Hussein et al. (2010) 1

Hussein S. Manthorpe J and Stevens M. (2010) People in places: a qualitative exploration of recruitment agencies’ perspectives on the employment of international social workers in the UK. British Journal of Social Work, 40(3): 1000-1016.

People in places: a qualitative exploration of recruitment agencies’ perspectives on the employment of international social workers and care workers in the UK Shereen Hussein, Jill Manthorpe and Martin Stevens Abstract Social work and social care vacancies in England have partly been filled by international labour migration.. Some staff are recruited from their home countries; others are recruited post arrival in the UK. The business of recruitment is often undertaken by commercial employment agencies; however, there is little literature on the workings of this sector. This article reports the first phase of a study of international recruitment in social care in England. It outlines the findings of a scoping review of the literature and of semi-structured interviews with a convenience sample of 20 recruitment agencies undertaken in 2007-8. The interviews revealed new information on employers’ reported needs and preferences, on changing profiles of people seeking work in England, and staff motivations and ambitions. This article concludes that social care migration is a multifaceted phenomenon and that the position of intermediaries in the employment relationship, such as recruitment agencies, is largely but mistakenly ignored. Introduction This article reports on phase one of a study exploring international recruitment in social care in England, with a focus on social work (the term social care in commonly used in the UK to refer to personal social services encompassing the profession of social work). It includes findings from a scoping review of the literature and interviews with recruitment agencies whose positions as intermediaries between individual social workers and employers have not previously been explored. While this study focuses on England, there are commonalties with social care employment globally, as well as potential parallels with other labour forces in human service professions, such as nursing, medicine and teaching. The data reported here are in two parts. First, the results of the scoping review place the subject in context; second, the findings of interviews with recruitment agencies are outlined. Both focus on professional social work. The discussion pulls these together.

Hussein et al. (2010) 2

Background findings This study undertook a scoping review of the literature relating to research on UK employment of ‘overseas’, ‘foreign’ or ‘international’ social workers. Language in this area is variable and we use the term ‘international’ as an adjective to describe social workers who have qualified outside the UK and have entered the UK to take up employment. All terms have their disadvantages and uncertainties, but, essentially, we are considering those who are not UK citizens but may be from the European Union or other countries. The scoping review comprised systematically searching Applied Social Science Index and Abstracts (ASSIA); Health Management Information Consortium Database (HMIC); Social Care Online (SCO); Sociological Abstracts and Social Services Abstracts (SSA/SA). During piloting, thesauri in each database were mined for search terms developed by the research team across the three facets: ‘social care sector’, ‘international/migration’ and ‘recruitment’, although in SCO the sector was omitted as unnecessary.. The mapping exercise revealed 235 articles, of which the relevant full text of 32 were retrieved. We included a further 24 articles/reports obtained through contacts; the majority of which comprised recently completed or ongoing relevant research resulting in 56 articles/reports altogether. Since 1986, the UK has been a net and growing importer of migrants (Craig 2007), estimated at 223,000 people in 2004 (Experian, 2006). Overall, young, single adults are over-represented in the UK inward migratory population, making them a large potentially employable group. The Worker Registration Scheme and National Insurance data provide ample evidence that the social care sector attracts migrant workers. Although these workers may move on, either occupationally or geographically, there currently appears no shortage of replacements from the European Union Accession (A8) states, mainly East European countries (Experian, 2006). Several studies have highlighted the potential importance and advantages of international learning and the creation of a more dynamic social and health care workforce (Kornbeck, 2004; Larsen, 2005; Moran et al., 2005). In relation to skilled jobs, such as social work, some commentators have suggested that there are potential advantages for people using services and professionals through exposure to different cultures and welfare systems (Lyons, 2006; White 2006). From the perspective of the developed world, the availability of international workers in the human services helps resolve staff shortages and meets demand from ageing populations (Hussein and Manthorpe, 2005). The relative ease by which the UK government achieved its 2004 target to increase the nursing workforce by 20,000 is attributed to an increase in ‘overseas’ nurses recruited to the National Health Service (NHS) (Bach, 2003). International workers are often employed in posts that are hard to fill, in terms of specialties or geographical areas. They also feature in low-skilled, low-paid work that is unattractive to many receiving country nationals (De Beiji, 2000; Datta et al., 2006; Experian, 2006; Pemberton and Stevens, 2006). Sometimes qualified migrants undertake lower-skilled work while gaining language and cultural skills (Evans et al., 2006a; Experian, 2006; Pemberton and Stevens, 2006).

Hussein et al. (2010) 3

The literature highlights the importance of skilled migrants to the UK economy (Martin, 2003; Velde and Grimm, 2005). Many UK migration management practices reflect this, such as the new points-based five-tier system (http://www.pointsbasedvisa.net) introduced in 2008 and the proposed work permit system for Romanian and Bulgarian workers. The impact of these new systems on social work migration may depend on whether shortages of social workers continue in the UK, or if these become confined to particular areas or expertise. High levels of international recruitment occurred in the UK social and health care sectors in the last decade. Primarily in the NHS concerns about the morality of recruiting staff from developing countries led to agreements about ethical recruitment practices. In social care these are voluntary arrangements (see Manthorpe, 2008). However, in contrast to doctors and nurses in the NHS, quantifying numbers and trends of international recruitment in the overall social care sector is complex. Different pictures reflect different datasets. However, social work registration systems, developed in England under the Care Standards Act 2000, now provide details about social workers possessing qualifications gained outside the UK. The General Social Care Council issues a letter of verification to certify that a person from a non-EU country has completed a recognized social work qualification in their own country. The numbers issued are increasing annually, rising from 1,175 in 2001-02 to 1,390 in 2002-03 (Community Care, 2004). By 2007, 6,400 had trained outside the UK, eight percent of those registered. Thus, in England, data are reliable about registered social workers, but not about social workers who are not working as such but may be employed in social care, or indeed, in other employment or none. Cuban (2008) found that some of the international social care workers in her study were highly skilled and well qualified; however, for a number of reasons, they had not taken up employment at the level of their qualifications in the UK. There is likewise little analysis of why employers seek to recruit outside the UK and the costs and benefits of doing so. Accounts of the decision-making processes are few and mainly from the professional press, with articles in Community Care from 1995. The justification for seeking social workers outside the UK is usually the high vacancy levels, or the difficulties in recruiting specialists. The need to ‘import’ more (George, 1995), particularly from countries such as Australia, Zimbabwe and South Africa (Valios and Thompson, 2000; Sale 2001; Eden et al. 2002; Sale, 2002); is descriptively outlined, with accounts of recruitment centred on countries that are largely English speaking and whose social work training seems consistent with the UK’s. More recently, there have been reports, again related to social work and usually anecdotal, of employers targeting social workers from countries such as the United States (US) and Canada (Sale, 2005; Ahmed, 2007; Brady, 2007). There is little setting of such activities in wider contexts of global employment recruitment, wider labour market studies or social work professional matters, such as codes of practice or ethics (Orme and Rennie, 2006). Our review produced less than a handful of small-scale studies or accounts. Evans and Huxley (2004) emphasized that knowledge about the characteristics, experiences and suitability of international recruits to broad social care work in England, the characteristics and experiences of those employing them, the impact of their employment

Hussein et al. (2010) 4

on colleagues and on service users and carers, was generally based on impression rather than a synthesis of empirical evidence. The various motivations of all social workers relate to their characteristics and profile, such as age and family responsibility, as well as the work itself (Moriarty and Murray, 2007). The literature reveals little on motivations behind migration to the UK. Evans and colleagues (2006b) described two different groups of international social workers and a third group of international social care workers. The first group may be joining the UK workforce in an early stage in their careers, usually from countries such as Australia and New Zealand, for whom work in the UK may be temporary. Another older group possesses greater professional experience and family commitments, for whom permanent resettlement may not be an overt goal but may become a reality. A third group of social care workers from the EU Accession States (A8) enter the UK to obtain better labour opportunities and may work in social care as an entrance point. This movement of A8 workers to social care work in Western Europe applies to the UK and Ireland (Timonen and Doyle, 2009). In 2005, Moran and colleagues collected information from 21 professionals allied to medicine, ten social workers, and three others, originally from Australia, South Africa, New Zealand and Ireland to an electronic survey. Motives cited for relocating to the UK included travel, better pay and different career opportunities. Regardless of profession, most felt that they would accumulate skills and knowledge to benefit their career on return home. Sale (2002) reported that some social workers, mainly from Zimbabwe and South Africa, said they had moved to the UK because caseloads are smaller while pay is substantially better than at home. Entering the UK professional world It is widely agreed that social work and care work is different from that in other sectors, such as engineering; as both are human services work and culturally sensitive, making skill transferability less than straightforward cross-nationally. An expert seminar on international recruitment held by the Social Care Workforce Research Unit (2006) confirmed that the definition, type and nature of social work and social care vary widely across different countries and cultures (see Cameron and Moss, 2007). Consequently, professional judgments, for example, over family assessment, seeking to understand both explicit and implicate clues, are culturally sensitive and sometimes specific (Hussein, 2006). Some social workers recruited to work in the UK reported a lack of professional confidence, given the national underpinnings of legislation, policy and care systems (Firth, 2004). Induction for international staff is reported in the professional press (Thompson, 2004,Evans et al. 2006b).. Interviewees in Sale’s article (2002) reported that ‘inductions are the most effective way of informing overseas social workers about how social care operates in the UK’. More recently, in relation to international social workers, Brown and colleagues (2007) recommended specific induction to address cultural and practice learning needs followed by structured supervision and mentoring. A managers’ guide on

Hussein et al. (2010) 5

‘employing overseas workers’ emphasized the need for induction and continual supervision (Skills for Care South West, 2007). Social work remains a comparatively privileged occupation when compared to the wider social care workforce. There is no evidence that international social workers in the UK receive lower pay or worse conditions. In contrast, Anderson and Rogaly (2005) found some social care staff were subject to poor working conditions, while Datta and colleagues (2006) identified ethnic discrimination against some international workers. However, the social work sector need not be complacent because evidence of unfair working conditions and discrimination has been observed in similar human services professions (e.g. midwives) (Pemberton and Stevens, 2006). There is no in-depth work that confirms or refutes equal opportunities. Some international social workers allegedly hold unrealistic expectations of living conditions in Britain. Sale (2002) reported on the experiences of some social workers from Zimbabwe who had been recruited directly by Rotherham Council on a five-year contract. One of the workers was said to be in dismay at living in a council flat as he had expected life in England to be ‘... like what you see in the movies, with everyone living in big houses.’ Eden et al. (2002) outlined the disappointment of some international social workers (mainly Australian) about the poor image of social work in the UK compared to that in Australia. The literature reflects positive experiences from international recruitment to social care and an overall boost to the UK’s economy (Institute for Public Policy Research, 2007). However, little is known about any specific impact of international recruitment on the social work profession, the quality of practice or outcomes. To the best of our knowledge there is no evidence about the business of employment or recruitment of social workers from outside the UK. While some general lessons may be translatable from the experiences of the NHS (Buchan et al., 2004) and programmes of ‘adaptation’ (Gerrish and Griffith 2004), the differences between nursing and social care remain considerable. Cuban (2008) found that many migrants working in social care are recruited through agencies either through the Internet, newspapers, or referred by friends. The suggested importance of the role of agencies combined with an observed evidence scarcity led to the decision to explore the perspectives of intermediaries in this business; employment agencies that recruit social workers and are contacted by potential employers seeking recruits on a temporary or permanent basis. Some recruit outside the UK, others operate inside the UK.

Qualitative study As the scoping review revealed, this is an uncharted area. In order to explore the experiences of recruitment agencies, 20 exploratory interviews were undertaken in 2007-8. The purpose was to gather information on the types of recruitment agencies and their activities, such as the range of work offered and information on numbers and characteristics of recruits. Two further sections of the semi-structured interview topic guides were dedicated to investigating trends or changes in international recruitment; this

Hussein et al. (2010) 6

included workers’ country of origin; their perceived motivations and any barriers the agencies observed in recruiting or placing them. The topic guide was flexible enough to collect general information and perceptions of the overall social care market and workforce pools, whether or not an agency was recruiting from outside the UK. The interviews were undertaken by phone (and in one case by e-mail) and notes of the replies were made (in our experience requests to tape interviews reduce response rates). Data were analysed thematically based on the structure of the interview schedule (Gomm et al. 2000). Two researchers interviewed a sample of recruitment, branch or operation managers in 20 recruitment agencies in England.. Agencies were selected at random from those advertising in the professional press, local and national newspapers, and the internet. Recruitment to the study was difficult, despite personal contact and flexibility over timing, assurances of confidentiality and persistence. Ethical permission for the study was received by King’s College London. Among the 20 participating agencies, six were local (covering various locations), three regional, ten national and one was national with some international branches. Four recruited social workers only; three recruited staff for unqualified or residential social care positions only; and the remaining thirteen recruited both, as well as other staff such as nurses, occupational therapists, psychologists, nursery staff and domestic staff to work in the care sector. Our decision to include social care agencies and not just those recruiting professionals rested on a hypothesis that social workers may seek social care work as a preliminary to gaining experience or language skills, or that social care work might be a bridging period while qualifications are verified or jobs are sought. Twelve of the agencies had been established in 2000 or after, four during the 1990s and four in the 1980s or earlier..

Findings Recruitment volume and type

Respondents were asked to estimate how many recruits are looking for jobs through their agencies (‘on the books’) as well as to estimate vacancies and demand for staff. They were also asked for information on types of vacancies and to compare this with recruits’ preferred employment. In terms of number of recruits, nine respondents estimated that they had 30 to 50 people registered with them looking for jobs; five at least 100 people and six estimated there were at least 1,000 people on their books across all branches. Some reported immediately filling any vacancies, while, others indicated a range of 50 to 150 vacancies at any one point of time. Agencies offered a variety of jobs, such as working with children and

Hussein et al. (2010) 7

families, adult social work; nursing/care home work; mental health services, and in the wider social care, housing and others. Nine respondents highlighted changing trends in the availability of certain jobs, which they believed were related to shifting policy priorities and legislation. For example, some reported:

‘Jobs for (i.e. working with) adolescents have decreased because the government has switched its emphasis to foster carers’.

Branch manager, 007

‘There’s much more in social housing, criminal justice but then that’s because the Government has put much more money into that area so jobs have been coming through and they’ve set up agencies.’

Agency director, 018

‘I think care within the home environment has increased dramatically for us in the last 18 months. There’s been a lot more requests for carers in their own home.’

Managing director, 020 The majority thought that the demand for social care staff, including both qualified and unqualified work, was almost limitless. One respondent summarized this belief:

‘There’s an endless amount of positions within the Social Work (SW) industry. Because the country, in a way, with the increasing population, is becoming more poverty stricken, there’s so many positions out there for SWs, because there’s such massive demand for people to go into these positions and actually help out the community. It’s a ‘how long’s a piece of string?’ question, to be honest.’

Recruitment Consultant, 016 On the other hand, four interviewees detected a decline in vacancies:

‘There has been a decrease in the number of jobs available, on the whole [and] decrease in people from overseas because of red tape.’

Recruitment manager, 003

Motivations for agency work The interviews collected information on the perceptions of agency managers about why people register as available for work with an agency. For both international (those who are outside the UK or have moved to the UK) and UK workers, 17 respondents considered that the main reason was the flexibility offered by agency or temporary work that offers people a form of life-work balance.

Hussein et al. (2010) 8

Agency work was seen to be particularly attractive to people already in the UK with a visiting visa status, which allows them to work for a limited period.. They could gain experience in a variety of jobs without the difficulties of obtaining a permanent position:

‘…if they [overseas workers] are very new to the country potentially working for an agency would be their first path of employment, they quite often come with an overseas, like an Australian, police check that they can show us when they arrive’.

National manager, 001

Recruiting international workers Respondents reported that social workers were mainly from countries such as Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, with a minority from the US and Canada. They indicated that employers prefer social workers from countries where social work education and practice resembled the UK. At the same time, many managers observed a decline of qualified workers from certain countries; due to changes in the UK visa and work permit regulations. For example, a small number of agency managers used to have US social workers the ‘on the books’, seeking work in the UK, for about two years, under visiting visas; however, such visas were reportedly becoming more difficult to obtain. These trends in professional migration resemble those among internationally qualified doctors and nurses (Dobson and Salt, 2006). Some migrant social care staff may wish to become professionally qualified. The large increase, almost double, in Black African men on English social work programmes may stem from earlier experiences in social care work on arrival to the UK (Evaluation of the Social Work Degree Qualification in England Team, 2007). Whether EU A8 citizens working in social care will wish to qualify as social workers, or see social care as temporary are interesting questions. In the next subsections we present analysis of the interview data in relation to activities of international recruitment, recruitment of international workers already in the UK, as well as perceived barriers and advantages of recruiting international staff.

Recruiting directly from outside the UK Out of the 20 respondents, seven recruited directly from outside the UK and one was planning to do so in the near future. They did not distinguish greatly between recruitment of social workers and other social care staff. Their business was mainly from Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada and Poland, with one agency having a branch in Poland. The numbers of directly-recruited social care workers from outside the UK in the past three months ranged from less than five to 20 workers in each agency, with the majority reporting a rate of five to ten workers during the past three months. Of these seven agencies four advertised outside the UK, mainly through web based advertising boards. Some agencies then pursued work permits while others stipulated the

Hussein et al. (2010) 9

necessity of holding a valid UK working visa to be able to offer a post. Other examples of active recruitment were special campaigns advertising in the national (foreign) press and holding recruitment events outside the UK, making visits to draw on personal contacts, using ‘word of mouth’ contacts with another agency, or recruiting staff personally. Respondents were aware of the ethical dilemmas of recruiting from certain developing countries, as highlighted in the literature (Hayes, 2004; Carson, 2006; Chikanda, 2006), and government agreements that seek to reduce the risk of draining human resources from the developing world:

‘I try and avoid recruiting from India, Pakistan and one or two other developing countries. Not because I have anything against those countries, but it’s a UN thing and a Government thing, These countries are getting money (the Philippines is another one) to try and improve their living conditions, and social conditions...’.

Managing director, 012

Recruitment of international workers within the UK Almost all agencies recruited people who were already in the UK, many of whom held a valid visa or did not require work permits. They were nationals of a variety of countries, but a recent influx from East Europe, particularly from Poland, was reported. Other countries of origin cited were in Africa (Zimbabwe, Ghana), the Caribbean, Australia, mainland Europe and the US. Table 1 presents the number of agencies recruiting ‘foreign’ workers in the three month period prior to the interview (late 2007) according to how they classified recruits’ country of origin or racial background. Respondents reported that qualified workers seeking qualified posts, such as social workers and occupational therapists, usually come from Australia and New Zealand, whilst qualified workers from other countries, such as Poland and some parts of Africa, often accept unqualified care work initially due to non-recognition of their qualifications and language problems:

‘You get a lot of very good workers from overseas. It’s a question of recognizing the qualifications, and the GSCC (General Social Care Council) registration is not enough, it doesn’t take qualifications into account. If someone’s got 6 years of university and got a Masters they’re only recognized as a Social Worker here, they don’t take into account how good their qualifications are….. We’ve got a Spanish social worker with a Master’s degree in social work from Spain, but no one would employ a Spanish speaking social worker and she was working as a home help. We got her a job as an unqualified social care worker, to get her foot in the door’.

Managing Director, 012

Hussein et al. (2010) 10

Table 1 Number of agencies recruiting international workers (social care workers and/or social workers) already in the UK according to country of origin of workers, Agency interviews Aug-Oct 2007 Country of origin Number of agencies (n=20) Poland 11 Australia 6 Zimbabwe 6 South Africa 5 Germany 4 Nigeria 4 Canada 3 New Zealand 3 United States 3 France 2 Hungary 1 India 1 Ireland 1 Middle East 1 Russia 1 Ethnic group White foreign workers 8 Black African 7 Black Caribbean 5

Changes in the characteristics of international workers There was a clear theme of recent and sudden change in the characteristics of non-UK citizens making themselves available for social care work attributable to the inclusion of the A8 countries in the EU, particularly Poland, but also due to changes in visas and migration rules. However, many respondents observed that such changes affect unqualified rather than qualified workers: ’the qualified market is about the same really’ (National manager, 001). Another aspect concerned changes in immigration rules: for example, people are currently not allowed to work on their ‘holiday visas’ for more than a year as opposed to two years. Respondents noted the effect on social workers from countries such as Canada and the US:

‘But they changed the working holiday visa so it’s not so attractive for overseas people to come into the UK, so we have less and less coming in on working holidays. Previously they could work for two years, so long as they applied for their visa before their 31st birthday. They are still allowed to come for two years, but they are only allowed to work to a period of 12 months and it can’t be in their career.’

Branch manager, 012

Hussein et al. (2010) 11

Barriers to recruiting international workers

Recruitment process The majority of respondents considered that the main barrier to international recruitment lay in the process of recruitment, including obtaining visas, work permits, and recognizing qualifications:

‘Process of employing from overseas can be off putting… Government should make overseas employment procedures more streamlined – visa and sponsorship requirements are burdensome.’

Recruitment manager 003 Visas, Criminal Record Bureau (CRB) and ‘police’ checks as well as retrieving references from overseas were all cited as difficulties, and they were indicated by twelve of the respondents as direct barriers in placing non UK citizens/residents into social care work. Qualification recognition was sometimes difficult for agency staff to manage and understand, particularly when the social work education system of a person’s home country was considerably different from that of the UK. Workers were advised either to do extra training or accept less skilled jobs in the sector to gain experience:

‘For social work – a Polish social worker can do an extra 6 months – they can convert their qualification if they do extra ….’

Branch Manager, 007 Qualifications and practice mismatch may also pose problems even if they are recognized as equivalent to those gained in the UK. Such situations arise when the nature of social work education and practice is substantially different between countries. For example, one respondent highlighted differences in relation to family work:

‘They [social workers from US] do a lot more counselling and actively working to keep families together. In the UK it’s all assessment, assessment, assessment. And again, some of the social workers from Africa and India are more involved with social development at home and that’s brilliant in those circumstances. They come over here and they’re put into a role where instead of they’re working with a family and becoming friends with the family and helping to create change for the family in the community, they’re put into a role where they’re going in and checking up on families, and talking to parents and saying “you’re not being a good parent”. And they struggle with that a lot of them’.

Managing Director, 012

Employers’ attitudes

Hussein et al. (2010) 12

Just over half (nine) of the respondents who recruit international workers indicted that employers prefer workers with UK experience and/or from countries where the social work system is substantially similar to that in the UK, such as Australia. In their view workers from different countries stand different chances of employability in the UK depending on where they come from, and their command of English. This was particularly true in the case of qualified workers. Many reported that transferability of qualifications may be difficult, as noted above, and that many workers, such as some Polish social workers, accept social care work as a stepping stone. The attitudes of employers towards ‘foreign’ workers were noted to be important by 15 respondents. In four cases employers’ attitudes were reported to be generally negative towards international workers, either because of language or cultural issues or, for the majority, because employers preferred workers with experience of work in the UK or those from countries with similar social care/ work ethos and practice.

Advantages associated with international workers The majority of respondents reported that international workers are usually ‘exceptionally hard workers’ who appreciate and value their earnings as, crucially, they need them in many cases to send ‘money back to their families’. Respondents also stated that international workers have good attitudes to work, being ‘extremely accommodating and willing to do anything’. Overall, although respondents acknowledged the difficulties and barriers that may be faced while recruiting international workers, the majority felt that they constituted good quality staff. Discussion and Conclusion This study was able to interview managers in 20 agencies, but there was a high refusal rate (about one in six only of those approached agreed to participate). The study was exploratory and thus representativeness was not the prime aim of the research, however, the low response may mean that the sample of respondents represents a group with particular views. The validity of this kind of study is partly established in whether the views expressed resonate with readers (Whitemore et al., 2001) and if they accord with the literature. The literature reveals the importance of international recruits in the context of societies in the developed world facing labour force and demographic changes. The ‘push and pull’ factors are understood at macro level, with similarities to professions such as nursing (Buchan and Dovlo, 2004). When looking at individual job roles, professions and care settings, a more nuanced picture emerges. At a micro level, there are differences between

Hussein et al. (2010) 13

individuals and their engagement with social work, their career or life plans and, of course, their financial situations. Particular issues appear to have been overlooked, yet are emerging in this changing context of ‘global’ mobility of labour. These relate to the transferability of care work (Cameron and Moss, 2007), local interpretations of codes of practice and ethics (Orme and Rennie 2006; Banks 2008), exchanges of learning internationally (Welbourne et al., 2007) and the important, yet neglected, role of intermediaries. The research suggests that some international social care workers are potentially a well-qualified or ambitious group who may enrich the social work profession. Issues of international or cross-cultural learning need to be addressed in terms of qualifications’ recognition, accreditation of prior experiences, and how to establish a system that is transparent and fair. The involvement of intermediaries would be advisable in light of their knowledge of applicants and of employers The responsiveness of social work education to potential applicants working currently in social care will be important area for research and development. The literature and the interviews confirm that there is a spectrum of experiences and expectations. The multifaceted nature of expectations seems to be true for international workers as well as employers. Intermediaries such as recruitment agencies have interesting and insightful perspectives about professional trends and career advice, specifically the portability of qualifications gained in countries that are English speaking and share aspects of professional training, and the steps that individuals can take to maximize their chances of professional work and registration. If social work vacancies diminish in the UK then recruitment agencies may be the entry point for international social workers, rather than direct overseas recruitment by local authorities. These findings confirm the importance of the next steps of this study, namely to explore the perspectives of international workers, their employers and colleagues, and particularly to seek the views of people with experiences of using services. It was notable that their voices have been under-reported so far.

Hussein et al. (2010) 14

References Ahmed, M. (2007) Social workers drafted in from US to tackle Birmingham shortage, [online], Community Care, Available at: http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2007/09/28/105944/social-workers-drafted-in-from-us-to-tackle-birmingham.htm [accessed 21 July 2008]. Anderson, B and Rogaly, B. (2005) Forced labour and migration to the UK, (Study prepared by Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS) in collaboration with the Trades Union Congress), [online], Oxford, Oxford University, Available at: http://www.tuc.org.uk/international/tuc-9317-f0.pdf [accessed 21 July 2008] Bach, S. (2003) International migration of health workers: Labour and social issues, [WP.209], Geneva, International Labour Office. Banks, S. ‘Critical commentary: social work ethics’, British Journal of Social Work Advance Access published July 2, 2008, doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcn099. Brady, E. (2007) ‘City recruits social workers from US’, The Birmingham Post, [online], 22 September 2007, Available at: http://www.birminghampost.net/news/west-midlands-news/tm_headline=city-recruits-social-workers-from-us&method=full&objectid=19831038&siteid=50002-name_page.html [accessed 17 January 2008] Brown, K., Bates, N. and Keen, S. (2007) Supporting the continuing professional development needs of internationally qualified social workers project, [Final report for Skills for Care], Bournemouth; Bournemouth University.

Buchan, J., Jobanputra, R. and Gough, P. (2004) London Calling? The international recruitment of health workers to the capital, London, King’s Fund. Buchan, J. and Dovlo, D. (2004) International Recruitment of Health Workers to the UK: A Report for DFID, [online], London, DFID Health Systems Resource Centre (published 10 March 2008) Available at: http://www.dfidhealthrc.org/publications/country_information/int-rec-main.pdf [accessed 21 July 2008] Cameron, C. and Moss, P. (2007) Care work in Europe: Current understandings and future directions, London, Routledge. Carson, G. (2006) Social work ethics on trial over recruitment from developing countries, [online], Community Care, Available at: http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2006/08/24/55461/social-work-ethics-on-trial-over-recr-uitment-from-developing.html [accessed 21 July 2008].

Hussein et al. (2010) 15

Chikanda, A. (2006) ‘Skilled health professionals' migration and its impact on health delivery in Zimbabwe’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32(4), pp. 667-680.

Community Care (2004) Increase in overseas social workers poses ethical questions for councils, [online], Community Care, Available at: http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2004/02/05/43656/increase-in-overseas-social-workers-poses-ethical-questions-for.html [accessed 18 March 2008] Craig, G. (2007) ‘They come over here… and boost our economy’, The Yorkshire and Humber Regional Review, 17(1), pp. 33-35. Cuban, S. (2008) ‘Home/work: The roles of education, literacy, and learning in the networks and mobility of professional women migrant carers in Cumbria’, Ethnography and Education, 3(1), pp. 81- 96. Datta, K., McIlwaine, C., Evans, Y., Herbert, J., May, J. and Wills, J. (2006) Work, Care and Life among Low-paid Migrant Workers in London: Towards a Migrant Ethic of Care, London, Economic and Social Research Council, Queen Mary, University of London. De Beiji, R. (2000) Documenting Discrimination against Migrant Workers in the Labour Market: A Comparative Study of Four European Countries, Geneva, International Labour Organization. Eden, L., Bowdler, D. and Thorpe, R. (2002) ‘Fertile work’, Community Care, 1415, pp. 38-39. Evaluation of the New Social Work Degree Qualification In England Team (2007) Findings from the Evaluation of the New Social Work Degree Qualification; Research Summary 1, London, Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King’s College London. Evans, S. and Huxley, P. (2004) International Recruitment of Social Care Staff in the UK: A Systematic Review of Evidence, London, Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King’s College London. Evans, S., Huxley, P. and Munroe, M. (2006a) ‘International recruitment of social care workers and social workers: Illustrations from the UK’, Hong Kong Journal of Social Work, 40(1-2), pp. 93-110. Evans, C., Pye, J. and Smith, L. (2006b) Migrant Workers: The Challenge for the South West; Learning Theme Report, Exeter, Skills and Learning Intelligence Module. Experian (2006) Attracting Talent: Final report, Multi client study, London, Experian. Firth, R. (2004) Enabling Social Workers to Work Abroad, Paper presented at the

Hussein et al. (2010) 16

IASSW/IFSW Conference, Adelaide, Australia. George, M. (1995) ‘Important import’, Community Care, 1065, pp. 24-5. Gerrish, K. and Griffith, V. (2004) ‘Integration of overseas Registered Nurses: Evaluation of an adaptation programme’, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45(6), pp. 579–587. Gomm, R., Needham, G. and Bullman, A. (2000) Evaluating Research in Health and Social Care, London, SAGE. Hayes, D. (2004) ‘Increase in overseas social workers poses ethical questions for councils’, Community Care, 1508, pp. 18-19. Hussein, S. and Manthorpe, J. (2005) ‘An International Review of the Long Term Care Workforce: Policies and Shortages’, Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 17(4), pp. 75-94. Hussein, S. (2006) International Recruitment in Social Care Expert Seminar: Discussion Points, London, Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King’s College London. Institute for Public Policy Research (2007) Britain's Immigrants: An Economic Profile, London, IPPR. Kornbeck, J. (2004) ‘Linguistic affinity and achieved geographic mobility: Evidence from the recognition of non-national social work qualifications in Ireland and the UK’, European Journal of Social Work, 7(2), pp. 143-165. Larsen, J., Allan, H., Bryan, K. and Smith, P. (2005) ‘Overseas nurses' motivations for working in the UK: Globalisation and Life politics’, Work, Employment & Society, 19(2), pp. 349-368. Lyons, K. (2006) ‘Globalization and social work: International and local implications’, British Journal of Social Work, 36(3), pp. 365-380. Manthorpe, J. (2008) ‘Workforce Reform’ in Smith, N. (ed.), Advancing Opportunity: Older people and social care, London, Smith Foundation Martin, P. (2003) Highly skilled labour migration: Sharing the benefits, Geneva, International Institute for Labour Studies. Moran, A., Nancarrow, S. and Butler, A. ‘There's no place like home: A pilot study of perspectives of international health and social care professionals working in the UK’, Australia and New Zealand Health Policy, 2(25), First published 27 October, 2005, doi:10.1186/1743-8462-2-25.

Hussein et al. (2010) 17

Moriarty, J. and Murray, J. (2007) ‘Who wants to be a social worker? Using routine published data to identify trends in the numbers of people applying for and completing social work programmes in England’, British Journal of Social Work, 37(4), pp. 715-733. Orme, J. and Rennie, G. (2006) ‘The role of registration in ensuring ethical practice’, International Social Work, 49(3), pp. 333-344. Pemberton, S. and. Stevens, C. (2006) Supporting Migrant Workers in the North West of England, Liverpool, Merseyside Social Inclusion Observatory, University of Liverpool. Velde, D. and Grimm, S. (2005) From Brain Drain to Brain Gain: How the WTO can make Migration a Win-Win, [online], London, Overseas Development Institute (ODI) Opinions (Published November 2005), Available at: www.odi.org.uk/publications/pub_list_2006_07_forweb.pdf [accessed 23 June 2008]. Sale, A. U. (2001) Worlds apart, [online], Community Care, Available at: http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2001/05/08/31456/worlds-apart.html?key=LOOKED-AFTER%20OR%20CHILDREN [accessed 18 March 2008] Sale, A.U. (2002) Workers of the world, [online], Community Care, Available at: http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2002/07/18/37250/workers-of-the-world.html [accessed 21 July 2008] Sale, A. U. (2005) ‘Common language, different practice?’, Community Care, 8 September, pp. 32-33. Skills for Care South West (2007) Manager's Guidebook on Employing Overseas Workers, Leeds, Skills for Care South West. Thompson, C. (2004) ‘Making a home from home’, Community Care, 1548, pp. 36-37. Timonen, V. and Doyle, M. (forthcoming) ‘In Search of Security: Migrant Workers: Understandings, Experiences and Expectations Regarding ‘Social Protection’’, Journal of Social Policy, 38(1). Valios, N. and Thompson, A. (2000) ‘You just can't get the staff’, Community Care, 16 May, pp. 22-25. Welbourne, P., Harrison, G. and Ford, D. (2007) ‘Social work in the UK and the global labour market: Recruitment, practice and ethical considerations’, International Social Work, 50(1), pp. 27-40. White, R. (2006) ‘Opportunities and challenges for social workers crossing borders’, International Social Work, 49(5), pp. 629-640.

Hussein et al. (2010) 18

Whitemore, R., Chase, S. K. and Mandle, C. L. (2001) ‘Validity in Qualitative Research’, Qualitative Health Research, 11, pp. 522-537.