-Pb zircon systematics of Mansehra Granite is comparable with the

reported Rb/Sr and U-Pb zircon ages of the Himalayan granites and gneisses.

Moreover, the depletion of Ba, Sr, Nb and Ti in spidergrams of the MGC allows

correlation with the early Paleozoic (500±25 Ma) Lesser Himalayan S-type

granites.

According to the similarity of mineralogical, geochemical, structural features and

U-Pb zircon dating of the MGC (ca. 466-490 Ma) with the peraluminous S-type

Himalayan granites, it may be assumed that Mansehra Complex is associated

with the Pan African orogeny. However, convincing evidence is lacking. Hence,

the genesis of MGC can be better explained by emplacement of Cambro-

Ordovician granites along the northern margin of Gondwana.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL‐1 ................................................................................................................. II

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL‐2 ................................................................................................................ III

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL‐3 ................................................................................................................ IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... V

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................... VIII

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... X

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... XI

1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Previous work .......................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Objectives of the study ........................................................................................................... 3 1.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 4

1.4.1 Field sampling .................................................................................................................... 4 1.4.2 Sample preparation ............................................................................................................ 4 1.4.3 Separation of zircon crystals ............................................................................................. 4 1.4.4 Analytical techniques ......................................................................................................... 5

2 GEOLOGY OF THE AREA ................................................................................................................. 7

2.1 The Tanawal Formation ......................................................................................................... 7 2.2 The Mansehra Granitic Complex .......................................................................................... 8

2.2.1 The Mansehra Granite ....................................................................................................... 8 2.2.2 The Hakale Granite .......................................................................................................... 15 2.2.3 The Microgranites ............................................................................................................ 17 2.2.4 The Leucogranites ........................................................................................................... 17 2.2.5 The Karkale and Sukal Granites .................................................................................... 18 2.2.6 The Pegmatites and aplites ............................................................................................ 18

2.3 Contact between Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation ......................................... 18 2.4 Contact between Mansehra Granite and Hakale Granite ................................................ 18 2.5 The Migmatites ...................................................................................................................... 19 2.6 The Hornfelses ...................................................................................................................... 23

3 TECTONIC SETTINGS .................................................................................................................... 24

3.1 Tectonic Discrimination Diagrams ...................................................................................... 27

4 PETROGRAPHY OF THE MGC ....................................................................................................... 36

4.1 The Mansehra Granite ......................................................................................................... 36 4.2 The Hakale Granite .............................................................................................................. 39 4.3 The Microgranites ................................................................................................................. 40 4.4 The Leucogranites ................................................................................................................ 41 4.5 The Aplites ............................................................................................................................. 41 4.6 The contact between Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation .................................. 42 4.7 The contact between Mansehra Granite and Hakale Granite ......................................... 42 4.8 The Tanawal Formation ....................................................................................................... 43

4.8.1 The pelites ........................................................................................................................ 43 4.8.2 The psammites ................................................................................................................. 44

4.9 The Mica Schist .................................................................................................................... 44 4.10 The Migmatites ...................................................................................................................... 44

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4.11 The Hornfelses ...................................................................................................................... 45

5 GEOCHEMISTRY .......................................................................................................................... 48

5.1 Geochemical classification .................................................................................................. 48 5.2 Geochemistry ........................................................................................................................ 48

5.2.1 Major and trace elements ................................................................................................ 65 5.3 Harker’s variation diagrams ................................................................................................. 77 5.4 Spider diagrams .................................................................................................................... 99 5.5 Zircon saturation thermometry .......................................................................................... 101

6 GEOCHRONOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 103

6.1 Zircon morphology .............................................................................................................. 104 6.2 Sample No. MG-113 (E 72 59 37 N 34 35 04) ............................................................... 104 6.3 Sample No. MG-14 (E 73 05 02 N 34 26 07) ................................................................. 108 6.4 Sample No. MG-19 (E 73 05 58 N 34 25 55) .................................................................. 108 6.5 Sample No. MG-44 (E 72 54 49 N 34 25 18) ................................................................. 108 6.6 Sample No. HG-82 (E 73 10 07 N 34 20 17) .................................................................. 112 6.7 Sample No. LG-86 (E 73 10 35 N 34 20 19) .................................................................. 112

7 DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 120

7.1 Field relationships and petrographic studies ................................................................... 120 7.2 Geochemical characteristics of the MGC ......................................................................... 123 7.3 Zircon thermometry ............................................................................................................ 129 7.4 U-Pb zircon systematics .................................................................................................... 132 7.5 Tectonic implications .......................................................................................................... 137

8 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................... 141

9 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 143

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LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1: Major oxides (%), trace elements (ppm) of (a) Mansehra Granite (b) Hakale Granite,

(c) Microgranites (d) Leucogranites (e) aplites (f) migmatites (g) hornfelses (h) Contact samples (i) metasediments (j) mica schist .............................................................. 53

Table 5.2: Correlation Coefficients and p-values of the variation plots of the MG, HG, LG and MIG ............................................................................................................................................ 95

Table 5.3: Zircon saturation temperatures of Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, Leucogranites,

Microgranites, Migmatites and Mansehra Granite-Tanawal Formation, Mansehra Granite-Hakale Granite contacts. ......................................................................................... 102

Table 6.1: Analytical results of LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating of Mansehra Granite, Hakale

Granite and Leucogranite from Mansehra area .................................................................. 115

Table 6.2: Published age data of late Pre-Cambrian to early Paleozoic magmatic rocks from the

Himalayan crytslline series, and north western Himalaya of Pakistan ............................. 119

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1:Geological map of Mansehra area (modified after Calkins et al., 1975) .................................. 6

Figure 2.1: Recumbent folding in Tanawal Formation close to the contact with Mansehra Granite near Darband (ruler 15 centimeter long) 1.8m x1.2m ............................................................ 9

Figure 2.2: Mass exfoliation in the Mansehra Granite .................................................................................. 9

Figure 2.3: Psammitic xenolith in Mansehra Granite, Mansehra area (0.6 x 0.4 m). ............................. 11

Figure 2.4: Xenoliths associated with the Mansehra Granite (ruler is 15 cm long) ................................. 11

Figure 2.5: Massive Mansehra Granite ........................................................................................................ 12

Figure 2.6: Massive Mansehra Granite showing flow-foliation of K-feldspar phenocrysts ..................... 12

Figure 2.7: Gneissic Mansehra Granite (ruler is 15 cm long). ................................................................... 13

Figure 2.8: Foliated micaceous folia with folded feldspar vein in the Mansehra Granite near Buland Kot (ruler is 15 cm long). ............................................................................................ 14

Figure 2.9: Leucocratic bands in foliated Mansehra Granite at Jhargali (4 x 3 m).................................. 16

Figure 2.10: Massive non-foliated Hakale Granite ..................................................................................... 16

Figure 2.11: Porphyritic Hakale Granite ....................................................................................................... 17

Figure 2.12: Stretched and augen shaped K-feldspar phenocrysts in leucogranitic body near Mansehra .................................................................................................................................. 19

Figure 2.13: Contact between Mansehra Granite and Psammites of Tanawal Formation near Susalgali- Khaki area ............................................................................................................... 19

Figure 2.14: Boudinage at the contact of the Mansehra Granite and metasediments of Tanawal Formation in Susalgali-Khaki area. ........................................................................................ 20

Figure 2.15: Intrusion of the Mansehra Granite into psammites of Tanawal Formation near the contact in Susalgali-Khaki area. ............................................................................................. 20

Figure 2.16: Smaller size phenocrysts at the chilled margin of Mansehra and Hakale Granites. ......... 21

Figure 2.17: Chilled margin between Hakale and Mansehra Granites ..................................................... 21

Figure 2.18: Migmatites near the contact of Mansehra Granite and host Tanawal Formation in Susalgali-Khaki area ................................................................................................................ 22

Figure 2.19: Migmatites near the contact of Mansehra Granite and host Tanawal Formation in Susalgali-Khaki area ................................................................................................................ 22

Figure 2.20: Banded anadalusite hornfelses developed in the aureole of Mansehra Granite in metaturbidites of Tanawal Formation in Khaki area. ............................................................ 23

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Figure 2.21: Banded andalusite hornfelses developed near the contact of Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation in Darband area. .................................................................................... 23

Figure 3.1: Geological map of the Himalaya indicating major tectonic divisions (modified from Ganser, 1964; Sorkhabi and Arita, 1997; Paudel and Arita, 2000) .................................... 25

Figure 3.2: Simplified tectonic map of northwest Himalaya, Pakistan (after Chaudhry and Ghazanfar,1993) ...................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 3.3: Plot of chemical composition of MG, HG, MIG and HG in tectonic discrimination

diagrams a) R1-R2 (Batchelor & Bowden, 1985), b) trace elements plots (Pearce et al., 1984), c) major elements plots (Maniar & Piccoli, 1989) ............................................... 28

Figure 3.4: Sketches (a-d) presenting Neoproterozoic rifting, Cambrian convergence, crustal thickening and accretion of terrain (modified after Cawood et al., 2007) .......................... 30

Figure 3.5: Reconstruction of Gondwana (incorporating data from Collins 2005 and Buchan &

Cawood, 2007) indicating location of major orogens and the time of high-grade

orogenesis associated with assembly of the Supercontinent (shaded light grey

regions) and circum-Gondwana orogens which underwent orogenesis following Supercontinent assembly. (after Cawood et al., 2007) ........................................................ 33

Figure 3.6: Manifestation of 0.5-0.0 Ga, 1.0-0.5 Ga orogens and >1.0Ga cratons along northern Indian margin and other continents (after Hoffman, 1999) .................................................. 33

Figure 3.7: Cambro-Ordovician subduction of Qiangtang and Lhasa terranes under the Indian and Australian continents (after Zhu et al., 2012) ........................................................................ 35

Figure 4.1: Micro photographs showing mineralogical and textural features in Mansehra Granite;

a) Cross-hatched microcline replaced by fine-grained muscovite at the margin,

associated with biotite flakes, b) Strained and fractured quartz grain and biotite, c)

Reddish-brown biotite flake encloses euhderal zircon crystals surrounded by dark

haloes, d) Broken and strained biotite flake, e) Strained and broken biotite flakes with fine-grained quartz, f) Biotite flakes swirled around quartz due to stress. ......................... 38

Figure 4.2: Micro photographs showing; a) Apatite crystal enclosed in (dark brown) biotite in

Mansehra Granite, b) Well-developed myrmekites in Hakale Granite, c) Albite grain

invaded by muscovite in Hakale Granite, d) Apatite crystal enclosed in biotite flake in

Hakale Granite, e) Stretched quartz with pinched biotite and associated albite in microgranite, f) Alternate bands of biotite flakes and quartz grains in microgranites ....... 46

Figure 4.3: Micro photos indicating; a) Tourmaline crystal associated with quartz in microgranites,

b) Tourmaline crystals with quartz grains in microgranites, c) Cross-hatched, twinned

microcline associated with quartz and biotite at the contact of Mansehra Granite with

Tanawal Formation, d) Microcline crystal invaded by fine muscovite in Contact

sample between Mansehra Granite and Hakale Ganite, e) Alternate bands of biotite

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flakes and quartz grains in pelites of Tanawal Formation, f) Alternate bands of biotite flakes and quartz grains in psammites of Tanawal Formation ............................................ 47

Figure 5.1: Plot of chemical data of MG, HG, MIG and LG in geochemical classification diagrams

a) total alkalis versus SiO2 diagram (Cox et al., 1979), b) SiO2-Na2O+K2O plot

(Middlemost, 1985), c) R1-R2 plot (De la Roche et al., 1980), d) P-Q relationship

(Debon and Le Fort, 1983), e) TAS diagram (Middlemost, 1984) and f) Ab-An-Or plot

(O’Connor, 1965), g) Granite mesonorm (Mielke & Winkler, 1979), h) QAP diagram

(Streckeisen, 1974, 1978), i) AFM diagram (Irvin and Baragar, 1971), j) A/CNK-ANK

plot (Shand, 1943), k) B-A plot (Debon and Le Fort, 1983), l) B-A plot (Villaseca et al., 1998), m) Ba-Rb-Sr plot (ElBouseily and ElSokkary, 1975). ........................................ 49

Figure 5.2: (a-l) showing plot of massive and gneissic Mansehra Granite in geochemical classification diagrams. ........................................................................................................... 52

Figure 5.3: Box-plots showing relative abundance of a) SiO2, b) Al2O3, c) Na2O, d) K2O, e) CaO, f)

MgO, g) Fe2O3, h) FeO, i) TiO2, j) P2O5 and k) MnO contents in Mansehra Granite

(MG), Hakale Granite (HG), Microgranites (MIG), Leucogranites (LG), Mica Schist

(MS), Metasediments (MDT), Migmatites (MMT), Hornfelses (HF), Contact samples (CT) and Aplites (AP) .............................................................................................................. 71

Figure 5.4: Box-plots presenting a) Na2O/K2O and b) K2O/Na2O ratio in MG, HG, MIG, LG, MS, MMT, MDT, HF, CT and AP.................................................................................................... 75

Figure 5.5: Box-plots indicating a) relative abundance of trace element contents of Rb, Sr, Ba and Zr and b) Rb/Sr ratio in MG, HG, MIG, LG, MS, MMT, MDT, HF, CT and AP .................. 76

Figure 5.6: Harker’s variation plots between major oxides and trace elements in Mansehra

Granite. a) SiO2-Al2O3, b) SiO2-CaO, c) SiO2-Fe2O3, d) SiO2-K2O, e) SiO2-Na2O, f)

SiO2-Na2O+K2O, g) SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) SiO2-MgO, j) SiO2- Ba, k) SiO2 –Sr, l)

SiO2 –Zr, m) MgO-Ba, n) MgO-Sr, o) MgO-Zr, p) Rb-Ba, q) Rb-P2O5, r) Zr-Nb, s) Zr-Y, t) Zr-Th, u) Rb-Sr, v) Ba-Sr. ............................................................................................... 78

Figure 5.7: Harker’s variation diagrams between major oxides and trace elements in Hakale

Granite.a) SiO2-Al2O3, b) SiO2-CaO, c) SiO2-K2O, d) SiO2-MgO, e) SiO2-Na2O, f)

SiO2-Na2O+K2O, g) SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) SiO2-Sr, j) SiO2-Zr, k) SiO2-Fe2O3 , l)

SiO2-Ba, m) MgO-Ba, n) MgO-Sr, o) MgO-Zr, p) Rb-Sr, q) Rb-P2O5, r) Sr-Ba, s) Rb-Ba, t) Zr-Y, u) Zr-Th, v) Zr-Nb ................................................................................................. 82

Figure 5.8: Harker’s plots between major oxides and trace elements of leucogranites. a) SiO2-

Al2O3, b) SiO2-CaO, c) SiO2-MgO, d) SiO2-Na2O, e) SiO2-Na2O+K2O, f) SiO2-K2O, g)

SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) SiO2-Fe2O3, j) SiO2-Ba, k) SiO2-Zr, l) SiO2-Sr m) MgO-Sr,

n) Rb-Ba, o) Zr-Y, p) MgO-Zr, q) MgO-Ba, r) Zr-Nb, s) Rb-Sr, t) Ba-Sr, u) Zr-Th, v) Rb-P2O5 ..................................................................................................................................... 86

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Figure 5.9: Variation plots between major oxides and trace elements in microgranites. a) SiO2-

Al2O3, b) SiO2-K2O, c) SiO2-Na2O+K2O, d) SiO2-TiO2, e) SiO2-CaO, f) SiO2-MgO, g)

SiO2-Fe2O3, h) SiO2-Na2O, i) SiO2-P2O5, j) SiO2-Ba, k) SiO2-Sr, l) SiO2-Zr, m) MgO-

Ba, n) MgO-Zr, o) MgO-Sr, p) Rb-Sr, q) Zr-Th, r) Zr-Nb, s) Zr-Y, t) Rb-P2O5, u) Ba-Sr, v) Rb-Ba .................................................................................................................................... 91

Figure 5.10: Harker’s variation diagrams between major oxides in Mansehra and Hakale Granites.

a) SiO2-Al2O3, b) SiO2-Na2O, c) Na2O-MgO, d) SiO2-CaO, e) SiO2-K2O, f) SiO2-Fe2O3, g)SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) Rb-Sr ........................................................................... 96

Figure 5.11: La-Ce plots of a) Mansehra Granite and Leucogranite b) Hakale Granite and Microgranite c) Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, Microgranite and Leucogranite ....... 98

Figure 5.12: Spidergrams of a) Mansehra Granite, b) Hakale Granite, c) Microgranites and ............... 99

Figure 6.1: Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircon crystals of the Mansehra Granite from Jhargali area ............................................................................................................................ 105

Figure 6.2: CL images of zircon crystals of a-c) Mansehra Granite, d) Hakale Granite and e)

Leucogranites showing core-rim texture, oscillatory zoning, discordant overgrowths and polyphase texture in the cores ...................................................................................... 106

Figure 6.3: a)Tera-Wasserburg diagrams showing Concordant ages and b) mean intrusive ages of the Mansehra Granite........................................................................................................ 107

Figure 6.4: Tera-Wasserburg U-Pb Concordia diagrams showing a) inherited and b) intrusive age components of the Mansehra Granite ................................................................................. 109

Figure 6.5: Tera-Wasserburg plot of zircon grains depicting a) inherited and b) intrusive age segments of the Mansehra Granite ...................................................................................... 110

Figure 6.6: Tera-Wasserburg diagrams presenting a) inherited and b) intrusive age components of the Mansehra Granite........................................................................................................ 111

Figure 6.7: Tera-Wasserburg diagrams showing a) inherited and b) magmatic ages of the Hakale Granite ..................................................................................................................................... 113

Figure 6.8: Tera-Wasserburg diagrams depicting a) inherited and b) intrusive ages of leucogranite. ........................................................................................................................... 114

Chapter One Introduction

1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background The Mansehra Granitic Complex (MGC) is exposed in northwest Pakistan and is

comprised of Mansehra Granite (MG), Hakale Granite (HG), Karkale & Sukal

Granites along with pegmatites, aplites (Shams, 1961, 1967a, 1971; Ashraf,

1974; Ashraf & Chaudhry, 1976a, 1976b), microgranitic (MIG) and leucogranitic

(LG) bodies. The MGC lies in the Lesser Himalaya, bounded by the Main Central

Thrust (MCT) in the north and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the south.

Several workers (Calkins and Matin, 1968; Shams, 1971; Ashraf, 1974, 1992; Le

Fort et al., 1980, 1983, 1986; Honeggar et al., 1982; Chaudhry et al., 1989; Baig

et al., 1989; Blatt and Tracy 1995; Best, 2003; Singh and Jain, 2003) attempted

to investigate the MGC in terms of nature and emplacement of the granite, grade

of metamorphism, field relationship of the granite with metasediments of Tanawal

Formation, and geochronology. The plutonic rocks of the MGC were investigated

about three decades ago with the conventional analytical techniques and

therefore a precise and reliable geochemical and geochronological data is not

available. For example, systematic trace elements data is lacking, and

radiometric dating of Mansehra Granite was accomplished by using whole rock

Rb/Sr, 40Ar/39Ar and K/Ar techniques that yielded conflicting ages. The magmatic

and tectonic history of the MGC is not clear and contrasting ideas regarding its

origin are prevalent. Shams (1971) suggested a metamorphic-metasomatic

origin, while Ashraf (1992) proposed the anatectic nature of this Complex. The

proposed mechanism for the origin of this Complex is limited mostly to theoretical

considerations. Advances in the analytical techniques necessitate to establish a

detailed and precise geochemical and geochronological data by using recent


2

analytical methods. Therefore, this situation demanded a comprehensive study of

the MGC using the state-of-the art analytical techniques to decipher the

petrological characteristics of this Complex.

1.2 Previous work Rocks exposed to the north of Mansehra City were studied by Stoliczka (1865),

who related them to the Himalayan Central Gneiss. Verchere (1866) called these

igneous rocks “porphyry”. Wynne (1877), however, named it “Crystalline”

complex consisting of syenitic rocks and granitoid porphyry. Later on, Wynne

(1879) called it “Hazara gneiss”, and prepared the first geological map of the area

on 1” to 8 miles scale. McMahon (1887) studied the gneissic rocks of Mansehra

area, and argued that the foliation in gneiss was developed due to differential

movement in the highly viscous magma. Middlemiss (1896) suggested that the

gneissic rocks were emplaced as minor veins and sheets due to the

metamorphism induced by the granitic body rather than regional metamorphism.

However, no work is documented in the avialble literature before the

establishment of Department of Geology at University of the Punjab Lahore in

1951. The rocks of Mansehra area were reinvestigated by many researchers.

Rehman (1961) interpreted the gravity data of the area and concluded that the

granitic body was emplaced in the form of sheets. A preliminary account of the

geology of Mansehra area was presented by Shams (1961), and he called the

plutonic body exposed in the north of Mansehra town Mansehra Granite. He

carried out preliminary petrographic studies of the Mansehra Granite, Hakale

Granite and the associated metasedimantary rocks, and prepared 1:50,000 scale

geological map of the Mansehra area. A detailed discussion of metasedimantary

rocks of the area owes to Marks and Ali (1961). Ali (1962) described geology of

the Tanawal Formation, in contact with the Mansehra Granite. Shams (1963)

threw light on the thermal metamorphism of the calcareous nodules of quartz-

mica schists of the Tanawal Formation. Shams (1964) also discussed the Kyanite

pseudomorphing andalusite in hornfelsed pelitic schists of the area. In 1966,

Shams and Rehman presented the petrochemical characteristics of the

Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite and associated plutonic bodies. General

geology and structural features of the rocks exposed in Mansehra area were

described by Offield et al., (1966). Petrology of some chloritoid and staurolite-


3

bearing schists of the study area was presented by Shams in 1967a. Shams and

Rehman (1967) estimated the emplacement temperatures of Mansehra Granite

by two-feldspar geothermometry. Shams (1967) also attempted to carry out a

preliminary study on the radiometric dating of Susalgali Granite Gneiss,

Mansehra Granite and Hakale Granite by K/Ar method, and assigned 79, 83, and

165 Ma ages to these rocks, respectively. The geology and structural aspects of

Mansehra Granite were also studied by Calkins et al., (1969). A relatively more

detailed investigation was carried out by Shams (1971) wherein he described

petrography, classification of the granitic and associated metamorphic rocks of

the area. He also shed light on the petrogenesis and suggested that the

Mansehra Granite was originated by the granitization of the associated

metamorphic rocks through the action of magmatic fluids. Geology of the Dadar

pegmatites, associated with Mansehra Granite, was studied by Ashraf and

Chaudhry (1974a). Research was conducted by Ashraf and Chaudhry (1974b) on

the quartz, quartz-ilmenite and quartz-kyanite veins in the Mansehra area. Ashraf

(1974) and Ashraf and Chaudhry (1976a, 1976b) presented a detailed account

on the geology, petrology and classification of acid minor bodies of the study

area. Calkins et al., (1975) described geology of the Mansehra Granite and

metamorphic rocks incorporating the structural aspects, and prepared a detailed

geological map of the Mansehra area. Saleemi (1978) carried out studies on

modal analysis of granitic rocks of the area. Le Fort et al., (1980) reported that

the Mansehra Granite was older and had no direct relationship with the

Himalayan Orogeny. In 1983, Fernandez discussed structural aspects of the

Mansehra pluton. Zulfiqar (1985) characterized the dolerite dykes of Mansehra

area as tholeiitic. In 1992, Ashraf described the petrogenesis of acid minor bodies

and suggested that the origin of granite was due to partial melting of the pre-

existing metamorphic rocks of the area.

1.3 Objectives of the study Followings are the objectives of this study

• Delineation of field relationships, and megascopic features of the

Mansehra Granitic Complex (MGC) and associated metamorphic rocks of

the Tanawal Formation in Mansehra area.


4

• Detailed petrographic studies of rocks of the MGC

• Acquisition of major and trace elements data for the characterization and

delineation of emplacement history of this Complex.

• To carry out zircon thermometry of granitic bodies of the Mansehra

Granitic Complex.

• To constrain the age of Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, and

Leucogranitic bodies by U-Pb zircon method.

1.4 Methodology 1.4.1 Field sampling Representative samples, each weighing 5-10 kg, of Mansehra Granite, Hakale

Granite, microgranites, leucogranites, aplites, migmatites, and metasediments

were collected in cloth bags duly annotated with sample number, rock type and

location (Figure 1.1). 20-40 kg samples of these rock units were obtained for the

radiometric dating. However, samples from some of the areas could not be

collected due to their inaccessibility owing to law and order situation.

1.4.2 Sample preparation The samples were crushed using jaw crusher at Pakistan Council of Scientific

and Industrial Research Laboratories Complex, Lahore. The crushed samples

were carefully sorted, washed to remove the dust particles and dried at 110 ºC.

Size of the crushed samples was further reduced by roll crusher, which was

thoroughly cleaned after each sample to avoid the contamination. The ground

material was passed through sample splitter to get the representative sample of

each rock type. About 200 g of each sample were powdered in TEMA tungsten

carbide grinding mill, and stored in air-tight plastic bottles for further laboratory

analyses. Around 103 thin sections of different rock units were prepared for the

petrographic studies.

1.4.3 Separation of zircon crystals For radiometric dating samples of Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, and

leucogranites were crushed by using jaw and roll crushers. The petrographic

study results of these rocks demonstrated the presence of zircon crystals of size

in the range of 100-150 µm. Therefore, the particle size was further reduced by


5

controlled grinding to avoid damage to euhedral zircon crystals. The ground

material was passed through different sieves (# 80-150). Heavy mineral fraction

was separated by using panning technique. Euhedral zircon crystals were

separated by using binocular microscope at the Institute of Geology, University of

the Punjab, Lahore. Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging and U-Pb zircon ages

were determined at ETH, Zurich, Switzerland.

1.4.4 Analytical techniques Major and trace elements contents were determined by standard X-ray

Fluorescence (XRF) technique. For major elements fused lithium tetraborate

discs were prepared following the method of Norish and Hutton (1969). For the

determination of trace elements, 12 g moisture free pulverized rock sample were

mixed with lithium tetraborate in 1:5 ratio and pressed pellets were prepared by

using fusion machine (Phoenix 4000 VFD, Australia). The analyses of pellets

were conducted by using wavelength-dispersive XRF spectrometer (model Pw

4400/24 Axios, PANalytical, and Axios 4KW WDS PANalytical, Netherlands).

Necessary corrections for matrix effect and the spectral overlapping were

employed. The analytical precision of the XRF data in terms of RSD was ≤ 2%.

Some of the major elements (Na, K) and trace elements (Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, and

W) were determined by using a duly standardized Atomic Absorption

Spectrometer (Thermo Scientific iCE 3000 Series, UK).

Moisture contents of the powdered samples were removed at 110 ºC and loss on

Ignition (LOI) was determined by taking 5.0 gram of each sample in a platinum

crucible and heating at 1050 ºC for 6-8 hours in muffle furnace. FeO was

determined by standard titration method following Furman (1962). Radiometric

age of the granitic rocks were determined by measuring the isotopic ratios in

zircon crystals by using Laser ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass

Spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS) at ETH Zurich, Switzerland, following the analytical

procedure described elsewhere (Heuberger et al., 2007).


6

Figure 1.1:Geological map of Mansehra area (modified after Calkins et al., 1975)

Chapter Two Geology of the Area

7

2 GEOLOGY OF THE AREA

The geology of Tanawal Formation and the Mansehra Granitic Complex (MGC) is

described in this chapter.

2.1 The Tanawal Formation This Formation was initially called “Tanol group” (Wynne, 1879). Middlemiss

(1896) named it “Tanol quartzite”, which was later regarded as “Tanol Formation”

(Marks and Ali, 1961). However, the Formation is presently named as “Tanawal

Formation” (Calkins et al., 1969). This name was also endorsed by Latif (1970).

The Tanawal Formation is comprised of predominantly pelites, psammites, mica-

schists, quartz-schists, garnet and chlorite-schists (Rahman, 1961) and quartzite

bands with very rare schistosed conglomerates.

The Tanawal Formation is intruded by the Mansehra Granite. Biotite-muscovite

quartz schist, andalusite-staurolite schists, garnet-staurolite, kyanite and

sillimanite-bearing schists are exposed in the relatively higher metamorphic grade

zone lying in the north of the granite (Shah, 2009). The rock units of Tanawal

Formation have undergone Barrovian type regional metamorphism up to kyanite

grades (Shams, 1971; Le Fort et al., 1980).

The rocks of Tanawal Formation show recumbent folding, particularly in Jhargali

and Darband areas (Figure 2.1). Shams (1971) described various lithological

facies of Tanawal Formation which include Psephitic, Psammitic and Pelitic-

psammitic facies.

The psephitic facies of Tanawal Formation may be divided into two subfacies.

The first subfacies, mainly comprised of carbonate material, has reacted with the

silicate matrix to form calc-silicate minerals (Shams, 1963). Second subfacies,


8

which consist of quartzitic pebbles in schistose matrix of psammitic composition,

occur near Chorgali along Khaki-Oghi road.

The psammitic facies is predominant and can be traced along the regional strike

of the area. It generally grades into pure quartzitic material which occasionally

grade into arkoses.

The pelitic-psammitic facies occur as alternate pelitic and psammitic bands,

which vary in thickness from microscopic scale to 15 cm. Zones of these bands

are tens of meters thick and are well exposed at a number of places, particularly

in the east of Mansehra Rest House and Chitta Batta areas. The pelites and

psammites are associated with cm-scale metaturbidite sequence in Khaki and

Darband areas. The pelite layers are composed of quartz, muscovite, biotite,

plagioclase, K-feldspar and tourmaline with or without garnet. The psammite

layers have relatively high quartz and feldspar contents. Pelite layers in

metasedimentary sequence are characterized by mineral segregation fabric of

mm to cm scale. The banded facies are distinct metaturbidite sequence (Shams,

1971). The pelitic and psammitic schists are cut by minor basic bodies (Shams,

1961). Generally, north trending dolerite dykes (6.0-12.0 meters thick) intrude

granite and metamorphics of the area.

2.2 The Mansehra Granitic Complex The Mansehra Granitic Complex (MCG) is predominantly comprised of medium

to coarse-grained two-mica porphyritic Mansehra Granite (MG), poorly porphyritic

to non-porphyritic tourmaline Hakale Granite (HG), Leucogranites (LG),

Microgranites (MIG) and associated pegmatites and aplites.

2.2.1 The Mansehra Granite The Mansehra Granite is a batholithic body that intrudes subconcordantly to

discordantly, into the surrounding rocks (Rahman, 1961). The occurrence of

frequent joints splits the granite into rectangular blocks, which often assume a

rounded shape due to mass exfoliation (Figure 2.2). The Mansehra Granite is

bordered by the Tanawal Formation. However, a portion of Mansehra Granite is

in contact with Hakale Granite.


9

Figure 2.1: Recumbent folding in Tanawal Formation close to the contact with Mansehra Granite

near Darband (ruler 15 centimeter long) 1.8m x1.2m

Figure 2.2: Mass exfoliation in the Mansehra Granite

NW SE

NNE SSW


10

Dark grey to light grey psammitic, pelitic, and quartzitic xenoliths and rare

screens occur in the Mansehra Granite (Figures 2.3-2.4). These

metasedimentary inclusions decrease away from the margins of the granite

(Shams, 1961). Mansehra Granite is generally massive, medium to coarse-

grained and porphyritic having 1.5 to 27.5 % K-feldspar phenocrysts of size

varying in the range of 0.5 to 10 cm (Figures 2.5-2.6). The groundmass is

composed of K-feldspar, albite/plagioclase, quartz and biotite with subordinate

muscovite. The matrix to phenocrysts ratio ranges from 70:30 to 95:05.

Phenocrysts are eumorphic and show Carlsbad twining. Due to ductile

deformation, shear zones have been developed in the massive Mansehra

Granite. These shear zones can be seen in Susalgali, Darband and Jhargali

areas. Along the ductile shear zones, massive Mansehra Granite changes to

Granite Gneiss which is manifested by stretched or augen shaped phenocrysts of

K-feldspar. At a few places, orthomylonites are encountered. What has been

called Susalgali Granite Gneiss is in fact a wide area with and without shear

zones. The areas affected by shear zones are strongly to moderately gneissic

(Figure 2.7) whereas unsheared areas constitute massive to flow foliated

“Mansehra Granite”. In Susalgali area, the granite is an Augen Gneiss with 6-10

% K-feldspar phenocrysts of size ranging between 2-7 cm. However, granite is

generally massive at a few kilometers south of Susalgali near Khaki area. Here

the granite is medium to coarse-grained without any strong flow or tectonic

foliation.

The parallel arrangement of biotite flakes (15-20%) swirling around deformed

quartz and augen shaped K-feldspar phenocrysts, indicates the effect of strain.

Tectonic foliation is superimposed on flow foliation. Large K-feldspar phenocrysts

are oriented along the tectonic foliation, whereas the smaller phenocrysts are

rather discordant. Three types of facies may be recognized in the Mansehra

Granite.

1) The Susalgali Granite Gneiss. Which is in fact deformed massive

Mansehra Granite.

2) Facies with flow foliation having 20-30 % K-feldspar phenocrysts ften

close to the contact of the Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation.


11

Figure 2.3: Psammitic xenolith in Mansehra Granite, Mansehra area (0.6 x 0.4 m).

Figure 2.4: Xenoliths associated with the Mansehra Granite (ruler is 15 cm long)

WSW ENE

SW NE


12

Figure 2.5: Massive Mansehra Granite

Figure 2.6: Massive Mansehra Granite showing flow-foliation of K-feldspar phenocrysts

SE NW

SENW


13

Figure 2.7: Gneissic Mansehra Granite (ruler is 15 cm long).

3) Massive Mansehra Granite without flow (apparent) or tectonic foliation

which occurs away from the contact and shear zones.

In Oghi-Darband area, the granite is generally massive, porphyritic, medium to

coarse-grained and with poor to no flow foliation. However, the tectonic foliation

and gneissic behaviour of the Mansehra Granite indicates the occurrence of local

shear zones. The granite has 25-30% K-feldspar phenocrysts of 0.5-4.0 cm in

size. Some of the stretched K-feldspar phenocrysts have tadpole or augen

shape. Parallel to sub-parallel alignment of augen shaped phenocrysts and mica

flakes manifests the effects of strain.

Mansehra Granite in Phulra area is generally massive, medium-grained and

poorly gneissic. The gneissic variety has biotite/quartz bands with 8-10%

stretched K-feldspar, 1-5 cm big phenocrysts. Massive, medium-grained and

poorly porphyritic granite have 4-6 % phenocrysts of 3 to 5 cm in size and show

poor to no flow foliation. Dark grey psammitic xenoliths occur in the granite.

The granite exposed in Shagian area is massive, coarse-grained and contains 2-

3% phenocrysts of K-feldspar, and with no flow foliation. However, at few places

SSE NNW


14

parallel to sub-parallel alignment of micas with squeezed quartz shows gneissic

character of the granite which contains 9-12% K-feldspar phenocrysts of size

varying in the range of 2-4 cm. In Shinkiari area, the granite is massive, medium

to coarse-grained, relatively dark and non-foliated. Occasionally, the granite is

porphyritic having 4-6% K-feldspar phenocrysts of 1-3 cm in size.

In Attar Shisha, Batrasi, Gharwal, and Lalu Bandi areas, the granite is massive,

medium-grained, poorly porphyritic having no flow foliation.In Oghi-Battagram

area, the Mansehra Granite is generally foliated and gneissic (Figure 2.8) with

sporadic occurrence of massive variety. In Jhargali area, the gneissic Mansehra

Granite has leucocratic bands (Figure 2.9).

Numerous basic dykes, aplites and pegmatites intrusions are present in granite

exposed in Mansehra area (Shams, 1961, 1967a; Ashraf 1974).

Figure 2.8: Foliated micaceous folia with folded feldspar vein in the Mansehra Granite near Buland Kot (ruler is 15 cm long).

SSENNW


15

2.2.2 The Hakale Granite The Hakale Granite is an oval shaped leucocratic laccolith. It is a discordant body

elongated in the NE to SW direction, spread over an area of 35 km2, intruding the

Mansehra Granite and the country rocks of the area (Rehman, 1961). The rock is

massive, medium to coarse-grained, non-porphyritic to rarely porphyritc (Figures

2.10-2.11) and consists of microcline, quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, accessory

biotite, and tourmaline (Ashraf and Chaudhry, 1974a). The granite has weak to

no flow foliation. Tourmaline is ubiquitous mineral. The matrix to phenocryst ratio

is almost 100:00 to 95:05. At places, the Hakale Granite is highly sheared. It has

a chilled contact with Mansehra Granite in the south, which is manifested by fine-

grained texture of the former (Shams, 1961). In the west, the Hakale Granite

intrudes into the schists of Tanawal Formation whereas the eastern extension is

covered by alluvium (Rehman, 1961). Considering the nature of the contact,

Shams (1971) suggested that Hakale Granite is younger than Mansehra Granite.

In Maswal and Pano Dheri areas, the granite is leucocratic, massive, medium-

grained, and poorly porphyritic to non-porphyritic with occasional K-feldspar

phenocrysts. Hakale Granite is poor in xenoliths as compared to Mansehra

Granite. Offield and Abdullah (1968) considered that the genesis of Hakale

Granite is associated with late stage pneumatolytic activity of the Mansehra

Granite. Relatively higher tourmaline contents suggested that the Hakale magma

was boron-rich, which could be an indication of late-stage pneumatolytic activity.


16

Figure 2.9: Leucocratic bands in foliated Mansehra Granite at Jhargali (4 x 3 m)

Figure 2.10: Massive non-foliated Hakale Granite

SE NW

NE SW

NW


17

Figure 2.11: Porphyritic Hakale Granite

2.2.3 The Microgranites Microgranitic bodies of varying nature and extent are associated with metasediments

of Tanawal Formation and Mansehra Granite in Oghi-Darband and Phulra areas. In

Phulra-Bharaina area, the microgranite is fine-grained, has no K-feldspar

phenocrysts, and contains muscovite and tourmaline. A 15 to17 m thick grey

microgranitic body intruding metasediments in Oghi-Darband area is composed of

parallel to sub-parallel K-feldspar-rich and tourmaline-bearing bands. Similarly, in

Mansehra area, near Maswal village, fine-grained and tourmaline-rich microgranitic

body occurs in Hakale Granite. The abundance of tourmaline indicates that these

granites are most probably the product of late stage boron-rich solutions.

2.2.4 The Leucogranites The leucogranitic bodies are generally massive and lack K-feldspar phenocrysts.

However, phenocrysts with or without flow foliation can be seen in some of these

bodies. At a couple of places, leucogranites exhibit gneissic character as manifested

by parallel alignment of stretched and augen-shaped phenocrysts (Figure 2.12). K-

feldspar phenocrysts content generally varies in the range of 3-6%, and sometimes

between 25-30%. The phenocrysts size ranges between 1 and 4 cm. Some of the

leucogranites have greenish tint which is due to chlorite. Leucogranites however

NE SW


18

exposed near Mansehra are massive, non-foliated and have 3-5 % K-feldspar

phenocrysts varying from 1.5 to 3.0 cm in size.

2.2.5 The Karkale and Sukal Granites Karkale and Sukal Granites are relatively small bodies (Shams, 1971) now

completely covered by the extension of Karkale and Sukal villages.

2.2.6 The Pegmatites and aplites Pegmatites and aplites, varying in nature and extent, are associated with Mansehra

and Hakale Granites. An extensive study of pegmatites and aplites revealed that

pegmatites generally are tabular, lensoid, and pod-like bodies emplaced along the

foliation planes of the granites and the metasediments of the area (Ashraf, 1974;

Ashraf and Chaudhry, 1976a, 1976b).

Simple and complex pegmatites, preferably emplaced along the foliation planes of

metamorphic rocks and the granites of the Mansehra area, have been classified by

Ashraf (1974) and Ashraf and Chaudhry (1976a, 1976b) into six-types, including

Albitites, Albite-aplites/pegmatites, Albite (microcline)-aplites/pegmatites, Albite-

microcline-aplites/pegmatites, Microcline-albite-aplites/pegmatites, and complex-

aplites/pegmatites.

2.3 Contact between Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation The contact between Mansehra Granite and metasediments of Tanawal Formation

in Susalgali-Khaki area is shown by the occurrence of boudinage and relatively fine-

grained granite intruded into the (host) psammites with K-feldspar phenocrysts

(Figures 2.13-2.15) and extensive development of contact migmatites and andalusite

hornfelses. That contact in Mansehra-Balakot area is however manifested by the

presence of hornfels zones without the occurence of migmatites.

2.4 Contact between Mansehra Granite and Hakale Granite Near Mansehra City, the Hakale Granite has a 20-35 m wide NS trending chilled

contact with Mansehra Granite which is manifested by relatively fine-grained

groundmass with microphenocrysts of K-feldspar. Size of microphenocrysts

generally varied between 1-2 centimeters (Figures 2.16-2.17).


19

2.5 The Migmatites In Susalgali-Khaki area, fine-grained migmatites occur near the contact of

Mansehra Granite and metasediments of Tanawal Formation. The migmatites are

characterized by mixed rocks formed by the penetration of granitic material into

the metasediments. Migmatites show anastomosing leucocratic and melanocratic

layers (Figures 2.18-2.19) which are the result of partial fusion or intrusion of

magma into the host metasedimentary rocks (Gupta, 2007). Leucocratic layer

indicates the intrusion of Mansehra Granite into the melanocratic psammitic band

of host Tanawal Formation. The association of migmatites with granites and

metasediments favours the partial melting of crustal rocks to generate the felsic

magma (Regmi, 2008).

Figure 2.12: Stretched and augen shaped K-feldspar phenocrysts in leucogranitic body near Mansehra

Figure 2.13: Contact between Mansehra Granite and Psammites of Tanawal Formation near

Susalgali- Khaki area

NNESSW

Tanawal Formation Mansehra Granite

SE NW


20

Figure 2.14: Boudinage at the contact of the Mansehra Granite and metasediments of Tanawal

Formation in Susalgali-Khaki area.

Figure 2.15: Intrusion of the Mansehra Granite into psammites of Tanawal Formation near the

contact in Susalgali-Khaki area.

SE NW

SENW


21

Figure 2.16: Smaller size phenocrysts at the chilled margin of Mansehra and Hakale Granites.

Figure 2.17: Chilled margin between Hakale and Mansehra Granites

ENEWSW

WSW ENE


22

Figure 2.18: Migmatites near the contact of Mansehra Granite and host Tanawal Formation in

Susalgali-Khaki area

Figure 2.19: Migmatites near the contact of Mansehra Granite and host Tanawal Formation in

Susalgali-Khaki area

SE NW

SE NW


23

2.6 The Hornfelses Banded andalusite hornfelses occur in the contact aureole of the Mansehra

Granite in metasediments of Tanawal Formation in Khaki and Darband areas.

The andalusite developed in pelites, it is absent in psammites. Banded pelites

and psammites (Figures 2.20-2.21) occur in the Oghi-Darband area. These

findings occur with observations made by Islam et al., (1999) on Indian granites.

Figure 2.20: Banded anadalusite hornfelses developed in the aureole of Mansehra Granite in metaturbidites of Tanawal Formation in Khaki area.

Figure 2.21: Banded andalusite hornfelses developed near the contact of Mansehra Granite and

Tanawal Formation in Darband area.

SW NE

ENE WSW

Chapter Three Tectonic Settings

24

3 TECTONIC SETTINGS

The Himalayan mountain range, about 2500 km long (E-W) and 250 km wide (N-

S), results from collision between Indian and Eurasian plate. It extends between

two major peaks, Namche Barwa (7782 m) in the east and Nanga Parbat (8125

m) in the west (Naqvi, 2005). The western part of the Himalayan mountain range

lies in Pakistan where metamorphism, deformation, thrusting and plutonism of

Himalayan age are intense (Baig et al., 1989; Virjan et al., 2003). The Himalayan

Orogeny is represented by a series of parallel tectonic units bounded by major

faults (Washington et al., 2000). From south to north, Himalaya can be divided

into four distinct tectonic regions; 1) Sub-Himalaya, 2) Lesser Himalaya, 3)

Higher Himalaya and 4) Tethys Himalaya (Ganser, 1964) as shown in figures 3.1-

3.2. Major faults mark the limit of these tectonic belts. The Main Central Thrust

(MCT) separates the Higher Himalaya from Lesser Himalaya, and the Main

Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates Lesser Himalaya from the Sub Himalaya

(Bard, 1983; Valdiya, 1984; Chaudhry and Ghazanfar, 1990, 1993; Sorkhabi and

Arita, 1997; Burg et al., 1998; Paudel and Arita, 2000; Burg et al., 2005). The

Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) forms the southernmost and Indus-Tsangpo

Suture Zone (ITSZ) constitutes the northernmost boundary of the Himalayan

range (Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Chaudhry et al., 1992). In Hazara area (Pakistan),

near Abbottabad, the Punjal fault runs parallel to the MBT on the eastern limb of

the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis. In the south of the Punjal fault, sedimentary rocks

are exposed. In the north, the Lesser Himalaya is comprised of igneous-

metamorphic units. The metasedimentary rocks, ranging from greenschist to

amphibolite grade metapelites, metapsammites and quartzites, surround the

Mansehra Granitic Complex in the study area.


25

Figure 3.1: Geological map of the Himalaya indicating major tectonic divisions (modified from Ganser, 1964; Sorkhabi and Arita, 1997; Paudel and

Arita, 2000)


26

Figure 3.2: Simplified tectonic map of northwest Himalaya, Pakistan (after Chaudhry and Ghazanfar,1993)


27

3.1 Tectonic Discrimination Diagrams Geochemical data of granitic bodies of the MGC (Table 5.1, pages 53-64) were

plotted in standard tectonic discrimination diagrams in order to ascertain the

emplacement history of these granitic bodies. In the R1-R2 diagram (Batchelor

and Bowden, 1985), which is based on all the major elements, MGC samples plot

in orogenic syn-collisional field (Figure 3.3a). Trace elements (Y-Nb, Y+Nb-Rb)

plots (Pearce et al., 1984) however indicate that MG, HG, MIG and LG are

clustered around triple point junction of VAG, syn-COLG and WPG showing syn-

collisional environment of these granites (Figure 3.3b). The geotectonic

discrimination diagram (Maniar and Piccoli, 1989) reveals that MG, HG, MIG and

LG plot in continental collisional granitoids domain (Figiure 3.3c). It can be

inferred from the discrimination diagrams that rocks of the MGC are associated

with orogenic, syn-collision geotectonic environment. Peraluminous, syn-

collisional granites are common in regionally metamorphosed areas (Clemens

and Wall, 1981; Debon et al., 1986; Harris et al., 1986; Holtz and Barbey, 1991;

Inger and Harris, 1993), and are product of partial melting of host

metasedimentary rocks (Chappell and White, 1974; Thompson, 1982; Le Fort et

al., 1986; Clemens and Vielzeuf 1987; Barbey et al., 1990; Holtz and Barbey,

1991; Inger and Harris, 1993; Albarede, 2003; Best, 2003). Water required for

partial melting of host rocks is provided by the breakdown of hydrous minerals

like muscovite and biotite (Fyfe, 1969). In the Mansehra area, the Tanawal

Formation is mainly composed of pelite-psammite sequence that formed a

potential source for peraluminous melt of S-type granites. The heat source for

crustal anatexis and emplacement of the granitic magma most likely is associated

with orogenic activity in the Himalayan belt. The emplacement of Cambro-

Ordovician peraluminous granites has been extensively documented in the

Himalayas (Kumar et al., 1996; Garzanti et al., 1986; Le Fort et al., 1986; Baig et

al., 1989). These Cambro-Ordovician granites were intruded as lenticular and

sheet-like bodies in crystalline thrust nappes of the Lesser Himalayan Granitic

belt (Le Fort et al., 1983), as a result of Pan African orogeny (Sharma and

Rashid, 2001) Ca. 550-450 Ma (Tankard et al., 1982).


28

Figure 3.3: Plot of chemical composition of MG, HG, MIG and HG in tectonic discrimination

diagrams a) R1-R2 (Batchelor & Bowden, 1985), b) trace elements plots (Pearce et al., 1984), c) major elements plots (Maniar & Piccoli, 1989) ORG (Oceanic Ridge Granites), VAG (Volcanic Arc Granites), WPG (Within Plate Granites), syn-COLG (Syn- Collision Granites); IAG (Island Arc Granitoids), CAG (Continental Arc Granitoids), CCG (Continental Collision Granitoids), POG (Post-orogenic Granitoids), RRG (Rift-related Grantoids), CEUG (Continental Epeirogenic Uplift Granitoids), OP (Oceanic Plagiogranites)

Syn-collision

a

b

c


29

The thermotectonic event of this orogeny was wide spread and induced larger-scale

tectonism, metamorphism along with plutonism, and encompassed accretional

activity pertaining to opening and closing of large oceanic realms and culminated in

the formation of a supercontinent Gondwana (ca. 500 Ma). As a result of this

tectonic activity a number of mobile belts were developed in India and adjoining

continents (Valdiya, 1995; Hoffman, 1999; Kroner and Stern, 2004) where

deformation and magmatic episodes occurred in various time periods. The syn-

kinematic intrusion of granitoids along the northern margin of the Indian continent

during the late Pan African orogeny (Grazanti et al., 1986), Hazaran orogeny (Baig

et al., 1988) is supported by sedimentological, structural and geochronological

evidence from the Himalaya, which is consistent with the development of an early

Cambrian arc along the proto-Tethyan margin of the Indian Shield (Ramezani and

Tucker, 2003). In northwest Himalaya of Pakistan the emplacement of peraluminous

granites at ca. 550-450 Ma and metamorphic activity >466 Ma has been correlated

with the Pan African orogeny (Baig et al., 1989). These authors further reported

plutonism and volcanism in northwest Himalaya at ca.850-600 Ma, metamorphic and

deformational phases around 664-625 Ma, and magmatism at ca. 550-450 Ma.

A Cambro-Ordovician (ca. 500-475 Ma) orogenic event associated with the northern

Indian margin has been designated as Kurgiakh orogeny by Srikantia (1981).

However, Cawood et al., (2007) noticed this thermotectonic episode and referred it

as Bhimphedian orogeny. Minor structural signatures of this orogeny may be present

in the Lesser Himalaya of the Indian craton (Myrow et al., 2010). During this

thermotectonic event, regional deformation, crustal anatexis and Ordovician felsic

plutonism has been witnessed in Nepal (Gehrels et al., 2003; Cawood et al., 2007).

The tectonic activity along the northern margin of the Indian continent encompassed

Neoproterozoic rifting, development of passive margin (Brookfield, 1993; Steck,

2003), subduction and convergence which culminated in the Bhimphedian Orogeny

embracing crustal thickening, anatexis and subsequent emplacement of granitic

bodies (Figure 3.4a-d). This orogeny was wide spread across the Himalaya and can

be traced from eastern Himalaya through Pakistan probably up to Afghanistan.


30

Figure 3.4: Sketches (a-d) presenting Neoproterozoic rifting, Cambrian convergence, crustal

thickening and accretion of terrain (modified after Cawood et al., 2007)


31

According to Cawood et al., (2007), the Helmand, Qiantang and Lhasa terranes

were most probably separated from northern Gondwana during Neoproterozoic

rifting forming a small ocean basin or marginal sea which was closed during

Cambrian convergence with the consequent accretion of these blocks. The

evidence for early Paleozoic proximity of Helmand and Lhasa terranes with

northern Gondwana margin has been presented by the plaeoclimatological and

Paleontological studies of Sengor et al., (1988) and Metcalfe (1996). During late

Paleozoic and Mesozoic, these terranes were separated from the Indian

continent. The Lhasa and Helmand blocks were separated from the Himalayan

sequence of Northern Indian margin along a suture which was near to or

coincided with the Cenozoic Indus-Tsangpo Suture (Cawood et al., 2007). The

convergent episodes associated with the Bhimphedian Orogeny were

accompanied by regional-scale deformation, metamorphism and emplacement of

granites. The Bhimphedian orogeny is an Andean-style orogenic episode related

to northern margin of India after the amalgamation of Gondwana. Eocambrian to

Cambrian andesitic and basaltic volcanism (Garzanti et al., 1986; Brookfield,

1993; Valdiya, 1995) in the western Himalaya revealed the geochemical

signatures of an immature arc (Garzanti et al., 1986). Such rocks are absent from

the Greater and Lesser Himalayan sequence. The sedimentary succession of the

Lesser, Greater and Tethyan Himalaya revealed the Proterozoic continental

driven sedimentation along the passive northern Indian margin of the proto-

Tethyan ocean (Sengor et al., 1988; Brookfield, 1993; Jiang et al., 2003; Steck,

2003). From Late Ordovician to Permian, a complete sequence of siliciclastic and

carbonate is present in the Greater and Tethyan Himalayas. However, no

sedimentation has been recorded in Lesser Himalaya in the same period

(Valdiya, 1980; Brookfield, 1993; Steck, 2003; Jiang et al., 2003). During this

accretional phase, an about 700 km broad zone of high heat flow and magmatism

was developed with a wide back-arc area (Hyndman et al., 2005). The activity of

the Cambrian arc has converted the passive margin into an Andean-type regime

around 510 Ma along the northern margin of the Gondwana convergent episode.

The lack of arc magmatism at the Northern Indian margin marks the termination

of southwards subduction by 470 Ma which may be related to global kinematic

readjustments of plates or the accretion of the Qiangtang and Lhasa blocks. The

magmatic arc associated with Bhimphedian Orogeny can be traced along the


32

northern margin of Gondwana, and extends possibly to Iran and Turkey

(Ramezani and Tucker, 2003). The tectonothermal activity is confined to ca. 530-

490 Ma, however, the post tectonic magmatism may extend up to ca. 480 Ma.

The Bhimphedian orogeny is comparable with the Ross-Delamarian orogeny

along the Pacific margin of Gondwana (Figures 3.5 & 3.6). The Bhimphedian and

Ross-Delamarian orogenies are not related to the Pan African orogeny which is

associated with the continental–continental collision during the assembly of

Gondwana.

The model proposed by Cawood et al., (2007) cannot explain the early Paleozoic

plutonism in Qiangtang, central and south Lhasa subterrane and Amdo

microcontinent of Tibet Plateau, which can be better interpreted by the model of

Zhu et al., (2012). The Cambro-Ordovician granites, varying in age (ca. 530-470

Ma, ca. 496 Ma, ca. 501 Ma, ca. 530-470 Ma and ca.476-471 Ma), have been

reported in Tethyan Himalaya, southern Lhasa, central Lhasa, Amdo

microcontinent and Western Qiangtang terranes of Tibet Plateau, by many

workers (Cawood et al., 2007; Quigley et al., 2008, Ji et al., 2009b, Dong et al.,

2010a; Pullen et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2012; Guynn et al., 2012). Available

geochemical data of granites from Western Qiangtang terrane indicate that these

magmatic rocks are corundum normative, A/CNK ratio > 1.1 and highly

peraluminous S-type granites (Zhu et al., 2012), which are comparable with

geochemical signatures of the Himalayan granites. The petrogenesis of ca. 530-

470 Ma granites has been attributed to magmatism related to the fragmentation

of the supercontinent Rodinia (Murphy and Nance, 1991), collisional

amalgamation of Gondwana (Meert and Van der Voo, 1997) and the

development of subduction zone beneath the northern Indian margin (Yin and

Harrison, 2000). Emplacement of ca. 530-470 Ma and ca. 476-464 Ma granites in

Western Qiangtang and Amdo microcontinent (Pullen et al., 2011; Guynn et al.,

2012), and ca. 501-492 Ma magmatic rocks in central and southern Lhasa

terrane (Ji et al., 2009b; Dong et al., 2010a; Zhu et al., 2012) may be related to

the continental arc above subduction of the proto-Thethyan lithosphere under the

northern margin of the Indian and Australian continents (Figure 3.7a-b).


33

Figure 3.5: Reconstruction of Gondwana (incorporating data from Collins 2005 and Buchan &

Cawood, 2007) indicating location of major orogens and the time of high-grade orogenesis associated with assembly of the Supercontinent (shaded light grey regions) and circum-Gondwana orogens which underwent orogenesis following Supercontinent assembly. (after Cawood et al., 2007)

Figure 3.6: Manifestation of 0.5-0.0 Ga, 1.0-0.5 Ga orogens and >1.0Ga cratons along northern

Indian margin and other continents (after Hoffman, 1999)


34

Subsequent crustal thickening and anatexis most likely emplaced the Cambro-

Ordovician granites. Geochronological and paleogeographical evidence (Zhu et

a., 2012) indicated that in Cambro-Ordovician time the Western Qiangtang and

Amdo microcontinents were associated with the northern Indian margin, while

the Lhasa terrain was situated in the northern proximity of the Australian

continent. Geological and U-Pb systematics of the detrital zircon revealed that

the Lhasa terrane was derived from Australia, while Western Qiangtang

subterrane and Amdo microcontinent were originated from the Indian

Gondwana (Zhu et al., 2012). The U-Pb systematics of detrital zircon from

metasedimentary rocks of western Qiangtang, Amdo and Tethyan Himalaya

revealed dominant peak at ca. 950 Ma, which is rare or even absent from the

rocks of central and southern Lhasa block. The central Lhasa terrane, the

Tethyan Himalaya as well as northern Australia have similar geological features

and age of glacial marine diamicites along with fine Paleozoic clastic

sedimentary rocks (Zhu et al., 2012) and may indicate the close association of

Lhasa block with Australian continent. In Qiangtang terrane, the northwest-

southeast trending Longmu Tso-Shuanghu suture zone (LSSZ) consists of

ophiolite suits comprising cumulate gabbros, peridotites, pillow basalts and

radiolarian cherts which occur as slices/blocks. These ophiolitic rocks have

faulted contact with the upper Paleozoic units overlain unconformably by the

volcano-sedimentary rocks of upper Triassic age. The occurrence of cumulate

gabbros (ca. 432 Ma; Li et al., 2008b and ca. 467 Ma; Zhai et al., 2010), basalts

of N-MORB (Normal Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt), geochemical signatures (Zhai

et al, 2007) and Permian basalt of OIB (Oceanic Island Basalt) affinity (Zhai et

al., 2006) may indicate remnants of Paleo-Tethyan Oceanic lithosphere (Zhu et

al., 2012), and led Li et al., (2009a) to propose the existence of Paleozoic

ophiolite sequence along the Longmu Tso-Shuanghu suture zone. These

ophiolites constitute high pressure metamorphic belt comprising of blueschist

and phengites schists, eclogites and metabasites with minor marble which

extend from northwest to the east across the Qiangtang terrane (Zhu et al.,

2012 and references therein).


35

Figure 3.7: Cambro-Ordovician subduction of Qiangtang and Lhasa terranes under the Indian and Australian continents (after Zhu et al., 2012)

Chapter Four Petrography of the MGC

36

4 PETROGRAPHY OF THE MGC

103 thin sections (42 Mansehra Granite, 21 Hakale Granite, 10 Leucogranites, 05

Microgranites, 03 Aplites, 03 Migmatite, 05 Andalusite hornfelses, 03 Mica Schist,

08 Metasediments and 03 Contacts samples) were prepared for petrographic

study of the Mansehra Granitic Complex and associated metamorphic rocks.

Description of the microscopic study is given below.

4.1 The Mansehra Granite Microcline, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and muscovite are the main minerals of the

Mansehra Granite. Zircon, apatite, tourmaline, chlorite, ilmenite, sphene are

accessory minerals. Microcline is subhedral to anhedral, medium to coarse-

grained (2.0-8.0 mm) and constitutes 35-51% of the granite. Microcline shows

well developed cross-hatched twinning either alone or in combination with

Carlsbad twinning (Figure 4.1a). The thin section study reveals that the

microcline is microperthitic and shows stringlets, veinlets and thin rods of albite.

The microcline may enclose zircon crystals, albite grains (150-200 µm),

muscovite and biotite flakes (0.5 mm). The microcline enclosed biotite also has

muscovite inclusions. However, replacement of muscovite by sericite is common,

particularly near the margins of microcline. At places, microcline is replaced by

white mica in addition to the occasional replacement of microcline by quartz and

dark brown biotite. Plagioclase is albite, which constitutes 15-30% of the rock,

and the grain size is generally in the range of 0.2-4.0 mm. The albite is fine to

medium-grained, subhedral to anhedral, shows albite twinning and encloses

muscovite (0.5 mm). Muscovite replaces plagioclase along microfractures and

along its margins. At places, myrmekites are developed at contact between K-

feldspar and plagioclase.


37

Quartz content of the granite is generally in the range of 30-43%. Quartz is fine to

medium-grained, and the grain size varies between 0.5-3.0 mm. It is subhedral to

anhedral, grains are variably strained and often show strong strain extinction,

grains are also interlocked and exhibit mosaic texture. Myrmekitic texture, found

in some thin sections, could be due to deformation-induced K-feldspar

replacement (Simpson and Wintsch, 1989; Paterson et al., 1989). Replacement

of quartz by fine-grained muscovite is also common in microfractures. Strained

and fractured quartz grains have sutured margins (Figure 4.1b). Fine-grained

quartz bands associated with deformed muscovite and biotite flakes may indicate

small-scale mylonization.

Biotite constitutes 2-12% of the granite. Its grain size ranges from 1-3 mm, it is

strongly pleochroic with straw yellow to reddish brown colour, and occurs as

randomly oriented subhedral flakes with dark haloes. Biotite encloses quartz

grains, prismatic apatite, ilmenite, sphene and subhedral to euhedral zircon (100-

150 µm) which is surrounded by dark halos (Figure 4.1c), and shows

replacement by fine-grained muscovite. Chlorite may occur as an alteration

product of biotite.

The muscovite is in the range of 3-8%, its grain size varies from 1-2 mm. Primary

muscovite occurs as relatively coarse and well developed flakes, and secondary

muscovite is in the form of tiny flakes. Textural characteristics may be used to

reveal the presence of primary and secondary muscovite (Saavedra, 1978; Zen,

1988). Muscovite may occasionally enclose zircon. At places, the primary

muscovite flakes in conjunction with biotite show bending due to deformation as

presented in Figure 4.1d. Muscovite and biotite flakes along with fine-grained thin

quartz bands are stretched, pinched and swelled which represents mild degree of

tectonic foliation/mylonization (Figure 4.1e & f). The Mansehra Granite exhibits

hypidiomorphic porphyritic texture.

Tourmaline (1-2%) occurs as subhedral to anhedral crystals of size range

between 0.5-2.0 mm. Tourmaline is pleochroic from light yellow to deep brown

and replaces biotite, muscovite and feldspar. Ilmenite is a ubiquitous accessory

mineral (0.2-0.5%) which occurs as anhedral discrete crystals in biotite.


38

a) b)

c) d)

e) f)

Figure 4.1: Micro photographs showing mineralogical and textural features in Mansehra Granite; a) Cross-hatched microcline replaced by fine-grained muscovite at the margin, associated with biotite flakes, b) Strained and fractured quartz grain and biotite, c) Reddish-brown biotite flake encloses euhderal zircon crystals surrounded by dark haloes, d) Broken and strained biotite flake, e) Strained and broken biotite flakes with fine-grained quartz, f) Biotite flakes swirled around quartz due to stress.


39

Apatite is found as discrete eumorphic to subhedral crystals (0.1-0.4%) in biotite

(Figure 4.2a). The crystal size ranges between 200-400 µm. Apatite and zircon

are early formed accessory minerals, and form inclusions in the main rock-

forming minerals such as biotite (Xiang et al., 2006). Sporadic occurrence of

anhedral to subhedral monazite is also observed. Rutile (0.01-0.03 %) occurs as

acicular crystals. Around 0.5% chlorite was also witnessed in a few samples.

Anhedral to subhedral cordierite occurs as altered felty pinite (Le Fort et al.,

1980). The undulatory extinction of quartz, deformed micaceous folia, fractured

plagioclase and K-feldspar may suggest the sub-solidus deformation (Paterson et

al., 1989), which is most likely the result of a large scale regional thrusting

(Greiling et al, 1987).

4.2 The Hakale Granite The granite is predominantly composed of microcline, quartz, plagioclase,

muscovite and biotite, whereas zircon, apatite and tourmaline are accessory.

Microcline contents range between 20-40%. Microcline is in the form of

microperthitic, subhedral, its grain size varies in the range of 3-10 mm, and it may

enclose muscovite, biotite, quartz and albite. At places, partial to complete

replacement of microcline by fine-grained muscovite is seen. Well-developed

myrmekites are also observed in the granite as shown in Figure 4.2 b.

Plagioclase occurs as albite which constitutes around 5-30% of the rock. Its grain

size varies between 2-3 mm, and it shows well developed polysynthetic twinning.

The sporadic occurrence of chess board albite is also reported by Shams

(1967b). The albite is being replaced by fine-grained muscovite along the

microfractures (Figure 4.2 c).

Quartz, of grain size varying between 0.3-3.0 mm, constitutes about 25-38% of

the granite, and generally shows moderate to strong strain extinction. At places,

quartz grains have sutured contacts, and exhibit mild to intense marginal

mylonization. The granite displays hypidiomorphic porphyritic texture.

The biotite component of Hakale Granite is in the range of 1-5%. The grain size

of biotite ranges between 2-3 mm. The biotite may enclose anhedral to

eumorphic apatite (200-400 µm), ilmenite and euhedral to subhedral zircon (100-

150 µm) surrounded by dark haloes. Biotite is marginally replaced by fine-grained

muscovite in addition to its occasional replacement by quartz. The biotite flakes


40

were found stretched, contorted, randomly oriented, broken and curved showing

the effect of stress. Muscovite occurs as primary as well as secondary mineral

and constitutes around 3-7% of the granite. Grain size of the muscovite varies

from 1-3 mm. It may enclose microcline, biotite and zircon.

The granite contains 1-5% tourmaline which is subhedral to anhedral, showing

yellow to dark brown pleochroism. The grain size ranges from 0.6-1.2 mm. It may

enclose biotite, muscovite, and occasionally quartz and microcline. Zircon, apatite

and ilmenite are in the range of 0.3-0.5%, 0.1-0.3% and 0.2-0.4%, respectively.

The eumorphic apatite is included in biotite (Figure 4.2 d). The occasional

presence of chlorite in the granite was also noticed.

4.3 The Microgranites Microgranites are fine-grained, non-porphyritic and foliated sills and dykes.

Microgranites are mainly composed of microcline, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and

muscovite; tourmaline and zircon are accessory minerals.

Microcline constitutes about 23-35% of the microgranites and displays cross-

hatch twining. Its grain size ranges from 0.2 to 5.0 mm. Microcline is

microperthitic, subhedral to anhedral, and encloses fine-grained muscovite,

albite, quartz and zircon. At places, microcline is variably replaced by fine-grained

muscovite and quartz.

Plagioclase occurs as anhedral to subhedral albite, and constitutes 13-30% of the

microgranites. The grain size varies generally in the range of 0.5 -1.0 mm,

however, crystals up to 13.0 mm were also observed. Albite is variably replaced

by fine-grained muscovite, particularly along its margins. The albite is associated

with strained quartz and pinched biotite (Figure 4.2 e).

The microgranite consists of 30-41% quartz, which is fine-grained and its grain

size generally ranges between 0.25-1.0 mm. A few crystals are upto 3.0 mm in

size. It is anhedral, strained, microfractured, marginally foliated, and encloses

muscovite. Quartz grains have sutured contacts.

Biotite light brown green to brown in colour, constitutes 2-18% of the

microgranites, is intimately associated with albite (350-400 µm) and muscovite

and its grain size varies in the range of 0.4-1.0 mm. Broken flakes of biotite are

observed at places. The biotite is replaced with fine-grained muscovite along

microfractures. At places the biotite flakes alternate with quartz grains as


41

indicated in Figure 4.2 f. Euhedral to subhedral zircon (100-120 µm) surrounded

by dark haloes is enclosed in biotite flakes. Light yellow muscovite occurs as

flakes (0.5 mm) and fine aggregates, and is associated with quartz and

microcline. The microgranites comprised of 3-5% muscovite, the grain size of

which varies in the range of 0.5-1.0 mm. The microgranites contain 2-3%

tourmaline, which is subhedral to anhedral, yellowish brown in colour and its

grain size ranges from 1.0-2.0 mm (Figure 4.3 a-b).

4.4 The Leucogranites The leucogranitic bodies are generally massive but occasionally porphyritic and

comprised of 3-10% K-feldspar phenocrysts of size varying from 1.5 to 6.0 cm.

Some of the leucogranitic bodies display gneissic character and contain relatively

higher Na2O (>6.0 %) contents, and may be referred to as sodic leucogranites.

The major minerals of these granites are microcline, albite, quartz and muscovite,

whereas accessory minerals include zircon, tourmaline and chlorite. Microcline

contents vary in the range of 3-20 %. Microcline is microperthitic, subhedral to

anhedral, and the grain size ranges from 6 to 10 mm. Albite constitutes 43-60%

of the leucogranites. High albite contents are distinctive features of leucogranites.

The grain size of albite varies between 3-4 mm. It is subhedral to anhedral,

encloses zircon and muscovite, and is replaced with fine-grained muscovite.

The leucogranites are composed of 24-34% quartz having grain size in the range

of 0.25-3.0 mm. Anhedral quartz grains have sutured contacts. Muscovite is

around 1-7% of these leucogranites. Muscovite flakes (1.5-2.0 mm) are enclosing

anhedral (400 µm) microcline. Euhedral to subhedral (75-100 µm) zircon is

enclosed in subhedral and dark brown biotite. Occasionally subhedral to anhedral

and yellowish tourmaline is observed. Chlorite occurs in traces.

4.5 The Aplites Aplites contain microcline, albite, quartz, biotite, muscovite as major minerals,

while zircon and tourmaline are accessory minerals. Aplites are comprised of 25-

32% microcline, which is anhedral, microperthitic and its grain size varies in the

range of 1-2 mm. Microcline is cross-hatched and shows Carlsbad twinning. The

aplites are comprised of 32-35 % quartz, 30-32% albite, 0.5-1.0 % biotite and 5-6

% muscovite. Pinching and swelling structure and parallel to sub-parallel

alignment of muscovite/biotite flakes demonstrate tectonic foliation. Muscovite is


42

replaced by quartz. Muscovite flakes may enclose euhedral zircon. Yellowish,

subhedral tourmaline (2-3%) replaces microcline and fine-grained quartz.

4.6 The contact between Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation

The granite in contact with the Tanawal Formation is mainly comprised of

microcline, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and muscovite; zircon, apatite and

tourmaline are as accessory minerals. The microcline constitutes about 30 % of

the granite and its grain size varies in the range of 2-7 mm. Microcline is

subhedral to anhedral, cross-hatched and microperthitic (Figure 4.3 c). Microcline

shows subpoikilitic texture and may enclose subhedral zircon (100-120 µm), dark

brown biotite (0.30-0.35 mm), plagioclase (0.5-0.75 mm), muscovite and quartz.

Plagioclase occurs as albite and constitutes around 24.0 % of the granite.

Subhedral to anhedral albite (1.5-2.0 mm) contains inclusions of muscovite and

biotite. It is partially to completely replaced with fine-grained muscovite.

Intergrowth of albite and microperthitic microcline is observed at a number of

places. Anhedral albite (with inclusions of muscovite) may occur as vein filling

mineral. Anhedral strained quartz (27.0 %) encloses dark brown biotite and

muscovite. Quartz grains range in size from 0.1 to 3.0 mm.

Muscovite flakes of 1-1.5 mm in size enclose dark brown biotite, which

constitutes about 3.0% of the rock. Zircon crystals (100-150 µm) surrounded by

dark haloes, and apatite are enclosed in biotite.

Muscovite flakes are about 15.0% of the granite. Flakes have parallel alignment

and are stretched, swelled and pinched. Sporadically muscovite is replaced by

fine-grained quartz. Subhedral to anhedral tourmaline (1.0%) associated with

muscovite and quartz is also found.

4.7 The contact between Mansehra Granite and Hakale Granite The petrography of the granite sampled from the contact between Mansehra

Granite and Hakale Granite reveals that microcline, plagioclase, quartz, biotite

and muscovite are major minerals, whereas zircon and apatite occur as

accessory minerals. Microperthitic microcline is around 45% and its grain size is

in the range of 0.5-2.0 mm. It is being replaced with fine-grained muscovite,

particularly near its margins (Figure 4.3 d). Subhedral to anhedral albite is about

22.0 % and quartz is around 28.0 %. Quartz is anhedral and medium-grained


43

having size in the range of 1-2 mm. Strained and microfractured quartz grains

may indicate marginal mylonization. Myrmekitic growths are occasionally

observed. Biotite and muscovite are 0.5 % and 3.0%, respectively. Fine-grained

muscovite is replaced by biotite near its margins. Dark brown biotite encloses

euhedral (100-150 µm) zircon.

4.8 The Tanawal Formation The Tanawal Formation is principally composed of quartz, muscovite, biotite,

whereas zircon and tourmaline occur as accessory minerals.

Quartz ranges between 28.0-64.0 % and its grain size varies from 0.05 mm to

1.00 mm. Fine-grained quartz is replaced by fine-grained muscovite. At places,

anhedral quartz has muscovite and subhedral to euhedral zircon inclusions.

Strained and microfractured quartz may indicate the marginal mylonization.

Quartz grains are interlocked exhibiting mosaic texture. Quartz is associated with

dark brown biotite.

Biotite and muscovite are in the range of 3-12% and 15-62%, respectively.

Parallel to sub-parallel alignment, pinching and swelling of light brown biotite

flakes may indicate tectonic foliation (Figure 4.3 e).

Mica-rich and quartz-rich bands characterize pelite and psammites. Fine-grained

quartz is the principal component of psammites. Muscovite and biotite are

subordinate component of the rock.

Subhedral to euhedral zircon (0.2 to 0.5%) is enclosed in dark brown biotite. Size

of the zircon crystals varies in the range of 100-120 µm. Yellowish muscovite

flakes (200 µm), may have fine-grained inclusions of subhedral zircon. The

Tanawal Formation contains 1.0-3.0 % yellowish and subhedral tourmaline,

which is associated with quartz and muscovite. Ilmenite (0.5-0.8 %) is associated

with quartz and muscovite bands.

4.8.1 The pelites The pelites of Tanawal Formation are generally fine to medium-grained. The

biotite grade rock is fine-grained and strongly schistosed. The schistocity is

marked by the mica minerals. Pelitic rocks are mainly comprised of muscovite,

biotite, chlorite, and quartz. K-feldspar and albite/oligoclase are ubiquitous

accessory minerals. Tourmaline occurs as randomly distributed accessory

mineral, and apatite, ilmenite and monazite are trace minerals.


44

In higher grade the constituent minerals become coarser and index minerals like

almandine, staurolite and kyanite appear.

4.8.2 The psammites The psammites range from almost pure quartz to micaceous quartzites with small

amounts of garnet in garnet grade of metamorphism. These rocks are

granoblastic, and do not show schistose or gneissic structure. The argillaceous

psammites have same mineralogy (depending upon the grade of metamorphism)

as the associated pelitic rocks. The psammites may also contain subordinate

amounts of micas, K-feldspar, and albite/oligoclase (Figure 4.3f). Zircon,

tourmaline, apatite, and ilmenite may occur as accessory minerals.

4.9 The Mica Schist The mica schist is composed of about 40.0% quartz (0.5 mm), 35.0% biotite, 25.0

% muscovite. Quartz grains are strained and fractured. The biotite flakes enclose

subhedral to anhedral quartz (150 µm), subhedral zircon (100 µm), microcline

and albite. Muscovite and biotite flakes show parallel to sub-parallel alignment as

well as pinching and swelling. At places, fine-grained muscovite replaces

microcline and quartz, particularly near their margins. Zircon is about 0.5% of the

mica schist.

4.10 The Migmatites Migmatites are comprised of microcline, quartz, biotite and muscovite, with zircon

and tourmaline as accessory minerals. The rock is composed of around 3.0 %

microcline, which is subhedral to anhedral (500 µm), microperthitic, contains

stringlets and inclusions of muscovite. Fine-grained muscovite replaces

microcline near its margins. The migmatites contain around 30-50% anhedral

quartz (100-500 µm) enclosing muscovite. Strained and microfractured quartz

grains show marginal mylonization.

Biotite and muscovite are in the range of 2-14 % and 3-37 %, respectively. Light

brown biotite (300-500 µm) encloses quartz and subhedral muscovite (500 µm).

Biotite and muscovite flakes show stretching, pinching and swelling. Parallel to

sub-parallel alternate sequence of quartz, muscovite and biotite may reflect mild

tectonic foliation. Light brown biotite replaces quartz grains. Subhedral zircon

grains (0.5%) of 100-120 µm in size and surrounded by dark haloes are enclosed

by light green to dark brown biotite.


45

4.11 The Hornfelses The hornfelses are often banded and principally composed of quartz, biotite,

muscovite and andalusite. Zircon is an accessory mineral. Quartz constitutes 42-

55 % of the hornfelses, and its grain size ranges between 20-200 µm. Quartz is

strained and fractured, and encloses very fine muscovite and biotite flakes.

Parallel to sub-parallel fine-grained quartz and relatively coarse-grained

muscovite-biotite bands represent psammites-pelites (metaturbidites). Biotite

occasionally replaces quartz along microfractures. The hornfelses contain 15-

20% biotite and 12-20% muscovite. Light green/brown biotite encloses (300-350

µm) quartz grains. Muscovite encloses biotite, quartz and subhedral zircon. At

places, muscovite is replaced with fine-grained quartz. The hornfelses are

composed of 7-14% andalusite of grain size in the range of 0.2-3.0 mm. Anhedral

Ilmenite is associated with biotite. The hornfelses show hornfelsic texture.


46

a) b)

c) d)

e) f)

Figure 4.2: Micro photographs showing; a) Apatite crystal enclosed in (dark brown) biotite in

Mansehra Granite, b) Well-developed myrmekites in Hakale Granite, c) Albite grain invaded by muscovite in Hakale Granite, d) Apatite crystal enclosed in biotite flake in Hakale Granite, e) Stretched quartz with pinched biotite and associated albite in microgranite, f) Alternate bands of biotite flakes and quartz grains in microgranites


47

a)

b)

c) d)

e) f)

Figure 4.3: Micro photos indicating; a) Tourmaline crystal associated with quartz in microgranites,

b) Tourmaline crystals with quartz grains in microgranites, c) Cross-hatched, twinned microcline associated with quartz and biotite at the contact of Mansehra Granite with Tanawal Formation, d) Microcline crystal invaded by fine muscovite in Contact sample between Mansehra Granite and Hakale Ganite, e) Alternate bands of biotite flakes and quartz grains in pelites of Tanawal Formation, f) Alternate bands of biotite flakes and quartz grains in psammites of Tanawal Formation

Chapter Five Geochemistry

48

5 GEOCHEMISTRY

5.1 Geochemical classification The chemical data of the MGC (Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, microgranites

and leucogranites) as shown in Figure 5.1 (a-m) in terms of total alkali versus

silica diagrams (Cox et al., 1979; Middlemost, 1985, 1994), R1-R2 diagram (De la

Roche et al., 1980), P-Q relationship (Debon and Le Fort, 1983), An-Ab-Or plot

(O’Connor, 1965) and Granite Mesonorm (Mielke and Winkler, 1979)

predominantly placed these rocks in granite field (Figure 5.1a-g), except a few

samples that fall in the granodiorite domain along with trondhjemite, adamellite

and tonalite fields of these diagrams. This may owe to their variable silica and

alkali contents. In QAP diagram (Streckeisen, 1974, 1978; Figure 5.1h), the MGC

granitic rocks lie in the quartz-rich granitoid field. Using AFM diagram (Irvin and

Baragar, 1971) all samples present calc alkaline to high calc alkaline

compositions (Figure 5.1i). Based on A/CNK versus A/NK plot (Shand, 1943) and

B-A diagrams (Debon and Le Fort, 1983; Villaseca et al., 1998) these granites

are peraluminous to highly peraluminous (Figure 5.1j-l), which indicate S-type

characteristics of the MGC. Each classification diagram used different

geochemical parameters which may have reflected slight variations in

compositional characteristics of granitic rocks of the MGC. The Ba-Rb-Sr plot

(ElBouseily and ElSokkary, 1975) indicates the composition and differentiation

characteristics of the MGC granites as shown in Figure 5.1m. The massive and

gneissic Mansehra Granite plots together in these geochemical classification

diagrams (Figure 5.2a-l).

5.2 Geochemistry Major oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, MgO, K2O, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, P2O5 and TiO2)

and trace elements (Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, As, Br, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo,

Ag, Cd, Sn, Sb, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Nd, W, Pb, Bi, Th and U) contents of the MGC


49

were determined at National Centre of Excellence in Geology, Peshawar,

Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Islamabad and University

of Education, Lahore. Major oxides and trace element contents are given in %

and ppm, respectively in Table 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Plot of chemical data of MG, HG, MIG and LG in geochemical classification diagrams a) total alkalis versus SiO2 diagram (Cox et al., 1979), b) SiO2-Na2O+K2O plot (Middlemost, 1985), c) R1-R2 plot (De la Roche et al., 1980), d) P-Q relationship (Debon and Le Fort, 1983), e) TAS diagram (Middlemost, 1994) and f) Ab-An-Or plot (O’Connor, 1965), g) Granite mesonorm (Mielke & Winkler, 1979), h) QAP diagram (Streckeisen, 1974, 1978), i) AFM diagram (Irvin and Baragar, 1971), j) A/CNK-ANK plot (Shand, 1943), k) B-A plot (Debon and Le Fort, 1983), l) B-A plot (Villaseca et al., 1998), m) Ba-Rb-Sr plot (ElBouseily and ElSokkary, 1975). gr,(granite), ad (adamellite), gd (granodiorite), to (tonalite, trondhjemite); 2 (alkali feldspar granite), 3a, 3b (granite); I-III (Peraluminous domain), IV-VI (Metaluminous domain); l-P (low peraluminous), m-P (moderately peraluminous), h-P (highly peraluminous), f-P (felsic peraluminous); A (K2O+Na2O), F (FeOtot), M (MgO); Ab (Albite), An (Anorthite), Or (K-feldspar); Q (Quartz modal), A (Alkali feldspar modal), P (plagioclase modal)

Continue…….

a b

d

c


50

Continue………….

g

h

i j

e f


51

k

m

l


52

Figure 5.2: (a-l) showing plot of massive and gneissic Mansehra Granite in geochemical classification diagrams.

a b c

d e f

g

h

i

j k l


53

Table 5.1: Major oxides (%), trace elements (ppm) of (a) Mansehra Granite (b) Hakale Granite, (c) Microgranites (d) Leucogranites (e) aplites (f) migmatites (g) hornfelses (h) Contact samples (i) metasediments (j) mica schist

Major Oxides a

MG-1 MG-2 MG-6 MG-7 MG-8 MG-9 MG10 MG-11 MG-12 MG-13 MG-14

SiO2 70.01 70.5 72.05 69.81 71.36 70.05 74.14 71.67 72.09 72.45 71.69

Al2O3 14.43 15.08 15.23 15.40 14.78 15.12 15.81 15.38 14.54 14.72 15.14

Na2O 3.19 2.69 2.21 3.16 2.84 2.75 2.33 2.83 2.92 2.94 2.75 MgO 1.52 1.23 0.64 0.81 1.30 1.26 0.74 0.95 0.61 0.61 0.54 CaO 1.24 1.55 1.21 1.18 1.64 1.59 1.2 1.20 1.08 1.09 1.01

K2O 5.09 4.17 5.26 5.19 3.39 4.25 2.77 4.91 4.51 4.53 5.29

Fe2O3 0.71 2.00 0.46 1.67 2.01 2.04 0.73 0.46 1.28 1.29 1.17 FeO 2.11 1.11 1.69 1.32 0.89 1.25 1.01 1.21 1.65 0.98 1.05 MnO 0.09 0.08 0.01 0.09 0.05 0.13 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.14

P2O5 0.31 0.20 0.17 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.17

TiO2 0.83 0.63 0.49 0.49 0.68 0.64 0.32 0.54 0.37 0.37 0.34 LOI 0.47 0.75 0.58 0.65 0.81 0.70 0.66 0.56 0.67 0.64 0.69 SUM 100 99.99 100 99.99 99.97 99.99 99.97 99.98 99.98 99.90 99.98 A/CNK 1.52 1.79 1.75 1.62 1.88 1.76 2.51 1.72 1.71 1.72 1.67 CIPW Norm 2.16 3.80 4.11 2.97 3.98 3.61 7.23 3.68 3.35 3.45 3.46 Trace Elements Sc 6 7 7 6 6 7 4 4 6 4 3 V 52 59 100 50 35 55 45 47 64 46 Cr 8 55 17 54 38 22 17 20 30 60 17 Co 6 14 3 14 18 19 1 4 8 12 12 Ni 8 16 2 13 14 24 18 5 9 13 20 Cu 14 49 6 39 31 43 19 10 19 20 77 Zn 47 67 25 52 70 54 20 45 24 38 48 Ga 35 38 32 35 59 30 36 34 34 37 34 As 12 6 2 7 17 5 1 11 3 8 10 Br 6 4 4 5 9 5 5 6 4 6 6 Rb 254 233 155 254 283 248 127 238 203 256 258 Sr 63 81 29 60 68 60 75 67 78 52 55 Y 29 33 15 27 28 25 18 25 31 23 23 Zr 139 184 231 148 145 134 101 128 163 113 104 Nb 14 16 11 15 15 14 10 13 14 14 13 Mo 5 6 5 4 5 5 4 5 4 4 4 Ag 20 23 22 22 19 25 21 15 18 21 18 Cd 10 12 15 15 9 14 12 10 12 10 12 Sn 34 32 29 37 33 38 34 32 30 34 33 Cs 23 8 6 3 24 16 2 12 13 17 18 Ba 248 272 1624 279 251 354 242 354 347 2434 337 W 2 5 4 7 16 1 8 14 0 Pb 22 25 3 29 25 29 5 29 21 26 28 Bi 25 23 20 21 28 27 22 22 24 23 26 Th 48 55 44 49 51 49 44 50 53 45 46 U 13 11 14 13 24 12 13 13 14 13 16 La 35 35 36 37 30 50 50 42 48 36 49 Ce 121 151 91 114 70 141 122 168 Nd 47 41 1 24 41 38 33 30



54

Major Oxides MG-15 MG-17 MG-18 MG-19 MG-37 MG-38 MG-39 MG-44 MG-46 MG-47 MG-48

SiO2 69.38 70.20 69.73 71.86 72.08 70.12 70.04 72.15 71.22 71.52 70.16

Al2O3 14.82 16.54 15.07 15.05 15.22 16.23 14.25 17.02 14.33 15.32 15.04

Na2O 2.51 3.28 2.75 2.47 3.77 3.20 2.53 0.34 3.07 2.70 3.48 MgO 1.25 0.70 1.10 0.59 0.22 0.59 1.26 1.50 2.01 0.77 1.17 CaO 1.68 0.99 1.53 1.19 0.48 1.35 1.69 1.04 1.54 1.23 1.47 K2O 4.40 5.41 4.63 5.35 4.82 4.81 4.34 4.32 4.10 4.55 4.71

Fe2O3 2.60 0.36 1.90 0.28 0.10 1.10 2.13 0.96 1.25 0.64 0.89 FeO 1.80 1.25 2.01 1.93 1.61 1.49 2.05 0.89 1.01 2.03 1.72 MnO 0.05 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.05 P2O5 0.18 0.19 0.24 0.10 0.27 0.10 0.18 0.07 0.37 0.18 0.24

TiO2 0.70 0.36 0.61 0.36 0.63 0.32 0.70 0.92 0.67 0.45 0.58 LOI 0.61 0.57 0.34 0.68 0.70 0.58 0.73 0.62 0.31 0.49 0.43 SUM 99.98 99.94 99.99 99.96 99.98 99.98 99.98 99.90 99.99 99.98 99.94 A/CNK 1.73 1.71 1.69 1.67 1.68 1.73 1.66 2.99 1.65 1.81 1.56 CIPW Norm 3.30 3.94 3.33 3.27 3.57 3.54 2.75 10.06 2.93 4.15 2.12

Trace Elements

Sc 6 5 8 2 6 4 7 5 3 3 3 V 58 41 57 42 50 38 61 64 54 51 31 Cr 29 24 44 18 9 13 33 17 33 20 16 Co 24 4 12 3 1 11 12 6 9 6 9 Ni 24 5 13 3 1 16 10 5 16 7 10 Cu 56 8 35 65 2 22 37 44 24 12 17 Zn 13 32 52 27 42 24 64 53 70 48 25 Ga 37 32 37 34 33 35 38 35 38 36 53 As 4 5 5 6 6 4 6 3 6 9 17 Br 4 5 4 4 7 6 6 6 5 6 9 Rb 144 239 233 189 183 179 208 187 230 259 289 Sr 168 48 79 66 74 53 89 78 63 56 54 Y 18 21 28 26 24 21 30 31 31 28 27 Zr 125 94 163 105 151 85 201 183 158 122 125 Nb 13 13 16 9 13 9 16 15 15 13 15 Mo 4 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 Ag 18 17 20 16 19 21 29 23 22 19 19 Cd 11 12 9 10 11 12 14 16 10 11 12 Sn 32 31 27 27 30 28 30 29 32 35 35 Cs 9 7 2 6 1 n.d. 3 4 18 12 12 Ba 216 285 377 320 360 237 320 269 245 282 250 W 12 6 2 1 12 6 4 4 15 Pb 11 27 25 30 29 28 27 24 23 25 30 Bi 24 24 22 21 21 22 26 23 21 20 30 Th 46 44 54 49 49 41 57 51 54 49 52 U 12 13 12 11 12 15 13 12 11 13 23 La 37 27 48 44 24 30 28 29 49 36 35 Ce 194 119 144 133 91 96 99 76 129 87 Nd 28 26 55 41 30 9 19 17 40 21

Continue…..


55

Major Oxides MG-49 MG-50 MG-51 MG-52 MG-53 MG-54 MG-55 MG-56 MG-57 MG-72 MG-74

SiO2 72.13 72.01 72.18 72.03 68.01 71.29 68.4 70.56 69.60 69.78 71.57

Al2O3 15.25 14.19 16.1 15.02 17.63 17.80 17.01 15.19 15.22 14.02 15.89

Na2O 2.86 2.63 3.50 2.78 3.61 4.04 3.84 3.53 3.40 3.04 3.71

MgO 0.77 0.82 1.87 0.92 0.81 0.24 0.97 0.88 1.13 1.83 1.09

CaO 1.10 1.27 0.50 1.37 1.04 0.52 1.40 1.07 1.68 1.19 0.46

K2O 4.71 4.15 2.56 4.59 5.88 2.52 4.78 4.63 4.68 5.02 4.26

Fe2O3 0.42 0.61 0.16 0.58 0.66 0.11 0.74 0.72 0.72 1.38 0.30

FeO 1.43 2.86 1.15 1.70 1.02 1.65 1.72 1.80 1.95 1.91 1.16

MnO 0.10 0.09 0.03 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.04 0.08 0.09

P2O5 0.19 0.17 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.30 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.33 0.26

TiO2 0.44 0.44 0.69 0.44 0.39 0.68 0.44 0.44 0.54 0.80 0.57

LOI 0.58 0.76 1.01 0.28 0.51 0.75 0.33 0.87 0.80 0.61 0.62

SUM 99.98 100 99.99 99.98 99.9 99.98 99.97 100 99.98 99.99 99.98 A/CNK 1.76 1.76 2.45 1.72 1.67 2.51 1.70 1.53 1.56 1.52 1.88

CIPW Norm 3.90 3.47 6.24 3.42 4.06 8.20 3.55 2.41 2.03 2.21 4.96

Trace Elements

Sc 4 5 4 5 5 3 6 4 2 4 7 V 48 42 61 49 51 28 39 42 14 39 4 Cr 17 32 38 36 20 8 34 69 18 11 7 Co 3 6 3 7 5 1 6 3 6 8 2 Ni 4 9 6 10 6 2 7 2 10 3 1 Cu 7 15 7 17 13 3 13 6 15 63 18 Zn 48 46 2 53 63 52 44 55 78 39 34 Ga 32 37 28 35 38 36 31 37 59 34 36 As 12 5 2 9 7 7 3 9 10 6 5 Br 5 5 6 7 7 5 5 6 9 8 7 Rb 260 238 19 253 263 295 220 278 328 235 377 Sr 50 54 40 64 66 44 45 53 47 58 9 Y 28 27 9 28 31 22 20 22 20 26 16 Zr 120 128 168 129 154 89 103 110 93 131 22 Nb 14 14 17 15 15 13 13 14 15 14 16 Mo 5 5 5 7 5 4 5 5 4 3 1 Ag 21 18 17 22 20 22 18 23 20 19 23 Cd 12 7 13 16 10 13 11 15 13 13 10 Sn 37 30 33 35 34 36 33 36 35 35 51 Cs 12 19 12 1 25 29 32 21 5 44 Ba 264 204 97 281 285 225 180 356 184 240 25 W 1 2 4 1 2 1 1 16 14 7 Pb 26 22 29 28 34 22 31 39 24 18 Bi 26 22 23 23 23 26 24 22 30 23 25 Th 49 51 54 51 54 46 44 49 48 49 35 U 12 13 12 13 13 12 12 13 23 14 13 La 43 44 10 40 49 35 31 40 25 32 12 Ce 158 148 111 117 136 136 127 109 63 11 62 Nd 20 40 29 28 17 28 52 17 6 16

Continue…..Con


56

Major Oxides MG-104 MG-108 MG-110 MG-113 MG-116 MG-118 MG-120 MG-123 MG-125 HG-58 HG-60

SiO2 72.11 70.06 74.12 71.58 69.45 72.75 72.01 70.14 69.38 70.48 72.25

Al2O3 15.00 16.50 14.40 15.65 16.35 15.43 15.03 16.30 15.76 16.42 14.98

Na2O 2.82 2.94 2.59 4.04 3.64 3.25 2.55 2.18 3.46 3.72 2.80

MgO 1.20 1.37 1.06 0.10 0.58 0.63 1.01 0.78 1.00 0.92 0.94

CaO 1.84 1.81 1.41 0.41 0.83 0.99 1.50 1.14 1.77 1.16 1.19

K2O 4.09 4.11 4.02 5.40 5.86 4.28 4.99 6.36 5.20 4.45 4.86

Fe2O3 0.56 0.61 0.45 0.42 0.34 0.31 0.49 0.45 0.55 0.54 0.46

FeO 0.98 1.22 0.96 1.03 1.63 0.92 0.89 1.12 1.22 1.02 0.92

MnO 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.05

P2O5 0.17 0.21 0.08 0.20 0.30 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.23 0.23 0.19

TiO2 0.79 0.78 0.53 0.45 0.27 0.26 0.57 0.53 0.60 0.29 0.53

LOI 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.69 0.69 0.89 0.68 0.77 0.73 0.67 0.82

SUM 99.99 100 99.97 99.99 99.98 99.98 99.99 99.99 99.97 99.99 99.99 A/CNK 1.71 1.86 1.80 1.59 1.58 1.81 1.66 1.68 1.51 1.76 1.69

CIPW Norm 3.00 4.43 3.42 2.89 3.23 4.18 3.16 4.14 1.77 3.93 3.40

Trace Elements

Sc 10 10 8 1 3 3 6 4 7 3 V 69 52 46 2 13 23 43 41 20 45 41 Cr 6 8 7 8 10 54 59 6 18 20 28 Co 27 23 35 7 4 3 6 18 4 4 4 Ni 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 12 5 7 Cu 9 10 10 1 7 4 12 2 12 9 10 Zn 38 25 26 3 33 32 51 32 11 46 16 Ga 53 45 47 44 47 47 49 52 27 37 32 As 8 5 32 4 6 11 8 6 20 6 7 Br 5 5 6 6 7 6 6 4 42 6 6 Rb 208 194 208 190 348 240 207 218 49 244 194 Sr 109 72 62 7 38 53 63 60 13 56 49 Y 48 35 42 10 30 25 33 30 6 27 24 Zr 281 188 315 13 94 107 185 164 30 121 100 Nb 20 16 18 7 17 13 18 16 4 13 12 Mo 5 3 5 2 4 4 5 3 4 5 7 Ag 28 24 26 18 26 27 22 21 8 23 16 Cd 11 12 16 11 12 14 11 12 9 14 11 Sn 33 33 35 33 43 37 34 33 25 35 35 Cs 10 7 2 n.d. 24 1 17 13 15 16 Ba 530 417 360 29 187 267 234 327 57 219 286 W 17 16 14 4 11 19 12 16 n.d. 4 2 Pb 14 16 28 22 19 19 14 18 10 23 18 Bi 43 41 43 38 46 39 41 42 33 22 20 Th 57 50 65 35 51 45 58 53 35 50 47 U bdl 20 19 23 22 24 23 21 14 10 La 52 38 59 10 21 19 40 36 16 43 33 Ce 109 75 121 22 68 58 123 56 154 155 Nd 16 30 37 11 35 33 49 22 29 28

Continue…..


57

Major Oxides b

HG-65 HG-80 HG-81 HG-82 HG-83 HG-84 HG-85 HG-87 HG-88 HG-89 HG-91

SiO2 70.82 72.32 73.26 72.06 71.55 69.62 70.01 74.23 73.3 72.26 74.57

Al2O3 15.50 15.10 14.87 15.02 15.58 14.40 15.37 14.86 15.13 14.58 14.81

Na2O 3.20 2.88 2.72 2.74 2.66 2.63 3.51 2.75 2.57 2.67 2.06 MgO 1.46 0.78 0.75 0.54 0.74 1.14 0.96 0.74 0.82 0.74 0.32 CaO 1.42 1.18 1.10 1.01 1.33 1.48 1.45 1.06 1.30 1.14 0.90

K2O 4.28 4.85 4.36 5.28 5.29 5.41 5.30 4.52 4.00 4.37 5.36

Fe2O3 1.05 0.68 0.65 1.17 0.56 0.83 0.50 0.04 0.69 2.18 0.40 FeO 1.02 0.92 0.91 0.81 1.06 2.76 1.14 0.91 0.64 0.79 0.24 MnO 0.08 0.03 0.09 0.10 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.04

P2O5 0.31 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.28 0.23 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.34

TiO2 0.54 0.43 0.43 0.33 0.45 0.51 0.53 0.42 0.47 0.43 0.19 LOI 0.30 0.53 0.67 0.77 0.49 0.76 0.90 0.17 0.78 0.58 0.67 SUM 99.98 99.87 99.98 100 99.96 99.89 99.99 99.94 99.97 99.99 99.90 A/CNK 1.74 1.69 1.82 1.66 1.68 1.51 1.50 1.78 1.92 1.78 1.78 CIPW Norm 3.76 3.37 4.08 3.37 3.52 2.20 1.77 3.95 4.64 3.77 4.80

Trace Elements

Sc 1 5 6 6 5 5 6 2 6 6 4 V 45 47 46 29 47 44 48 46 16 Cr 13 44 34 65 12 13 27 52 52 13 8 Co 11 7 6 9 9 10 5 4 8 19 5 Ni 3 9 9 18 16 17 7 8 1 13 6 Cu 49 73 12 18 13 15 10 8 17 45 23 Zn 27 45 47 45 66 63 38 59 37 59 52 Ga 33 37 36 35 58 39 32 33 34 36 36 As 8 9 6 11 15 15 11 7 7 14 13 Br 5 6 6 5 8 7 7 6 6 7 Rb 296 267 246 264 293 282 237 243 256 257 374 Sr 80 62 72 63 68 72 61 54 55 55 20 Y 23 29 30 28 27 26 26 26 27 27 21 Zr 92 128 138 126 131 111 115 114 126 122 38 Nb 9 14 14 14 15 12 13 13 14 14 16 Mo 2 6 7 8 8 7 6 7 7 8 2 Ag 24 24 23 23 21 21 21 16 21 17 17 Cd 15 16 13 14 13 14 13 12 15 13 9 Sn 36 38 34 38 36 38 38 37 36 38 53 Cs n.d. 11 3 8 7 23 15 10 5 n.d. 45 Ba 2825 295 268 316 295 422 303 248 293 2218 113 W 11 3 3 18 1 1 12 Pb 36 27 24 25 28 29 25 22 24 25 22 Bi 23 26 25 27 32 19 26 23 22 21 27 Th 44 51 52 50 53 48 50 48 51 51 38 U 14 13 13 12 23 14 13 15 12 14 13 La 29 45 36 38 31 43 42 47 38 37 30 Ce 151 161 136 180 101 119 147 164 Nd 5 27 45 29 27 36 26 34

Continue…..


58

Major Oxides HG-92 HG-94 HG-95 HG-96 HG-97 HG-98 HG-99 HG-100

SiO2 72.12 70.46 70.12 71.52 71.25 74.68 74.01 74.94

Al2O3 15.98 16.04 17.66 16.67 17.05 14.66 14.57 14.59

Na2O 3.15 4.28 3.99 3.53 4.20 4.29 3.22 3.20

MgO 0.52 0.27 0.18 0.20 0.38 0.48 0.15 0.16

CaO 1.05 0.77 0.53 0.51 0.80 0.71 0.52 0.56

K2O 4.49 6.08 5.53 5.10 3.18 2.48 4.45 4.23

Fe2O3 0.74 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.87 0.63 0.85 0.94

FeO 0.69 0.64 0.56 0.62 0.67 0.76 0.66 0.56

MnO 0.04 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.06

P2O5 0.26 0.32 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.25 0.26 0.28

TiO2 0.33 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.13

LOI 0.62 0.61 0.63 1.01 1.02 0.83 1.08 0.34

SUM 99.99 99.99 99.99 99.99 100 100 100 99.99 A/CNK 1.84 1.44 1.76 1.82 2.08 1.96 1.78 1.83

CIPW Norm 4.65 1.78 4.79 5.11 5.99 4.23 4.13 4.40

Trace Elements Sc 4 3 4 2 3 3 2 1 V 9 51 19 9 16 20 11 12 Cr 23 10 12 51 12 21 17 19 Co 18 2 5 5 11 8 7 8 Ni 14 3 12 10 24 13 3 3 Cu 13 5 10 11 25 14 47 64 Zn 50 48 59 41 41 17 41 33 Ga 38 36 38 34 37 35 38 34 As 10 9 13 12 2 6 22 17 Br 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 Rb 394 259 648 407 263 232 439 422 Sr 23 56 24 22 90 45 23 19 Y 20 28 21 21 17 19 19 22 Zr 40 122 44 47 51 58 38 44 Nb 16 13 17 16 17 14 17 17 Mo 5 4 6 5 5 5 2 2 Ag 19 19 18 18 17 17 22 25 Cd 14 11 10 12 13 12 16 15 Sn 53 35 58 58 58 55 58 60 Cs 36 12 59 76 28 21 63 52 Ba 139 284 144 145 168 121 127 116 W 13 2 n.d. 5 11 6 10 11 Pb 27 25 27 28 8 9 22 22 Bi 23 20 22 22 23 19 26 27 Th 38 49 38 37 39 39 40 39 U 14 12 14 13 14 14 14 13 La 18 36 27 16 25 25 21 27 Ce 123 129 90 121 113 59 88 Nd 34 40 7 18 8 2

Continue…..


59

Major Oxides c

MIG-26 MIG-42 MIG-43 MIG-45 MIG-93

SiO2 65.02 74.43 63.05 74.43 70.09

Al2O3 17.07 12.81 21.14 14.98 17.69

Na2O 1.34 2.84 4.63 3.95 3.55 MgO 1.34 0.19 0.40 0.14 0.20 CaO 0.21 0.69 0.82 0.43 0.61

K2O 5.75 5.15 7.11 3.72 5.55

Fe2O3 3.06 0.74 0.40 0.13 0.39 FeO 3.48 2.03 1.27 1.03 0.72 MnO 0.03 0.08 0.07 0.15 0.07

P2O5 0.16 0.24 0.39 0.25 0.34

TiO2 1.55 0.17 0.19 0.03 0.13 LOI 0.98 0.59 0.51 0.74 0.66 SUM 99.99 99.96 99.98 99.98 100 A/CNK 2.34 1.48 1.68 1.85 1.82 CIPW Norm 8.64 1.88 5.27 4.27 5.55

Trace Elements

Sc 6 5 2 1 4 V 52 14 16 Cr 17 60 33 25 17 Co 16 6 5 2 4 Ni 18 10 6 4 5 Cu 33 15 9 6 19 Zn 25 34 23 24 52 Ga 37 33 31 37 36 As 2 5 8 5 13 Br 6 4 5 6 7 Rb 172 305 302 389 374 Sr 43 43 34 3 20 Y 40 22 24 17 21 Zr 231 57 48 26 38 Nb 24 15 14 14 16 Mo 7 3 3 4 2 Ag 23 20 23 20 17 Cd 15 11 13 11 9 Sn 31 43 41 47 53 Cs 5 23 15 41 45 Ba 403 3227 201 20 113 W 6 4 4 Pb 2 19 19 16 22 Bi 26 22 24 22 27 Th 57 39 38 35 38 U 13 14 14 13 13 La 34 35 24 18 30 Ce 126 228 137 126 Nd 18 22

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60

Major Oxides d

LG-61 LG-64 LG-67 LG-68 LG-69 LG-70 LG-71 LG-73 LG-79 LG-86

SiO2 69.07 62.01 74.28 73.63 74.85 70.36 73.53 72.5 77.39 71.00

Al2O3 18.22 21.04 16.14 17.52 15.35 17.18 16.14 16.56 12.87 17.16

Na2O 6.11 8.65 5.23 4.33 6.35 6.19 5.23 6.52 6.36 6.65 MgO 1.47 4.63 1.23 1.28 0.25 0.63 1.23 0.42 0.51 1.79 CaO 0.46 0.78 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.92 0.12 0.54 0.63 0.08

K2O 2.20 0.58 1.87 0.93 1.11 2.26 1.87 1.77 0.43 0.91

Fe2O3 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.01 0.01 0.11 0.14 0.08 0.04 0.09 FeO 0.51 0.43 0.48 0.39 0.41 0.54 0.52 0.38 0.53 0.68 MnO 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

P2O5 0.21 0.30 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.58 0.03 0.28 0.38 0.01

TiO2 0.58 0.35 0.16 0.18 0.18 0.11 0.16 0.63 0.44 0.51 LOI 0.97 1.05 0.27 1.52 1.24 1.11 0.94 0.29 0.40 1.10 SUM 99.99 99.99 99.97 99.98 99.97 100 99.92 99.98 99.99 99.99 A/CNK 2.08 2.10 2.24 3.25 2.02 1.88 2.24 1.88 1.73 2.25 CIPW Norm 5.45 5.48 5.37 9.27 3.55 4.68 5.37 3.61 1.71 5.11

Trace Elements

Sc 3 8 1 6 10 5 5 0 4 V 41 47 16 26 36 15 8 15 7 28 Cr 11 6 4 5 1 7 6 6 3 14 Co 2 1 5 8 8 1 1 1 4 1 Ni 3 1 16 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 Cu 4 6 10 1 1 13 13 11 5 5 Zn 16 Ga 32 47 37 46 48 48 45 48 37 40 As 7 3 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 Br 6 9 7 8 9 7 9 7 9 8 Rb 194 24 21 38 82 163 116 163 3 35 Sr 49 90 16 46 21 20 11 20 42 13 Y 24 10 52 8 10 12 4 12 3 4 Zr 100 127 125 68 146 31 50 31 136 136 Nb 12 14 17 10 17 14 13 14 16 18 Mo 7 2 6 3 3 1 2 1 2 5 Ag 16 19 20 21 20 19 20 19 17 16 Cd 11 13 10 14 13 15 12 15 9 12 Sn 35 33 31 34 48 56 51 56 28 35 Cs 16 - - - 2 9 - 9 - - Ba 286 74 28 38 117 65 42 65 12 37 W 1 12 - 3 2 13 12 11 11 19 Pb 18 1 - - - - - - - - Bi 20 38 37 35 36 37 36 37 38 36 Th 47 50 53 45 54 35 38 35 47 45 U 10 - - 23 21 23 23 23 23 La 33 10 18 8 11 10 3 10 6 19 Ce 155 37 n.d. 51 24 14 6 14 12 55 Nd 28 4 - 14 - 8 - 8 1 20

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61

Major Oxides e

f

AP-20 AP-22 AP-76 MMT-24 MMT-25 MMT-27 SiO2 75.27 76.16 76.56 71.01 65.02 72.3

Al2O3 14.50 14.42 14.13 16.01 17.68 14.31

Na2O 3.24 2.88 2.85 6.11 1.49 1.41

MgO 0.10 0.12 0.02 0.22 1.49 0.94

CaO 0.62 0.71 0.31 0.48 0.43 0.81

K2O 4.52 4.24 4.74 1.74 5.39 3.83

Fe2O3 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.10 2.92 0.77

FeO 0.54 0.49 0.41 2.75 3.72 2.98

MnO 0.09 0.02 0.05 0.12 0.11 0.03

P2O5 0.16 0.18 0.19 0.27 0.10 0.19

TiO2 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.63 0.79 1.45

LOI 0.81 0.59 0.47 0.55 0.85 0.95

SUM 99.99 99.98 99.90 99.99 99.99 99.97

Trace Elements

Sc 5 9 3 6 6 6 V 41 43 1 33 48 Cr 5 5 26 3 46 11 Co 1 1 1 1 16 4 Ni 1 1 4 1 16 4 Cu 2 5 3 2 26 7 Zn 32 20 48 78 48 Ga 32 49 47 34 37 39 As 5 2 9 5 3 2 Br 5 9 8 6 6 7 Rb 239 24 452 130 166 190 Sr 48 90 8 89 68 43 Y 21 10 21 46 45 34 Zr 94 126 30 160 248 215 Nb 13 14 16 13 16 24 Mo 5 2 4 5 6 4 Ag 17 22 19 23 18 25 Cd 12 11 10 13 10 13 Sn 31 32 62 27 30 25 Cs 7 n.d. 17 10 2 3 Ba 285 79 27 450 1358 329 W 16 10 1 3 2 Pb 27 2 12 36 19 1 Bi 24 37 38 23 21 20 Th 44 48 39 51 45 55 U 13 0 22 12 12 11 La 27 9 12 40 24 26 Ce 119 28 11 181 95 101 Nd 26 1 2 42 14 11

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62

Major Oxides g

h

HF-28 HF-29 HF-30 HF-31 HF-41 CT-5 CT-21 CT-77 SiO2 70.03 67.63 71.03 69.14 71.44 69.00 68.75 63.01

Al2O3 17.11 18.10 17.12 17.12 15.76 17.17 18.28 20.86

Na2O 0.34 0.80 0.34 0.99 2.68 3.03 3.01 4.40 MgO 1.52 1.81 1.52 1.77 1.05 0.94 0.79 0.47 CaO 0.04 0.19 0.04 0.19 1.82 1.56 1.22 0.93 K2O 4.37 4.89 4.35 4.92 3.08 4.87 4.91 6.73

Fe2O3 0.96 1.07 0.96 1.08 0.77 0.43 0.45 0.60 FeO 3.58 3.16 2.77 3.18 2.17 1.08 1.20 1.58 MnO 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 P2O5 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.21 0.07 0.29

TiO2 0.92 0.82 0.92 0.82 0.06 0.54 0.46 0.31 LOI 1.01 1.38 0.86 0.64 1.05 1.10 0.76 0.69 SUM 99.99 99.99 99.98 99.98 99.98 100 99.99 99.98 Trace Elements Sc 7 10 6 9 4 5 4 6 V 100 23 48 99 52 33 47 26 Cr 10 12 11 10 10 13 23 9 Co 5 6 4 5 5 5 4 5 Ni 4 5 4 5 4 8 4 2 Cu 10 8 7 17 10 9 7 26 Zn 49 34 48 51 55 118 43 31 Ga 37 40 39 40 37 59 38 34 As 6 4 2 9 4 19 4 11 Br 4 6 7 4 6 9 4 5 Rb 173 204 190 204 174 266 178 395 Sr 24 23 43 39 89 75 80 24 Y 38 37 34 34 42 26 49 26 Zr 241 202 215 199 230 140 192 69 Nb 17 16 24 16 15 15 17 15 Mo 6 4 4 5 5 5 4 2 Ag 25 21 25 24 25 18 22 24 Cd 14 12 13 13 12 12 12 12 Sn 27 28 25 30 28 37 30 47 Cs 2 3 4 2 19 4 64 Ba 438 1854 329 476 428 264 503 139 W 3 7 2 2 21 3 19 Pb 1 23 61 25 16 Bi 21 19 20 21 51 28 22 25 Th 49 50 55 50 12 54 55 42 U 12 12 11 13 36 22 12 12 La 23 33 26 22 75 34 44 16 Ce 85 124 101 68 15 164 102 Nd 19 11 9 1 36 9

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Major Oxides i

MDT-3 MDT-4 MDT-23 MDT-32 MDT-33 MDT-34 MDT-35 MDT-63

SiO2 74.82 70.01 75.88 77.19 74.65 70.16 71.63 72.69

Al2O3 16.22 17.17 14.03 13.36 16.42 16.33 17.03 17.34

Na2O 2.02 0.41 2.62 0.47 0.95 0.40 0.24 1.81 MgO 0.15 0.99 0.26 0.64 0.32 1.58 1.01 1.80 CaO 0.30 0.42 0.64 0.11 0.19 0.50 0.38 0.19 K2O 2.72 5.20 4.18 3.27 3.95 5.01 4.01 2.98

Fe2O3 0.12 0.94 0.28 0.48 0.33 1.03 1.12 1.09 FeO 2.22 2.11 1.29 1.18 1.72 2.64 2.23 1.49 MnO 0.01 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.12 P2O5 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.11 0.22 0.18 0.07

TiO2 0.52 0.89 0.22 0.42 0.12 0.55 0.35 0.18 LOI 0.87 1.72 0.54 2.76 1.06 1.46 1.72 0.23 SUM 99.98 100 100 99.97 99.88 99.97 99.98 99.99

Trace Elements

Sc 7 8 9 6 12 5 9 11 V 100 89 39 72 42 55 84 46 Cr 7 21 15 19 9 24 13 2 Co 1 6 4 4 2 6 5 4 Ni 1 8 3 4 3 8 5 2 Cu 3 11 10 17 4 20 28 89 Zn 25 27 13 11 25 39 21 84 Ga 32 37 27 28 42 29 34 42 As 2 3 8 1 3 11 15 Br 4 5 5 4 5 6 5 9 Rb 155 228 127 94 198 97 182 22 Sr 29 34 94 13 30 7 14 176 Y 15 32 32 17 38 27 40 37 Zr 213 213 173 118 230 165 165 143 Nb 11 14 11 7 17 8 14 7 Mo 5 6 4 4 6 6 5 3 Ag 21 21 25 23 19 15 17 37 Cd 15 13 17 15 11 11 15 15 Ba 1623 609 391 633 2244 410 1341 52 Cs 6 2 9 8 4 W 1 1 3 4 3 5 6 4 Pb 3 4 46 1 4 Bi 20 23 27 22 23 20 21 21 Th 44 48 43 38 51 39 48 37 U 14 13 14 14 11 15 14 16 La 36 25 43 30 25 29 38 9 Ce 91 56 132 82 143 81 88 47 Nd 1 9 15 20 20 11

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Major Oxides j

MS-36 MS-101 MS-127

SiO2 68.01 65.25 72.52

Al2O3 16.46 21.22 15.46

Na2O 1.35 2.67 2.12 MgO 1.57 1.47 1.53 CaO 1.40 0.53 0.21

K2O 4.25 4.14 4.08

Fe2O3 0.8 0.96 0.70 FeO 4.12 1.10 1.49 MnO 0.13 0.09 0.11

P2O5 0.21 0.06 0.07

TiO2 0.87 0.95 0.53 LOI 0.80 1.55 1.17 SUM 99.97 99.99 99.99

Trace Elements

Sc 6 16 8 V 75 87 77 Cr 15 28 12 Co 4 13 40 Ni 5 11 2 Cu 13 14 6 Zn 52 38 80 Ga 40 51 51 As 3 214 5 Br 5 8 5 Rb 215 140 298 Sr 40 95 33 Y 45 31 45 Zr 377 202 231 Nb 17 14 17 Mo 9 8 4 Ag 21 29 21 Cd 14 16 11 Ba 709 715 314 W 2 12 17 Pb 6 105 11 Bi 23 43 42 Th 48 44 46 U 12 22 La 40 36 39 Ce 119 32 76 Nd 13 29 16


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5.2.1 Major and trace elements The variation of major and trace element contents along with their ratios, A/CNK

and CIPW Norm values of Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, microgranites,

leucogranites, migmatites, hornfelses, metasediments, mica schist and Contact

samples are presented in the followings.

5.2.1.1 The Mansehra Granite Major oxides, including SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO,

P2O5 and TiO2 of Mansehra Granite were in the range of 68.01-74.14%, 14.02-

17.80%, 0.34.4.04%, 2.52-6.36 %, 0.41-1.84%, 0.10-2.01%, 0.10-2.60%, 0.89-

2.86%, 0.01-0.13%, 0.70-0.37% and 0.26-0.92%, respectively in the MGC.

However, K2O, CaO, and MgO level in a few samples was exceptionally low,

which could be due to local variations in the composition of granitic rock. In the

case of trace elements, Rb, Ba and Sr varied generally between 49-377, 25-530

and 13-168 ppm, respectively. Exceptionally higher values (1624, 2434 ppm) of

Ba in couple of samples may be due to local enrichment.

Total alkalis (Na2O+K2O) contents of the granite varied in the range of 4.66-

9.50% and Na2O/K2O, K2O/Na2O, CaO/Na2O and SiO2/Al2O3 ratios range

between 0.08-1.60, 0.62-2.92, 0.10-0.67, 3.86-5.15, respectively. The trace

element ratios in terms of Rb/Ba, Sr/Ba, Rb/Sr, Ba/Sr, Nb/Th and La/Ce were

0.39-6.52, 0.15-0.78, 0.86-9.26, 1.28-6.71, 0.12-0.47 and 0.09-2.81, respectively.

The 87Sr7/86Sr ratio for MG is reportedly varying in range from 0.72733 ± 0.0002

to 0.84672 ± 0.00045 (Le Fort et al., 1980). Values of molar ratios of Al2O3 with

CaO, Na2O and K2O (A/CNK) and CIPW Norm vary in the range of 1.77-10.06

and 1.51-2.89.

5.2.1.2 The Hakale Granite The SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, P2O5 and TiO2

contents of the HG ranged between 69.62-74.94%, 14.40-17.66%, 2.06-4.29 %,

2.48-6.08%, 0.51-1.48%, 0.15-1.46%, 0.04-2.18%, 0.24-2.76%, 0.03-0.10%,

0.16-0.34% and 0.12-0.54%, respectively. The concentration of trace elements

like Rb, Ba and Sr varied widely and ranged between 194-648, 113-422 and Sr

19-90 ppm, respectively. Like in MG, exceptionally higher Ba contents (2218,

2825 ppm) contents of some samples may owe to local variations in composition

of these rocks.


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Na2O+K2O contents (6.57-10.36%) are slightly higher than the MG. while,

Na2O/K2O, K2O/Na2O, CaO/Na2O and SiO2/Al2O3 ratios (between 0.38-1.73,

0.58-2.60, 0.13-0.56 and 3.97-5.14, respectively) are similar to MG. The trace

element ratios Sr/Ba, Rb/Sr, Ba/Sr, Rb/Ba, Nb/Th and La/Ce fluctuate in the

range of 0.15-0.54, 2.91-22.70, 1.86-6.61, 0.67-4.50, 0.21-0.45, and 0.15-0.36,

respectively. The values of A/CNK and CIPW Norm range between1.44-2.08,

1.77-5.99.

5.2.1.3 The Microgranites Major oxides SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, P2O5 and

TiO2 contents varied between 63.05-74.43%, 12.81-21.14%, 1.34-4.63%, 3.72-

7.11%, 0.21-0.82%, 0.14-1.34%, 0.13-3.06%, 0.72-3.48%, 0.3-0.15%, 0.16-

0.39% and 2 0.03-1.55%, respectively in microgranites. The trace element

contents Rb, Sr and Ba vary in the range of 172-389, 3-43 and 20-403 ppm,

respectively. Significantly higher value of Ba (3227 ppm) may reflect local

enrichment.

Total alkalis (Na2O+K2O) contents were 7.09 to 11.74% and ratio of major oxides

Na2O/K2O, K2O/Na2O, CaO/Na2O and SiO2/Al2O3 ranged between 0.23-1.06,

0.94-4.26, 0.11-0.24 and 2.98-5.61, respectively. However, trace element ratio in

term of Sr/Ba, Rb/Sr, Ba/Sr, Rb/Ba, Nb/Th, La/Ce fluctuate in the range of 0.11-

0.18, 3.99-18.43, 5.55-9.34, 0.43-3.31, 0.38-0.41, and 0.14-0.27, respectively.

A/CNK and CIPW Norm values varied between 1.48-2.34 and 1.88-8.64.

5.2.1.4 The Leucogranites In leucogranites SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, P2O5

and TiO2 contents fluctuate in the range of 62.01-77.39%, 12.81-21.04%, 4.33-

8.65%, 0.43-2.26%, 0.08-0.92%, 0.25-4.63%, 0.01-0.15 %, 0.38-0.68%, 0.01-

0.05%, 0.01-0.58% and 0.11-0.63%, respectively. In case of trace element Rb,

Ba and Sr contents vary generally in the range of 3-194, 12-286 and 11-90 ppm,

respectively.

The Na2O/K2O, K2O/Na2O, CaO/Na2O and SiO2/Al2O3 ratio vary in the range of

2.74-14.91, 0.07-0.37, 0.01-0.15, and 2.95-6.01. The Na2O+K2O contents ranged

from 5.26 to 9.23%, respectively. Trace element ratios Sr/Ba, Rb/Sr, Rb/Ba,

Ba/Sr, Nb/Th and La/Ce range between 0.17-3.50, 0.27-11.05, 0.32-2.78, 0.29-


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5.80, 0.22-0.40 and 0.15-0.75, respectively. A/CNK and CIPW Norm values

fluctuate in the range of 1.73-3.25 and 1.71-9.27.

5.2.1.5 The Migmatites Major oxides such as SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO,

P2O5 and TiO2 contents vary in the range of 65.02-73.30%, 4.31-17.68%, 1.41-

6.11%, 0.22-1.49%, 0.10-2.92%, 2.75-3.72%, 0.03-0.12%, 0.10-0.27%, and 0.63-

1.45%, respectively in migmatites. However, trace element contents Rb, Sr and

Ba ranged between130-190, 43-89, and 329-450 ppm. The exceptionally higher

Ba values (1358 ppm) in few samples may be due to local variation in

composition of these rocks.

The total alkalis contents of migmatites range 5.24-7.58%, while Na2O/K2O and

K2O/Na2O ratios vary between 0.28-3.51 and 0.28-3.62. Trace element ratios

Rb/Sr, Sr/Ba, Ba/Sr and La/Ce fluctuate in the range of 1.45-4.47, 0.05-0.20,

5.05-7.72 and 0.22-0.26, respectively. The value of A/CNK varies from 1.92 to

2.42.

5.2.1.6 The Hornfelses The hornfelses contain major oxides SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3,

FeO, MnO, P2O5 and TiO2 contents in the range of 67.63-71.44%, 15.76-18.10%,

0.34-2.68%, 04-1.82%, 3.08-4.92%, 0.77-1.08%, 2.17-3.58%, 0.03-0.07%, 0.04-

0.07% and 0.82-0.92 %, respectively. Trace element contents Rb, Sr and Ba

however, range generally between 173-204, 23-89 and 329-476 ppm.

Exceptionally higher value of Ba (1854 ppm) in some samples may reflect its

local concentration.

The Na2O+K2O contents were 4.69-5.91%, whereas ratios of major oxides in

term of Na2O/K2O and K2O/Na2O vary generally in the range of 0.08-0.87 and

1.15-6.11. Trace elements ratios Rb/Sr, Ba/Sr, Sr/Ba, and La/Ce range between

1.95-8.77, 0.06-0.21, 4.79-17.95 and 0.26-0.48, respectively. A/CNK values

fluctuate in the range of 2.08-3.62.

5.2.1.7 The Metasediments The major oxides SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, P2O5

and TiO2 contents ranged between of 70.01-77.19%, 13.36-17.34%, 0.24-2.62%,

2.98-5.20%, 0.11-0.64%, 2.72-5.20%, 0.12-1.09%, 1.18-2.64%, 0.01-0.12%,


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0.01-0.22% and 0.12-0.89%, respectively in metasediments. Trace element Rb,

Sr and Ba contents vary generally in the range of 22-228, 7-176 and 52-2247

ppm. The remarkably higher Ba content (2247 ppm) may be due to local variation

in composition of these rocks.

The total alkalis contents vary from 3.22 to 7.82%, whereas, Na2O/K2O and

K2O/Na2O ratios range between 0.06-0.63 and 1.35-6.96, respectively. The trace

element ratios Rb/Sr, Sr/Ba, Ba/Sr, and La/Ce were in the range of 0.12-13.27,

0.01-3.36, 0.30-49.09, and 0.18-0.45, respectively. The value of A/CNK varied

from 1.62 to 3.2.

5.2.1.8 The Contact samples In Contact samples SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, P2O5

and TiO2 contents were ranged between 63.01-69.00%, 17.77-20.86%, 3.01-

4.40%, 0.47-0.94%, 0.93-1.56%, 4.87-6.73%, 0.43-0.60%, 1.08-1.58%, 0.07-

0.11%, 0.07-0.29% and 0.31-0.54%, respectively. Trace element contents Rb, Sr

and Ba vary in the range of 178-395, 24-80 and 139-503 ppm.

The total alkalis (Na2O+K2O) contents fluctuate between 7.90-11.13%. Major

element ratio in terms of Na2O/K2O, K2O/Na2O varied generally in the range of

0.61-0.65, 1.53-1.63. The ratios between trace element contents Rb/Sr, Sr/Ba,

Ba/Sr, and La/Ce were varying in the range of 2.22-16.18, 0.25-0.30 and 0.16-

0.27, respectively. The A/CNK fluctuates in the range of 1.73-2.00.

5.2.1.9 The Mica schist The mica schist contains SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO,

P2O5 and TiO2 contents in the range of 65.25-72.52%, 15.46-21.22%, 1.35-2.67%,

4.08-4.25%, 1.47-1.57%, 0.21-1.40%, 0.70-0.96%, 1.10-4.12%, 0.09-0.13%, 0.06-

0.21% and 0.53-0.95%, respectively. Trace element contents Rb, Sr and Ba range

between 140-298, 33-95 and 314-715 ppm, respectively.

The relative abundance of major oxides in Mansehra Granite (MG), Hakale

Granite (HG), microgranites (MIG), leucogranites (LG), migmatites (MMT),

metasediments (MDT), hornfelses (HF), aplites (AP), Contact samples (CT) and

mica schist (MS) is shown as frequency diagrams and box-plots in Figure 5.3a-k,

Figure 5.4a-b and Figure 5.5a-b. The SiO2 contents of MG, HG, MIG, LG, MDT

and HF vary in the range of ~69-76% (medians around 70-74%) as shown in


69

Figure 5.3a. However, MS and Contact samples contain relatively lower SiO2

contents. The Al2O3 values ranged between 15-17% in MG, HG, LG, MMT, MDT

and MS, (median at about 16 %) as shown in Figure 5.3b. However HF contains

relatively higher Al2O3 contents owing to their respective more andalusite

component. A narrow range variation in Na2O content appeared in MIG, MG, HG

and CT (Figure 5.3c). In contrary, a significantly higher value of Na2O in LG may

correspond to its greater modal albite contents, which is consistent with the

petrographic analysis of leucogranites. The higher value of Al2O3 and lower level

of Na2O and CaO in MDT may reflect higher concentration of modal mica as

compared to plagioclase in the metasediments of Tanawal Formation. The K2O

contents in MG, HG, MIG, MMT, MDT, HF, CT and AP appeared in the range of

3-4% (Figure 5.3d), which may correspond to their modal K-feldspar contents.

However, lower K2O value in LG may be related to lesser modal microcline

contents as revealed in petrographic study. Mean CaO concentrations of MS,

MMT, MIG, MDT and AP varied in the range of 0.1-0.5% as presented in

Figure 5.3e. The overall lower contents of CaO and Na2O relative to K2O could

be due to lesser modal plagioclase and higher microcline contents of the MGC.

The MgO contents of all rock types of the MGC were around 1.0% as shown in

Figure 5.3f. Relatively higher MgO level in few samples of HF and LG may owe

to chlorite in these rocks. The Fe2O3 contents were fairly constant (average

values in the range of 0.5-1.0%) shown in Figure 5.3g. Extremely low values of

Fe2O3 in LG and AP may be due to lesser contents of mafic minerals in these

rocks. However, FeO level varies widely reflecting the relative abundance of

biotite in the respective rocks as evident in Figure 5.3h. The LG and AP have

lowest FeO content owing mainly to their lesser biotite component. The variations

in TiO2, P2O5 and MnO contents may correspond to accessory mineral levels in

the MGC (Figure 5.3i-k). Relatively higher values of TiO2, MnO and FeO in MS

may proportionate to modal biotite and garnet contents of this rock.

The ratios of major oxides (Na2O/K2O and K2O/Na2O) are shown in Figure 5.4a-

b. The Na2O/K2O ratio varied in a narrow range (average value around 1.0).

Higher values of Na2O in LG may be attributed to its respective concentration of

modal albite contents.


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Box plots (Figure 5.5a) give the relative abundance of trace elements like Rb, Sr,

Ba and Zr in MG, HG, MIG, LG, MMT, MDT, HF, AP, CT and MS. The Rb contents

are fairly constant (median value in the range of 100-300 ppm). However, mean

value of Sr ranged between 20-70 ppm, and Ba concentration varied widely (50-

500 ppm). Exceptionally higher values of Ba in few samples may be due to local

enrichment. The overall values of Zr were in the range of 50-150 ppm, however, its

median in MMT, MS and HF was around 225 ppm. The Rb/Sr ratio in MG, HG,

MIG, LG, MMT, MDT, HF, AP, CT and MS was <10 (Figure 5.5b).

The A/CNK (molar ratio of Al2O3 and CaO, Na2O, K2O) values for migmatites,

hornfelses, contact samples, metasediments and mica schists varied in the range

of 1.92-2.42, 2.08-3.62, 1.73-2.00, 1.62-3.2 and 2.35-2.89, respectively. Values

of A/CNK in MG, HG, MIG and LG range between 1.51-2.89, 1.44-2.08, 1.48-

2.34 and 1.73-3.25, respectively. The CIPW Norm values were in the range of

1.77-10.06, 1.77-5.99, 1.88-8.64 and 1.71-9.27, respectively, which may suggest

peraluminous to highly peraluminous felsic magmatic rocks. Chemical data also

revealed that granitic rocks of the MGC are enriched in Rb and Ba relative to Sr

as evident from their mean values 217, 287 and 51 ppm, respectively. The

migmatites, hornfelses, Contact samples, metasediments and mica schist have

Rb/Sr, Sr/Ba, Ba/Sr, Ba/Rb and La/Ce ratios in the range of 2.86-8.07, 0.10-0.69,

3.65-12.03, 0.66-4.67 and 0.21-0.69, respectively. Mean values of La/Ce ratios in

MG, HG, MIG and LG were 0.45, 0.25, 0.19 and 0.44, respectively, which

suggest that these granitic rocks may have been derived from heterogeneous

source rock Tanawal Formation. The geochemical characteristics of aplites,

migmatites, hornfelses, Contact samples, metasediments and mica schist are

comparable with granitic rocks of the MGC.


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Figure 5.3: Box-plots showing relative abundance of a) SiO2, b) Al2O3, c) Na2O, d) K2O, e) CaO, f)

MgO, g) Fe2O3, h) FeO, i) TiO2, j) P2O5 and k) MnO contents in Mansehra Granite (MG), Hakale Granite (HG), Microgranites (MIG), Leucogranites (LG), Mica Schist (MS), Metasediments (MDT), Migmatites (MMT), Hornfelses (HF), Contact samples (CT) and Aplites (AP)

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Figure 5.4: Box-plots presenting a) Na2O/K2O and b) K2O/Na2O ratio in MG, HG, MIG, LG, MS, MMT, MDT, HF, CT and AP

a

b


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Figure 5.5: Box-plots indicating a) relative abundance of trace element contents of Rb, Sr, Ba and Zr and b) Rb/Sr ratio in MG, HG, MIG, LG, MS, MMT, MDT, HF, CT and AP

a

b


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5.3 Harker’s variation diagrams Harker’s variation diagrams (Harker, 1909) were prepared using chemical data

(major oxides and trace elements) of MG, HG, MIG and LG in order to trace the

crystallization behaviour of the granitic melt of the MGC and Figures 5.6-5.9.

represent the variation diagrams. Correlation coefficients along with p-values of

the plots are given in Table 5.2. These values were calculated by SPSS Software.

Major oxides (Al2O3, CaO, Na2O, K2O, MgO, Fe2O3, P2O5 and TiO2) and total

alkalis (Na2O+K2O) indicate negative trends with SiO2 in MG (Figure 5.6a-i).

Whereas, Zr and Sr exhibit positive variations with MgO (Figure 5.6n-o). The

trace elements Nb, Y and Th demonstrate significant positive relationships to Zr

(Figure 5.6r-t). Likewise Ba-Sr plot also displays significant positive trend

(Figure 5.6v). Rb however varied inversely with Ba and Sr (Figure 5.6p & u) and

showed direct relationship with P2O5 (Figure 5.6q). Plots of trace elements Ba, Sr

and Zr with SiO2, and MgO versus Ba indicate scattering (Figure 5.6j-l & m) due

to irregular distribution of minerals in the protolith.

The relationship of major oxides (Al2O3, K2O, CaO, Na2O, MgO, P2O5 and

TiO2), alkalis (Na2O+K2O) and trace elements (Ba, Zr, Sr) with SiO2 appear

inverse in HG (Figure 5.7a-j&l). However, Fe2O3-SiO2 plot shows scattering

(Figure 5.7k). Variation in trace element, Ba, Sr and Zr with regard to MgO are

positive (Figure 5.7m-o), whereas, Rb is directly related to P2O5 (Figure 5.7q).

However, a negative relationship is evident in Rb-Sr and Rb-Ba plots

(Figure 5.7p&s). Plots of the Th and Y with respect to Zr indicate significant

positive relationships (Figure 5.7t&u). Likewise Ba disply direct variation with Sr

(Figure 5.7r). The Zr-Nb plot show negative trend (Figure 5.7v) which indicates

two groups which independently may reveal positive variations.

In the case of LG Al2O3, MgO, K2O, Na2O, CaO, P2O5, Fe2O3 and TiO2, total

alkalis, and trace elements, Na2O+K2O, Ba and Sr, have negative relationship

with SiO2 (Figure 5.8a-j&l). However, Zr show scattering against SiO2

(Figure 5.8k). Rb-P2O5 plot exhibits positive trend (Figure 5.8 v). Sr and Zr

correlate with MgO (Figure 5.8 m & p), and Ba shows negative relationship with

MgO (Figure 5.8q). Plots of Rb versus Ba along with Zr against Y, Th and Nb

show direct relationship (Figure 5.8o,n,r&u). Rb varies inversely with respect to


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Sr (Figure 5.8s), and relationship between Ba and Sr appears positive

(Figure 5.8t).

Figure 5.6: Harker’s variation plots between major oxides and trace elements in Mansehra Granite. a) SiO2-Al2O3, b) SiO2-CaO, c) SiO2-Fe2O3, d) SiO2-K2O, e) SiO2-Na2O, f) SiO2-Na2O+K2O, g) SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) SiO2-MgO, j) SiO2- Ba, k) SiO2 –Sr, l)

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SiO2 –Zr, m) MgO-Ba, n) MgO-Sr, o) MgO-Zr, p) Rb-Ba, q) Rb-P2O5, r) Zr-Nb, s) Zr-Y, t) Zr-Th, u) Rb-Sr, v) Ba-Sr.

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Figure 5.7: Harker’s variation diagrams between major oxides and trace elements in Hakale

Granite.a) SiO2-Al2O3, b) SiO2-CaO, c) SiO2-K2O, d) SiO2-MgO, e) SiO2-Na2O, f) SiO2-Na2O+K2O, g) SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) SiO2-Sr, j) SiO2-Zr, k) SiO2-Fe2O3 , l) SiO2-Ba, m) MgO-Ba, n) MgO-Sr, o) MgO-Zr, p) Rb-Sr, q) Rb-P2O5, r) Sr-Ba, s) Rb-Ba, t) Zr-Y, u) Zr-Th, v) Zr-Nb

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Figure 5.8: Harker’s plots between major oxides and trace elements of leucogranites. a) SiO2-

Al2O3, b) SiO2-CaO, c) SiO2-MgO, d) SiO2-Na2O, e) SiO2-Na2O+K2O, f) SiO2-K2O, g) SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) SiO2-Fe2O3, j) SiO2-Ba, k) SiO2-Zr, l) SiO2-Sr m) MgO-Sr, n) Rb-Ba, o) Zr-Y, p) MgO-Zr, q) MgO-Ba, r) Zr-Nb, s) Rb-Sr, t) Ba-Sr, u) Zr-Th, v) Rb-P2O5

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Similarly, the major oxides (Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, P2O5 and TiO2),

total alkalis (Na2O+K2O) and trace elements (Ba, Zr and Sr) of MIG when plotted

with respect to SiO2 exhibited negative relationships (Figure 5.9a-l). However,

P2O5 varies directly with Rb (Figure 5.9t). Whereas, plots of MgO to Zr, Ba

against Sr display weak positive trends (Figure 5.9m-o). The trace elements Th,

Nb and Y vary directly with respect to Zr (Figure 5.9q-s). Ba and Sr also show

positive trends, while a negative relationship is apparent between Rb-Sr

(Figure 5.9p&u). Rb varies inversely with Ba (Figure 5.9v).

Generally the variation diagrams of the MG, HG, LG and MIG display reasonable

correlations. However, in some plots few samples showing inconsistent

behaviour were not included in the variation diagrams.

The variation diagrams of the MG, HG, MIG and LG show significant to poor

relationships and scattering due to heterogeneity of the protolith. The trends in

some of these plots appear to be bimodal which may pertain to regional

variations in the compositional characteristics of the protolith.

Figure 5.10a-i shows the Harker’s variation plots of the MG and HG between

major oxides and Rb-Sr. La-Ce plots of the MG, HG, MIG and LG are presented

in Figure 5.11a-c.


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Figure 5.9: Variation plots between major oxides and trace elements in microgranites. a) SiO2-

Al2O3, b) SiO2-K2O, c) SiO2-Na2O+K2O, d) SiO2-TiO2, e) SiO2-CaO, f) SiO2-MgO, g) SiO2-Fe2O3, h) SiO2-Na2O, i) SiO2-P2O5, j) SiO2-Ba, k) SiO2-Sr, l) SiO2-Zr, m) MgO-Ba, n) MgO-Zr, o) MgO-Sr, p) Rb-Sr, q) Zr-Th, r) Zr-Nb, s) Zr-Y, t) Rb-P2O5, u) Ba-Sr, v) Rb-Ba

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Table 5.2: Correlation Coefficients and p-values of the variation plots (given in Figures 5.6-5.9) of

the MG, HG, LG & MIG.

Plots MG HG LG MIG

SiO2-Al2O3 -0.287 (0.066) -0.558 (0.009) -0.941(0.00) -0.874 (0.053)

SiO2-CaO -0.409 (0.019) -0.366 (0.103) -0.458 (0.183) -0.744 (0.141)

SiO2-Fe2O3 -0.328 (0.034) 0.010 (0.967) -0.589 (0.073) -0.45 (0.440)

SiO2-K2O -0.454 (0.002) -0.473 (0.031) -0.668 (0.032) -0.858 (0.063)

SiO2-Na2O -0.342 (0.026) -0.315 (0.164) -0.693 (0.026) -0.768 (0.112)

SiO2-Na2O+K2O -0.398 (0.014) -0.394 (0.097) -0.681 (0.029) -0.813 (0.087)

SiO2-P2O5 -0.395 (0.01) -0.153 (0.509) -0.242 (0.501) -0.960 (0.011)

SiO2-TiO2 -0.280 (0.073) -0.250 (0.275) -0.178 (0.622) -0.515 (0.375)

SiO2-MgO -0.282 (0.070) -0.368 (0.101) -0.443 (0.199) -0.955 (0.011)

SiO2-Ba 0.212 (0.178) -0.486 (0.026) -0.681 (0.031) -0.270 (0.660)

SiO2-Sr 0.112(0.480) -0.421 (0.057) -0.666 (0.036) -0.333 (0.580)

SiO2-Zr 0.291(0.061) -0.287 (0.207) 0.011(0.975) -0.72 (0.170)

MgO-Ba -0.124(0.433) 0.656 (0.001) -0.617 (0.057) 0.119 (0.849)

MgO-Sr 0.259 (0.098) 0.662 (0.001) 0.201 (0.578) 0.282 (0.646)

MgO-Zr 0.248 (0.113) 0.622 (0.003) 0.174 (0.631) 0.691 (0.196)

Ba-Sr 0.598 (0.000) 0.771 (0.000) 0.278 (0.437) 0.938 (0.018)

Rb-Ba -0.210 (0.175) -0.567 (0.007) 0.222 (0.537) -0.428 (0.472)

Rb-P2O5 0.369 (0.016) 0.415 (0.062) 0.434 (0.210) 0.560 (0.327)

Rb-Sr -0.116 (0.466) -0.677 (0.001) -0.317 (0.372) -0.726 (0.168)

Zr-Nb 0.539 (0.000) -0.628 (0.002) 0.612 (0.060) 0.648 (0.237)

Zr-Th 0.748 (0.000) 0.983 (0.000) 0.897 (0.000) 0.901(0.037)

Zr-Y 0.647 (0.000) 0.935 (0.00) 0.143 (0.694) 0.924 (0.025) p-values are in parenthesis


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Figure 5.10: Harker’s variation diagrams between major oxides in Mansehra and Hakale Granites.

a) SiO2-Al2O3, b) SiO2-Na2O, c) Na2O-MgO, d) SiO2-CaO, e) SiO2-K2O, f) SiO2-Fe2O3, g)SiO2-P2O5, h) SiO2-TiO2, i) Rb-Sr

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Figure 5.11: La-Ce plots of a) Mansehra Granite and Leucogranite b) Hakale Granite and Microgranite c) Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, Microgranite and Leucogranite

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5.4 Spider diagrams Primitive mantle normalized (Sun & McDonough, 1989) Spider diagram

(Figure 5.12a) showed that the Mansehra Granite is relatively enriched in Rb, K,

Pb, U and Nd, and depleted in Ba, Sr, Ti, Nb, Ce and La. The Hakale Granite has

strong positive anomalies of Rb, K, Pb and weak positive variation of Nd and P.

Sr, Ba, Ti and Nb show strong negative trends and relatively poor inverse

variations of La (Figure 5.12b). The microgranites revealed depletion in Ba, Sr,

Ti, Nb, La and relative enrichment of Rb, K, Pb, P and Zr (Figure 5.12c). The

leucogranites displayed positive trend for Rb, Pb, Th, Nd, Zr and negative

variation of Ba, Sr, Ti and Nb (Figure 5.12d). The spider diagrams 5.12a,b and c

resemble each other, whereas d deviates. The MG, HG, MIG and LG displayed

depletion in Ba and enrichment in Zr and Y depicting typical pattern for alkaline

granites which is analogous to the findings of Oyhantcabal et al., (2007).

Figure 5.12: Spidergrams of a) Mansehra Granite, b) Hakale Granite, c) Microgranites and

d) Leucogranites (after normalization by Sun & McDonough, 1989)

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5.5 Zircon saturation thermometry Accessory minerals provide important information about geochemical variation

during partial melting of granitic rocks (Gromet and Silver, 1983; Miller and

Mittlefehldt, 1984; Sawka, 1988; Watt and Harley, 1993; Bea, 1996; Ayres and

Harris 1997; Hoskin et al., 2000). During crystallization of granitic magma, the

concentration of incompatible elements is gradually increased and ultimately

accumulated in accessory minerals such as zircon, apatite and monazite.

Concentrations of these minerals are controlled by their solubility in the felsic

magma which is a function of melt temperature (Mills et al., 2008). Therefore, the

saturation behaviour of these minerals can be used to estimate the temperature

of the melt (Montel, 1993; Miller et al., 2003; Janousek, 2006). Zircon is a

common accessory mineral in granitic rocks (Heaman et al., 1990; Hoskin and

Schaltegger, 2003). Petrographic and mineral separation studies reveal the

occurrence of euhedral zircon crystals in granitic rocks of the MGC, which most

likely are magmatic (Pupin, 1980). So, the zircon saturation thermometry

technique (Watson and Harrison, 1983) was applied to the compositional data of

the MGC to estimate the temperature when accessory mineral zircon was in

equilibrium with the melt during partial melting or in the process of crystallization.

The magmatic temperatures of selected samples of MGC were determined by

using the GCDKIT software (Janousek et al., 2006) following the technique

reviewed by Hancher and Watson (2003). The method was applied with the

assumption that zircon has no extraneous component, homogeneously

distributed and that zircon crystallized close to the liquidus (Janousek, 2006).

Mean zircon temperatures of Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, microgranites,

leucogranites, migmatites and samples from the contact between Mansehra

Granite and Hakale Granite as well as Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation

were estimated and results are presented in Table 5.3.


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Table 5.3: Zircon saturation temperatures of Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, Leucogranites, Microgranites, Migmatites and Mansehra Granite-Tanawal Formation, Mansehra Granite-Hakale Granite contacts.

Rock type Area Average Zircon Sat. Temp ºC

Mansehra Granite Attar Shisha-Batrasi 749 Oghi-Darband 774 Susalgali-Khaki 779 Mansehra-Phulra 785 Mansehra-Balakot 786 KKH 786 Darband-Lassan 794 Mansehra 801 Oghi-Jhargali 852 Mean value 790 Mansehra Granite (Massive) 783 Mansehra Granite (Gneissic) 798 Mean value 791 Hakale Granite Mansehra-Maswal 709 Mansehra 779 Mean value 744 Leucogranites Mansehra-Karkale 749 Mansehra 754 Mean value 751 Microgranites Oghi-Darband 696 Maswal-Mansehra 692 Mean value 694 Migmatites Susalgali-Khaki 803 Susalgali-Khaki 863 Mean value 833 Mansehra Granite-Tanawal Formation contact Mansehra-Balakot 794 Susalgali-Khaki 832 Mean value 813 Mansehra Granite-Hakale Granite contact Mansehra 726ºC

Chapter Six Geochronology

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6 GEOCHRONOLOGY

Before the development of sophisticated geochronological techniques, the

granitic bodies emplaced along the Himalayan orogenic belt were assigned ages

on the basis of field relationships, nature of xenoliths, structural trends,

petrological properties, and degree of metamorphism (McMohan, 1884;

Greisbach, 1893; Wadia, 1928, 1957). Many other workers (Middlemiss, 1896;

Hayden, 1913; Auden, 1932; Wadia, 1939; Misch, 1949) also attempted to

determine the age of Himalayan granites using the same criteria. Shams (1967)

however used K/Ar technique to age the granites of Mansehra area and assigned

79, 83 and 165 Ma age to the Susalgali Gneiss, Mansehra Granite and Hakale

Granite, respectively. He documented that Hakale Granite as the oldest body but

chilled contact of HG with Mansehra Granite suggested its younger age (Shams,

1961). Some researchers declared MG of early Tertiary age (Calkins and Matin,

1968; Offield and Abdullah, 1968). Davies (in Calkins et al., 1975) however

assigned a late Cretaceous age to the granite. Based on these findings, it could

be presumed that Mansehra Granite was intruded into metasediments of

Tanawal Formation in late Cretaceous to early Triassic period. Le Fort et al.,

(1980) used Rb/Sr method to age MG and reported its age around 516±16 Ma.

Maluski and Matte (1984) however assigned it an age of 215 Ma by using Ar/Ar

technique. In view of existing controversy about the age of the MGC, it was highly

desirable to apply a more reliable dating technique. Hence, Laser Ablation

Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (LA ICP MS) U-Pb zircon

method was used to determine ages of granites associated with the MGC.


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6.1 Zircon morphology Zircon was found in the MGC as euhedral crystals of size ranging between 50-

150 µm, and these crystals are commonly enclosed in biotite surrounded by dark

haloes. Zircon was either transparent or opaque under the microscope. The

transparent population is comprised of 70-75% light brown and 15-20% reddish

brown grains while the opaque component consists in 5-10% of white (milky) and

about 5% reddish brown grains. The euhedral and transparent variety of zircon

indicate magmatic origin (Pupin, 1980). However, zircon crystals from Jhargali

area vary in size generally from 200 to 300 µm and up to 500 µm in some

crystals, which are nearly opaque, having off-white to yellowish white colour and

contain reddish brown to dark grey inclusions possibly indicating the radioactive

haloes. A few (1-2%) transparent zircon crystals were also observed. In the

MGC, zircon with length to width ratio (l/w) in the range of 1-3 was predominant

along with subordinate l/w 1-2 and 1-4. However, in Jhargali area 65-70%, 25-

30% and 10-15% zircon crystals have l/w ratios in the range of 1-3, 1-4 and 1-1

to 1-5, respectively.

Zircon crystals collected from Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite and

Leucogranites were studied by Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging and Laser

ablation ICP-MS technique at ETH Zurich, Switzerland. The internal structure of

the zircon crystals (Figures 6.1 & 6.2a-e) revealed core-rim structures. Rims are

magmatic whereas inherited cores are older. Undisturbed oscillatory zoning in

some crystals indicates their magmatic affinity (Heuberger et al., 2007).

Discordant overgrowth with oscillatory zoning suggests recrystallization during

post-magmatic episodes (Heuberger et al., 2007). A polyphase texture appeared

in the cores of a few crystals. Description of the Tera-Wasserburg (1972)

Concordia diagrams of the analysed granite samples is given below.

6.2 Sample No. MG-113 (E 72 59 37 N 34 35 04) Mansehra Granite of Jhargali area, near Oghi (Survey of Pakistan sheet No. 43

F/2) is coarse-grained and gneissic with well marked tectonic foliation and augen-

shaped K-feldspar phenocrysts. Most of the zircon crystals are relatively opaque

with dark haloes probably due to radiation damage. Total 15 spots on zircon

crystals were analyzed, and Table 6.1 (pages 115-118) shows the results. The

zircon crystals are a homogenous population having very high U metamict zones


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and no inherited material. Some domains (2.2, 6.3, 7.3) appeared strongly altered

(U and Pb loss). Tera-Wasserburg plot of the analytical data (Figure 6.3a)

displays concordant age at 490.1±6.7 Ma & 491.3 ±6.8 (Cambrian-Ordovician

boundary) with mean square weighted deviation (MSWD) 3.5 & 3.8 at 95%

confidence level (c.l.). The mean intrusive age of the Mansehra Granite ranges

between 477±17 and 479 ±15 Ma (Figure 6.3b).

Figure 6.1: Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircon crystals of the Mansehra Granite from Jhargali area


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Figure 6.2: CL images of zircon crystals of a-c) Mansehra Granite, d) Hakale Granite and e) Leucogranites showing core-rim texture, oscillatory zoning, discordant overgrowths and polyphase texture in the cores


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Figure 6.3: a)Tera-Wasserburg diagrams showing Concordant ages and b) mean intrusive ages of the Mansehra Granite

a

b


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6.3 Sample No. MG-14 (E 73 05 02 N 34 26 07) This sample of MG was obtained from Susalgali, characterized as medium-

grained, porphyritic, highly gneissic, showing alignment of mica along with

stretched K-feldspar and quartz crystals. Total 14 spots including rim and cores

were targeted on 9 zircon grains (Table 6.1) and Tera-Wasserburg diagrams

(1972) of data are in Figure 6.4a. Inherited components have ages of 500 Ma,

580 Ma, 840-860 Ma, 1300 Ma with lower and upper intercepts age at 582±120

Ma & 1513±190 Ma, respectively. Concordia isochrone reveal intrusion age of

477±11 Ma at 95 % c.l. with MSWD equal to 2.0 and probability at 0.14

(Figure 6.4b).

6.4 Sample No. MG-19 (E 73 05 58 N 34 25 55) The Mansehra Granite sample was collected in the Susalgali area (Survey of

Pakistan sheet No. 43 F/3). It is medium-grained, porphyritic and gneissic, with

few augen shaped K-feldspar crystals. The tectonic foliation is well marked. 15

spots on cores and rims of 11 zircon crystals were analyzed (results in table 6.1).

The data reveal inherited ages around 800-850 Ma, 985 Ma, while one discordant

point yields 207Pb/206Pb age of 1.9 Ga. The lower and upper intercepts are at

650±120 Ma and 1791±260 Ma (Figure 6.5a). The Tera-Wasserburg isochrone

indicates concordant age at 482.8±2.3 Ma at 95 % c.l, and MSWD= 0.93

(Figure 6.5b).

6.5 Sample No. MG-44 (E 72 54 49 N 34 25 18) The Mansehra Granite exposed in Darband area (Survey of Pakistan sheet No.

43 B/15) is medium to coarse-grained, porphyritic, having K-feldspar phenocrysts

along with poorly developed flow-foliation. Euhedral zircon grains were targeted

by 8 spots (Table 6.1) and Tera-Wasserburg plot of the data exhibit inherited

component at 840-870 Ma with a discordant point indicating 207Pb/206Pb age at

1.3 Ga, having lower and upper intercepts age at 523±130 Ma & 1234±180 Ma

as presented in Figure 6.6a. Three rim ages yield the concordant 206Pb/238U age

of 472.8±8.7 Ma at 95% c.l., MSWD= 1.7 as shown in Figure 6.6b.


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Figure 6.4: Tera-Wasserburg U-Pb Concordia diagrams showing a) inherited and b) intrusive age components of the Mansehra Granite

a

b


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Figure 6.5: Tera-Wasserburg plot of zircon grains depicting a) inherited and b) intrusive age segments of the Mansehra Granite

b

a


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Figure 6.6: Tera-Wasserburg diagrams presenting a) inherited and b) intrusive age components of the Mansehra Granite

a

b


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6.6 Sample No. HG-82 (E 73 10 07 N 34 20 17) The sample of Hakale Granite was collected from Karkale area (Survey of

Pakistan sheet No. 43 F/3), which is medium to coarse-grained, sub-porphyritic

and contains K-feldspar phenocrysts. The zircon crystals were analyzed by 14

spots (Table 6.1) and the acquired data points out the presence of various

inherited components at 820-830 Ma, 920 Ma, 1.3 Ga, 1.6-1.7 Ga. The lower and

upper intercepts of the inherited components yield age of 589±150 Ma &

1549±180 Ma (Figure 6.7a). Tera-Wasserburg Concordia diagram revealed

466.5±3.3 Ma from cluster of six rim ages with MSWD=2.7 at 95% confidence

level (Figure 6.7b).

6.7 Sample No. LG-86 (E 73 10 35 N 34 20 19) The sample was obtained from leucogranite exposed near Mansehra City

(Survey of Pakistan sheet No. 43 F/3). Total 13 spots were analyzed on 9

euhedral zircon crystals by targeting the cores and rims (Table 6.1). The data

plotted on Tera-Wasserburg diagram indicate inherited grains at 690 Ma, several

at 850-870 Ma, 930 Ma, and one discordant 206Pb/238U age of 1.4 Ga with lower

and upper intercepts age at 581±120 Ma & 1315±210 Ma (Figure 6.8a). Six rim

ages cluster around 478 Ma and concordant age of the leucogranite is 475.7± 3.9

Ma with MSWD=2.4, at 95% c.l. as shown in Figure 6.8b.

Published radiometric ages of the northwestern Himalayan peraluminous S-type

granites are presented in Table 6.2


113

Figure 6.7: Tera-Wasserburg diagrams showing a) inherited and b) magmatic ages of the Hakale Granite

a

b


114

Figure 6.8: Tera-Wasserburg diagrams depicting a) inherited and b) intrusive ages of

leucogranite.

a

b


115

Table 6.1: Analytical results of LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating of Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite and Leucogranite from Mansehra area

Spot % 206Pbc

U ppm

ppm Th

232Th/ 238U

206Pb* ppm

(1) 206Pb/

238U Age(Ma)

(1) 207Pb/ 206Pb

Age(Ma)

(1) 238U/

206Pb* ±%

(1) 207Pb* /206Pb*

±% (1)

207Pb*

/235U ±%

(1) 206Pb* /238U

±% err corr

Mansehra Granite (MG-113)

1.1 0.00 6397 10 0.00 453 510.5 ±9.2 535 ±19 12.13 1.9 0.05813 0.85 0.661 2.1 0.0824 1.9 .910

2.1 0.04 6667 13 0.00 440 476.5 ±8.7 461 ±20 13.04 1.9 0.05623 0.91 0.595 2.1 0.0767 1.9 .901

3.1 0.04 12266 35 0.00 864 507.7 ±9.3 478 ±16 12.20 1.9 0.05665 0.72 0.640 2.0 0.0819 1.9 .935

2.2 0.25 1533 5 0.00 85.5 404.5 ±7.8 404 ±59 15.44 2.0 0.05480 2.6 0.489 3.3 0.0648 2.0 .603

4.1 0.06 10151 22 0.00 719 510.5 ±9.2 484 ±19 12.13 1.9 0.05680 0.85 0.645 2.1 0.0824 1.9 .911

5.1 0.82 9587 211 0.02 632 472.7 ±8.6 485 ±35 13.14 1.9 0.05683 1.6 0.596 2.5 0.0761 1.9 .764

6.1 0.08 6447 11 0.00 450 503.2 ±9.2 477 ±25 12.32 1.9 0.05664 1.1 0.634 2.2 0.0812 1.9 .862

6.2 0.08 5390 11 0.00 353 472.6 ±8.8 472 ±24 13.14 1.9 0.05650 1.1 0.593 2.2 0.0761 1.9 .869

6.3 0.33 2096 7 0.00 108 374.7 ±7.2 318 ±69 16.71 2.0 0.05280 3.0 0.435 3.6 0.0599 2.0 .549

7.1 0.12 6941 17 0.00 477 495.6 ±9.1 482 ±22 12.51 1.9 0.05676 0.98 0.625 2.1 0.0799 1.9 .889

7.2 0.08 6677 13 0.00 454 490.6 ±9.0 476 ±25 12.65 1.9 0.05660 1.1 0.617 2.2 0.0791 1.9 .863

7.3 0.44 1569 5 0.00 93.5 430.3 ±8.4 403 ±75 14.48 2.0 0.05480 3.3 0.521 3.9 0.0690 2.0 .519

8.1 0.08 5349 9 0.00 363 489.9 ±9.1 446 ±26 12.67 1.9 0.05584 1.1 0.608 2.2 0.0789 1.9 .860

9.1 0.15 5424 10 0.00 371 493.0 ±9.3 462 ±30 12.58 2.0 0.05624 1.3 0.616 2.4 0.0795 2.0 .826

10.1 0.17 7011 30 0.00 476 489.9 ±9.2 453 ±26 12.66 2.0 0.05601 1.2 0.610 2.3 0.0790 2.0 .861

Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc and Pb* indicate the common and radiogenic portions, respectively. Error in Standard calibration was 0.60% (1) Common Pb corrected using measured 204Pb.

Continue


116

Continued……………..

Zircon grain Core/Rim 206Pb/238U 207Pb/235U 207Pb/206Pb 206Pb/238U 207Pb/235U 207Pb/206Pb

Ratio R.S.D. Ratio R.S.D. Ratio R.S.D. AGE (Ma)

+/- 2 S.D.

AGE (Ma) +/- 2 S.D. AGE

(Ma) +/- 2 S.D.

Mansehra Granite (MG-14) 1 Core 0.2251 0.67% 2.7150 1.32% 0.08895 0.81% 1308.6 15.9 1332.6 19.6 1402 32 1 Rim 0.1206 0.73% 1.0844 1.78% 0.06593 1.60% 733.8 10.2 745.8 18.8 804 66 2 Rim 0.0763 0.66% 0.5823 1.15% 0.05588 0.84% 474.1 6.0 465.9 8.6 446 38 2 Core 0.1393 0.55% 1.2574 0.82% 0.06765 0.47% 840.7 8.6 826.7 9.3 856 20 3 Rim 0.0806 0.54% 0.5936 0.69% 0.05554 0.68% 500.0 5.2 473.2 5.2 432 30 4 Rim 0.0799 0.59% 0.5988 0.71% 0.05686 0.58% 495.3 5.6 476.4 5.4 484 26 5 Rim 0.0776 0.64% 0.6088 0.89% 0.05648 0.88% 481.9 6.0 482.8 6.8 470 40 5 core, Old 0.1431 0.67% 1.6931 1.51% 0.08562 0.90% 862.2 10.9 1006 19.3 1328 34 6 Core 0.1397 0.81% 1.3013 2.05% 0.06835 1.55% 843.0 12.7 846.3 23.6 878 64 7 Core 0.1721 0.66% 1.7119 1.17% 0.07424 0.86% 1023.6 12.5 1013 15.0 1046 34 7 Rim 0.0940 0.72% 0.7867 1.10% 0.06095 0.88% 579.3 8.0 589.3 9.8 636 38 8 Core 0.2602 0.79% 3.6309 2.21% 0.10295 1.08% 1491.0 20.9 1556.3 35.2 1678 40 8 Rim 0.0821 0.63% 0.6374 0.76% 0.05856 0.63% 508.6 6.1 500.7 6.0 550 28

10 Rim 0.0764 0.82% 0.5893 2.25% 0.05666 1.81% 474.8 7.5 470.4 17.0 478 80

Mansehra Granite (MG-19) 1 Rim 0.0777 0.53% 0.6087 0.71% 0.05762 0.64% 482.4 4.9 482.7 5.5 514 28 3 core, Old 0.1418 0.62% 1.3211 1.16% 0.06848 0.80% 855.0 9.9 855.0 13.4 882 32 4 core, Old 0.1458 0.66% 1.3174 2.15% 0.06783 1.37% 877.3 10.8 853.4 24.9 862 56 4 Rim 0.0782 0.54% 0.6132 1.00% 0.05746 0.88% 485.6 5.1 485.6 7.7 508 40 5 core, Old 0.1335 0.62% 1.2689 1.33% 0.06848 1.24% 808.0 9.4 831.9 15.1 882 52 6 Core 0.0768 0.90% 0.5923 2.51% 0.05576 1.88% 476.8 8.3 472.4 18.9 442 84 6 Rim 0.0775 0.64% 0.6633 0.86% 0.06205 0.80% 481.3 6.0 516.6 7.0 676 34 7 core, Old 0.1333 0.81% 1.1727 3.47% 0.06482 1.59% 806.7 12.2 787.9 38.0 768 66 8 core, Old 0.3105 0.49% 5.0062 2.65% 0.11552 0.86% 1743.2 15.1 1820.4 44.8 1888 30 9 core, Old 0.1409 0.58% 1.2990 1.75% 0.06699 1.38% 849.7 9.2 845.3 20.1 836 56 9 Rim 0.0808 0.55% 0.6219 0.80% 0.05771 0.66% 500.7 5.3 491.0 6.2 518 28

10 core, Old 0.1649 0.56% 1.6404 1.43% 0.07184 1.15% 983.9 10.2 985.9 18.0 980 48 11 core, Old 0.1352 0.65% 1.2938 1.43% 0.06882 1.03% 817.3 9.9 843.0 16.4 892 42 11 Rim 0.1362 1.18% 1.3110 4.20% 0.06741 2.52% 823.4 18.2 850.5 48.4 850 106 12 Rim 0.0779 0.47% 0.6024 0.88% 0.05688 0.69% 483.6 4.4 478.7 6.7 486 32


117

Zircon grain core/rim

206Pb/238U 207Pb/235U 207Pb/206Pb 206Pb/238U 207Pb/235U 207Pb/206Pb


+/- 2 S.D. AGE (Ma) +/- 2

S.D. AGE (Ma)

+/- 2 S.D.

Mansehra Granite (MG-44)

1 rim, old 0.1389 0.46% 1.3106 1.43% 0.06793 0.90% 838.4 7.3 850.4 16.4 866 38

2 Rim 0.0752 0.74% 0.5899 1.96% 0.05752 1.46% 467.6 6.7 470.8 14.8 510 64

5 core, old 0.0792 0.70% 0.6328 1.28% 0.05819 0.92% 491.2 6.6 497.8 10.1 536 40

6 Rim 0.0764 0.43% 0.6037 1.10% 0.05649 0.82% 474.8 4.0 479.6 8.4 470 36

8 core, old 0.2132 0.48% 2.5038 0.99% 0.08483 0.57% 1245.7 11.0 1273.1 14.3 1310 22

8 core, old 0.1422 0.70% 1.3957 1.78% 0.07099 1.05% 857.0 11.3 887.1 21.0 956 44

10 Core 0.0761 0.77% 0.5845 2.72% 0.05654 2.12% 472.6 7.0 467.3 20.3 472 94

11 Core 0.1440 0.81% 1.3834 2.75% 0.06992 1.52% 867.4 13.1 881.9 32.5 924 62

Hakale Granite (HG-82)

1 rim, old 0.1530 0.63% 1.4761 2.41% 0.07111 1.72% 918.0 10.7 920.6 29.2 960 70

1 core, old 0.1533 0.97% 1.3833 3.14% 0.06962 1.78% 919.5 16.6 881.8 37.0 916 72

3 core, old 0.1350 0.37% 1.2352 1.14% 0.06651 0.65% 816.3 5.7 816.7 12.8 822 28

4 core, old 0.2824 0.58% 3.7759 1.66% 0.09929 0.89% 1603.3 16.4 1587.6 26.7 1610 32

5 core, old 0.2903 0.35% 4.2656 0.98% 0.10684 0.50% 1642.8 10.1 1686.7 16.1 1746 18

5 Rim 0.0758 0.34% 0.5862 0.83% 0.05719 0.77% 470.9 3.1 468.4 6.2 498 34

6 core, old 0.2360 0.47% 2.8380 1.23% 0.08976 0.59% 1365.8 11.6 1365.6 18.4 1420 22

6 Rim 0.0747 0.34% 0.5861 0.74% 0.05703 0.62% 464.3 3.0 468.4 5.6 492 28

7 core, old 0.1379 0.61% 1.3668 2.70% 0.07262 1.35% 832.7 9.6 874.8 31.6 1002 56

8 core, old 0.1344 0.55% 1.2439 1.59% 0.06719 0.99% 812.9 8.5 820.6 17.8 842 42

9 Core 0.0744 0.76% 0.5685 2.86% 0.05564 2.00% 462.8 6.8 457.0 21.0 438 90

9 Rim 0.0747 0.48% 0.5895 0.92% 0.05693 0.80% 464.6 4.3 470.5 7.0 488 36

10 Rim 0.0747 0.44% 0.6029 1.30% 0.05802 1.09% 464.6 4.0 479.0 9.9 530 48

10 Rim 0.0753 0.44% 0.5922 0.88% 0.05695 0.83% 468.1 4.0 472.3 6.7 488 36


118

Continued ……..

Zircon grain core/rim

206Pb/238U 207Pb/235U 207Pb/206Pb 206Pb/238U 207Pb/235U 207Pb/206Pb


+/- 2 S.D. AGE (Ma) +/- 2

S.D. AGE (Ma)

+/- 2 S.D.

Leucogranites (LG-86)

1 core, old 0.2379 0.74% 3.0368 2.28% 0.08996 1.30% 1376 18.2 1416.9 34.8 1424 50

1 Rim 0.0775 0.58% 0.6164 1.41% 0.05810 1.11% 481.1 5.4 487.6 10.9 532 48

2 Rim 0.0760 0.49% 0.5880 1.13% 0.05606 0.90% 472.3 4.5 469.6 8.5 454 40

3 core, old 0.1545 0.47% 1.5361 1.04% 0.07210 0.75% 926.4 8.1 945.0 12.8 988 32

3 Rim 0.0761 0.40% 0.5936 0.84% 0.05636 0.67% 472.9 3.6 473.1 6.4 466 30

4 core, old 0.1427 0.59% 1.3509 1.85% 0.06865 1.36% 860.1 9.5 868.0 21.6 888 56

5 core, old 0.1456 0.50% 1.3509 0.81% 0.06792 0.71% 876.0 8.3 868.0 9.4 866 30

6 core, old 0.1130 0.47% 0.9841 1.15% 0.06320 0.78% 690.3 6.2 695.7 11.6 714 32

6 Rim 0.0767 0.38% 0.5789 0.74% 0.05588 0.53% 476.7 3.5 463.7 5.5 446 24

7 Rim 0.0781 0.48% 0.6032 0.88% 0.05589 0.82% 484.9 4.5 479.3 6.7 448 38

8 core, old 0.1400 0.80% 1.2967 2.27% 0.06778 1.68% 844.6 12.6 844.2 26.0 860 70

9 core, old 0.1413 0.59% 1.3314 1.71% 0.06769 1.18% 852.1 9.5 859.5 19.8 858 48

9 Rim 0.0769 0.43% 0.5872 0.74% 0.05626 0.62% 477.4 4.0 469.1 5.6 462 28


119

Table 6.2: Published age data of late Pre-Cambrian to early Paleozoic magmatic rocks from the Himalayan crystalline series, and north western Himalaya of Pakistan

Segment Location Rock type Method Age (Ma) 87Sr/86Sr (i) References

Pakistan

Mansehra Mansehra Granite Rb/Sr WR 516±16 0.7198±0.0006 Le Fort, Debon and Sonet, 1980

Mansehra Mansehra Granite U-Pb Zircon 480±7 This study

Hakale Mansehra Granite U-Pb Zircon 466±3 This study

NW India

Mandi Himachal Pradesh Granite Rb/Sr WR 507±100 0.718±0.025 Jager, Bhandari & Bhanot, 1971

Kaplas Chamba Granite U-Pb Zircon 552±2 Miller et al., 2001

Manikran Himachal Pradesh Granite Rb/Sr WR 467±45 0.719 Bhanot et al., 1979

Kullu Himachal Pradesh Granite Rb/Sr WR 495±16 0.720±0.002 Frank, Thoni & Portsecheller, 1977

kinnaur Kailash Sutlej, Baspa Valley Granite U-Pb Zircon 488±4 Marquer, Chawala & Challandes, 2000

kinnaur Kailash Sutlej, Baspa Valley Granite Rb/Sr WR 453±9 0.7370±0.0020 Kwatra et al., 1999

Hante Kashmir Granite Rb/Sr WR 489±20 0.717±0.001 Rao et al., 1990

Nyimaling Ladakh Granite Rb/Sr WR 460±8 0.7365±0.0002 Stutz & Thoni, 1987

Rupshu Ladakh Granite U-Pb Zircon 483±1 Girard & Bussy, 1999

Tsu Morari Ladakh Granite U-Pb Zircon 479±2 Girard & Bussy, 1999

Tsu Morari Ladakh Gneiss U-Pb Zircon 479±2 Girard & Bussy, 1999

Khadrala Jutogh Granite Rb/Sr WR 460±18 0.7244±0.0041 Rai et al., 1993

Nepal

Dadeldhura W Nepal Granite Rb/Sr WR 470±6 0.7266±0.0012 Einfalt, Hoehndorf & Kaphle, 1993

Simchar Kathmandu nappe Granite Rb/Sr WR 466±40 0.7205±0.0046 Le Fort, Debon and Sonet, 1983

Palung Kathmandu nappe Granite U-Pb Zircon, Mnz 470±4 Scharer & Allegre, 1983

S.Tibet Kangmar Lhagoi-Kangri Granite U-Pb Zircon 562±4 Scharer,Xu, 1986

Kangmar Lhagoi-Kangri Granite Rb/Sr WR 485±6 0.7186±0.0018 Wang et al., 1981

Kangmar Lhagoi-Kangri Granite Rb/Sr WR 484±7 0.7140±0.0012 Debon et al., 1981

Modified from Miller et al., ( 2001) WR = Whole rock Mnz = Monazite

Chapter Seven Discussion

120

7 DISCUSSION

7.1 Field relationships and petrographic studies The Mansehra Granitic Complex (MGC) is principally comprised of Mansehra

Granite, Hakale Granite, pegmatites, aplites, microgranites and leucogranites.

The Mansehra Granite (MG) is two-mica, high potash, peraluminous pluton,

which is generally massive (Figure 2.5), medium to coarse-grained and

mylonized at places, whereas the Hakale Granite (HG) is a massive and

tourmaline-bearing granitoid. In MG and HG, matrix-phenocryst ratios vary in the

range of 70:30-95:05 and 100:00-95:05, respectively depicting the porphyritic

nature of the former and non-porphyritic to sub-porphyritic behaviour of the latter.

The gneissic features of the MG are due to local shearing manifested by

superimposed tectonic foliation on flow-foliation of the massive granite which is

observed as swirling of mica flakes around stretched and augen-shaped quartz

grains along with K-feldspar phenocrysts (Figure 2.7). Similar deformational

characteristics are also exhibited by other Himalayan granites in Nepal, Sikkim,

Bhutan and India (Sinha Roy, 1980; Dasgupta, 1995; Le Forte and Rai, 1999;

Singh, 2010). Due to higher silica contents (~69-75%), the MG and HG are

enriched in quartz which is prone to foliation because its structural framework is

more susceptible to deformation than K-feldspar. Therefore, deformation, foliation

and gneissic character are common features of these granites, analogous to the

observations of White and Chappell (1977). The Susalgali Granite Gneiss

(Shams, 1961) is in fact Mansehra Granite with and without shear zones. The

affected areas are strongly to moderately gneissic, whereas the unaffected region

is massive to flow foliated “Mansehra Granite” (Figure 2.6). The K-feldspar

phenocrysts in MG and HG are microcline, which is not stable at magmatic


121

temperatures and crystallized from the granitic melt as a primary mineral phase

at relatively lower temperatures (Kerrick, 1969). Hence, slight cooling of the MG

and HG magmas most likely had initiated the growth of large K-feldspar

phenocrysts. Subsequently, due to shallower emplacement, the granitic melt

probably crystallized at a faster rate and constituted fine-grained groundmass in

both granitic bodies (MG and HG), rendering porphyritic/sub-porphyritic nature,

which is similar to the studies of Best (1982).

In addition to K-feldspar phenocrysts the Mansehra Granite also contains light to

dark-grey pelite/psammite xenoliths, particularly near the contact with Tanawal

Formation (Figures 2.3-2.4) which may indicate limited assimilation of the source

rock in granitic melt, which is parallel to the findings of other workers (Clemens,

2003; Vernon, 2007). The occurrence of such xenoliths is commonly associated

with S-type granites of Australia (Chappell and White, 1992; White, et al., 1999).

The presence of xenoliths and migmatites around the Mansehra Granite contact

with metasediments of the Tanawal Formation may reveal the anatectic nature of

the MGC, which is similar to the observations of Yamamoto et al., (1998) and

Shaw et al., (2003).

The contact between MG and HG is represented by a NS trending chilled margin

(Shams, 1961) (Figures 2.16-2.17). The contact of MG and Tanawal Formation is

characterized by the occurrence of deformational features like boudinage and

slickensides in Tanawal Formation as well as minor intrusions with fine-grained

and smaller size K-feldspar phenocrysts (Figures 2.14-2.15). Near this contact in

Khaki area apophyses of the Mansehra Granite along with aplites are commonly

intruded into the metasediments of Tanawal Formation. The MG cross-cuts the

schistosity of the enclosing rocks which may suggest that metamorphic fabric of

these units is older than the emplacement of the granite. However, the local

thermal effects in the contact aureole are manifested by the occurrence of

hornfelses in the metasediments of the source rock which are particularly well

developed in Khaki and Darband areas (Figures 2.20-2.21). During crystallization

of MG magma, biotite was crystallized probably at an earlier stage (Best, 2003).

The MG contains biotite>muscovite as compared with HG having

muscovite>biotite due to crystallization of the latter at shallower depth and

relatively lower temperature. Under low water concentrations, tourmaline was


122

stabilized and crystallized in HG, as found by Best (2003). Relatively high

tourmaline contents of HG probably suggest high concentration of boron that

might have lowered the solidus temperature of the melt resulting into the

crystallization of muscovite, which is parallel with the findings of Piper (2000).

Presence of primary muscovite suggests the pressure limits in the range of 4-2.6

kbr for the crystallization of muscovite in granitic rocks (Green and Pearson,

1986) as minimum pressure of about 3 kbr is required for the crystallization of

igneous muscovite (Chatterjee and Johannes, 1974).

In the course of crystallization of MG magma, the residual melt most likely got

progressively enriched in water and might have generated the Na2O-rich granitic

melt (Conard et al., 1988). Ultimately this phase got separated and crystallized as

sodic leucogranitic bodies in Mansehra area as presented by Raymond (1995).

These bodies contain higher mean Na2O contents (up to 8.65%) as compared

with MG (2.94%) and HG (3.18%), and correspondingly higher plagioclase (up to

60%) relative to MG (15-20%) and HG (15-35%). Therefore these granitic bodies

are referred to as sodic leucogranitic bodies or leucogranites (LG), which are

generally massive but occasionally show gneissic behaviour which is manifested

by parallel alignment of stretched and augen-shaped K-feldspar phenocrysts

(Figure 2.12).

The occurrence of tourmaline-bearing bands along with quartz and K-feldspar in

microgranitic bodies or microgranites (MIG) may suggest that these are the

products of late-stage boron-rich solutions. After shallow emplacement and

predominant crystallization, the fluid-rich melt might have moved to relatively

higher crustal level with consequent increase in vapour pressure and insurgent

boiling. This phenomenon most probably have induced fracturing and subsequent

quenching of the fluid-rich residual melt which may have rendered the fine-

grained nature of microgranitic bodies, as argued by Raymond (1995). These

microgranites are devoid of K-feldspar phenocrysts.

Petrographic studies revealed the presence of quartz, microcline, albite,

muscovite and biotite as major minerals, and zircon, apatite, monazite and

ilmenite as accessory minerals. Cordierite reportedly occurs in MG (Le Fort et al.,

1980) and tourmaline is observed as ubiquitous mineral in HG. The occurrence of

andalusite in hornfelses depicts the characteristic feature of contact aureole of


123

the Mansehra Granite. Under petrographic microscope the magmatic rocks of the

MGC commonly show myrmekites (Figure 4.2b), undulatory extinctions and

marginal mylonization of varied intensity along with fractured quartz grains

(Figure 4.1b), as well as parallel to sub-parallel alignment of mica flakes which

depict the effect of stress and may suggest the crystallization of the granitic melt

during deformational phase, as presented by Pitcher (1993). The replacement

characteristics of major rock forming minerals may exhibit effects of

pneumatolytic activity in these granitic rocks (Figure 4.2c & 4.3d). The presence

of brown to red-brown pleochroic biotite along with ilmenite and discrete crystals

of apatite (Figure 4.2a&d) may indicate the S-type nature of the MGC (Hine et al.,

1978; Shaw and Flood 1981; Clemens and Wall, 1988; Whalen and Chappell,

1988).

The occurrence of migmatites (Figures 2.18-2.19), metapelites and gneissic

rocks along with the presence of Al-rich minerals, apatite, ilmenite as well as

monazite, and absence of accessory minerals magnetite, allanite and titanite may

also reveal the S-type features of the MGC, in agreement with the findings of Bea

(1996), Watson (1996), Villaseca et al., (2007) and Saki (2010).

7.2 Geochemical characteristics of the MGC The geochemical classification diagrams constructed from chemical data of

Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite, Microgranites and Leucogranites placed

these plutonic bodies predominantly in high Calc-alkaline, quartz-rich,

peraluminous granitoid field, except a few samples which fall in tonalite,

trondhjemite and granodiorite domain (Figure 5.1a-m). The gneissic Mansehra

Granite (Susalgali Granite Gneiss of Shams, 1961) and massive Mansehra

Granite plotted in the same region of geochemical classification diagrams, which

indicate that these granites are product of the same composional phase, and

hence are cogenetic (Figure 5.2a-l).

Harker’s variation plots of the MG, HG, MIG and LG showed moderate negative

trends of major oxides (Al2O3, TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, K2O, Na2O, CaO, P2O5) and

trace elements (Ba and Sr) with SiO2 (Figures 5.6-5.9), which may suggest

crystallization of K-feldspar, plagioclase, biotite and muscovite in granitic melt of

the MGC. Similar observations have also been made by Gupta and Kumar


124

(1993), Kwatra et al., (1999), Regmi (2008) and Singh (2010). Positive variations

in the plots of Ba-Sr, Ba-MgO and Sr-MgO (Figures 5.6-5.9) may also indicate

fractionation of K-feldspar, plagioclase and biotite in line with the results reported

by numerous workers (Janousek et al., 2002; Azman et al., 2003; Azman, 2000,

2005). The direct relationship between MgO and Zr in granitic rocks of the MGC

revealed that the melt was saturated with trace element Zr, which had crystallized

accessory mineral zircon which is similar to the findings of other researchers

(Ayres and Harris, 1997; Rene et al., 1999; Janousek et al., 2002). The

crystallization of zircon is geochemically favoured in peraluminous granitic melt

containing lower CaO contents (Yurimoto et al., 1990) as in the MG. Trace

elements Zr, Hf and Yb up to some extent are concentrated in accessory mineral

zircon (Villaros et al., 2009 and references therein) which strongly influences the

behaviour of rare earth elements (U, Th, Y, Nb) during the evolution of granitic

magma (Heaman et al., 1990; Bea, 1996; Hoskin and Schaltegger, 2003;

Belousova et al., 2006). Due to large ion and high charges, these rare earth

elements are not accommodated by major rock forming minerals and concentrate

in the residue of the granitic magma where these are taken up by zircon. The

direct relationship of Zr with Y, Th and Nb (Zr-Y, Zr-Th, Zr-Nb plots) may reflect

the accumulation of Y, Th, Nb in accessory mineral zircon (Figures 5.6-5.9). The

decrease of P2O5, TiO2 and Zr with differentiation in MG, HG and MIG, most likely

indicate the crystallization of apatite, rutile, ilmenite and zircon from the melt, as

argued by Nagudi et al., (2003) and Azman et al., (2003). The positive correlation

between Rb and P2O5 in MG, HG, MIG and LG plots in (Figures 5.6q, 5.7q, 5.8v

& 5.9t) may reveal that the granitic melt of these plutonic bodies was derived from

the Tanawal Formation of sedimentary origin that is parallel to the findings of

Chappell and White (1992). The inverse relationship of Rb with Ba and Sr

(Figures 5.6p&u, 5.7p&s, 5.8n&s, 5.9p&v) indicate that during the evolution of the

MGC magma fractional crystallization was probably the main mechanism of

differentiation in a close system without considerable contamination. It is

consistent with the models proposed by McCarthy and Robb (1978) and Rapela

and Shaw (1979). As compared with Harker’s variation diagrams of HG and MIG

(Figures 5.7 & 5.9), the plots of MG and LG (Figures 5.6 & 5.8) are relatively

more variable and scattered in composition showing degree of heterogeneity of

the source rock i.e. Tanawal Formation. Poor relatioships may reveal imperfect


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mixing of the non-homogenous protolith during crustal melting (Chappell and

White, 1984). The scattering of major oxides may reveal the irregular distribution

of minerals in the granitic melt of the MGC, as argued by Sing and Kumar (2005).

However, relatively more smooth trends in HG and MIG may pertain to partial

melting and crystal fractionation as main petrogenetic process in the evolution of

these granites, which is analogous to the studies of Singh (2010). Harker’s plots

may suggest that neither MG nor HG exhibit regular inter-element variation

pattern and there is a considerable compositional overlap between these suits.

The MG and HG plot almost together (Figure 5.10a-i) and appeared to have been

derived from the common source rock Tanawal Formation.

Strong negative Ba, Sr and Ti anomalies in spidergrams of MG, HG, MIG and LG

(Figure 5.12a-d) most likely indicate crystallization of K-feldspar, plagioclase,

biotite and Fe-Ti oxides in these plutonic rocks, as argued by Kebede et al.,

(1999) and Azman (2001). The enrichment of Rb and Cs with differentiation may

suggest that the distribution coefficient of these elements was less than one. This

implies that concentration of Ba and Sr is higher in the granitic melt than required

for their main rock-forming minerals. However, the depletion of Sr and Ba in

spidergrams may suggest strong partitioning of Sr into K-feldspar and albite-rich

plagioclase and Ba into micas and K-feldspar as argued by Blundry and Wood

(1991) and Icenhower and London (1996). The depletion of Ba, Sr, Nb and Ti in

spidergrams of the MGC is well matched with early Paleozoic (500±25 Ma)

Lesser Himalayan S-type granites, which is parallel with the findings of Islam and

Gururajan (1997), and Mukherjee et al., (1998).

In MG, HG, MIG and LG mean SiO2, Na2O, K2O and CaO contents varied in the

range of 69.21-72.19%, 2.94-6.22%, 1.39-5.44% and 0.41-1.22%, respectively.

Major oxides ratios in terms of K2O/Na2O and CaO/Na2O ranged between 0.23-

2.20 and 0.06-0.42. The A/CNK and CIPW Norm values of MG and HG varied

between 1.75-2.22 and 3.89-5.16. Average trace elements (Ba, Rb, Sr) contents,

and Rb/Sr, Sr/Ba, Rb/Ba and Nb/Th ratios in MG, HG, MIG and LG were in the

range of 88-265, 95-320, 36-64 ppm, and 4.06-10.14, 0.14-0.98, 1.14-1.80 and

0.28-0.40, respectively. The enrichment of Ba and Rb relative to Sr, higher Rb/Ba

and Rb/Sr ratio as compared with Sr/Ba ratio in MGC are consistent with the

trace elements composition of cordierite bearing granites, which is parallel to the


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findings of Jung et al, (1999). The HG contains lower Ba (230 ppm) and Sr (51

ppm) contents relative to MG (265 & 64 ppm), which is similar to the observations

of Rashid et al., (2010) for tourmaline-bearing and two-mica granites. Mean

values of Ba 265, 230 and 88 ppm in MG, HG and LG, respectively may

correspond well with the average modal microcline contents (43, 30, & 12%) of

these rocks (Singh and Kumar, 2005). However, exceptionally higher Ba contents

in few samples may owe to local enrichment. The wider variations in mean

contents of Rb (95-320 ppm) and Sr (36-64 ppm) of the MGC may reflect non-

homogenous distribution of modal K-feldspar and plagioclase in the granite

protolith, which is analogous to the studies of Mukherjee et al., (1998). Relatively

higher contents of incompetent elements, Sn (25-60), Th (35-65), U (10-24), Pb

(1-39) and Cs (1-76 ppm) may suggest that the granitic bodies are derived

through crystal fractionation of metasediments of Tanawal Formation, which is

similar to the findings of Azman (2005). However, lower mean values of Na (1.09

& 1.18%), Ca (0.87 & 0.72%) and Sr (64 & 51 ppm) in MG and HG may owe to

their removal from the solutions during weathering of protolith feldspar into clays

and consequent enrichment of Rb, K, and Pb due to their incorporation in

argillaceous component of Tanawal Formation. Similar observations have been

made by Chappell and White (2001). Lower values of Na, Ca and higher contents

of K and Rb in MG and HG may correspond to their lesser modal concentration of

plagioclase (15-20%) as compared with K-feldspar (35-40%). However, owing to

higher Na2O values (up to 8%) in leucogranites these bodies contain higher

modal plagioclase contents (43-60%) relative to MG and HG. The variation of

plagioclase in MG (15-20%) and HG (15-35%) and their respective mean Rb/Sr

ratio (4.06 & 8.38) may correspond to erratic distribution of plagioclase retained in

the residue during partial melting of granite protolith (Singh and Kumar, 2005).

The CaO/Na2O ratio in S-type granite is also controlled by plagioclase contents of

the protolith. The peraluminous melt generated from clay-rich source rock

(plagioclase poor) however has lower CaO/Na2O ratio (<0.3) as compared with

clay-poor (plagioclase-rich) source rock has CaO/Na2O ratio >0.3 (Sylvester,

1998). Mean values of the CaO/Na2O ratio vary between 0.06 and 0.42, which

suggests its mainly clay-rich heterogeneous source with subordinate plagioclase-

rich component. This may correspond to the mainly pelite-psammite bands in the

host Tanawal Formation in the study area. Higher Rb/Sr ratio (>2.6) and lower


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Sr/Ba ratio (<0.4) in MG, HG, MIG and LG may owe to the fractionation of K-

feldspar, plagioclase and biotite from the MGC, which is parallel with the findings

of Nagudi et al., (2003). Relatively higher Rb/Sr ratio in HG (8.38) as compared

with MG (4.06) may suggest that the former is more evolved than the latter, as

argued by Azman (2005).

The MG, HG, MIG and LG are considered peraluminous in nature because of

A/CNK values >1.1 and corundum normative character. During the crystallization

of peraluminous magmas, Rb/Sr ratio gradually increased and the granitic melt

became progressively more peraluminous (Chappell and White, 2001). The

solubility of phosphorus (P2O5) is increased in this aluminium-rich magma, and

apatite crystallized as an accessory mineral from the granitic melt (London,

1992). Consequently, trace elements (Th, La and Y) contents occuring in

accessory phosphate minerals get decreased in abundance with the

crystallization process (Chappell, 1999). Higher Rb/Sr ratios in the range of 4.06-

8.38 and occurrence of apatite as accessory mineral may suggest genesis of the

MGC similar to the reported findings (London, 1992; Chappelle, 1999; Chappell

and White, 2001). Owing to low solubility of Ti in peraluminous granitic melts

(Gwinn and Hess, 1989), its higher concentrations in magma would lead to the

stability of biotite. However, the tourmaline is stable in peraluminous magmas

containing boron, and Alumina Saturation Index (ASI) > 1.2 (Wolf and London,

1997). Due to relatively higher Ti concentration (0.32%), the MG contains more

biotite and less tourmaline and vice versa for HG because of lower Ti (0.19%)

contents parallel to the findings of various researchers (Forbes and Flower, 1974;

Munoz, 1984; Le Breton and Thompson, 1988; Pickering and Johnston, 1998).

Since mean contents of Na2O (3.18%) in HG is higher relative to MG (2.94%), the

HG is more sodic and possesses tourmaline as ubiquitous mineral (France-

Lenord and Le Fort, 1988; Scaillet et al., 1990). The occurrence of tourmaline in

HG and MG may reveal that granitic melt of the MGC was generated from the

metasedimentary Tanawal Formation, which is consistent with the findings of

Benard et al., (1985).

Comparable values of K2O/Na2O ratio in MG (1.57) and HG (1.54) together with

K2O>Na2O may suggest derivation of the magmas of these suits from a similar

source Tanawal Formation which has varied composition, as argued by Jung et


128

al., (1999). A fairly consistent mean SiO2/Al2O3 ratio in MG (4.61), HG (4.69),

MIG (4.33) and LG (4.38) also reveals the most likely generation of granitic melt

by partial melting of Tanawal Formation, as shown by Regmi (2008).

Higher SiO2 contents (69.21-72.19%), K2O/Na2O ratio (0.23-2.20), higher Rb

concentration relative to Sr, Rb/Ba ratio > 0.25 and Nb/Th ratio (0.28-0.40) in

addition to the presence of muscovite and biotite may suggest that granitic melt

of the MGC was likely derived from crustal rocks of Tanawal Formation similar to

the observations of Miller et al., (2001) and Singh (2010). Low mean values of

Na2O and CaO, higher K2O contents, enrichment of Ba and Rb relative to Sr,

Rb/Ba ratio 1.14-1.80, Rb/Sr > 0.25 may indicate the pelitic source rock for the

granitic melt of the MGC parallel to the findings of other workers (Haak et al.,

1982; Miller, 1985; Chappell and White, 1974, 1992; Williamson et al., 1997;

Jung et al., 2000a). Previously determined 87Sr/86Sr ratio of MG (Le Fort et al.,

1980) vary in the range of 0.727-0.847 (> 0.708 for S-type granites), coupled with

geochemical behaviour of MG, HG, MIG and LG is consistent with

heterogeneous source rock and S-type nature of the MGC, which is similar to the

observations of Chappell and White (1974).

The La/Ce ratio can also be used to differentiate various igneous suits and their

respective magma sources (Zulkarnain, 2009). Comparable La/Ce ratio in MG

(0.45) and LG (0.44) as well as in HG (0.25) and MIG (0.19) may reveal the two

suits of granitic rocks, namely two-mica Mansehra Granite and tourmaline Hakale

Granite having chilled contact, different age spectra (ca. 480 & 466 Ma) and

mean crystallization temperatures (~785 & 750 ºC). La/Ce plots of both suits

exhibit a significant linear trend (Figure 5.11). However, relative variation in the

geochemical character of these granitic rocks may be attributed to the

heterogeneity of the protolith Tanawal Formation, which most likely is the source

of magma for the MGC.

The Rb/Sr and Sr/Ba ratios may suggest that the MGC magma is derived by

fluid-absent melting of biotite as argued by Harris and Inger (1992). Relatively

higher range of Rb/Sr ratio in MGC (4.06-10.14) is in close agreement with the

Rb/Sr ratio (4-10) suggested by Harris et al., (1993) for the derivation of granitic

magma by dehydration melting. Average Ba/Sr and Rb/Sr ratios (4.50, 4.06), and

Fe2O3 + MgO (1.85%) of MG may suggest that the granitic melt was derived most


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likely from the biotite dehydration melting of Tanawal Formation. However, the

HG magma was most probably generated at relatively higher levels in the crust

by muscovite fluid-absent melting, which is similar to the findings of Sharma and

Rashid (2001). Relatively lower crystallization temperature of HG (~750 ºC) may

be attributed to lesser contents of Fe2O3 (0.74 %), MgO (0.64 %), CaO (1.01 %),

Fe2O3 + MgO (1.36%), Ba/Sr and higher Rb/Sr ratio (8.38) may indicate

muscovite dehydration melting of pelites-psammites (Tanawal Formation in this

case) as also argued by Sharma and Rashid (2001). Therefore, the MG magma

may have been generated by fluid-absent melting of biotite at > 5 kbr, and > 700

ºC. However, the ascent of melt to higher-levels in the crust may have resulted in

localized muscovite dehydration-melting at relatively lower temperatures and

subsequent emplacement of HG as shown by Sharma and Rashid (2001).

The MG was probably emplaced at shallow depth (less than 14 km) which is

evident from the occurrence of andalusite in the contact aureole of the granite

along with the presence of perthitic microcline which is parallel to the

observations of other workers (Martin and Bomin, 1976; Pant and Kundu, 2008;

Singh, 2010). Le Fort et al., (1986) have reported widespread crustal melting and

shallow intrusion of early Paleozoic granites in the Himalayas. Upper crustal

signatures (5-15 km) of the MGC are depicted by negative Nb, Sr and Ti

anomalies in the spidergrams of MG, HG, MIG and LG, which is consistent with

the studies of Rollinson (1993). Upper crust has relatively higher Rb/Sr ratios

(0.32) as compared with middle (0.22) and lower (0.04) crust (Taylor and

McLeman, 1985; Rudnick and Fountain, 1995). Higher Rb/Sr ratios (4.06-8.38)

may also reveal emplacement of the MGC at upper crustal level.

7.3 Zircon thermometry The zircon saturation temperatures of the Mansehra Granite range between 749-

852ºC, with an average of 790 ºC (Table 5.3). The estimated temperatures of

migmatites in Susalgali-Khaki area varied in the range of 803-863 ºC and median

at 833 ºC, which is comparable with the temperature range of 794-832 ºC

(average value around 813 ºC) at the contact of Mansehra Granite and Tanawal

Formation. The mean estimated temperature of aplites intruded near the contact

of MG with metasediments of Tanawal Formation in Susalgal-Khaki area is 778

ºC, while the average estimated temperature at the contact of HG and MG is 726


130

ºC, which may be attributed to the occurrence of chilled margin. However, the

crystallization temperatures of HG varied from 709-779 ºC with an average value

of 744 ºC. The crystallization temperatures for leucogranites are in the range of

749-754 ºC (median at 751 ºC) in Mansehra-Karkale areas. Relatively lower

temperature of leucogranites may suggest that these bodies were probably

derived from high temperature MG magma as revealed by their comparable

La/Ce ratios. Field evidence revealed the occurrence of tourmaline-bearing fine-

grained microgranitic bodies within Hakale Granite near the Maswal village in

Mansehra area, which have crystallization temperature around 692 ºC. This

temperature estimate is comparable with lowest temperature of HG (709 ºC) in

Maswal area, and tourmaline-bearing microgranites (696 ºC) in Oghi-Darband

area. The zircon saturation temperatures of microgranites may suggest that these

bodies most likely have been crystallized from water saturated residual melt of

the HG, as suggested by Piper (2000), which is evident from their consistent

La/Ce ratios. The occurrence of tourmaline as melanocratic bands in

microgranites most probably reveals the stabilization of the melt phase at lower

water concentrations, as presented by Best (2003).

The fluid-absent melting of pelite-psammite bearing metasediments begins at

temperatures below 800 ºC (Chappell, 1984; White and Chappell, 1988; Chappell

and White, 1992), usually around 750 ºC (Vielzeuf and Schmidt, 2001). However,

the experimental work of various researchers (Vielzeuf and Montel, 1994;

Clemens and Watkins, 2001; Johnson et al., 2001) indicates that the fluid-absent

partial melting of metasediments occurs at 800 ºC or even higher temperatures

(850 ºC). Experimental studies on partial melting of pelites and psammites

(Vielzeuf and Montel, 1994; Johnson et al., 2001) suggest that melting of biotite

commenced around 780-820 ºC at 5 kbr. A temperature of 700-800 ºC has been

proposed by various workers for the dehydration-melting of muscovite (Gardien

et al., 1995; Patino Douce and Harris, 1998; Pickering and Johnston, 1998;

Janasi and Martins, 2003; Garcia-Casco et al., 2003). The fluid-absent

experiments conducted by Garcia-Casco et al., (2003) revealed that at 6 kbr and

lower temperatures i.e. less than 800 ºC, Al-silicate and K-feldspar were formed

in melting reactions associated with the break down of muscovite and quartz.

Relatively higher temperatures (794-832 ºC) of MG at the contact with


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metasediments of Tanawal Formation and migmatites (833 ºC) in Susalgali and

Khaki areas are consistent with biotite dehydration melting temperatures.

Relatively lower mean temperature ~744 ºC of HG may be attributed to the

localized muscovite dehydration melting.

Mean temperature estimates of the MGC are comparable with the temperature

range 800-850 ºC obtained from S-type granites of eastern Lachlan fold Belt

(Mass et al., 1997). Miller et al., (2001) documented the zircon saturation

temperature (Watson and Harrison, 1983) estimates for the Lesser Himalayan

Indian granites which varied in the range of 690-817 ºC for Mandi granites, 680-

750 ºC for Kaplas, 670-780 ºC for Chamba-Kullu, 743-815 ºC for Chandra, 705-

802 ºC for Nyimaling, and 700-815 ºC for Kinnaur Kaila. These temperatures are

closer to the dehydration melting of biotite (Patino Douce and Johnston, 1991).

Mean zircon temperatures of MG and HG (790 & 741 ºC) are comparable with

the temperature range for S-type Indian granites of the Lesser Himalayan belt.

Based on two-feldspar geothermometry, 600-700 ºC temperature range was

proposed by Shams and Rehman (1967) for the MG, which is lower than the

suggested dehydration melting temperature of pelite-psammite bearing

metasediments of Tanawal Formation, which is similar to the studies of various

workers (Chappell, 1984; White and Chappell, 1988; Chappell and White, 1992;

Vielzeuf and Schmidt, 2001). Vielzeuf and Holloway (1988) argued that the

convergent tectonics can initiate anatectic processes that might generate granitic

melt in the temperature range of 800-850 ºC. Based on the present study it is

proposed that the MG magma most probably had been generated by the

dehydration melting of biotite at pressure > 5 kbr and temperature > 700 ºC.

However, the ascent of magma at shallow levels might have caused localized

fluid-absent melting of muscovite resulting in the crystallization of tourmaline-rich

HG. Melting experiments of Patino Douce and Harris (1998) indicate the

presence of muscovite at temperature ≤ 800 ºC and 6 kbr pressure as melting

product. Tourmaline appeared at 725 ºC and 6 kbr in sub-solidus to near-solidus

experiments on muscovite-biotite schist as reported by Patino-Douce and Harris

(1998), which is consistent with the mean temperature estimate (~744 ºC) for HG.

They further suggested that the melting temperature decreased with decreasing

pressure. At pressure less than 9 kbr, the dehydration melting of muscovite


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begins at lower temperature (750-800 ºC) as compared with biotite bearing

assemblages (Patino-Douce and Harris, 1998).

7.4 U-Pb zircon systematics Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircon crystals from MG, HG and LG

revealed the core-rim structure having a lot of inherited cores, however, sample

MG-113 does not possess inherited cores, and shows strong alteration in some

domains which may pertain to Pb loss. The inherited cores reveal ages of older

materials and the rims indicate the magmatic recrystallization. The internal

structure of dominant zircon grains display oscillatory zoning and polyphase

texture of the cores (Figure 6.2a-e). The presence of discordant overgrowths with

oscillatory zoning in zircon may reflect recrystallization of rim during post-

magmatic metamorphic episodes (Heuberger et al., 2007). Occurrence of cores

and growth zoning in zircon grains generally depict their igneous nature (Vavra et

al., 1999; Wu and Zheng, 2004). The presence of inherited zircon cores and

core-rim structure in MG, HG and LG may suggest crustaly derived and S-type

nature of these plutonic bodies, as shown by Williams and Chappell (1992),

Williams (1998) and Clemens (2003).

U-Pb zircon ages of MG, HG and LG yielded subpopulations of inherited

components of ca. 690-500 Ma (with lower intercept ages at 650±120, 589±150,

582±120 & 581±130 Ma) and ca. 985-920 Ma, while most of the igneous inherited

cores cluster around 880-800 Ma (Figures 6.4a-6.8a). The inherited components

gave discordant 207Pb/206Pb age range between ca. 1.9-1.3 Ga (with upper

intercepts at 1791±260, 1549±180, 1513±190, 1315±210 & 1234±180 Ma). The

Tera-Wasserburg concordia diagrams showed the 206Pb/238U rim ages at ca. 490-

466 Ma reflecting the intrusive ages of the granitic rocks of the MGC (Figures

6.4b-6.8b). Varied age spectra of the inherited and intrusive components may

represent the tectonic imprints of different orogenic episodes that have affected

Gondwana and developed a number of tectonic belts in the Indian shield and

adjoining continents of the region. The orogenic activity during ca. 2500-1600 Ma

has been reported from central and north India (Naqvi, 2005). In parallel, the

Aravali Mobile Belt (AMB) has been assigned an age of 2.5-1.8 Ga (Sinha Roy et

al., 1998) with magmatic activity at 1900±60 Ma, (felsic plutonism in Aravali

Super Group, Chaudhry et al., 1984). Significant magmatic activity is indicated in


133

Chotanagpur Granitic Gneissic Complex (CGGC) between 1300-1100 Ma and

1600-1500 Ma (Mahadevan, 2002). Radiometric intrusive age of granites

associated with Bomdila Group fall in the range of 1900-1600 Ma (Kumar, 1997).

The 2000-1800 Ma granites may be correlated with the ca. 2000 Ma Aravali and

Dharwar orogeny (Thakur, 1983). Timing of Dharwar orogenic cycle can be

compared with Eburnean orogenesis at 1850±250 Ma in southern and western

regions of Africa (Clifford, 1970). In the Indian shield, magmatic events at

ca.1400 Ma have also been documented (Thakur, 1983). The granitic activity at

ca. 1450, ca. 990-900 Ma, ca. 800 and ca. 550 Ma has also been reported from

Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt (EGMB) in the Indian continent. The age component

990-900 Ma can be correlated with the Rayner Province of East Antarctica

(Fitzsimons 2000; Domeier and Raith, 2003; Veevers, 2007), while age segments

at ca. 800 and ca. 550 Ma are related to metamorphic events (Domeier and

Raith, 2003) in the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt. Banerjee (1991) and Singh (1998)

have reported the Satpura orogeny during ca. 900-850 Ma. In Bihar Mica Belt

(BMB) granites and pegmatites intrusive activity had occurred from ca. 950 Ma to

800 Ma (Naqvi, 2005). During 850 Ma to 800 Ma, a magmatic episode in the

Aravali-Delhi fold belt has been linked to the break-up of Rodinia (Paliwal, 2001).

Between 900-600 Ma, intense deformation, metamorphism, volcanism and

plutonism in northwest Himalaya of Pakistan has been designated as Hazaran

Orogeny by Baig et al., (1989). Thermotectonic activity encompassing

deformation, plutonism and volcanism has been documented with Rb/Sr ages of

ca. 809±20-865±20 Ma from Kirana and Buland Hills (Sargodha) in the Indo-Pak

plate (Davies & Crawford, 1971), which may suggest the affiliation of this event

with the fragmentation of Rodinia. The late Precambrian to early Cambrian

orogenic activity in the Indo-Pak plate is evident from the radiometric dating of

plutonism, volcanism, deformation and metamorphism in the Hazara Himalaya

(Baig and Lawrence, 1987). The radiometric dating of these events in the Indian

Shield may be compared with the inherited and intrusive age segments recorded

in the detrital zircon grains of the MG, HG and LG to constraint depositional and

magmatic histories of the Mansehra area.

The U-Pb zircon age component of ca. 1.9-1.3 Ga may be interpreted as

precursor age of the granite protolith. The rounded inherited cores show a wide


134

distribution of ages clearly indicating sedimentary materials up to 1.9 Ga. The

inherited component at ca. 1.9 Ga may represent the first zircon growth which

reveal probable upper age limit of the metasedimantary protolith of the MGC. The

1.9 Ga ages may be correlated with 1.9-1.85 Ga thermotectonic episodes related

to the activity of volcanic arc that extends from Aravali Mountain up to northern

margin of Indian continent (Kohn et al., 2010; Kaur et al., 2011). The 1300-1200

Ma thermotectonic events may pertain to the break-up of the supercontinent

Columbia (Condie, 1989; Bose et al., 2011). The detrital zircon might have been

crystallized / re-crystallized during thermotectonic activity of Aravali Mobile Belt,

Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt, Chotanagpur Granitic Gneissic Complex and other

tectogens of the Indian Shield and its nearby continents. The U-Pb zircon

systematics of inherited segment reveals dominance of Mesoproterozoic

population with minor contributions of Neoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic

components. The Mesoproterozoic sediments most probably have been derived

from the Indian Shield, east Antarctica and the (present day) south-east Africa

(Myrow et al., 2010 and references therein). However, the minor

Paleoproterozoic sediments component might have affinity with basement suits

from northern parts of the Gondwana in India, Africa and Antarctica (Cawood et

al., 2007). Mineralogical composition of Tanawal Formation indicates that the

sediments were derived from the high-grade crystalline and quartzofeldspathic

gneisses pertaining to Indo-Pak Shield south of the MGC (Shams, 1983). Baig et

al., (1989) are of the view that the detrital sediments of Tanawal Formation may

have been derived from Proterozoic Besham basement rocks related to Indo-Pak

plate exposed in the south of Main Mantle Thrust of Pakistan. Furthermore,

detrital zircon from quartzites of Lesser Himalaya, Nepal, depicts radiometric age

in the range of ca. 1.87-1.94 Ga, and sediments of these quartzites might have

affiliation with Indian Shield (DeCelles et al., 2000 and references therein). It can

be inferred that detrital zircon grains of the granite protolith with inherited

component at ca. 1.9 Ga might also have been derived from the similar source.

The inherited segments between ca.1900 Ma and ca.1300 Ma most probably

pertain to age of the provenance for the granitic protolith. The youngest inherited

component revealed the age of ca. 1300 Ma (intercept at 1234±180 Ma). The

deposition of granitic protolith, the Tanawal Formation, must postdate this


135

youngest inherited zircon. Therefore, it can be inferred that the protolith Tanawal

Formation might have been deposited between time span of ca.1300 Ma and ca.

985 Ma. In the light of these findings, middle Mesoproterozoic to early

Neoproterozoic probable age of deposition may be proposed for the Tanawal

Formation in the Hazara area. Crawford and Davies (1975) have reported the

Rb/Sr age of Hazara Formation at ca. 728±20, 752±20 & 951±20 Ma. The Hazara

Formation is predominantly comprised of slate, phyllite, unmetamorphosed

shales with minor limestone and graphite (Calkins et al., 1975). The Tanawal

Formation underwent regional metamorphism from chlorite to sillimanite grades

(Chaudhry et al., 1989). Higher metamorphic grade and intrusive relation of

Mansehra Granite with Tanawal Formation may suggest it to be older than

Hazara Formation in Mansehra-Oghi area (Chaudhry and Ghazanfar, 1993),

which is consistent with the present U-Pb zircon chronometry. However,

resolution of age controversy of Hazara Formation and Tanawal Formation is

beyond the scope of this study.

The age components at ca. 985-920 Ma, 880-800 Ma and ca. 690-500 Ma are

most likely related to thermotectonic events experienced by detrital zircon grains

of MG, HG and LG. The U-Pb zircon age peaks at ca. 980, ca. 800 Ma and ca.

700-500 Ma have also been reported from Lesser Himalayan granites (Lie and

Liang, 2010). The ca. 985-920 Ma orogeny can be correlated with Eastern Ghats-

Rayner Province which may pertain to assembly of the Rodinia supercontinent

(Bose et al., 2011), which also involved the continental collision of Eastern Ghat

Mobile Belt and the respective Rayner Province of Antarctica (Li et al., 2008).

The ca. 880-800 Ma age component may correspond to the break-up of

supercontinent Rodinia (Gregory et al., 2009; Li et al., 2008) with concomitant

deformation as well as igneous activity related to this event is well developed in

south China (Lie and Liang, 2010). Since ca. 880-800 Ma granitic rocks are rarely

reported from the Lesser Himalayas, this thermotectonic event may pertain to

minor events corresponding to ca. 865-809 Ma igneous rocks from Kirana Hills,

Sargodha, Pakistan (DiPietro, 2001 and reference therein). The lower intercept

ages of the inherited segment in MG, HG and LG mainly clustered around 880-

800 Ma. The age segment at ca. 985-920, 880-800 and 690-500 Ma may be

interpreted as the ages of metamorphic fabric development in the Tanawal


136

Formation. The youngest episode at ca. 690-500 Ma is consistent with

accretional activity of the East-African orogeny which remained active from ca.

680 to 550 Ma (Myrow et al., 2010) and 900-600 Ma Hazaran Orogeny (Baig et

al., 1989). The age segment at ca. 650-523 Ma may also correspond to 650±2

Ma 40Ar/39Ar age of metamorphism reported by Baig et al., (1989) and Baig

(1991) from northwestern Himalaya, Pakistan. These thermal events may

indicate the polyphase deformation and metamorphism of the Tanawal Formation

reported by different researchers (Shams, 1971, 1983; Ghazanfar et al., 1983;

Greco, 1986). Two distinct episodes of deformation and metamorphism in the

metasediments of the Tanawal Formation have been recognized by Chaudhry

(1964), whereas the present study proposed three deformational phases (ca.

985-920, 880-800, 650-523 Ma). Metamorphism and subsequent plutonism in

Tanawal Formation is consistent with the observations of Chaudhry et al., (1989).

They argued that the Mansehra Granite does not follow the thermal axis of the

region and cuts sometimes obliquely and sends apophyses in to the host rock,

which is at places marginally migmatised but invariably hornfelsed. The regional

metamorphism of the host pelites and psammites, therefore, pre-dates the

intrusion of the Mansehra Granite. The Mansehra Granite and the host

metasediments, therefore, predate the Tertiary Himalayan orogeny.

Previously determined K/Ar ages of the Mansehra Granite (79, 83 Ma) and

Hakale Granite (165 Ma) are inconsistent with the field occurrence of these rocks.

These ages indicate that Hakale Granite is the oldest body but chilled contact of

HG with Mansehra Granite suggests its younger age (Shams, 1961). The 215 Ma

age assigned to Mansehra Granite is based on Ar/Ar method which is not a

reliable dating technique. The present study is based on more precise U-Pb

zircon method which reveals the overgrowth rim mean age of the Mansehra

Granite at ca. 480 Ma (Figure 6.3b) that is slightly discordant with 516±16 Ma

whole rock Rb/Sr isochrone age of this pluton, as reported by Le Fort et al.,

(1980). Crystallization ages of the MGC are consistent with the Rb/Sr and U-Pb

zircon ages (ca. 480-500 Ma) of the Himalayan plutons and gneisses (Jaeger et

al., 1971; Ferrara et al., 1983; Trivedi et al., 1984; Le Fort et al., 1986; Hodges et

al., 1996; DeCelles et al., 1998, 2000; Miller et al., 2001). Published ages of the

plutons associated with northwestern Himalayas are presented in Table 6.2.The


137

entire igneous and metamorphic sequence in the Mansehra area is intruded by

swarm of dykes and sills of dolerites of Permian age (Shams, 1971; Chaudhry et.

al., 1989, Baig et al., 1989). The dolerites are unmetamorphosed, which suggests

that igneous metamorphic activity in the area is pre-Permian.

7.5 Tectonic implications Petrogenesis of early Paleozoic peraluminous S-type Himalayan granites is

conventionally associated with compressional regime of the Pan African orogeny

at ca. 550-450 Ma (Le Fort et al., 1980, 1983; Jan et al., 1981; Valdiya, 1995;

Grazanti et al., 1986; Baig et al., 1988, 1989; Sharma and Rashid, 2001; Kroner

and Stern, 2004). The syn-kinematic emplacement of granitoids along Indian

margin during the late Pan African orogeny is supported by sedimentalogical,

structural and geochronological evidences from the Himalayas, and this tectonic

event is consistent with an early Cambrian arc along the proto-Tethyan margin of

the Indian plate (Ramezani and Tucker, 2003). In the northwestern Himalaya of

Pakistan, the intrusion of peraluminous S-type granites (ca. 550±450 Ma) and

metamorphic activity (>466 Ma) may be correlated with the Pan African orogeny

(Baig et al., 1989). It may be inferred that the emplacement of granites (ca. 466-

480 Ma) associated with the MGC might have affiliation with the convergent

thermotectonic events of Pan African orogeny (ca. 550-450 Ma) in the Lesser

Himalaya of Pakistan, as shown by Baig et al., (1989). This is consistent with

syn-collisional environment revealed by tectonic discrimination diagrams of these

granites (Figure 3.3a-c). Nevertheless, the convincing evidences of Pan African

thermotectonic events in the Indian continent, such as the occurrence and

radiometric dating of suture and/or ophiolites were rather scanty or could not be

found in the available literature. These tectonic features might have been

obliterated by or amalgamated with the imprints of superimposed Tertiary

Himalayan orogeny. However, the similarity of mineralogical, geochemical and

structural features along with available radiometric dating of the Mansehra

Granite, Hakale Granite and Leucogranites, with peraluminous S-type Himalayan

granitoids allows to infer the Pan African affinity of the Mansehra Granitic

Complex.

The petrogenesis of Cambro-Ordovician, peraluminous, S-type plutonic bodies in

the Lesser Himalayan granitic belt may also be explained in the light of tectonic


138

model developed by Cawood et al., (2007) for the ca. 500-475 Ma granitoids of

Kathmandu, Nepal, and this thermotectonic event is referred to as Bhimphedian

Orogeny. Since this orogeny can be traced from eastern Himalaya through

Pakistan probably up to Afghanistan, therefore the tectonic model of Cawood et

al., (2007) can be applied in the northwestern Himalaya of Pakistan to explain the

petrogenesis of Cambro-Ordovician (ca. 480-466 Ma) peraluminous granites of

the MGC. This model postulated an Andean-type compressional regime

associated with southward subduction of proto-Tethyan oceanic lithosphere

beneath northern margin of Gondwana along with the occurrence of Paleozoic

suture, and suggested the existence of Cambrian arc in western Tethyan

Himalaya. During Cambrian, the repeated extensional and compressional activity

in the zone of convergence had most likely rendered the crustal thickening in the

supra-crustal region of the over-riding plate (Figure 3.4a-d). This crustal

thickening and mafic underplating most probably had led to the anatexis of

metasediments of the Tanawal Formation and emplacement of ca. 480-466 Ma

granites in the Mansehra area.

Cambro-Ordovician granites have been reportedly emplaced in the Lesser,

Higher, Tethyan Himalayas, and Qiangtang, Lhasa terranes and Amdo

microcontinent of the Tibet Plateau (Cawood et al., 2007; Quigley et al., 2008, Ji

et al., 2009b, Dong et al., 2010a; Pullen et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2012, Guynn et

al.,2012). The Cawood et al, (2007) model however has reservations to explicate

the early Paleozoic magmatism in Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes and Amdo

microcontinent. A very recent tectonic model after Zhu et al., (2012) explains the

Cambro-Ordovician plutonic activity in the Tibet plateau, northern margins of

Indian and Australian continents. They suggested an Andean-type accretional

activity associated with continental arc arrangement. Available data reveal the

occurrence of ophiolite suite along Longmu Tso-Shuanghu suture zone (LSSZ)

across the Qiangtang terrane, which may represent Paleozoic suture zone (Li et

al., 2009a) and provide convincing evidence for the accretional activity along the

northern margins of the Indian and Australian continents. According to this model,

the Cambro-Ordovician peraluminous Himalayan granites most likely result from

subduction of the proto-Tethys oceanic lithosphere berneath the Indian continent

(Figure 3.7a-b). It can be inferred that emplacement of the MGC pertains to the


139

convergence regime of the western Qiangtang terrane along the northern margin

of the Indian continent. Subsequent to subduction, crustal thickening and melting

of the metasediments of the Tanawal Formation might have emplaced the

Cambro-Ordovician granites associated with the MGC.

Similar to the convergent regime of Himalayas and Alps (McBirney, 2007), the

crustal thickening in the zone of collision might have led to the isostatic instability

which most likely resulted in upwelling of deeper crustal material to upper levels.

The decompression/extension might have allowed deeper material to approach

towards the surface brought heat with that and induced the low-temperature

anatexis in the metasediments of Tanawal Formation to produce the voluminous

granitic melt which is analogous to the observations of Gerbi et al., (2006). The

isostatic uplift most likely resulted in crustal deformation, thrusting and

extensional regimes that might have provided the space for the emplacement of

these granitic bodies as presented by Blatt and Tracy (1995). Melt segregation

and extraction is a prerequisite for the emplacement of granitic magma, which is

a deformation-controlled phenomenon. Efficiency of this process depends upon

the deformation of the source region (Ellis and Obata, 1992; Brown et al., 1995;

Holtzman and Kohlsteds, 2007). Generally, partial melting and deformation are

synchronous mechanisms which squeezed out the melt to low-pressure areas for

emplacement (Sawyer, 1994). R1-R2 and other trace elements based tectonic

discrimination diagrams (Pearce et al., 1984; Bachelor and Bowden, 1985;

Maniar and Piccoli, 1989) may suggest the syn-collisional emplacement of the

MGC. During collision, while the granitic melt was generated by anatexis, the

deformation most likely had promoted melt movement through the crust (Brown

and Solar, 1998a, 1998b, 1999; Sawyer et al., 1999; Solar and Brown, 1999).

With segregation and ascent of magma at shallow depth, the higher vapour

pressure might have promoted the localized partial melting of the protolith

Tanawal Formation. The Cambro-Ordovician granites occur as concordant sheet

like bodies in the crystalline nappes of the Lesser Himalayas (Cawood et al.,

2007). During thrusting the compressional forces most likely have played their

role for the segregation of melt from the residue and subsequent emplacement of

these sheet-like granitic bodies in the Mansehra area as suggested by Shearer et

al., (1987). Moreover, the crustal thickening, north of the MCT (where most of the


140

S-type granites were emplaced during Paleozoic magmatism around 500 Ma)

was associated with north-directing thrust. This crustal thickening most likely led

to the crustal melting and subsequent emplacement of MG, HG and the

associated plutonic bodies as proposed by Blatt and Tracy (1995).

Granitic melt of the HG most probably was generated by the partial melting of

muscovite-rich assemblages of metasediments associated with the Tanawal

Formation, which is similar to the findings of Sharma and Rashid (2001). Syn-

orogenic deformation squeezed the granitic melt, at sub-solidus stage, towards

the down buckled thrusted tectogens and emplaced as sheet like plutonic bodies.

Presence of flow/tectonic foliation (McBirney, 2007), mylonization and

development of local shear zones manifest the syn-orogenic sub-solidus

deformation of the Mansehra Granite, Hakale Granite and associated plutonic

bodies of the MGC.

The emplacement of dolerite dykes in the Mansehra Granite and host Tanawal

Formation may be related to the Permo-Triassic break-up of Gondwana (Baig et

al., 1989) and the Permo-Carboniferous activity of the Punjal Volcanics (Le Fort

et al., 1980). This dyke swarm may have genetic relationship with western

Qiangtang (ca. 284 Ma; Zhai et al., 2009) and Punjal Traps in northwestern

Himalaya (ca. 264 Ma; Spring et al., 1993). The absence of mafic intermingling

with associated granite suggests that these dykes were emplaced as a different

phase and no magma mixing or wall rock contamination is involved in the magma

chamber or during emplacement.

Compared with tectonic imprints of Pan African orogeny in the Himalayan domain

of Indian continent, the models presented by Cawood et al., (2007) and Zhu et

al., (2012) furnish more convincing evidences in terms of Andean-type

convergent episode associated with tectonic accessories like suture zones,

ophiolites and magmatic arc, which favours the emplacement mechanism of the

MGC by following these models. The present study focused on probable tectonic

involvement in the petrogenesis of the MGC which is based on the available

literature. However, detailed investigation of the regional tectonic framework of

the Himalayan granitic belt is not the main concern of this study.

Chapter Eight Conclusions

141

8 CONCLUSIONS

Following conclusions are drawn from this study:

• The Mansehra Granite is generally massive and occasionally gneissic.

However, both gneissic and massive facies have the same composition. The

Susalgali Granite Gneiss is in fact sheared Mansehra Granite rather a

separate granitic body.

• The leucogranitic and microgranitic bodies of the Mansehra Granitic

Complex (MGC) are most probably the product of Na2O-rich residual melt of

the Mansehra Granite and boron-rich residual magma of the Hakale Granite,

respectively.

• Geochemical classification diagrams pertaining to Mansehra Granite (MG),

Hakale Granite (HG), microgranites (MIG) and leucogranites (LG) place

these granitic bodies in high calc-alkaline, quartz-rich, peraluminous

granitoid field.

• The MGC was derived most likely from pelitic metasediments of

heterogeneous Tanawal Formation, and is consistent with peraluminous S-

type trait of this Complex.

• The MG and HG plot almost together in variation diagrams which suggest

that magmas of these granites were derived from the same but non-

homogeneous source rock by fractional crystallization process.

• Zircon saturation temperatures of the MG, HG, LG and MIG are in the range

of 749-852 ºC, 709-779 ºC, 749-754 ºC and 692-696 ºC, respectively, and

are comparable with crystallization temperatures of the peraluminous S-type

Lesser Himalayan Indian granites.

Chapter Eight Conclusions

142

• The Mansehra Granite magma was probably generated through biotite

dehydration melting of the metasediments of Tanawal Formation at

pressure > 5 kbr and temperature > 700 ºC, while Hakale Granite melt was

most likely originated at relatively higher crustal level and lower temperature

by muscovite fluid-absent anatexis of pelites. The Mansehra Granite reveals

the upper crustal signatures and shallow emplacement (< 15 km).

• Based on U-Pb zircon age spectra of the MGC, middle Mesoproterozoic to

early Neoproterozoic age (ca. 1300-985 Ma) may be assigned to the granite

protolith in the Hazara area. The inherited age segments at ca. 985-920,

880-800 and 690-500 Ma may be interpreted as the ages of post-

depositional metamorphic fabric development in the Tanawal Formation.

The U-Pb zircon age components at ca. 980, ca. 800 Ma and ca. 700-500

Ma have also been documented from Lesser Himalayan granites. The age

components of ca. 490 Ma, 475 Ma and 466 Ma (middle to upper

Ordovician) could date intrusion of the Mansehra Granite, Leucogranite and

Hakale Granite, respectively. Although mean age of Mansehra Granite (ca.

480 Ma) is slightly discordant with Rb/Sr age (516±16 Ma) reported by Le

Forte, et al., (1980) but is comparable with the ages of Himalayan granites

and gneisses.

• The depletion of Ba, Sr, Nb and Ti in spidergrams of the MGC is well

matched with the early Paleozoic (500±25 Ma) Lesser Himalayan S-type

granites.

• Depending upon the similarity of mineralogical, geochemical, structural

features and U-Pb zircon dating of the MGC (ca. 466-490 Ma) with the

peraluminous S-type Himalayan granites, it may be assumed that genesis of

this Complex is probably associated with compressional regime of the Pan

African orogeny. However, convincing evidence is lacking in favour of this

assumption. Hence, the genesis of MGC can be better explained in the light

of other models (Cawood et al., 2007 and Zhu et al., 2012), which furnish

the credible evidence for the emplacement of Cambro-Ordovician granites

along the northern margin of the Indian continent.

References

143

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