Perceived Benefits of Dance and Exercise

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BA Health Studies Programme

1 Student College and College Number

MO081515

2 Module Dissertation

3 Assessment Details

4 Student Adviser Leslie Bodie

5 Word Count 8500

6 Confirmed document submitted in rtf or word format word

7 Date Assessment Due 04/2012

8 Date Assessment Submitted 04/2012

9 Date Assessment Received

10 Weighting of Assessment

MO081515/DISSERTATION/ 2011-2012

1

Physical Activity: A comparison between the perceived

benefits of participating in dance and physical exercise

Author: Stephen Calcutt


2

Contents

About the author ……………………………………………………

Abstract ……………………………………………………………... Page 3

Introduction ……………………………………………………….. Page 4

Literature Review ………………………………………………….. Page 7

Methodology ………………………………………………………. Page 17

Results ……………………………………………………………… Page 21

Discussion ………………………………………………………… Page 73

Strengths and limitations ………………………………………… Page 74

Future studies ……………………………………………………… Page 77

Conclusion …………………………………………………………. Page 78

References ………………………………………………………… Page 80

Appendix ………………………………………………………….. Page 93


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Physical Activity: A comparison between the perceived

benefits of participating in dance and physical exercise

Author: Stephen Calcutt

About the author

The author is qualified with HNC Fitness Health and Exercise and is licenced to

teach Zumba Basic and Zumba Gold. The author is passionate about dancing

salsa and has taught classes in salsa and merengue. Part of the authors’

motive for this study’s literature review and research is also driven by an

interest in the relationship between psychological health and the act of dancing.

This was brought to the fore through the authors’ own personal experience of

depression and being at one point diagnosed with anxiety disorder. The study

focuses on the perceived benefits of dance and physical exercise, and is a

direct consequence of these factors.

Abstract

Objective: This study was designed to compare the perceived benefits of

dance with that of physical exercise. The study consisted of 65 dancers and 57

exercisers mixed gender. The study group were a random sample of people

who participate in either dance or physical exercise activities. The hypothesis

being, that ‘The perceived benefits of dance will be higher than the perceived


4

benefits of exercise’. Methods: A Literature review was conducted to obtain a

comprehensive and robust selection of literature relevant and supportive of the

research study. Data for the study was collected through a closed question

questionnaire. The questionnaire was modelled on the EMI-2 exercise

motivation questionnaire. Results: By comparing frequencies and examining

the data through a series of t-tests (independent). It was found that dancers and

exercisers both perceived a broad range of benefits from participating in their

respective activities. However the perceived benefits for enjoyment and

affiliation were higher for dancers than exercisers. Weight management and

strength were valued higher with exercisers. Conclusion: Dancers did not

perceive higher benefits than exercisers from engaging in their activities.

Dance and exercise both perceive a broad spectrum of benefits to engaging in

their activities. Both dancers and exercisers value some benefits more than

others from participating in their activities. This occurs between their respective

study groups and within their respective study groups. By participating in either

physical exercise or dance it can be seen to contribute in varying degrees to a

person’s general health and wellbeing.

Introduction

This research project aims to compare the perceived benefit of dance with that

of physical exercise. The World Health Organisation (WHO) (2006b:4) state

that, ‘Factors positively associated with active living include …an expectation of

benefits’. This sentiment from the WHO (2006b:4) is fundamental to this

literature review and the subsequent research undertaken. The WHO (2006:1)

expresses the belief that health is, "A state of complete physical, mental and

social well-being and not merely the absence of disease". The WHO (2003)

also recognise that physical exercise can help combat obesity, protect against


5

heart disease, diabetes in promoting a sense of wellbeing. The Department of

Health (2010) also recognise the contribution that dance makes as a physical

activity. Dance is recognised as a physical activity that contributes to health

and wellbeing. However Murcia, Kreutzb, Clift, and Bongard (2010) who

investigated the perceived benefits of dance believe that dance is not given

enough credit as a important and significant physical activity in the assistance of

wellbeing. Murcia, Kreutzb, Clift, and Bongard (2010) argue that dance should

receive greater prominence in health promotion. Murcia, Kreutzb, Clift, and

Bongard (2010) through their research found that dance had a significant

potential benefit on wellbeing. Murcia, Kreutzb, Clift, and Bongard (2010) found

dance had a positive effect on emotional, physical, social and spiritual

dimensions including self-esteem and coping strategies.

This concern was highlighted in the Department of Health report ‘Cold Facts,

Hot Feet Dancing to Health: A Review of the Evidence’. (2011). The

Department of Health (2011) report, is an extensive review of the evidence that

dance has wide reaching benefits to health and wellbeing. However the report

stated there is still resistance from the health sector in accepting the benefits of

dance to health. Other reports have come from a variety of sources, such as

BUPA (2011), BUPA (2011) state within their report that dances is a good form

of aerobic exercise. Biddle and Mutrie (2008:3) exclaim that, ‘Many forms of

physical activity are healthy!’ Nonetheless, Biddle and Mutrie’s (2008: 115-116)

comprehensive review of literature on the psychological benefits of physical

activity does not reference any studies that are attributed to dance. Dance has

a single mention along with aerobic dance. Biddle, Fox and Boutcher (2000:

108), in their comprehensive review of physical activity and psychological

wellbeing, also make a single reference to aerobic dance. The lack of dance

research included in literature like Biddle and Mutrie’s (2008) and Biddle, Fox

and Boutcher (2000: 108) however, does not mean there are not any studies to


6

refer to. The author has found a dearth of dance related research that is

diverse in its methodology. The author chose not to include any research that is

based on dance or movement therapy. The type of dance that the author has

examined is mainly social and community dance, dance forms that were not

developed with health in mind. Some dance styles such as Zumba and Five

Rhythms are included. Zumba being an aerobic exercise program based on

interval training, which is also defined as dance. The second being Five

Rhythms which is expressive dance movement.

The authors own research will be to determine if there are any significant

differences in perceived benefits, between those who participate in physical

exercise activities and those that participate in dance activities. The author

hypothesises that ‘The perceived benefits of dance will be higher than the

perceived benefits of exercise’. This is based on the premise that exercisers

are more likely to focus on the perceived physical benefits of their activity.

Whereas dancer’s perceived benefits will be broader than physical benefits

alone. This is believed by the author to be a consequence of dance being a

strong cultural and social activity, which is part of the arts.

Dance is often classed as part of the arts, grouped with for example, crafts,

theatre, painting and music. This is reflected in a report on ‘Out of Reach’ an

arts based regeneration project in Merseyside. The report conducted by

Peerbhoy, Smith and Birchall (2002) found that dance had a positive impact on

the quality of life. Durdey (2006:39) states that, ‘Dance is one of the best-

placed art forms to work in all aspects of health…across cultures, communities,

disabilities and abilities’. However, dance also has a link with exercise. Dance

and physical exercise are two aspects of human pursuits found under the broad

umbrella of physical activity. The Cold Facts Hot Feet Dancing to Health: A

Review of the Evidence report (2011:29) cites The Department of Health as


7

asserting, ‘arts and health are, and should be firmly recognised as being,

integral to health…’ By comparing the perceived benefits of dance with physical

exercise the author hopes to reveal that dance, as a significant cultural and

social activity, is also a physical activity that has perceived benefits that are

equally as important in maintaining a person’s wellbeing.

Literature review

This literature review will consist of studies that have examined the potential

benefits a person can attain through either dance or physical exercise. The

focus of this study will therefore be examining the physical activities of social

and community dances in comparison to persons who participate in physical

exercise activities. This will be followed by the authors own research that

compares the perceived benefits of dance with physical exercise.

According to Stroebe and Stroebe (1997) If people were asked as to what they

considered was an important contribution to a person’s health they would most

likely state exercise. Exercise, has long been accepted and established to be of

benefit to maintaining a person’s physical health, the prolific array of sports

clubs, gyms and leisure centres are a testimony to this. Exercise as a contrived

and deliberate physical activity has been a conscious objective of humanity for

a long time. Kokkinos (2010: 52) cites Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.) as saying; ‘If

we could give every individual the right amount of nourishment and exercise,

not too little and not too much, we would have found the safest way to health.’

The WHO (2003: 28) suggests that because of mechanisation, people need to

find new ways of building exercise into their lives. The benefits of exercise have

been studied extensively. Biddle and Mutrie (2008) bring together a

comprehensive account of research that has studied the psychology of physical


8

activity. Biddle and Mutrie (2008) title their book ‘Psychology of Physical

Activity’ their reason being that the traditional term exercise psychology is too

restrictive. However, the field of study is still known as exercise psychology.

And the focus has still remained on activities that are exercise centred. There

are various aspects of exercise; these can be defined by ‘intention, outcome

and location’ (Ogden 2007: 157-172).

Ogden (2007: 157-172) and Biddle and Mutrie (2008) expand on this and define

exercise as physical activity that is contrived, thought out and consisting of

repetitive movement that has the intention of improving a person’s physical

fitness. However these definitions are not set in stone. Caspersen, Powell, and

Christensen (1985) define physical activity as bodily movement through the use

of skeletal muscles which results in the expenditure of energy. This therefore

can be inclusive of leisure activities, for example walking, gardening and dance

(WHO 2006b, Park, Shoemaker and Haub 2008).

There are many studies that have examined the benefits of physical exercise.

Exercise through research has also been shown to be effective in the treatment

of clinical depression and anxiety, enhancing mood states, improving physical

self-perception and global self-esteem (Fox 1999). The continuous

engagement in physical activities may increase an individual’s self-efficacy.

However the determinants of health recognise other factors that can contribute

to a person’s wellbeing, these may be social or environmental, and they may

also influence a person’s perception and motivation to participate in exercise

activities (Strobe and Strobe 1997).

Biddle and Mutrie (2008) collate and compare a vast expanse of research that

examines the psychology of physical activity. Biddle and Mutrie (2008) state

that there is breadth of descriptive data that captures for example the beliefs,

attitudes and motives of people who engage in physical activities. Biddle and


9

Mutrie (2008) assert that the most important factors that motivate people to

exercise are to improve or maintain health, sense of achievement, weight

control and appearance. Biddle and Mutrie (2008) refer to a study of over

15,000 people that revealed the main reason was to maintain good health.

Socialisation was found to be one of the lower priorities in physical activity.

However many physical activities such as exercise classes do take place in a

social context (Biddle and Mutrie 2008). If however a physical activity

encourages social cohesion and a feeling of affiliation there can be a feeling of

support minimising division and inequalities and increase a sense of community

identity (WHO 2006a). The Health Education Authority (2000) conducted a

study of young people 11-15 years old and their parents. The Health Education

Authority (2000) found that the social aspect was a significant perceived benefit

of exercise activity. Callagan et al. (2009) in their study of women with

depression found that they valued the social aspect of exercising. However

Lovell, El Ansari, and Parker (2010) conducted a study on perceived exercise

benefits with non-exercising female university students. Lovell, El Ansari, and

Parker (2010), found that the highest rated perceived benefits of exercise were

physical performance and preventative health, social interaction was for them

rated the lowest.

Biddle and Mutrie (2008) provide a comprehensive review of evidence to

support the use of exercise as a tool, in improving mental wellbeing. However

the Mental Health foundation (2005) found that only 4% of GPs believe exercise

is a very effective treatment for mild to moderate depression. Nonetheless

Armstrong and Edwards (2003), in a study of young mothers found that

exercise intervention as well as improving physical health also improved

depressive symptomatology. Bartholomew, Morrison and Ciccolo (2005: 2032),

in a study of the effects of acute exercise on mood and wellbeing in patients

with Major Depressive Disorder found that the exercise group reported


10

significant improvement in their wellbeing as well as significant reductions in,

‘psychological distress, depression, confusion, fatigue, tension, and anger’.

Hayes and Ross, (1986) looked at the characteristics of exercise, overweight,

and physical health and their relationship to psychological wellbeing. Hayes

and Ross, (1986) deducted from their results of a telephone survey of Illinois

residents, that exercise does have a positive effect on psychological wellbeing.

Scully et al. (1998: 111) in their review of research based on physical exercise,

covered amongst other factors, ‘…the relation between physical exercise and

depression, anxiety, stress … mood state [and] self-esteem.’ Scully et al.

(1998) found that evidence significantly supported exercises somatic benefits

for anxiety and stress, and enhancing mood state and self-esteem. Callagan et

al. (2009) also believe that exercise is a sustainable treatment choice for

maintaining psychological wellbeing.

Biddle and Mutrie (2008) deduce that if a perceived benefit of physical activity is

wellbeing then there must be an element of enjoyment. The WHO (2006b), that

an important factor in active living is enjoyment. Biddle and Mutrie (2008) state

that empirical evidence and intuition show that enjoyment is a key factor in

motivation. This for example was revealed in a study by Karageorghis,

Vlachopoulos and Terry (2000) the study was based on aerobic dance exercise

classes. Greater enjoyment was associated with those who had higher positive

engagement, revitalisation and tranquillity (Biddle and Mutrie 2008). However

the degree of enjoyment may also be determined by the activity participated in.

This was demonstrated by Kilpatrick, Hebert, and Bartholomew (2005) who

found that levels of enjoyment differ significantly between sports based physical

activities and exercise specific activities.

Fox (1999) in his study of physical activity and mental well-being ascertains that

there is sufficient evidence to support the use of exercise to treat stress. Blair


11

et al (1984) found that teachers who participated in a 10 week health promotion

program which included exercise noticed improvement in their general

wellbeing and were more able to handle job stress. Biddle and Mutrie (2008)

refer to Crews and Landers (1987) who conducted a meta-analysis of thirty-

four studies that revealed a moderate effect of fitness on stress reactivity.

Those that showed less stress were either the fitter individuals or were less

responsive as a result of acute exercise activity. These studies however

focused on the physical measures such as blood pressure.

Sport England (2005: 4) discovered that ‘Weight management, social interaction

and enjoyment of exercise’ were some of the top reasons why people

participated in exercise. Ingledew and Markland (2008) also examined motives

that influence exercise participation. The study group consisted of 252 office

workers. They discovered that individuals had broadly different motivations for

participating in exercise. , Ingledew and Markland (2008) discovered that the

traditional appeal of appearance and weight management was seemingly not

the only driving force for someone to engage in physical exercise. Ingledew and

Markland (2008) when examining their results revealed for example social

engagement, health and fitness were also seen to be key influences in exercise

participation. Ingledew and Markland (2008) concluded that exercise promotion

should encourage these other factors.

Dance however is a physical activity primarily associated with music. Dance

has deep cultural and social significance across the world and throughout

history. The perceived benefits of dance have also been well documented. For

example, dance in pre-modern Europe was generally considered a preventative

medicine (Arcangeli 2000). Dance has also been use as a way of healing

through shamanic practices (Kassing 2007:30). Victory dances, for example,

were considered an important part of healthy development for the warriors of


12

Sparta. (Kassing 2007:54) During the ‘Progressive Era’ in the USA, new

ideologies held that dance could improve emotional and physical wellbeing.

Dance was seen as a potential for developing social mobility and status

(McMains 2006). Dils and Cooper – Albright (2001), reveal that during the 50’s

and 60’s solo dance styles were becoming more popular within a social context

in western culture. Urmston et al. (2012) state there is a growing body of

research and anecdotal evidence that implies that, ‘dance benefits physical and

psychological health and wellbeing’.

Current dance activities, people may participate in, draw on humankind’s

cultural roots. For example there is the Afro-Cuban dance rumba and the

Middle Eastern belly dancing. There are dance activities drawing on Western

cultures recent past such as lindy hop, rock n roll and balboa. There are more

recent dance styles such as break dance and street dance that people may also

partake in. The importance of dance however may be deeply rooted. Research

indicates that the desire to dance has probable genetic roots for people.

Studies have shown how the human child will naturally move rhythmically to

music. Evidence has also shown a child is happy to learn rhythmic movements

to music at a very early age (Zentner and Eerola 2010, Phillips-Silver and

Trainor 2005). Dance has within societies been a method of expression from a

personal, social and cultural position, a way of also expressing and feeling

pleasure as well as meeting health and physical needs (Shrader 2005).

Research implies that the physical action of dance (as with exercise) can

increase norepinephrine and serotonin levels in the brain; chemicals that

improve well-being. This evidence is however mainly drawn on research that

has been exercise specific (Hanna 2007, Biddle and Mutrie 2008, Levin

2009:37). Dimondstein (1985) states that, ‘The practice of making dance an

adjunct of physical education has placed it in the same category as athletics or


13

physical skills’. The cardiovascular benefits of dance have been observed

through aerobic dance forms such as Zumba. Zumba although dance orientated

is perceived as a physical exercise activity. Weight loss and muscle tone being

major factors for participation (Zumba 2012). Keogh, Kilding and Pidgeon

(2009) conducted a literature review that looked at social dance forms. Keogh,

Kilding and Pidgeon (2009) revealed that there is strong evidence to support the

physical benefits from dancing.

Pepper (1984) believes that dance is an alternative form of exercise suitable for

all. There is a broad and diverse spectrum of research that has looked into the

psychological benefits of dance as well as the physiological benefits. The

various benefits different dance styles can offer are the improvement of physical

fitness, social skills, mental health and wellbeing (Bremer 2007, Keogh, Kilding

and Pidgeon 2009). Research has explored the benefits of many dance forms

and genres from aerobic dance to tango (Murcia, Bongard, and Kreutz 2009,

Lane and Lovejoy 2000). Studies have revealed there are many variables that

may influence the benefits real or perceived by the participants. They have

shown dancing may improve mood, alleviating depression, and contribute to

wellbeing and the quality of life.

The benefits of dance are often cited in health promotion literature through

anecdotal observations and reference to the knowledge that being physically

active is a benefit to health. For example the physical action of dance is

believed to increase norepinephrine and serotonin levels in the brain; chemicals

that improve well-being, based on the findings of exercise research (Hanna,

2007, Biddle and Mutrie, 2008, Levin 2009:37). Another example of the physical

benefits was noted by Zhang et al (2008). Zhang et al. (2008) in a study of

social dancers (aged over 60) found that dancing improved postural stability

and strengthened leg muscles.


14

Jeong et al. (2005) conducted a study with 112 adolescent girls who were not

being treated for or diagnosed with depression. They found that there was a

positive improvement in the participant’s depression. Lane and Lovejoy (2000)

however conducted a study of mood through an aerobic dance exercise class.

There were 80 participants split into two groups a non-depression and a

depressed mood group. Their findings indicated that there was a considerably

greater improvement of mood in the depressed mood group compared to those

who started with a low level of depression. Koch, Morlinhaus, and Fuchs

(2007) in a study consisted of 31 psychiatric patients found that dance had a

noticeable impact on lessening depression in the patients.

Genti, Goulimaris, and Yfantidou, (2009) carried out a study of [dance] aerobics,

Greek traditional dance and muscle strengthening. Their study group consisted

of 161 individuals split across the different activities. They discovered that both

dance activities showed they improved mood more effectively compared with a

muscular strengthening program. Genti, Goulimaris, and Yfantidou, (2009)

however, concluded that the social and group characteristics of the activities

may have some implication on the results.

Lima and Vieira (2007) focused their research on the elderly in Brazil. This

study looked at the wider implications of dance on the quality of life. There

were 60 participants of an age above 60 years of age. The results revealed

subjective responses from the participants that included them feeling ‘relaxed’

at ‘peace’ and ‘happy’. Birks (2007) conducted a study of salsa and depression,

which consisted of 24 adults with depression. The method of data collection

was with the Becks Depression Inventory (BDI). Despite the high dropout rate

Birks found a significant improvement in the BDI scores of the remaining

participants. A research design similar to Birks was the frame work for

Haboush et al. (2006). Unlike Birks, However, Haboush et al. (2006) did not


15

look at salsa, instead the study comprised of a selection of ballroom dances,

foxtrot, waltz, rumba, swing, and tango. The study group consisted of 20

depressed older adults, average age 69. Eyigor et al. (2009) study was

developed around Turkish Folklore dance. The results revealed a reduction in

depression. Haboush et al. (2006) however, only found a moderate effect on

depression. They put this down to the sample size being too small and the

intervention being too short.

Persons however may take part in dance activities because a perceived benefit

is enjoyment. Ledger and Scott (2003) found from their research that people

felt, ‘[The] experience of 5 Rhythms [dance] was enjoyable, energising and

enlightening’. Zhang et al. (2008) in their study of social dancers and postural

stability believed that part of the reason people will maintain engagement with

this physical activity is because of the enjoyment level of dance potentially

preventing it from becoming boring. Gardner, Komesaroff, and Fensham (2008)

conducted a semi structured interview of 10 young people aged between 14-26

years old, who attending community based dance classes. Their study focused

on a variety of dances, including tango, Greek, ballet, hip-hop, ballroom, belly

dancing and flamenco. They established that all the participants found that their

dancing made them feel good about themselves. Connolly et al. (2009) in a

study of dance with adolescents in secondary schools found that one of the top

reasons for participating in dance was ‘fun’. Norfield and Nordin-Bates (2011)

piloted a study into community dance and well-being. The study group

comprised of a wide variety of dance styles, contemporary, jazz, ballet, street,

folk, belly, African and ballroom. They found that there was a strong link with

intrinsic motivation and enjoyment in participating. Heiberger et al. (2011) found

that in their study based on dance with people with Parkinson’s disease

revealed results confirming dance was engaging and enjoyable.


16

Murcia, Bongard, and Kreutz (2009) found that tango dancing in the short term

can produce positive psycho-physiological changes. West et al. (2004)

compared the effects of African dance and Hatha yoga on a person’s mood.

They found that Hatha yoga and African dance in comparison to the controlled

condition produced significant reductions in perceived stress. Alpert et al.

(2007) when conducting a study centred on a jazz dance class looking at mood

(specifically depression) in conjunction with cognition and balance (The

participants were 15 women aged 50 years or older) however revealed no

impact on mood. The limitations were felt to be that it was a pilot study, and

that the participants may have been involved in other exercise activities thus

affecting the results.

Another highly rated aspect of dancing was socialisation. BUPA (2011) in their

report ‘Keep Dancing: The Health and Well-being Benefits of Dance for Older

People’, state that one of the benefits of dance is that it is social and inclusive.

The co-operation derived from partner dancing can potentially improve self-

esteem and social contact (Shoupe 2001, Bremer 2007). Self-esteem was also

found to be improved by Connolly et al. (2009) in their study of dance classes in

secondary schools Hampshire Dance and Laban (2007) conducted a study over

a two year period within seven local authorities. The study was to test the

effects of participation in dance on the physiological and psychological health

and wellbeing of young people. Hampshire Dance and Laban (2007) stated

that the evidence was robust enough for dance to be accepted alongside sport.

Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance (unknown) also found from

looking at a diverse volume of research that dance generally elicits

psychological and physical benefit. An interesting point made by Goodlad,

Hamilton, and Taylor (2002) is that people may also be taking part in dance for

the sake of it, and then find as a consequence they benefit in improving various

aspects of their wellbeing.


17

Methodology

Participants

A total of 120 people participated in the present study. This consisted of 27

males and 93 females. 63 people completed the perceived benefits of dance

questionnaire, consisting of 14 males and 49 females. 57 people completed the

perceived benefits of exercise questionnaire. This group consisted of 13 males

and 44 females. The target group were consenting adults over the age of

sixteen. The actual age range was between 18 and 64. As well as age and

gender the participant’s occupation was also noted.

Procedure

The data were gathered using a closed answer questionnaire (appendix: 1).

This was to be completed by participants who partook in various dance and

exercise activities. The questionnaires were also open to those who perceived

what the benefits of exercise or dance may be, however they did not have to be

participating in either dance or exercise activities.

The questionnaires were devised to be completed online. The questionnaires

were developed and produced through Qualtrics (unknown) an online survey

facility which offers a free account to create and distribute an online survey.

The free account provided limited usage of their survey tools, but was deemed

suitable for this research study. Because the questionnaires were accessible on

online there were no geographical barriers as to who could participate. The

only perceived barrier was not having access to the internet. Nevertheless this


18

approach broadened the parameters of the study group thus providing the

possibility of a more global cross cultural response rate.

A scatter gun approach in distributing the questionnaire was undertaken. A link

to the questionnaires was posted on the author’s Facebook page. The

questionnaires link was also posted directly on selected friends Facebook

pages who were either dancers; dance tutors, or participated in, or taught some

form of physical activity. Some of these Facebook users have an internationally

broad friend or subscriber base. The amount of ‘friends’ or subscribers they

had was also a contributing factor as to whom to target to host the

questionnaires. Another reason for posting the link to specific dance or

exercise related social network and websites was to ensure a broad spectrum

of dancers and exercisers took part. However in order to get responses from

people who perceived the potential benefits of exercise or dance, particularly

those that may consider, or sometimes participate in dance or exercise

activities, the surveys were posted on general friends pages on Facebook.

Another Facebook page where there may be a random response to either

questionnaire was the UHISA VP Facebook page. Other tactics were to

instigate a key word search within the Facebook site itself to find pages that

were either exercise or dance related. If the page seemed suitable, the author

wrote on the exercise or dance page wall, explaining the purpose of the survey

ending with a link to the relevant questionnaire.

The questionnaires were also distributed via the social network twitter. These

too were aimed at contacts within the authors twitter network and sent to

possible interested twitter groups or individuals out with the author’s network.

The questionnaires were also emailed to potentially interested parties. The

author first sent a link to his immediate email contact list. Then by searching


19

through Google found potential dance or exercise contacts that could either fill

in the questionnaires themselves or were in a position to distribute the

questionnaire to interested parties. Targeted groups included Moray leisure

Centre, based in Elgin who posted a link to the questionnaire on their website

events page. A link to the dance questionnaire was also emailed to Eden Court

Theatre in Inverness who distributed it to people who attended dance classes at

their venue. Eden Court was asked to support distribution of a link to the online

questionnaire. Eden Court had originally granted permission to gather data at

dance classes held at Eden Court.

Questionnaire structure

The opening of each questionnaire consisted of an introduction to what the

research study was about, ethical considerations and a disclaimer that stated

that the participant was partaking in the survey on their own free will. The first

part of the questionnaire was devised to gather some basic demographic

information about the exercisers/dancers age, gender type of activity/dance and

occupation. Although other researchers have combined multiple questionnaires

in their pursuit of data, it was decided that due to time constraints and the

possibility of questionnaire fatigue that only one questionnaire would be

presented for both dancers and exercisers.

To measure the perceived benefits of participating in the respective physical

activities, the Exercise Motivation Inventory - 2 (EMI-2) was used (Markland and

Ingledew 1997). The EMI-2 questionnaire was chosen because both dance and

exercise are perceived as forms of physical activity. It was felt that to adapt an

exercise motivation questionnaire was more in keeping than the adaption of a


20

singing questionnaire as Murcia, Kreutzb, Clift, and Bongard (2010) did for

their research enquiry.

The questionnaire as with EMI-2 (Markland and Ingledew, 1997) consisted of 14

scales, these are Stress Management, Challenge, Revitalisation, Enjoyment,

Social Recognition, Affiliation, Competition, Health Pressures, Ill-Health

Avoidance, Positive Health, Weight Management, Appearance, Strength and

Endurance and finally Nimbleness. These were split into five categories. The

five categories consisted of 2 to 4 of the 14 scales in each one.

The EMI-2 questionnaire had primarily been devised to find out what motivates

or might motivate a person to exercise (Markland and Ingledew 1997). The

EMI-2 questionnaire has been chosen because it has been used in various

other studies such as Kilpatrick, Hebert and Bartholomew (2005). The EMI-2

and has been validated as a suitable method of gathering data in respect of

exercise and wellbeing (Markland and Ingledew 1997). Although the authors

modified versions of EMI-2 have not been validated.

The EMI-2 consists of a 6 point scale that goes from ‘Not true for me’ to ‘Very

true for me’. However for this study the amount of questions were reduced to

49 as it was felt that some of the questions did not translate suitably as

questions to be associated with dance. For those participating in dance

activities the questionnaire was modified further, the word ‘exercise’ was

replaced with the word ‘dance’. The purpose being that the responses in the

questionnaire for those who participated in dance activities would correlate with

the exerciser questions. Another modification was that the EMI-2 (Markland

and Ingledew 1997) had modified the questions to enable a response from

people who were not already exercising. This part of the question was removed

as it was felt that the main focus of the study group was on those already

participating in exercise or dance.


21

Results

The results from the research undertaken do not support the given hypothesis.

The findings reveal that both exercise and dance participants valued most of the

perceived benefits within the 14 categories as denoted by the EMI-2. Also

specific benefits were shown to be of greater value to dancers than exercisers

and vice versa. However the greatest difference was ‘enjoyment’ which was

noticeably higher for dancers than exercisers. This was followed by ‘affiliation’

which scored much higher for dancers than exercisers. However exercisers

valued the benefit of addressing their ‘weight’ much more highly than dancers.

Exercisers were also more inclined to think of their ‘positive health’ than

dancers.

The data gathered from the participants was analysed through the t-test

(independent) using SPSS (Brace, Kemp and Snelgar 2009: 128-135). The

author decided that they would conduct a series of t-tests (independent)

between the dance and exercise results. It was decided that using the t-test

(independent) was the most suitable test. This was deducted by using the

‘decision chart 2’ as provided on the inside cover of by Greene and D’Oliveira

(1999) in their guide to statistical analysis. Each question within the 14

categories was analysed with the t-test (unrelated). To ensure data was

suitable for a parametric test, and that the t-test (unrelated) was an appropriate

test to analyse the data. The skewedness of the variables was tested. The

results of the test reveal that the skewedness data is approximately symmetric

(-.133 (Table: A, fig: A) and is therefore suitable for the proposed parametric

test; the t-test (independent) (Searle 2007:88). The effect size (Cohens d)

however, is not calculated by SPSS when conducting an independent group t-

test. Therefore to measure the effect size and find out to what extent the means


22

for each study group differ in relation to their standard deviations the calculation

was conducted with the following formula. The effect size is calculated thus, d

= ( ) / ( + ) / 2 ( = mean, SD =standard deviation), (Brace,

Kemp and Snelgar 2009: 131)

Results: Between samples

Dancers compared with exercisers

The most significant differences of perception of benefits will be explored first

between samples. Across all 14 questionnaire categories the most valued

perceived benefit of partaking in either dance or exercise between the two

samples was discovered to be with dancers. This was with the category

‘enjoyment’.

There are four sub categories that made up the category ‘enjoyment’. Within

the category of ‘enjoyment’ it was found that 56 (86.2%) dancers perceived

satisfaction as ‘very true for me’ (table: 2, fig: 2). In comparison with 16 (28.1 %)

exercisers, (table: 2.2, fig: 2.2). The t-test (independent) results revealed

dancers rated the satisfaction of their activity in and of itself higher (mean =

4.74) than exercisers (mean = 3.60) (Table 5). The effect size was large d =

1.085. Levene’s Test shows p > .05 (.000) so is therefore significant. The

hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .000 thus this result is significant (table 5.1).

The next highest score within the category of ‘enjoyment’ was in relation to

enjoyment and experience. 57 dancers (87.7%) (Table: 3) stated it was ‘very

true for me’. Whereas in comparison this was only perceived as very true for 15

exercisers (26.3%) (Table: 3.1 fig: 3.1). The t-test (independent) results show


23

for enjoyment and experience that dancers activities were rated higher (mean =

4.77) than exercisers (mean = 3.77) (table 5). The effect size was large d =


hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .000 so therefore this result is significant (table

5.1).

For feeling at their best the highest score for ‘very true for me’ was selected by

32 (49.2%) of the dancers (Table: 4 fig: 4). As opposed to 12 (21.1%) of the

exercisers (Table: 4.1 fig: 4.1). Dancers also rated ‘feeling at their best’ during

their activity (mean = 3.89) greater than exercisers (mean = 3.00) (Table 5).

The effect size was considered small d = 0.33. Levene’s Test shows p > .05

(.001) so is this result is consequently significant. The hypothesis (one-tailed) is

p = .000 so therefore this result is seen to be significant (table 5.1).

The ‘enjoyment of exertion’ highest score for ‘very true for me’ was selected by

22 (38.6%) of exercisers (Table: 1.1 fig:1.1), however this was perceived lower

for dancers, 14 (21.5%) (Table: 1 fig 1). Nevertheless the enjoyment of exertion

during the engagement in physical activities was higher for exercisers (mean =

3.67) than for dancers (mean = 3.37) (table: 5). The effect size was small d =


hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .001 so consequently this result is significant

(table 5.1).


24

Results for skewness

Table: A

(Fig: A)

2.4 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6

EXERCISE/DANCE

100

80

60

40

20

0

Frequency

Mean =1.53 Std. Dev. =0.501

N =122

Histogram

Statistics

EXERCISE/DANCE 122

0 -.133 .219

Valid

Missing

N

Skewness Std. Error of Skewness


25

Results: Enjoyment

Exertion

Dance:

Table: 1

(Fig: 1)

Be cause I enjoy the fee ling of exer ting mys elf

4 6.2 6.2 6.2

13 20.0 20.0 26.2

13 20.0 20.0 46.2

21 32.3 32.3 78.5

14 21.5 21.5 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me

Click to w rite Choice 2



Very true for me

Total

Valid

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Very true for me Click to write Choice 5

Click to write Choice 4


Not true for me

Because I enjoy the feeling of exerting myself

25

20

15

10

5

0

Personally I dance......

Frequency


26

Exercisers:

Table: 1.1

(Fig: 1.1)


3 5.3 5.3 5.3 11 19.3 19.3 24.6 7 12.3 12.3 36.8

14 24.6 24.6 61.4

22 38.6 38.6 100.0 57 100.0 100.0

Not true for me Click to write Choice 2 Click to write Choice 4 Click to write Choice 5 Very true for me Total

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent


27

Satisfaction

Dancers:

Table: 2

(Fig: 2)

I find dancing s atisfying in and of itse lf

1 1.5 1.5 1.5

2 3.1 3.1 4.6

6 9.2 9.2 13.8

56 86.2 86.2 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me



Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent

Very true for me Click to write Choice 5 Click to write Choice 2 Not true for me

I find dancing satisfying in and of itself

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Personally I dance because.......

Frequency


28

Exercisers:

Table 2.2

(Fig: 2.2)

Be cause I find exercis e s atisfying in and of itse lf

3 5.3 5.3 5.3

8 14.0 14.0 19.3

11 19.3 19.3 38.6

19 33.3 33.3 71.9

16 28.1 28.1 100.0

57 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent

Very true for meClick to write Choice 5



Not true for me

Because I find exercise satisfying in and of itself

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy

Personally I exercise ....


29

Experience

Dance

Table: 3

(Fig: 3)

for the e njoyme nt of the expe r ie nce of dance

1 1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1.5 1.5 3.1

1 1.5 1.5 4.6

5 7.7 7.7 12.3

57 87.7 87.7 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent

Very true for me Click to write Choice 5



Not true for me

For the enjoyment of the experience of dance

60

50

40

30

20

10

0


Frequency


30

Exercise Table 3.1

For the enjoyment of the experience of exercise

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Not true for me 2 3.5 3.5 3.5

Click to write Choice 2 6 10.5 10.5 14.0



Very true for me 15 26.3 26.3 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 3.1)




Not true for me

for the enjoyment of the experience of exercise

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



31

At best

Dance

Table: 4

(Fig: 4)

Be cause I fee l at my be st w he n dancing

2 3.1 3.1 3.1

11 16.9 16.9 20.0

9 13.8 13.8 33.8

11 16.9 16.9 50.8

32 49.2 49.2 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent

Very true for me Click to write Choice 5 Click to write

Choice 4 Click to write Choice 2 Not true for me

Because I feel at my best when dancing

40

30

20

10

0


Frequency


32

Exercise

Table 4.1

(Fig: 4.1)

Be cause i fee l at my be st w he n e xe rcising

5 8.8 8.8 8.8

16 28.1 28.1 36.8

17 29.8 29.8 66.7

7 12.3 12.3 78.9

12 21.1 21.1 100.0

57 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent




Not true for me

Because i feel at my best when exercising

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



33

Enjoyment: t-test (independent) results for dancers and

exercisers.

Table: 5

Table 5.1

Independent Samples Test

.355 .552 1.179 120 .241 .297 .252 -.202 .797

1.175 115.893 .242 .297 .253 -.204 .799

20.484 .000 -5.780 120 .000 -1.142 .198 -1.533 -.751

-5.618 92.166 .000 -1.142 .203 -1.546 -.738

11.639 .001 -5.600 120 .000 -.997 .178 -1.350 -.645

-5.463 96.202 .000 -.997 .183 -1.360 -.635

.069 .794 -3.535 120 .001 -.892 .252 -1.392 -.392

-3.519 115.485 .001 -.892 .254 -1.395 -.390

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

Personally I exercise /dance..... because I enjoy

the feeling of exerting myself

Personally I exercise/dance because ...... I find exercise satisfying in and of itself

Personally I exercise/dance..... for the enjoyment of the experience of exercise

Personally I exercise/dance because ........ I feel at

my best when exercising

F Sig.

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean

Difference Std. Error Difference Lower Upper

95% Confidence Interval of the

Difference

t-test for Equality of Means

Group Statistics

57 3.67 1.431 .190

65 3.37 1.353 .168

57 3.60 1.321 .175

65 4.74 .834 .103

57 3.77 1.165 .154 65 4.77 .786 .097 57 3.00 1.439 .191 65 3.89 1.348 .167

ACTIVITY Exercise

Dance

Exercise

Dance

Exercise Dance Exercise Dance

Personally I exercise/dance

... because i enjoy the feeling of exerting myself Personally I exercise/dance because ...... I find exercise satisfying in and of itself

Personally I exercise/dance..... for the enjoyment of the experience of exercise Personally I exercise/dance because ........ i feel at my best when exercising

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Mean


34

Dancers second most valued perceived benefit: Affiliation

There were even greater perceived benefits in all aspects of affiliation from

those who participated in dance in comparison to exercisers. There were 14

(21.5%) who stated spending time with friends as being ‘very true for me’

(Table: 6 fig: 6). For exercisers however there were 2 (3.5%) who thought it was

‘very true for me’ (Table: 6.1 fig: 6.1). The t-test (independent) results revealed

that time spent with friends was considered to be more important to dancers

(mean = 3.12) than with exercisers (mean = 2.42) (Table: 10). The effect size

was small d = 0.241. Levene’s Test shows p > .05 (.426) so is therefore is a

significant result. The hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .0045 so consequently this

result is significant (Table: 10.1).

Dancers rated enjoyment of the social aspect of their activity higher than

exercisers. There were 25 (38.5%) (Table: 7 fig: 7), of dancers who selected

‘very true for me’ compared with 10 (17.5%) of exercisers (Table: 7.1 fig: 7.1).

The t-test (independent) revealed dance (mean = 3.97) was more than

exercisers (mean = 2.70) (Table: 10). The effect size was medium d = 0.534.

Levene’s Test shows p > .05 (.007) so is therefore significant. The hypothesis

(one-tailed) is p = .000 so therefore this result is significant (Table: 10.1).

Having fun and being active with other people was more important to dancers.

There were 29 (44.6%) of dancers who stated ‘very true for me’ (Table: 8 fig: 8)

in relation to 6 (10.5%) exercisers (Table: 8.1 fig: 8.1). The t-test (independent)

revealed dance (mean = 3.98) was higher than exercisers (mean = 2.56)

(Table: 10). The effect size was large d = 1.40 Levene’s Test shows p > .05

(.070) so is therefore significant. The hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .000 so

consequently this result is significant (Table 10.1).


35

Making new friends was also rated higher for exercisers. There were 6 (9.2%)

of the exercisers (Table: 9.1 fig 9.1) and 6 (10.5%) dancers (Table: 9 fig:9.1).

the t-test (independent) revealed that dancers (mean=2.77) were significantly

greater than the result for exercisers (mean=1.98) (Table: 10). The effect size

was small d = 0.416. Levene’s Test shows p > .05 (.0733) so is therefore

significant. The hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .001 so hence this result is

significant (Table: 10.1).

Affiliation: Results

Time with friends

Dancers:

Table: 6

to spend time w ith frie nds

7 10.8 10.8 10.8

14 21.5 21.5 32.3

15 23.1 23.1 55.4

15 23.1 23.1 78.5

14 21.5 21.5 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


36

(Fig: 6)

Exercisers:

Table: 6.1




Not true for me

to spend time with friends

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Fre

qu

en

cy

Personally I dance ...

to spend time w ith frie nds

9 15.8 15.8 15.8

22 38.6 38.6 54.4

12 21.1 21.1 75.4

12 21.1 21.1 96.5

2 3.5 3.5 100.0

57 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


37

(Fig: 6.1)

Social aspect

Dancers:

Table: 7




Not true for me

to spend time with friends

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy

Personally I exercise ...

to enjoy the social aspects of dancing

1 1.5 1.5 1.5

8 12.3 12.3 13.8

7 10.8 10.8 24.6

24 36.9 36.9 61.5

25 38.5 38.5 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


38

(Fig: 7)

Exercisers:

Table: 7.1

To enjoy the social aspects of exercising


Percent





Very true for me 10 17.5 17.5 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0




Not true for me

to enjoy the social aspects of dancing

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy

Personally I dance ....


39

(Fig: 7.1)

_

Being active

Dancers:

Table: 8




Not true for me

to enjoy the social aspects of exercising

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy


to have fun being active w ith other pe ople

2 3.1 3.1 3.1

6 9.2 9.2 12.3

10 15.4 15.4 27.7

18 27.7 27.7 55.4

29 44.6 44.6 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


40

(Fig: 8)

Exercisers:

Table: 8.1




Not true for me

to have fun being active with other people

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy


to have fun being active w ith other pe ople

10 17.5 17.5 17.5

15 26.3 26.3 43.9

18 31.6 31.6 75.4

8 14.0 14.0 89.5

6 10.5 10.5 100.0

57 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


41

(Fig: 8.1)

To make new friends

Dancers:

Table: 9




Not true for me

to have fun being active with other people

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy


to make new fr iends

6 9.2 9.2 9.2

22 33.8 33.8 43.1

18 27.7 27.7 70.8

13 20.0 20.0 90.8

6 9.2 9.2 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


42

(Fig: 9)

Exercisers:

Table: 9.1




Not true for me

to make new friends

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy


to make new fr iends

14 24.6 24.6 24.6

28 49.1 49.1 73.7

9 15.8 15.8 89.5

6 10.5 10.5 100.0

57 100.0 100.0

Not true for me



Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


43

(Fig: 9.1)

Affiliation: t-test (independent) results for dancers and

exercisers

Table: 10

Very true for meClick to write Choice 4Click to write Choice 2Not true for me

to make new friends

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy


Group Statistics

57 2.42 1.362 .180 65 3.12 1.516 .188 57 2.70 1.476 .195

65 3.97 1.118 .139

57 2.56 1.500 .199 65 3.98 1.218 .151 57 1.98 1.458 .193 65 2.77 1.308 .162

ACTIVITY 1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2

Personally I exercise ...... to spend time with friends Personally I exercise ....... to enjoy the social aspects of exercising

Personally I exercise ...... to have fun being active with other people Personally I exercise ...... to make new friends


Mean


44

Table: 10.1

Exercisers compared with dancers

Strength and endurance

Within the sample group of exercisers it has been discovered that involvement

in a physical activity for building up strength was rated higher (mean = 3.42)

than dancers (mean = 2.38) (Table: 15). There were 14 (24.6%) exercisers

who stated ‘very true for me’ for the importance of building up of strength

(Table: 11 fig: 11). This is in comparison to 7 (10.8%) of dancers (Table: 11.1

fig: 11.1). The effect size was medium d = 0.666. Levene’s Test shows p > .05

Independe nt Sample s Te st

.637 .426 -2.675 120 .009 -.702 .262 -1.222 -.183

-2.694 119.921 .008 -.702 .261 -1.218 -.186

7.487 .007 -5.385 120 .000 -1.267 .235 -1.733 -.801

-5.290 103.578 .000 -1.267 .240 -1.743 -.792

3.339 .070 -5.779 120 .000 -1.423 .246 -1.911 -.936

-5.701 107.916 .000 -1.423 .250 -1.918 -.928

.117 .733 -3.142 120 .002 -.787 .250 -1.283 -.291

-3.120 113.503 .002 -.787 .252 -1.286 -.287

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Personally I exerc ise ......

to spend time w ith f riends

Personally I exerc ise .......

to enjoy the social

aspects of exerc ising


to have fun being active

w ith other people


to make new f riends

F Sig.

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances

t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean

Dif ference

Std. Error

Dif f erence Low er Upper

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Dif ference

t-test f or Equality of Means


45


consequently this result is significant (Table: 15.1).

To increase endurance was also found to be higher for exercisers (mean =

3.46) than dancers (mean = 2.26) (Table: 15). 18 (31.6%) exercisers said for

endurance ‘very true for me’ (Table: 12 fig: 12). Whereas 5 (7.7%) of dancers

agreed with this statement (Table: 12.1 fig: 12.1). The effect size was Levene’s

Test shows p > .05 (.693) so is therefore significant. The hypothesis (one-tailed)

is p = .000 so hence this result is significant. (Table: 15.1).

Developing muscles was also rated higher by exercisers (mean = 2.96) than

dancers (mean = 1.86) (Table: 15). There were 10 (17.5%) of exercisers who

stated ‘very true for me’ (Table: 14 fig:14) the importance of developing

muscles. However only 3 (4.6%) of dancers felt it was true for them (Table:

14.1 fig: 14.1). The effect size was large d = 1.79. Levene’s Test shows p > .05


therefore this result is significant (Table: 15.1).

To get stronger was rated higher by exercisers (mean = 3.32) than dancers

(mean =2.12) (Table: 15). 16 (28.1%) of exercisers felt that to get stronger was

‘very true for me’ (Table: 13). Conversely it was found that to get stronger only

applied to 5 (7.7%) of dancers (Table: 13.1 fig: 13.1). The effect size was small


hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .000 so therefore this result is significant (Table:

15.1).


46

Data results: To build up my strength

Exercisers:

Table: 11

(Fig: 11)

to build up my s trength

6 10.5 10.5 10.5

8 14.0 14.0 24.6

7 12.3 12.3 36.8

22 38.6 38.6 75.4

14 24.6 24.6 100.0

57 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent




Not true for me

to build up my strength

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



47

Dancers:

Table: 11.1

To build up my strength


Percent





Very true for me 7 10.8 10.8 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 11.1)




Not true for me


25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



48

To increase my endurance

Exercisers:

Table: 12



Percent





Very true for me 18 31.6 31.6 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 12)




Not true for me

to increase my endurance

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



49

Dancers:

Table: 12.1

(Fig: 12.1)

to incre as e my endurance

14 21.5 21.5 21.5

24 36.9 36.9 58.5

14 21.5 21.5 80.0

8 12.3 12.3 92.3

5 7.7 7.7 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent




Not true for me


25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



50

To get stronger

Exercisers:

Table: 13

To get stronger


Percent





Very true for me 16 28.1 28.1 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 13)




Not true for me

to get stronger

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



51

Dancers:

Table 13.1

to get stronger


Percent





Very true for me 5 7.7 7.7 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 13.1)




Not true for me

to get stronger

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



52

To develop my muscles

Exercisers:

Table: 14



Percent





Very true for me 10 17.5 17.5 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 14)




Not true for me

to develop my muscles

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



53

Dancers:

Table 14.1



Percent






Total 65 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 14.1)

_

Strength and endurance: t-test (independent) results




Not true for me

to develop my muscles

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



54

Table: 15

Table: 15.1

Weight management

The next highest perceived benefit for exercisers in comparison to dancers was

weight management.


.125 .724 3.799 120 .000 1.036 .273 .496 1.577

3.793 117.119 .000 1.036 .273 .495 1.578

.157 .693 4.668 120 .000 1.195 .256 .688 1.701

4.708 119.999 .000 1.195 .254 .692 1.697

.186 .667 4.506 120 .000 1.193 .265 .669 1.717

4.517 118.941 .000 1.193 .264 .670 1.716

.021 .886 4.012 120 .000 1.103 .275 .559 1.648

4.001 116.602 .000 1.103 .276 .557 1.649

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed






to get stronger


to develop my musc les

F Sig.

Levene's Test for



Mean

Dif f erence

Std. Error


95% Confidence

Interval of the

Dif f erence


Group Statistics

57 3.42 1.523 .202 65 2.38 1.486 .184 57 3.46 1.310 .174

65 2.26 1.492 .185

57 3.32 1.429 .189 65 2.12 1.484 .184 57 2.96 1.546 .205 65 1.86 1.488 .185

Personally I exercise.......

Exercise Dance Exercise

Dance




To get stronger



Mean


55

Stay slim

Exercisers perceived the benefits of their activities to be higher (mean = 3.14)

than dancers (mean = 1.98) in order to stay slim (Table: 20). There were 6

(10.5%) exercisers (Table: 16 fig: 16) compared with 1 dancer (1.5%) who

perceived staying slim was a benefit (Table 16.1 fig: 16.1). The effect size was

large 1.18. Levene’s Test shows p > .05 (.361) so is therefore significant. The

hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .000 so therefore this result is significant (Table

20.1).

Lose weight

Exercisers were higher (mean = 3.77) than dancers (2.37) in their need to lose

weight (Table: 20). There were 10 (17.5%) exercisers who valued losing weight

as ‘very true for me’ (Table: 17 fig: 17.1). This is in comparison with 4 (6.2%)

dancers (Table: 17.1 fig: 17.1). Levene’s Test shows p > .05 (.067) so is

therefore significant. The hypothesis (one-tailed) is p = .000 so consequently

this result is significant (Table 20.1).

Control weight

Exercisers were also higher (mean = 3.25) than dancers (mean = 1.88) in

participating in their activity to control their weight (Table: 20). There were

14(24.6%) of exercisers who stated that it was ‘very true for me’ that controlling

their weight was a highly perceived benefit (Table: 18 fig: 18). Nonetheless, this

was not so strongly felt by dancers, this was only true for 4(6.2%), (Table: 18.1

fig: 18.1). The effect size was large d = 0.96. Levene’s Test shows p > .05


hence this result is significant (Table 20.1).


56

Burn calories

The perceived benefit that exercisers activities helped them to burn calories

was higher (mean = 3.25) than dancers (mean = 2.25). There were 13 (22.8%)

of exercisers who said ‘very true for me’ when they felt that burning calories was

a significant perceived benefit (Table: 19 fig: 19). Only 8 (12.3%) of dancers felt

it was true of them (Table 19.1 fig: 19.1). The effect size was medium d = 0.64.

Levene’s Test shows p > .05 (.186) so is therefore significant. The hypothesis

(one-tailed) is p = .001 so therefore this result is significant (Table 20.1).

Data results: to stay slim

Exercisers:

Table: 16

To stay slim


Percent


* 14 24.6 24.6 31.6

* 11 19.3 19.3 50.9

* 22 38.6 38.6 89.5

Very true for me 6 10.5 10.5 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0


57

(Fig: 16)

Dancers:

Table: 16.1

to stay slim


Percent


* 29 44.6 44.6 67.7

* 14 21.5 21.5 89.2

* 6 9.2 9.2 98.5


Total 65 100.0 100.0

Very true for me***Not true for me

to stay slim

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



58

(Fig: 16.1)

To lose weight

Exercisers:

Table: 17

to lose weight


Percent


* 10 17.5 17.5 29.8

* 6 10.5 10.5 40.4

* 10 17.5 17.5 57.9

* 14 24.6 24.6 82.5

Very true for me 10 17.5 17.5 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0

Very true for me***Not true for me

to stay slim

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



59

(Fig: 17)

Dancers:

Table: 17.1

To lose weight


Percent


* 19 29.2 29.2 64.6

* 9 13.8 13.8 78.5

* 8 12.3 12.3 90.8

* 2 3.1 3.1 93.8


Total 65 100.0 100.0

Very true for me

* * * * Not true for me

to lose weight

12.5

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0

Frequency



60

(Fig: 17.1)

To control my weight

Exercisers:

Table: 18

To help control my weight


Percent





Very true for me 14 24.6 24.6 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0

Very true for me

****Not true for me

to loose weight

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy


To lose weight


61

(Fig: 18)

Dancers:

Table: 18.1



Percent






Total 65 100.0 100.0




Not true for me

to help control my weight

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



62

(Fig: 18.1)

Helps me to burn calories

Exercisers:

Table: 19

Because ......exercise helps me to burn calories


Percent





Very true for me 13 22.8 22.8 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0




Not true for me

to help control my weight

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



63

(Fig: 19)

Dancers:

Table: 19.1

Because dancing helps me to burn calories


Percent





Very true for me 8 12.3 12.3 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0




Not true for me

Because exercise helps me to burn calories

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



64

(Fig: 19.1)

Weight management: t-test (independent) results

Table: 20




Not true for me

Because dancing helps me to burn calories

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy


Group Statistics

57 3.14 1.302 .172 65 1.98 1.293 .160 57 3.77 1.690 .224

65 2.37 1.464 .182

57 3.25 1.443 .191 65 1.88 1.526 .189 57 3.25 1.430 .189 65 2.25 1.723 .214

Personally I exercise…



To stay slim

To lose weight


Because

it......exercise It helps me to burn calories


Mean


65

Table 20.1

Paired samples

An analysis of results within the two study groups was conducted. The purpose

was to understand what the two groups valued as the highest and lowest

perceived benefits within their own categories.

Exercisers highest rated perceived benefit between themselves

When looking at the highest perceived benefit of partaking in physical exercise

activities, enjoyment was found to be the greatest. Out of the four sub-

categories exercisers valued exerting themselves as ‘very true for me’ the

highest 22 (38.6%) (Table: 1.1 fig: 1.1). Followed by the satisfaction of exercise

by 16 (28.1%) (Table: 2.2 fig: 2.2). Then the enjoyment of experience by 15

(26.3%) (Table: 3.1). Then lastly feeling at their best whilst exercising by 12

(21.1%) (Table: 4.1).


.841 .361 4.911 120 .000 1.156 .235 .690 1.622

4.908 117.718 .000 1.156 .235 .689 1.622

3.424 .067 4.912 120 .000 1.403 .286 .837 1.968

4.866 111.626 .000 1.403 .288 .831 1.974

.098 .754 5.070 120 .000 1.369 .270 .834 1.903

5.089 119.303 .000 1.369 .269 .836 1.901

1.773 .186 3.457 120 .001 .999 .289 .427 1.572

3.499 119.657 .001 .999 .286 .434 1.565

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Equal variances

assumed

Equal variances

not assumed

Personally I exerc ise .........

.to stay s lim


to loose w eight


to help control my w eight

Personally I exerc ise

because ......exercise

helps me to burn calories

F Sig.

Levene's Test for



Mean

Dif f erence

Std. Error


95% Confidence

Interval of the

Dif f erence



66

Exercisers lowest rated perceived benefit between themselves

The least rated perceived benefit of engaging in exercise was seen through

health pressures. Participating in exercise as a health benefit through advice

from a GP was seen to be ‘very true for me’ for 1(1.8%) of exercisers (Table:

21.1 fig: 21.1). 5 (8.8%) exercisers took up exercise in order to prevent illness

stated ‘very true for me’(Table 22.1 fig: 22.1). In order to help recover from

illness or injury, 2 (3.5%) of exercisers specified ‘very true for me’ (Table 23.1

fig: 23.1).

Highest rated benefit between themselves

Exercisers amongst themselves rated enjoyment the highest perceived benefit.

These results have already been stated when looking at the perceived benefits

between samples. (See results for enjoyment).

Dance: lowest rated perceived benefit between themselves

Dancers rated health pressures lowest in terms of perceived benefits. The

highest rating was from (1.5%) of dancers who stated that they danced because

their doctor advised them to exercise (Table: 21 fig: 21). Preventing an illness

that runs in the family was rated ‘very true for me’ by 3.1% of dancers (Table 22

fig: 22). However, 7.7% dancers found it to be ‘very true for me’ to participate in

dance to help them in recovering from an illness or injury (Table: 23 fig 23).


67

Results: Health Pressures

Because my doctor advised me to exercise

Dancers:

Table: 21

(Fig: 21)

Be cause m y doctor advis ed me to e xe rcise

58 89.2 89.2 89.2

6 9.2 9.2 98.5

1 1.5 1.5 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me



Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent

Click to write Choice 4Click to write Choice 2Not true for me


60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



68

Exercisers

Table: 21.1

my doctor advised me to exercise


Percent





Total 57 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 21.1)



40

30

20

10

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



69

To help prevent illness

Dancers:

Table: 22

(Fig: 22)

to he lp pre ve nt illne ss that runs in my family

51 78.5 78.5 78.5

10 15.4 15.4 93.8

2 3.1 3.1 96.9

2 3.1 3.1 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me



Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent


to help prevent illness that runs in my family

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



70

Exercisers:

Table: 22.1

To help prevent illness that runs in my family


Percent






Total 57 100.0 100.0

(fig:22.1)




Not true for me

to help prevent illness that runs in my family

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



71

To help recover from an illness or an injury

Dancers:

Table: 23

(Fig: 23)

to he lp recover from an illne ss or injury

51 78.5 78.5 78.5

4 6.2 6.2 84.6

1 1.5 1.5 86.2

4 6.2 6.2 92.3

5 7.7 7.7 100.0

65 100.0 100.0

Not true for me




Very true for me

Total

Valid


Cumulative

Percent




Not true for me

to help recover from an illness or injury

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



72

Exercisers:

(Table: 23.1)


Percent






Total 57 100.0 100.0

(Fig: 23.1)




Not true for me

to help recover from an illness or injury

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Fre

qu

en

cy



73

Discussion

The results of the study reflect and support some of the existing research

findings and anecdotal knowledge within the literature review that attests to the

perceived benefits of physical exercise and dance. However the findings do not

support the authors’ hypothesis ‘The perceived benefits of dance will be higher

than the perceived benefits of exercise’. It appears that both dancers and

exercisers participate in their physical activity with varying importance applied to

the various perceived benefits. As the majority of the participants were actively

dancing or exercising it would be fair to say that the activity they participated in

served to fulfil certain benefits more than others. It appears from the results

that a person who engages in dance activities is more inclined to value dance

firstly, for the perceived benefits of ‘enjoyment’, and then followed by ‘affiliation’.

Exercisers; however seem to engage in their activities primarily because of

‘weight’ secondly for the aspects of ‘positive health’ in comparison with dancers.

After comparisons were made between samples comparisons were made within

the sample groups themselves. When observing exercisers highest and lowest

perceived benefits, exercisers perception of ‘enjoyment’ is actually the highest

rated perceived benefit. However benefits from ‘health pressures’ were found to

be the lowest. Dancers amongst themselves rated ‘enjoyment’ as the highest

perceived benefit and were least influenced by ‘health pressures’.

The study has therefore revealed that both dancers and exercisers have a

broad perception of the various benefits of their respective physical activities.

However when conducting a test of frequencies within each study group it was

found that there was a commonality with both groups. Both study samples


74

valued ‘enjoyment’ highest. Subsequently both groups stated ‘health pressures’

as the lowest overall reason to be participating in their given activities.

People are more likely to participate in activities if they perceive the accrued

benefits exceed their perceived difficulties (El Ansari and Phillips 2004). This

observation was reflected in the study results which revealed that by comparing

the 14 categories of perceived benefits, certain benefits were rated noticeably

higher or lower for those who participated in dance when compared to those

who partook in exercise. For example those partaking in weight training or were

weightlifters rated enjoyment and affiliation as not being important where as

these factors were rated much higher across all the dance participants.

Strengths and Limitations

There are some points to consider that may have impacted the final results from

this research study and literature review. Firstly Markland and Ingledew (1997)

state that the EMI-2 questions were not inflexible due to the countless variations

each question could have been posed. Not only that, there many questions that

could be created to enquire about perceived benefits. Markland and Ingledew

(1997) state that there are many other possible questions that may be suitable

in finding out the various perceived benefits. Markland and Ingledew, (1997)

make it clear that the EMI-2 questionnaire despite their validation of its

robustness is therefore open to modification. However by modifying the

questions and the questionnaire for this study the validation of the EMI-2 by

Markland and Ingledew (1997) has therefore been negated.

Another limitation of this study for instance, is due to the methodology used in

gathering the data. The researcher was not able to for example to control the

balance of gender or the spectrum and quantity of physical actives. Because of


75

this there was an imbalance in gender and activities. However, gender was not

taken into consideration for this particular study. Although the questionnaire

was designed to find out the perceived benefits of exercise or dance it cannot

be generalised because the perceived benefits were primarily from those who

were already partaking in a dance or exercise activities. The literature review

was also limited not only by time abut financial restrictions in obtaining some

potential relevant research findings.

As previously stated there is discrepancy over when physical activity becomes

exercise. Biddle and Mutrie (2008), state that the distinction between exercise

and physical activity does overlap. However there is for some a distinction

made between exercise and sport as revealed in the literature review and

exemplified by the study by Kilpatrick, Hebert and Bartholomew (2005).

Kilpatrick, Hebert and Bartholomew (2005) made a clear comparison between

sport and exercise, and found strong differences between exercise activities

and sporting pursuits. This is also highlighted in a document published by the

Right To Play (2010), who emphasise the importance of sport as an inclusive

and social activity as well as its physical benefits. Therefore it may have been

better to have either not included sports or said this study was a comparison

between dance and other physical activities. However the discrepancy over

sport and its relationship to exercise is subjective as Biddle and Mutrie

(2008:10 ) for their purposes defined sport as a sub category of exercise.

Although both categories of dance and physical exercise had a broad spectrum

of types, one factor that was distinctly different was that the dance activities

were mainly in a social context. The majority of the dances were partner based.

Despite the variety of styles such as lindy hop, salsa, tango, and bachata, the

dances all exhibit similar social constructs. Activities under the banner of

exercise were, however, far more diverse in terms of the possible social


76

content. Example amongst the exercise categories were weightlifting and

kickboxing. However, using joggers as an example; jogging may often be a

solo activity, but there are also jogging groups.

The broader aspects of physical activity, gardening (for example), could also be

purposely included in future studies. Gardening was the exercise activity one

participant in this study chose to exemplify. Gardening as a physical activity is

believed to be a factor that leads to good mental and physical health (Parr

2005, Park, Shoemaker and Haub (2008). Coulson (2007: 221) lists gardening

as one of many other activities listed under housework, when talking about

exercise and energy expenditure.

Other respondents have also revealed through their choice of physical exercise,

that what people perceive as physical exercise can be very subjective. Some

participants when completing the exercise questionnaire, when stating their

chosen activity put dance. Another interesting consequence of people’s activity

choice was with Zumba. Zumba is an exercise activity that also promotes itself

as dance. The consequence of this was Zumba, as an activity appeared as an

answer in both exercise and dance questionnaires. This may put the validity of

the results to question but they may also be supportive of the notion that

exercise can be attributed to many activities. Finally if the author had more time

they may have been able to gather a greater amount of data to give a more

robust set of results and findings.


77

Future studies

As this study is unique in its methodology it is therefore not possible to compare

the data with any existing studies. It may be worth considering repeat studies

using the same criteria in order to build a more robust case and hence more

resilient results. An additional issue that may be worth addressing in future is

that the types of dance or exercise were not differentiated in this study. The

type of dance or exercise would possibly influence the degree to which a person

would perceive the importance of the various factors. For example those who

were weightlifters or participating in weight training may rate elements of social

recognition, affiliation and competition with low scores. Whereas those whose

activities were running or jogging may rate these attributes as quite high.

Another area to be considered is that although there was a broad response in

terms of dance styles and exercise activities there were only a few respondents

for each style or activity. Therefore to obtain a more robust result future studies

may wish to ensure there are significant numbers of respondents for each

exercise or dance.

The author is also aware that gender or age was not considered in this study.

Future research may wish to factor these variables in.as they may also have

had a significant impact perceived benefits. Having no controls on who

participated in this study (apart from age) meant that there was an

overwhelming bias in response from females in comparison to males. The

author aimed the survey at a cross cultural global level. However, the

geographic location of the participants was not a requisite of the questionnaire.

Nonetheless it may be a useful element to consider in future studies. Another

important factor that was not recognised in this study was the level of

competence of the persons involved. In both fields of dance and physical


78

exercise there will be ‘beginners’ through to ’advanced’, some of the people

involved were tutors too. These factors may have also impacted individual

responses.

Although there was a low response rate there was however a broad spectrum of

dance and exercise related activities to compare. As a general comparison this

ensured the responses were not from a single activity. Nonetheless this was a

weakness if specific dance or physical exercise activities were to be compared

as some activities generated more responses than others, some activities

received only one or two responses. Therefore future studies may wish to

ensure there is a significant enough response rate to compare specific

activities.

Conclusion

Although the hypothesis was not supported by the results of the study, the

results do however support the many findings in previous research and

anecdotal understanding about dance and physical exercise perceived benefits.

The study nonetheless does reveal that dancers do have a broad belief of the

perceived benefits of dancing. The results also reveal that exercisers likewise

perceive the benefits of exercise within the broader sense of health and

wellbeing. The comparison between dancers and exercisers has shown that

some benefits are felt to be more significant than others. This has also been

shown to be true when looking at the perceived benefit between dancers and

dancers, and exercisers and exercisers. The research results have therefore

shown that the perceived benefits that people associate with either dance or

physical exercise are probably key factors for people to participate in their

chosen activity. The study supports current research and anecdotal evidence in


79

its findings both for exercise and dance perceived benefits. By participating in

the physical activities of dance or exercise various aspects of wellbeing can be

nurtured, from the physiological through to the psychological. By looking at the

holistic benefits of dance in terms of physical activity and active living, it can be

seen that dancers perceived benefits are as significant as the perceived

benefits of physical exercise. Therefore under the umbrella of physical activity

and active living, dance should be equally encouraged and respected alongside

physical exercise, as a catalyst for cultivating wellbeing.


80

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Appendix

1)

Questionnaire

The version of the questionnaires represented here are the exact same

questions as found on the electronic version created online. This is the exercise

version, the dance one being exactly the same except the word ‘dance’

replaces the word ‘exercise’. However the disclaimer is not available as it was

developed online during the creation of the online version of the questionnaire.


94

Exercise

On the following pages are a number of statements concerning the reasons people often give when

asked why they exercise. Please read each statement carefully and indicate, by circling the

appropriate number, whether or not each statement is true for you personally. If you do not consider

a statement to be true for you at all, circle the ‘0’. If you think that a statement is very true for you

indeed, circle the ‘5’. If you think that a statement is partly true for you, then circle the ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’ or

‘4’, according to how strongly you feel that it reflects why you partake in exercise activities.

Remember, we want to know why you personally choose to exercise, not whether you think the

statements are good reasons for anybody to exercise.

It helps us to have basic personal information about those who complete this questionnaire. We

would be grateful for the following information:

age ………… years gender …… male/female

Exercise activity …………

Occupation …………….

Personally, I exercise …

1 To stay slim 0 1 2 3 4 5

2

To avoid ill-health

0

1

2

3

4

5

3

Because it makes me feel good

0

1

2

3

4

5

4

To help me look younger

0

1

2

3

4

5

5

To show my worth to others

0

1

2

3

4

5

Not true

for me

Very true

for me


95


6

To have a healthy body

0

1

2

3

4

5

7


0

1

2

3

4

5

8


0

1

2

3

4

5

9

To spend time with friends

0

1

2

3

4

5

10


0

1

2

3

4

5

11

Because I like trying to win in exercise based competitions

0

1

2

3

4

5

12

To stay/become more agile

0

1

2

3

4

5

13

To give me goals to work towards

0

1

2

3

4

5

14

To lose weight

0

1

2

3

4

5

15

To prevent health problems

0

1

2

3

4

5

16

Because I find exercise invigorating

0

1

2

3

4

5

17

To have a good body

0

1

2

3

4

5

18

To compare my abilities with other peoples’

0

1

2

3

4

5

19

Because it helps to reduce tension

0

1

2

3

4

5

20

Because I want to maintain good health

0

1

2

3

4

5

21


0

1

2

3

4

5

Not true

for me

Very true

for me


96

22

Because I find exercise satisfying in and of itself

0

1

2

3

4

5


23

To enjoy the social aspects of exercise

0

1

2

3

4

5

24

To help prevent an illness that runs in my family

0

1

2

3

4

5

25

Because I enjoy competing

0

1

2

3

4

5

26

To maintain flexibility

0

1

2

3

4

5

27

To give me personal challenges to face

0

1

2

3

4

5

28


0

1

2

3

4

5

29

To avoid heart disease

0

1

2

3

4

5

30

To recharge my batteries

0

1

2

3

4

5

31

To improve my appearance

0

1

2

3

4

5

32

To gain recognition for my accomplishments

0

1

2

3

4

5

33

To help manage stress

0

1

2

3

4

5

34

To feel more healthy

0

1

2

3

4

5

35

To get stronger

0

1

2

3

4

5

36

For enjoyment of the experience of

exercise

0

1

2

3

4

5

37

To have fun being active with other people

0

1

2

3

4

5

Not true

for me

Very true

for me


97


Thank you for completing this questionnaire

38 To help recover from an illness/injury 0 1 2 3 4 5

39

Because I enjoy the competitiveness of exercise

0

1

2

3

4

5

40

To stay/become flexible

0

1

2

3

4

5

41

To develop personal skills

0

1

2

3

4

5

42

Because exercise helps me to burn calories

0

1

2

3

4

5

43

To look more attractive

0

1

2

3

4

5

44

To accomplish things that others are incapable of

0

1

2

3

4

5

45

To release tension

0

1

2

3

4

5

46


0

1

2

3

4

5

47

Because I feel at my best when

exercising

0

1

2

3

4

5

48

To make new friends

0

1

2

3

4

5

49

To measure myself against personal standards

0

1

2

3

4

5

Not true

for me

Very true

for me

Perceived Benefits of Dance and Exercise

Documents

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