THE PARTHIAN OF IRAN

INTRODUTION

The Parthian Empire is a fascinating period of Persian

history closely connected to Greece and Rome. Ruling from 247

B.C. to A.D. 228 in ancient Persia (Iran), it is the fourth

dynasty chronologically. The Parthians defeated Alexander the

Great's successors, the Seleucids, conquered most of the Middle

East and southwest Asia, controlled the Silk Road and built

Parthia into an Eastern superpower. The Parthians revived the

greatness of the Achaemenid Empire and counterbalanced Rome's

hegemony in the West. Parthia at one time occupied areas now in

Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan,

Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan,

Palestine and Israel.1 The historians describe the political-

geography of Parthia as such: In the North lied Khawarizm and

Merv, Seistan and Sagarti were in the East, and Gargan or

1 “Parthian Empire,” http://www.parthia.com, accessed on November 23,2013. The Parthian Empire comprises the provinces of Part (Khurasan), Damghan,Simnan, Maad Buzurg or IRaq e Ajam, Hamdan e Gurus, Karmanshahan, Nihawand,Tavisarkan, Iraq or Sultanabad, Maad e Kochak (Azerbaijan), Aadyaban (Assur eQadeem), Kurdistan, Armenia Buzurg and Kochak, Qizvain, Ray, Isfahan, Yazd,Khawansar, Gulpaigan and Kamra, Hathra, Kalda e Qadeem, Babylonia to PersianGulf, Khozistan, Paras, Kirman, Siestan, Sagarti, part of Northern Mountain rangeof India, from Khurasan to Jaxartes. Maqbool Baig Badakhshani, Tarikh e Iran: Az QaumMaad ta Aal e Sasan, Vol. I (Lahore:Majlis e Taraqqi e Adab, 1967), 306.

1

Harkenya was in the West.2 The core land of ancient Parthia lay

between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, though its

boundaries remained volatile and areas to the west as far as

Gaza and Palestine had also been at one time fallen under

Parthian rule.

Topography & Produce

The area covered by ancient Parthia, which roughly

corresponds to modern Iran, was approximately 648,000 square

miles, about equal to the areas of Great Britain, France,

Germany and Spain together, or about the size of the portion of

the United States of America which lies east of Mississippi

River excluding New England.

There are four basic land regions in Iran.

 Mountains cover almost one-fourth of Iran, and most of

the people in Iran live in the mountain area. The valleys among

the mountains are the main area of agriculture production.

Chinese historians state the cultivation of rice, wheat and

grapes here.3 The deserts of Iran are divided in two main

areas, the coastal deserts (bordering the Persian gulf and Gulf

of Oman) and the Central deserts. The Caspian Sea coast2 Badakhshani, Tarikh e Iran, 224.3 Ibid. 251.

2

extends in a narrow strip between Elburz Mountains and the sea.

Almost all of Iran's forests are located there. It is the only

region in Iran with heavy rainfall.4 The Khuzestan Plain is the

relatively flat region of Iran where the Khuzestan province and

the cities of Ahvaz, Susa and Abadan are located. It is the

largest plain in Iran and one of the richest agricultural areas

in the world. It is irrigated by several big rivers such

as Karun and Karkheh. Khuzestan Plain borders Mesopotamia and

is separated from it by the Shatt al-Arab (known as Arvand Rud

in Iran) river.5

Due to this unfavourable topography and climate, only the

mountainous north, northwest and west receive sufficient

precipitation to carry out spatially extended agriculture. The

biggest part of the country (approx. 50 percent) is sterile

desert or desert-steppe, which may be usable only for periodic

pasturing, where animal husbandry is carried out both by the

farming and the tribal population.6 This particular condition made

Iran for most of the ancient time as the land of invading wandering

4 “Moutain Ranges in Iran,” https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=mountain+ranges+in+iran, accessed in December 05, 2013.5 “Khuzestan Plain,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuzestan_Plain, accessed on December 05, 2013.6 “Agriculture in Iran,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/agriculture-in-iran, accessed on December 05, 2013.

3

tribes. Even Parthians were also one of these, who got stronghold in

Iran yet had not left behind the traits of their tribal background.

In addition, the wandering tribes remained invading the land that

also forced the Parthians in keeping these characteristics to cope

with them.7

SOURCES

Parthian rule lasted for about five centuries, however,

there is a scarcity of indigenous sources about them. The

Iranian historians states this period as the Dark Age in this

regard.8 Owing to this, much of what we know about the

Parthians and their sub-kingdoms of Characene, Elymais and

Persis must be deduced from coins. For that reason, the primary

focus is on numismatics. Though, the Chinese historians state

that the Parthians used to record the important events by

inscribing on both sides of hides,9 a few of these have been

discovered in Oraman (Kurdistan) as Qubalas of 120 BC written on

7 As many times the Parthian rulers had to fight with the incursions ofthese tribes. Arsace V (181-174 B.C.) had to deal with the Mard tribes,Arsace VII (136-127 B.C.) faced the Scythian tribes attacks, whichresulted in death of this man, who had defeated the Seleucid king theAntiochus VI. Arsace VIII (127-124 B.C.) also succumbed to wounds, he gotwhile fighting against scythe tribes and died. Attacks by Alai tribesfrom Qafqaz during Arsace XXV’s reign was a major blow to the Parthianscatalysing their decline. Badakhshani, Tarikh e Iran. I, 226-300.8 Ibid. intro (f).9 Ibid. 251.

4

Deer’s hides.10 The Greeks remained in encounter with Parthia

throughout and they also recorded their strivings and battles

to maintain their rule in these Eastern regions, which in turn

provide the important political and military insights in

Parthian history, too. Archaeological sites have also been

discovered lately in Kangawar (Kirman Shah), Hamdan, and the

city of Hatra between Euphrates and Tigris etc., 11 revealing

the evidences of Parthians’ presence and manifesting their

architecture and culture. On the basis of these evidences one

may know about Parthia from the histories like IRAN PASTAN by

Hasan Parena. Sir Percy Sycus and Justin’s A history of Persia are

also important in this regard. Justin’s history relates the

early period yet it is scanty and full of contradictions.

Professor Maqbool Baig Badakhshani frequently used these in

Tarikh e Iran (Urdu), which was basically written for the Pahlavi

ruler of Iran, King Reza Shah.

PARTHIA; INHABITANTS and LANGUAGE

The first certain occurrence of the name is as Parthava

in the Bīsitūn inscription (c. 520 BC) of the Achaemenian king

Darius I, but Parthava may be only a dialectal variation of the

10 Ibid. 312.11 Ibid. 313-314.

5

name Parsa (Persian). Parthians belonged to the Scythian tribes

who lived in Dahae. They entered Khurasan through Khawarizm and

settled in Part finally, thus acquiring the name Parthia. They

spoke Pahlavi, which belongs to the Aryan languages, leading to

the conclusion that the Parthians were also Aryans.12 Early

script was pictographic, however, a number of words were

written in Sami script and spoken in Persian, these words were

called HAZWARISH. Greek script was mostly in use but Pahlavi

script was developed during Farhad IV and replaced gradually the

Greek and the Pictographs.13

FOUNDATIONS OF THE EMPIRE

Arsaces (Arshak or Ashk I) and Tiridates, two brothers from

Balkh came to Parthia and entered in the Greek ruler

Pherecles’s services, however, they killed him owing to his bad

treatment and commenced the movement for freedom from the

Greeks. They succeeded and established the Iranian rule, thus

Ashkanis or Parthians rule set in with the Arsaces its first

ruler, whose name was adopted as the honorific name by all the

subsequent Parthian rulers. This name Arshak evolved into Ashk

with the passage of time and became the recognition of this

12 Ibid. 225.13 Ibid. 311-313.

6

dynasty in history.14 Antiochus I, the Greek ruler of Iran that

time, was busy in curbing the revolts in Syria and Asia Minor

so he could not pay heed to this region. His son Antiochus II

did attacked Parthia and was defeated by Arsace II,15 thus

achieving recognition as a separate and sovereign kingdom

getting stronger, founding new cities and new capital named

DARA in Gargan; surrounded by mountains and fountains, gardens

and hunts.

Political /Military Achievements

Whole of the Parthian history is satiated with wars

against the Seleucids and the incessant tribal invasions from

central Asia. The victories against these rivals mark their

political as well as the military achievements, as their empire

oscillates within or extends to the borders as shown in the map

i. Arsace II (247-214 BC) kept the base of the strengthening

the empire when he faced the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II and

endowed with success. His son Arsace III (Ardawan I or Artba)

extended the campaign and conquered Media, Kurdistan, Kalda,

Hamadan and the land between Tigris and Euphrates.16 His wise

14 Ibid. 225-227.15 ArsaceII was Tiridates, Arsace I’s brother and the person who gave shape and stability to the kingdom.16 Badakhshani, Tarikh e Iran, 231.

7

policies made Antiochus III to extend hands of rapprochement.17

Arsace VI’s conquests and policies not only widened and

strengthened the empire but paved the way to success for the

coming rulers. He appointed the members of his family as the

governors of his conquered areas and spent more time and

attention to establish law and order and peace within his

territories. As the trade routes from Jaxartes to Babul have

also been brought under the stretches of his empire, he was

able to control the economic benefits, too.18  By

200 BC Arsaces’ successors were firmly established along the

southern shore of the Caspian Sea. Later, through the conquests

of Mithradates I (reigned 171–138 BC) and Artabanus II (reigned

128–124 BC), all of the Iranian Plateau and the Tigris-

Euphrates valley came under Parthian control.19 The empire

extended from Armenia to India under Arsace IX (124-88 B.C.) or

Mithradates II, and the Parthians began to claim descent from

both the Greeks and the Achaemenids. Moreover, it was first

time that the Greeks and the Parthians felt the importance of

establishing relations between both the powers, thus

communications started among them. This manoeuvring continued17 Ibid. 232.18 Ibid. 242.19 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Parthia,” http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/444876/Parthia, December 23, 2013.

8

and Greek general Pompeii and Arsace XI agreed to take action

against their enemies together. However, the Greeks breached

the promises and the Iranians also dissuaded.20

The acts of breach finally resulted in open a series of

Greeko- Iranian Wars between the Parthians and the Greeks.

First war was fought between Arsace XVI (Orodes I) and the

Greek general Crassus. Arsace XVI tried to avoid the war by

sending his envoy, yet the Greek general were proud of their

forces and plainly denied. In 53 B.C. Crassus’s 40,000 Roman

troops were annihilated by the Parthian forces, fought under

the guidance of their celebrated commander Surena.21 By 40 B.C.

even Rome had to acknowledge a Parthia whose forces, under the

joint command of Orodes I’s son, Pacorus I and Q. Labienus, a

20 Ibid. 254.21 Plutarch Describes the great Suren, whose real name was Eran SpahbodhRustaham Suren-Pahlav as:... For Suren was no ordinary person; but in fortune, family and honourthe first after the king; and in point of courage and capacity, as wellas size and beauty, superior to the Parthians of his time. If he wentonly on an excursion into the country, he had a thousand camels to carryhis baggage and two hundred carriages for his concubines. He was attendedby a thousand heavy-armed horses, and many more of the light-armed rodebefore him. Indeed his vassals and slaves made up a body of cavalrylittle less than ten thousand. He had the hereditary privilege in hisfamily of putting the diadem upon the king's head, when he was crowned.When Orodes was driven from throne, he restored him; and it was he whoconquered for him the great city of Selucia, being the first scale thewall, and beating off the enemy with his own hand. Though he was not thenthirty years old, his discernment was strong, and his counsel esteemedthe best. Shahpur Suren Pahlav, “General Surena; the Hero of Carrhae,”http://www.iranchamber.com/history/surena/, accessed on December 15,2013, and Badakhshani, Tarikh e Iran, 259.

9

Roman, had struck directly into the heart of the Roman East and

captured the provinces of Asia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, and Syria;

even as far south as Petra, Parthia's word was law.22 However,

the tug of war with Rome on the western border of Parthia

continued almost without cease oscillating to any one of the

side. So, Pacorus and Labienus got defeated and were killed by

te forces of Mark Antony who was made the ruler of the eastern

colonies by the Roman Senate. The conquered areas by Pacorus

were also included in his domain. So, during 39-38B.C. Antony

took back these areas while both the Parthian commanders lost

their lives at Cilicia and at the banks of Euphrates

respectively.23 Despite of these wars the western border between

Rome's dominions and Parthia gradually stabilized on the banks

of the Euphrates. War was always a threat and though major

campaigns by the Romans occurred in A.D. 116, 161, 195, 217 and

232, Parthia was never conquered.24

Decline

22 “Parthia,” www.parthia.com.23 Badakhshani, 270-271.24 “Parthia,” www.parthia.com.

10

Incessant wars fought between Romans and the Parthians

exhausted the empire and led to its decline. Parthians were

severely beaten by the emperor and general Trajan in 114 CE.

Trajan conquered Armenia, and in the following year, and

marched to the south, where the Parthians were forced to

evacuate their strongholds. In 116, Trajan captured Ctesiphon

and established new provinces in Assyria and Babylonia. He

snatched Takht e Zarren, which was considered honorific and the

sign of the empire’s grandeur. Though both the partisans

entered into a truce after Trajan’s death yet the glory of the

Parthians was now part of history. They were in no position to

impose their terms. Avidius Cassius defeated Mithradates IV in

161-162 wars and erased the palaces and Ma’abads in Ctesiphone,

while reaching Azarbaijan.25 Later, King Vologases IV tried to

reconquer Mesopotamia during a Roman civil war (193 CE), but

when general Septimius Severus was master of the empire, he

attacked Parthia. Again, Ctesiphon was captured (198 CE), and

large spoils were brought to Rome. According to a modern

estimate, the gold and silver were sufficient to postpone a

European economic crisis for three or four decades, and one can

25 Badakhshani, 296-301.11

imagine the consequences for Parthia.26 

To add to misery, Parthia was divided between Vologases IV’s

sons; states of Babul and Parthia ruled by Vologases V (Bilash

V) and Artabanus V (Ardawan) in 208/09 CE.27 Vologases V fought

last war with Roman commander Macrinus and the later had to

retreat. The war ended in truce, which, related the return of

Iranian cities to Parthia and to pay a ransom of 1750000

pounds, too. However, the Parthians could not enforce the

conditions in full as they had weakened and dispersed

internally owing to the revolts of the nobility.28 In the first

century, the Parthian nobility had become more powerful,

because the kings had given them more right over the peasants

and their land. They were now in a position to resist their

king benefitting from concurrent division in the Arsacid

family,29 over succession, which often ended in murder and a

continued slide in their power. Perhaps it was more Parthian

weakness that caused the disaster. But it was now clear that

the Romans were superior.

26 Jona Lendering, “Parthia Empire,” Iran Chamber Society, http://www.iranchamber.com/history/parthians/parthians.php, accessed on November 11, 2013.27 Badakhshani, 304.28 Ibid., 305.29 Jona Lendering, “Parthian Empire.”

12

 Impoverished Parthia, now hopeless to recover the lost

territories faced a the final blow as the Persian vassal king

Ardašir revolted in 220 CE. After three furious wars,

Artabanus V was killed at Hormuz. Ardasir took Ctesiphon, thus

ending Parthia in 224 CE30. It meant the beginning of the second

Persian Empire, ruled by the Sassanid kings. 

ADMINISTRATION

Along with the conquest, the Parthian rulers had the task

to organize their empire now. They had the instances of Greeks

and obviously the Achaemenids precedents, that created the

basis of their administrative system.31 So the cities retained

their ancient rights and the civil administration remained more

or less undisturbed.

The empire was not very centralized. There were several

languages, several peoples and several economic systems. But

the loose ties between the separate parts were the key to its

survival. The capital was floating, the rulers stayed in Asak

(present Qauchan or Bajnavard), or Nisa32 in Turkistan. In the

30 Badakhshani, 306. Jona Landering, “Parthina Empire.”31 “Parthia,” www.parthia.com.32 Artefacts relating Parthia have been dug out by the Russian Archaeologists at Nisa, which include palaces and Ma’abad decorated with glorious mosaics and inscriptions. Badakhshani, 307.

13

second century CE, the most important capital Ctesiphon was

captured no less than three times by the Romans (in 116, 165

and 198 CE), but the empire survived, because there were other

centres.

Parthian empire had two types of administrative units:

1. The pivotal regions of Parthia.

2. Annexed areas which were further of two types;

a. Directly ruled by the government appointing governors by

the king himself.

b. Vassals of the empire, who were semi-independent and

could devise their own rules and were allowed to strike

their own coins, which was in Antiquity very rare. As

long as the local elite paid tribute, the Parthian kings

did not interfere.33

The system worked very well as far as the empire was at

its zenith and towns like Ctesiphon,

Seleucia, Ecbatana, Rhagae, Hecatompylus, Nisâ, and Susa

flourished. This conglomeration of kingdoms, provinces, marks

and city-states also weaken seriously the Parthian state at

times. This explains why the Parthian expansion came to an end33 Ibid., 307-308.

14

after the conquest of Mesopotamia and Iran.34 In addition, when

the throne was occupied by a weak ruler, divisions among the

nobility could become dangerous.

King

The Arsacid kings wanted to be called as Cyrus the

Great had ordered his subjects to do in the sixth century-

"king of kings," as the Parthian monarch was the ruler of his

own empire plus some eighteen vassal kings, yet they were not

fully authoritarian. There existed three supreme councils from

whom the king had to consult in the governance matters. There

were seven noble families, to one of which the king belonged.

He could marry only in any those families. King and his family

were sacred. To harm them was a sin. The masses have no direct

reach to the king but could extend their pleas through any of

the courtiers.35

Parliament

As mentioned earlier there was a Parliament like institution

existed, whose function was to choose the king and help him by

counselling. These were three in number; first of these

34 Jona Lendering, “Parthian Empire,” 35 Badakhshani, 308.

15

consisted of the members of royal family. Every prince at the

age of puberty used to become its member straightway. Majlis e

Mughistan was the next comprising the religious leaders. The

third one encompassed nobility and all the persons of the above

two. They usually chose the elder son of the predecessor king.

Sometimes these Houses might take decision in favour of any

other relations mostly the brothers of the deceased king if in

the case the princes were minor in age, As the House of nobles

chose Ardawan II as Arsace VIII36. The members of the Houses

played an important role and the king had to respect their

privileges. Several noble families had a vote in the Royal

council, too. The Sûrên clan had the right to crown the

Parthian king.37

Miitary

The victories achieved by the Parthian kings owed to the

Parthian armies, which included two types of cavalry: the

heavily armed and armoured cataphracts and lightly armed but

highly mobile mounted archers. The Iranians marched swiftly but

very seldom at dark. They used no war chariots, and confined

the use of the wagon to transporting females accompanying

36 Ibid., 254, 308.37 Jona Lendering, “Parthian Empire.”

16

commanders on expeditions. They carried various banners, often

ornamented with the figures of dragons, but the famous national

emblem of Iran, the Drafsh-e Kavian, appears to have served as the

imperial banner.38

It lacked, however, a standing army. There were of

course the garrisons of towns and forts as well as armed

retinues of tribal chiefs, feudal lords, and of the King of

Kings himself, the supreme commander, but these were limited

and disunited. The military concerns were conditioned by the

feudal system: when the need arose, the Great King appealed to

his subordinate kings (there were 18 of them at one time),

regional, and tribal lords and garrison commanders to muster

what they could and bring them to an appointed place at a given

time. The feudal lords and officials brought the mustering

levies (hamspah), and sometimes supplemented them with foreign

mercenaries. The backbone of the army and the chief power of

controlling the empire consisted of the Iranians themselves.

Because of these weaknesses, the Parthians found it difficult

to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in siege

warfare. For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the38 Professor A. Sh. Shahbazi, “Parthian Army.” http://www.iranchamber.com/history/parthians/parthian_army.php, accessed on Decemer 13, 2013.

17

Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry

were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers, so,

neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able completely

to annex each other's territory.

Despite of this fact, the Parthian empire subsisted for

five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires and limited

Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia).39

City Formation

Chinese historians praised the cities of the empire as

these were surrounded by walls. Cleanliness and care for one’s

property was essential, particularly of the gardens, which

manifests the Iranian’s love for nature from ancient times.40

There were places of worships in large cities where people came

for performing rituals and sacrifices. Royal worship place has

been discovered in Nisa. Another is found in Hamadan of god

Naheed.41

Foreign Relations

39 “History of Iran,” en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iran#Parthian_Empire, accessed on November 25, 2013, and Professor A. Sh. Shahbazi, “Parthian Army.” 40 Badakhshani, 251.41 Ibid., 313.

18

The Parthians got understood the need of good

relationship with their neighbouring kingdoms. So, many times

they engaged in Agreements with Romans, Moreover, Hun dynasty

in China also sent its envoys to the court of Mithradates II

and from thence commenced their mutual relations,42 following

the arrival of Chinese ambassadors many times, who also

preserved the history of Parthia in their observations.

Economy

The Parthians controlled the silk Road, the route from the

Mediterranean Sea to China , which obviously meant that trade

was a main source of their income, bringing them great wealth,

which they used on their extensive building activities.43

Tribute and toll were other source of royal income. Presence of

pasture lands shows the dairy farming of goats and sheep and

their trade. Chinese had also mentioned the produce of fruits

and grains. Barter trade was in vogue, however, silver coins

were also used inscribed with the images of the rulers or gods.

These coins are one of the main sources of dating the

chronology of the kings too.

Society and Culture42 Badakhshani, 250-251. 43 Britannica, “Parthia.”

19

The founders of the Parthian empire were tribal in

nature, who established thriving cities marked with civic

characteristics while during process of its development and

strengthening. They worshipped the nature particularly the sun.

Hormuzd became the largest deity when they linked with

Iranians. Finally they adopted Zoroastrianism and Bilash III

ordered to rewrite Avista as Alexander the Great has burnt the

original Avista into ashes.44 The people of Parthia belonging to

the ruling class preferred the military profession. Hunt was

their favourite sport. These games were an important part of

their food. Vine and dates drinks were common. They dances on

flute and drums beats to amused themselves.45

Pahlavi language is characterized with the Parthians as

it became popular in this era. An interesting detail of this

evolution is found in coinage; name of the legends were written

in the Greek alphabet, and this practice was continued in the

second century CE. As the Greek language declined and Courtiers

as well as the masses now spoke Persian and used the Pahlavi

script.44 Badakhshani, 310-311.45 Ibid., 309 and Edith Porada, “The Art of Parthians,” http://www.iranchamber.com/art/articles/art_of_parthians.php, accessed on December 13, 2013.

20

Conclusion

The Parthian empire was the most enduring of the empires

of the ancient Near East. It imprinted lasting effects on the

history of Iran. It manifested the grandeur of the Iranian

polity in ancient time, particularly after political and

cultural incursions of the Greeks in the East. They got

recognized them as the independent and sovereign state of that

time. The Roman Empire and their Greek satraps in the East were

forced to give importance to their rule and policies in the

matters of governance of the region. The Greek influence in

culture, language and even religion was deteriorated and

Iranian ones got rooted gradually till the end of the

Parthians. Much of their history had been faded owing to the

devastations of wars with Greeks and the invading pagan tribes,

and then by Sassanid, who succeeded them. However, modern

researches have been helpful in excavating more information

about Parthia.

21

Bibliography:

Badakhshani, Maqbool Baig. Tarikh e Iran: Az Qaum Maad ta Aal e Sasan.I. Lahore: Majlis e Taraqqi e Adab, 1967.

Lendering, Jona. “Parthia Empire.” Iran Chamber Society. http://www.iranchamber.com/history/parthians/parthians.php. accessed on November 11, 2013.

Pahlav, Shahpur Suren. “General Surena; the Hero of Carrhae.”http://www.iranchamber.com/history/surena/. accessed onDecember 15, 2013.

Porada, Edith. “The Art of Parthians.” http://www.iranchamber.com/art/articles/art_of_parthians.php. accessed on December 13, 2013.

Shahbazi, Professor A. Sh. “Parthian Army.” http://www.iranchamber.com/history/parthians/parthian_army.php.accessed on Decemer 13, 2013.

“Agriculture in Iran.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/agriculture-in-iran. Accessed on December 05, 2013.

“History of Iran.” en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iran#Parthian_Empire. Accessed on November 25, 2013.

22

“Khuzestan Plain.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuzestan_Plain. Accessed on December 05, 2013.

“Moutain Ranges in Iran.” https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=mountain+ranges+in+iran. Accessed on December 05, 2013

“Parthian Empire.” http://www.parthia.com. Accessed on November23, 2013.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Parthia.” http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/444876/Parthia. Accessed onDecember 23, 2013.

Annexure I

A detailed map of Parthia’s political extents

23

Map i: Parthian Empire at its extents, courtesy:

www.ancient.eu.com/Parthian_Empire/

24

Annexure II

Parthian Script

The Parthian script developed from the Aramaic alphabet aroundthe 2nd century BCE and was used duringthe Parthian and Sassanid periods of the Persian Empire. Thelatest known inscription dates from 292 CE. 

Notable Features Written from right to left in horizontal lines. Only some vowels are indicated and the letters used to

represent them have multiple pronunciations. The letters marked in red were used to write loan words from

Aramaic.

Source: http://www.iranchamber.com/scripts/parthian_script.php#sthash.

25