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OITTLIIiES

OP

aENERAL III^TOIIY.

BY

WTTJJA^M FRANCIS COLLTEn, LE.D.,TUIMTY COLLKcn":, DVULIN;

X riKui fir ''iiisKiRY oi" Till: liunisii icmimim;," " uistouv of

t.Nui.isii MTKU.vrriii:, " eh:.

FOR TH? L'SE OF SCHOOLS IN bHIiibH NORTH AMERICA.

TORONTO:J A iM t: s c; a ivt i» i j r. t^ i. a. n r> so isr.

MUCCCLXXIII.

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#P R E F A C E.

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Ln lliu following worlc I have aimed afc ft-lving, of course

ii, mere outline, .a connected narrative of the principal

f;icts in the History of the World. I have endeavoured

to group them in such a manner as may help to indi-

ciito their relative importance, and show the bearing

which one event or age has upon another.

In my book entitled " Tlic Clrcat Events of History"

I have described in succession the great landmarks of

the Christian (V'nturies. The present volume takes a

v.-ider sweep, for it aims at filling up the gaps necessarily

left in following out the plan of its predecessor, and thus

presents a complete sunnnary of General History.

It is needless to enlarge upon the uses of such a work

in small com]iass. AVe nnist know the history of our

own countiy first and best : then should follow the his-

tories of those adjacent lands, which have influenced

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{y • PREFACE.

Groat Britain most ; but it is also needful for every per-

son of education to possess, in general outline, a know-

ledge of the History of the whole Civilized World. And

such knowledge can be obtained most conveniently from

an epitome like the present volume.

W. F. C.

i

UDiNcnuQD, Fvbruari/ 1868.

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C N 1^ E N T S.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Adam to Babtl, ...

Abraham to Joscplj,

Iliatory of Egypt, ...

Tlie Hebrews,

ClialduDa—Assyria—Babylui'^

Itedo-Perslan Empire,

Other Ancient States,

History of Greece,

The Macedonian Empire, ...

History of Rome, ...

Ciiicf Dates of Ancient History,

I'ago

9

11

11

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19

23

26

32

38

61

THE MIDDLE AGES.

FIRST PERIOD (47G-814 A.D.).

The Byzantine Empire (476 3C7 a.d.),

Italy (476-771 A.D.),

Persia (226-651 A.D.),

Arabia to 753 A.D.,

The Franks to 814 A.D.,

Tlie British Isles (449-827 a.d.).

SECOND PERIOD (814-1201 A

The Mohammedans (753-1250 A.D.),

Th;; Crus;uhs (10:iO-1201 A.K.),

D.).

65

68

70

71

73

75

77

80

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VICONTENTS.

Germany (811-1273 A.D.), .-

France (314-1323 a.d.), -

Italy (774-1305 a.d.), -

Byzantine Empire (S67-12G1 A.D.),

En;^laad (S27-1C09 a.d.), -

Scotland (843-132D a.d.), ».

States Rising into Strenstli, «••

I'ftga

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THIED rEPvIOD (1201-1453

Germany (1273-1493 A. 1.),

Italy (1305-1500 A.P.),

France (132S-1453 A.D.), ••

England (1399-14S5 A.D.), •••

Scotland (1329-1437 A.D.), ...

Spain (1212-1492 A.D.), ...

Fortugal to 1493, ...

Scandinavia,

roland-rrussia-IInngary-rvusm,

Byzantine En>pirc (1201-1453 A.D.),

Aiiia in the Middle Ages, ...

Chief Dates of tlio Middle Ai;e3, ...

A.D).

105

108

112

115

113

123

124

125

126

128

130

133

I

MODERN HISTORY.

EUROPE.

Britain from 1485 a.d.,

France from 1483 A.D.,

Holland and Bclsinm,

Denmark from 1397 A.D.,

Sweden and Norway,

Germany from 1493 A.D..

Prussia from 1525 A.D.,

Austria and Hungary,

Switzerland from llSl A.:

Spain from 1492 A.D.,

I'ortngal from 1493 A.D.,

Italy from 1500 A.D.,

Turkey from li53 a.d..

138

156

172

173

181

ISO

197

203

204

1:07

210

2:1

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COiJTESTS.

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82

SG

90

06

100

102

105

108

112

115

118

123

124

125

126

128

ISO

133

Greece from 1320 a.p.,

rolandfroinir.TO A.P.,

llussia from 1462 A.r.,

India from 1525 A. p.,

Persia from 1502 A.D.,

Oliioa aud Japan, ..

ASIA.

NORTH AMERICA.

United States,

IJritish America, ...

Mexico, ...

Central America and West Indies, ...

Nine Republics,

Brazil,

Guiana, ...

Australia,

Tasmania,

New Zealand,

SOUTH AMERICA-

AUSTRALASIA.

215

218

258

2G5

272

27-i

290

295

208

302

u03

301

305

306

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AFRICA.

138

156

172

173

181

186

107

203

204

207

210

2:1

2ZQ

Barbary States,

Cape Colony,

Chronology of Recent Events,

30r

311

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OUTLINES OV (iENERAL HISTORY.

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\Vi; (livido History Into tlircc portions ;—^

1. Ancient History, extending from the Creation to llic Fail

of Home in 47G a.d.

2. Medieval History, extending from the Full of Ftonie to the

Fall of Constantinople in 1453 a.d.

n. Modem History, extending from the Fall of Constantino[.lo

to the present time.

m

ANCIENT HISTORY.

The nations, that played the most prominent part in Ancient

History, ^vere Egypt, Phoenicia, the Jews, Assyria, ]3ahyh^n,

Persia, Greece, and Pvome.

ADAXd TO BABSL.

The Bible is onr oldest book of History. The first twelve

chapters of Genesis narrate almost all we know of the 2000 years

between the Creation and the time of Abraham. The date

generally assigned to the Creation of Man is 4004 years before

the Birth of Christ.

Eden.—Wo learn from tbc Bible that our first parents were

])laced in a beautiful garden, probably among the mountains of

Armenia; and that their disobedience of God's command not only

caused their expulsion from Eden, but laid the whole Imman race

under sentence of death, as the doom of sin.

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10 ADAM TO BABt'^L.

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Deluge.—111 tiiG (lays of Noah God sent a great Flood to

destroy the wicked inhalutants of the eartli. Only eight persons

^vcre saved alive, lacing shut, with the various lower animals, in a

great ark of gopher-wood, that floated above the mountain-

tops and was laid hy the subsiding waters on Mount Ararat.

Almost every nation on earth preserves the tradition of an ancient

Flood. This Delu2:e, which lasted about a vear and did not

necessarily cover the whole earth, is said to have begun in the

year 2349 b.c.

Babel.—About midway between the time of Noah and that of

Abraliani occurred that revolution which dispersed the human

race. Some descendants of Ham began to build a great tower of

brick cemented with bitumen on the site of the city Babylon;

but God so confused their language that they could not under-

stand one another, and they therefore stopped building and went

away in different directions. Thus arose the varieties of race

upon the earth. Each son of Noah Avas the parent of a great

division of mankind, which has had its turn in leading civilization.

The children of Ham began the great work, reaching their

highest development in Egypt. Of the descendants of Shem, the

Assyrians, the Hebrews, and the Phoenicians played the chief

part. }3ut it was reserved for the sons of Japhech to ]"ise into the

greates<^ nations of History.

The Japhetic languages, otherwise called Aryan, are spoken

from the Ganges to the Thames, and have lately overspread nearly

all America. The Semitic tongues belong chiefly to the basin of

Euphrates and Tigris, Syria, and the Arabian peninsula.

The five great varieties of man are :

—

1. Caucasian, inhabiting India, Western Asia, Northern Africa,

and nearly all Europe. Colour chiefly white.

2. Negro, inhabiting Central and Southern Africa. Black.

o. Turanian or Mongolian, r(3presentcd by Tartars, Chinese,

and Eskimo. Yellow or olive.

4. Malay, scattered over Polynesia. Chiefly brown.T). American. Colour, copper-red.

m

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HISTORY OF EGYrT. 11

ABRAHAM TO JOSEPH.

Origin of Hebrews.—A great Cliaiaruan Empire in Mesopo-

tauua-a great Egyptian empire uj tlie Nile-a Syrian centre

of power called Damascus-and nmncrous strongliolds o the

Canaanites and Philistines existed, ^vllen Abrani tlie HeLrev.,

Lorn in 199G b.c, was told hy ^^^^^ to leave Ur of tlie Clialdees

and travel westward with his family. Resting at Ilaran fcr a tmie

ho left it in 1021 B.C., being then seventy-five, and journeyed

into the land of Canaan. There he grew rich in cattle, and was

vceognizcd as a powerful prince. So powerful did he become,

that after the battle of Siddim-the first recorded m history-hc

^vas able to measure his strength with the Chaldean victors, from

whom he rescued Lot.

Every reader of the Bible -knows the story of Isaac, Jacob,

and Joseph ; and can trace the wonderful thread of Providence

in all that befell these men and their kindred, untd the tannly-

now increased to seventy souls-was led down to Egypt, to

undergo a stern discii^line of suffering, from which they were

destined to emerge—the nation chosen of God.

HISTOEY or EGYPT.

Mizraim—Before the call of Abraham a great Hamitic power

had grown up in the valley of the Nile. One of the early names

of the nation was jMizraim, the name of one of Ham's sons and

a dual word, representing the division of the comitry into Upper

and Lower Egypt. Memphis became the capital of the latter

;

Thebes of the former region.

Menes (about 2717 b.c.) is regarded as the first kmg of Egypt.

But several dynasties rose and fell in the obscurity of early times.

They have left, however, monuments engraved with hieroglyphics,

and vast stone pyramids, the tombs of their kings, to tell dimly

the story of primeval grandeur.^ The pyramids of Gluzeh cum-

memorate the monarchs of the Fourth Dynasty.

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12 HISTORY OP EGYPT.

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Slierherd Kings.—In the Twclftli Dynasty an invasion of

Semitic warriors, probably Arabs or Phauiicians, ovcr-

2080 tlircw the power of Lower Egypt and seized :Mcmphis.

B.C. Tliose conquerors are known in history as the Shepherd

Kin^-s. It was during their domination of about five

hundred years that the history of the Jews came first in contact

with tliat of Egypt. Some schohars maintain that Abraham

visited Egypt in^he reign of Sahatis, first of the Shepherd Kings;

and that Joseph was raised to distinction by Assa, fourth of the

line.

Exodus.—At a date variously given between 1101 B.C. and

1652 B.C., the Israelites, increased from a family to a nation,

made tlicir Exodus from Egypt. After having dwelt with their

flocks in the land of Goshen, along the eastern edge of the Delta,

for more than two bundled years, they found a champion and leader

in Moses, who conducted them into the wilderness, after God had

smitten the cruel Egyptians v/ith plagues that humbled them for

a time. It may be noted that Pharaoh is a name common to a

great number of the Egyptian kings.

Thebes.—There lay in Upper Egypt on the Nile a city, said to

have had a hundred gates, each of which could give egress to an

army and its cliariots. The traveller, who now views its ruins

at Karnak and Uksor, beholds pillared temples and statues of a

size so vast as to seem like the work of giant liands. This was

the celebrated Thebes, queen of the Upper Nile ; and from this

centre issued the power that finally expelled the Shepherd Kings.

Sesostris.—The Greeks related the deeds of a great Egyptian

king, Sesostris; but they seem to have ascribed to him deeds

which were achieved by many heroes of the Nile. The monarch,

whose renown is brightest and who best deserves to stand as the

original of the legendary Sesostris, was llameses II., a

king of the Nineteenth Dynasty, who began to reign about

1327 B.C., and reigned sixty-one years. He waged war

1266 ^^'^^^^ ^^^^ Ilittites, and carried the sword, some say, even

to Thrace and Scythia. He ruled also over Ethiopia.

He planned and began a Suez canal, decorated Thebes with temples,

1327B.C.

to

^1

HISTORY OF EGYPT. 13•I

especially the Rameseum, and placed colossal statues of Limseli

throughout the land.

Egypt and Assyria.—The great empire of Assyria came into

collision ^vith that of Egypt, to the loss of the latter. Tiglath-

pileser I. claimed to he the conqueror of Egypt ahout llilO B.C.

;

and an Assyrian dynasty probably occupied tlie throne for a time.

Shishak, who defeated Rehoboam and took Jerusalem in 971 u.c,

was the first of this race.

Psamineticlius.—In Psammetichus (CG4-G11 b.c.) the glory of

Egypt gave a bright but dying flash. When the oracle had

announced that he, of the Twelve Princes, who should pour wine

from a Irunze cup, should rule the rest, this prince, standing last,

and to whom no golden cup was given, filled his helmet and made

libation. Another oracle promised him success with the aid of

lra;:en men ; and they appeared, says the legend, in the shape of

brass-mailed lonians, driven ashore by a storm. Forming an

army of Greek mercenaries, he faced the Assyrians, from whom

he took the citv of Ashdod, a frontier fortress in the Philistine

country. The siege lasted twenty-nine years. Ills love of Greek

and the Greeks cost him dear; for the Egyptian soldiers deserted

him in a mass and went to Ethiopia.

Later Events.—Necho, the next king, took Carchemish on the

Euphrates, slew Josiah at Megiddo, and made Jchoiakim vassal-

king of Judica. But Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, a new

p(3wer risen on the ruins of Assyria, soon made Jerusalem his

own. Under a later king, Pharaoh-IIophra, this conqueror is

thought to have ravaged Egypt and reduced Thebes.

A new conqueror from the East appeared in the Persian Cam-

byses, son of Cyrus, in whose hands the capture of Pdusium, the

key of Eastern Egypt, left all the valley of the Nile—525 B.C.

A period of revolt followed ;but the final blow was dealt on Egypt

l)y the Persians about 353 B.C., when Nectanebo, last king of the

Tliirtieth Dynasty, fled up the river into Ethiopia.

In 332 B.C. Egypt fell under the dominion of Alexander of

l^Iacedon, who founded on its shore the great sea-pm-t and literary

centre called Alcxundria, One of his generulsj named Ptolemy,

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IIHEBREW HISTORY.

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. T f,..^mont of the divided empire in 323 B.C.;

received Egypt as liis ragmeut ot tne ai

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and tlieneeforth for three

^^^'^^'^l^^^^^^^^ 3O B.C. will

the Nile. How Egypt became a Roman provmco m

be narrated afterwards.

THE HEBREWS.

entered on his task ui ic.auuio i-'^^ »-

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tho tvibes-a region dad with gvccn imUu-es, its luU-s.acs Orcssc

,vitli vino and olive, its forests full ol honey.

JudE83,-Joshua died in 1426 B.C. ; and then heg.an «'« P" ml

of the Judges, ^vhieh lasted for 330 years. It was a trouhlod

La Session of lapses into idolatry and fie.e atW.. Y

Philstincs, Ammonites, Moabites, Midiamtcs and other foe,

whieh eall d forth ehampions like Gideon and Samson SamuU

,vas the last o£ the Judges. When tho P-f ,'^""7"^.„\'^^f;

he nnointed Saul, a man of great stature and dark vmdictivo spu.t.

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HEBREW HISTORY. 15

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Kings. Theocracy thus gave place to monarchy. The sue*

cessor of Saul was David, the great lyric-poet of the Hebrew

race, who, distinguishing himself at an early ago by his combat

with Goliath, was hunted by the unceasing jealousy of the king,

on whose throne he was destined to sit.

Having held his court at Hebron for more than seven years,

David assumed the sceptre of the whole land in 1048 B.C., and

fixed his capital at Jerusalem. His power finally extended from

Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea. He held

an alliance with Hiram, King of Tyre, a city of Phoenicia which

was already rising to commercial greatness.

Greatest Splendour.—The reign of Solomon (1015-975 b.c.)

was the most splendid period of the Hebrew history. His ships

rode both on the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. His wis-

dom attracted eminent visitors from the limits of the known

world. And, as if to crown his reign with a surpassing splen-

dour, for him was reserved the privilege of building that great

Temple of God, whoso cedar-work and gold, lilies and pome-

granates, are described with loving minuteness in the Book of

Kings, and tho prayer of whose dedication went up to heaven

with the smoke of countless sacrifices. If the splendour was

great, great also was the shame of Solomon's reign ; for, allured

by his idolatrous wives, this wise king forgot his wisdom, and set

up strange altars in the land.

The division of the kingdom followed tho death of Solomon.

Disgusted with tho insolence of llehoboam, Solomon's

Bon, ten tribes followed Jeroboam, who establish l him- 975

self at Shechem, as King of Israel. To Rehoboam were b.o.

left but two, forming the kingdom of Judah.

Israel.—The history of Israel is a tale of blood and sin. The

wickedness of her kings culminated in iVliab, whose wife Jezebel

outdid her lord in crimes. His capital was Samaria. Wars with

Judah and Syria cost Israel much ; but a worse foe arose in tho

East. Tiglath-pileser, King of Assyria, carried into exile the

tribes east of Jordan ; but a final blow fell on Israel, when her

last king Iloshea yielded to the As.syriau Shalmaneser ;and the

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10 IIISTOIIY OF JUDAII.

ten tribes ^verc carried into captivity-721 B.C.^

The land yas

peopled with Babylonian settler., ^vllo, coalescing ^vltll a few

Hebrews, formed the nucleus of the Samaritan i;ace.

Judah.-The kinc^dom of Judah held out during 13o years

lonc^cr. Three reigns shine bright in its annals. The wise reforms

of Jehoshaphat were somewhat tarnished by his fatal alliance

with Ahab. Ilezckiah, fired by the eloquence and wisdom of the

prophet Isaiah, restored the ancient worship. And the pious

Josiah contributed to advance the same good work. It was ni

Ilezekiah's reign that the army of Sennacherib, King of Assyria,

was destroyed in a single night, probably near Pelusmm.^

Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, was the evd genius of

Judah. Beducing Jerusalem in G05 t,.c., he caiTied oil the

ilower of the Jewish vouth into a captivity which lasted lor

seventy years. Shadowy vassal-kings reigned for a time in the

city of David; but the end 'soon came (580 n.c), and tln^ popu-

lation of Judah were all torn from their homes to pine m Babylon

The restoration of the Jews by the edict of Cyrus, in ooh B.C., will

form a new starting-point in their history.

CHALDffiA-ASSYHIA-BABYLON.

Wo have already mentioned great kingdoms that rose in the

basin of Euphrates and Tigris-the cradle of the human race-

and connected themselves closely with the history of both Egyp-

tians and Jews. The twin streams, rising on opposite sides ot

Mount Niphates, enclose a great trjangular plain, which became

the scat of three successive monarchies.

Of these the oldest was Chaldsea. It was founded by ^ imrod,

son of Cush, whose name is still attached to the great pyramidal

heap of ruins called Blrs Nimnul, built of bricks stamped witli

writino- in wedge-shaped characters. ]5abylon was chief m tlie

tetrapolis, or system of four cities, founded by this Ilamitic

dynasty. Chedorlaomcr, defeated by Abraham, was a loading

Chaldean king. Wo owe to this ancient people the rudiments

of arithmetic and astronomy. In 1518 B.C. a coalition ot Aral

(IST)

ing fi

,1

HISTORY OF ASSYRIA

.

17

e land was

vith a few

135 years

vise rcfonns

tal alliance

sdom of tlio

I tlic pious

It was in

• of Assyria,

nm.

1 crcniiis of

ried off tlio

k lasted for

time in the

id the popu-

; ill Bahvlon.

53G B.C., will

; rose in th.e

lunan race

—

f both K.i.^yp-

)slte sides of

vhicli hecanic

d hy Nimrod,

sat pyvanndal

stamped with

i chief in the

this llaniitic

;as a Icadinf:^

the rndinients

lition of Arah

trlhcs swept, like a destructive simoom, from the desert, and

overthrew the ChaldcTan power.

Assyria.—This, the second of the great monarchies of the

East was founded hy Asshur, who left Chalda?a and marked out

the site of Nineveh, near where the Great Zab joins the Tigris.

Names bright with ancient romance meet us at once. Revolt-

in^-- from the King of Babylon, say Greek legends, Ninus went

on a career of victory, until he came to Bactra. Then the

conqueror was conr|uered. For Semiramis, wife of a Bactrian

noble, displayed such courage in the capture of the city, that she

won the love of Ninus and became his queen. He soon died

;

and outside the walls of Nineveh, which he had built, she raised

a pyramid to his memory. And then the widow surpassed in

military renown the husband she had lost, imtil a great defeat in

India brought her to a check. The building of Nineveh was

ascribed to him : to her, the decorations of Babylon. After a

line of worthles-s descendants, the myth describes the extinction

of the dynasty in Sardanapalus, an effeminate prince, who lived

in his harem, dressed in woman's clothes, until the approach of

Arbaccs, satrap of Media, stung him to action. The cffeminato

monarch displayed the courage of a soldier, and, when hope was

gone, heaped his treasures into a vast funeral-pile, and died amid

its flames with all his wives.

Assyrian liistory falls into two periods : the Upper Dynasty

(1273-747 B.C.)—and the Lower Dynasty (747-G25 B.C.) These

periods are divided by the Era of Nahonassary who effected a

revolution in Babylon in 747 B.C.

After Nin, the head of the list, Tiglath-pileser (Tiger Lord of

Asshur) and his son Asshur-dani-pal (the original of Sardanapalus,

but totally unlike that mythic prince) are notable among the

kings of tlie Upper Dynasty. To this time belong the winged

bulls and lions, and the sculptured palace walls, which have been

dug from the mounds by the Tigi'is.

In the records of the Lower Dynasty we fmd the names of

another Tiglath and Shalmaneser, two kings already mentioned

as the conquerors of Israel. But the most gloriou.9 reign in

(1S7) 2

'ill

ml''I

'4

H

ill

I

tl

il

I'!

I

II -I

t' i

111 If

I

I

ifI >

J f

! >

18 HISTORY OF ASSYIIIA.

Assyrian history .-as tk.t of Sennacherib ( .02-080 i .c.) Lc. d «

beauHfyIng Nhieveli ^vith a magnificent palace ho turned to

d lu f war. He fought with Babylon and with the nations of

t lest. Crossing Euphrates, ho advanced until confi.n^^

tho Egyptians; and then, turning upon Ilezckiah, who had boon

encouraged to I'evolt, ho laid siege to Jerusalem, exacted u tribute,

d stripped tho Jewish King of some territory. The sudden

destruction of his army probably occurred during anothcn- move

mont upon Egypt. Some time later ho was murdered in tho

temple of Nisroch by his sons.i

.. i

aL vast Assvrlan Empire, never better than a loosely tmd

bmidle of petty slates, then began to fall to pieces. Ami behind

tho mountains of Zagros, on the table-land of Iran, a power was

-rowing, destined to smite it with destruction.

"Nineveh was rather a cluster of fortified palaces and temples,

with occasional fringes of meaner dwellings, scattered along tlie

bank of Tigris, than what is now understood by a city, l^or

about sixty miles momuls of ruin exist by the river; and out ol

some of these remarkalde works -.f art have been dug. 15ut the

heart of tho vanished city seems to bo represented by tho heaps

which are opposite 3Iosul.

In 025 B.C., when Saracus was king, an allied force of Modes,

Ciialdieans, and Babylonians, tho latter headed by Nabo-

625 polassar, a revolted Assyrian general, marched against

B.C. Nineveh. The king resisted tho siege, mitil a flood o

tho Tigris swept a part of tho wall away and admitted

tho foe. He then set lire to his palace ; and a great flame con-

Bumed his city and himself.^

Bahylon.-Babylon, which had never lost a certain degree ot

independence, and which had undergone a favourable change

under Nabonassar in 747 B.C., now revived with new vigour.^

Nabopolassar (025-004 B.C.), having received this city for his

services in the overthrow of Nineveh, set himself to consolidate

his empire. But the clasping arm of IMedia was always round

him on the cast and north.

It was under his greater sun, Nebucliadnezzar, that the empire

,'-*

il

tllSTOUY OF BABYLON. 10

Besides

nictl to

tions of

iitcd by

ad been

tribute,

sudden

L* move-

in tlio

lely tied

I behind

Avcr was

temples,

long tbo

ly. For

id (»ut ol'

15ut tbo

be heaps

f Medes,

jy Nabo-

l against

, flood of

admitted

unio con-

decree of

change

L^our.

iy for bii?

ynsolidato

\ys round

lie empire

reached its height of glory. Having in earlier life proved the

sliarpness of his sword upon Kgypt, he, during his reign of forty-

three years (G04-5G1 B.C.), undertook other wars, in which the

Kic"-o of Tyre and the sieges of Jerusalem stand out as conspicuous

achievements. The former lasted for thirteen years; the final

destruction of the latter city took place in 58G n.c.

Babylon, whose site was in the vicinity of HilJah^ a modern

Arab village, was a square city, at least five times as large as Lon-

don, and traversed by the Euphrates like a diagonal. Its walls

—

338 feet high and 85 feet thick—were studded with towers and

pierced with brazen gates. Its palaces and its hanging gardens—

u system of terraces formed, to please a Median (picen, in imita-

tion of mountain scenery—were among the wonders of the world.

In G08 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar, among other Jewish captives, car-

ried off a youth named Daniel. To him wc owe our most vivid

knowledge of this great king. His dreams and their meaning

—

the golden idol and the flcry furnace—and that terrible insanity

of seven years, during which the greatest monarch in the world

fancied himself a beast, are familiar stories of our childhood.

Then came four kings, the last being Nabonadius. He made

Ills son Belshazzar a partner of his throne ; and, wlicn the sire

fled before Cyrus to Borslppa, the foolish and arrogant son held

sway in Babylon. One day, in a fit of unusual folly, he brouglit

the sacred Jewish vessels, taken by Nebuchadnezzar, into the

bancpiet-hall, and used them in revelry and idolatrous libation.

A hand traced upon the wall words of doom, which the

Hebrew prophet alone could road. That hour these words 533

were in process of fulfilment. Setting the Persians to turn B.C.

the Euphrates from its bed, Cyrus made his way to tlio

cpiays. The river-gates were not shut. The foe poured in ; and

in the carnage Belshazzar was slain. Thus fell ^he Babylonian

power in 638 B.C.

MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.

Medes.—On the table-land cast of the chain Zagros dwelt a

hardy Japhetic race, the Medes, with whom are always associated

m

m

:

i •

mli

"I n

y

i;,

Tij

! 11 'U

20 HISTORY OF MEDIA. Ithe Persians, ^v^lO socm to have been the flower of the Aiyan

stock. At first the Mcilcs were supreme, their kingdom beini,'

founded by Cyaxares about C33 B.C. This monarch achieved two

things—he destroyed Nineveh in 625 B.C., and ho extended tho

Median power to the river Ilalys in Asia Minor.

Lydia.—Tlierc was then in Asia Minor, between tho Ilernius

and the Meander, a powerful state called Lydia, a territory rich

in gold and other mineral wealth. With Alyattes, King of

Ly(lia, the Median monarch came into collision;and for six year^i

a war went on, until an eclipse of the sun, occurring in the midiit

of a battle, frightened the combatants into a peace.

Persians.—Astyagcs the Mede was dethroned in 558 B.C. by

Cyrus the Persian. The Persians were a hardy yet poetic racu

of mountaineers, akin to the Medes. Tliey worshipped tho

elements ; their priests were the 3[a<jl ; their great propliet wa:j

Zoroaster, who taught the worship of Light. Divided intj

ten tribes, they mustered a splendid force of cavalry and a

host of skilful archers. From such came Cyrus by the father'^

side.

Cyrus.—Both Herodotus and Xenophon exalted Cyrus into

the rank of a hero of romance. The following i.s the current

story of his early life.

Astyages, having dreamed that liis daughter's son should con-

quer all Asia, entrusted to a courtier, Ilarpagus, the task of killing

the little Cyrus, whoso father was a Persian noble. Harpagus

gave the child to a herdsman, who promised to expose it on tin

mountains. But the herdsman was led to substitute his own

dead baby for the living prince, who grew up in a humble station.

The secret was disclosed, when Cyrus began to lord it over hi.s

play-fellows, and beat them. A noble's son complained to tho

Idng; and the royal boy was recognized. Astyagcs took a bar-

barous revenge on Harpagus, by cooking the courtier's son and

ser\ing up the flesh for the father to partake of. Cyrus

was sent to his father; and Harpagus bided his time of

reprisal. When the time was ripe, he sent a secret mes-

sage t.o CyruSj who iuvadcd iucduij vvas welcomed by crowds

! I

IM ^

Ihe Aiyan

om beiiiLj

ievcd two

jnJed tlio

G Ilcrniii!?

itory rich

King of

• six year^}

the niitlLiv

58 r.o. l>y

octic racu

ipped tho

ophct Wii;-}

idctl int.)

iry and a

le fiithcr'iJ

zyrus into

ic current

lould con-

: of killing

Harpagiis

I it on tho

3 his own)lc station.

t over his

icd to tho

ook a bar-

's son and

)f. Cyrus

lis time of

ecret mes-

by crowds

CR(ESUS AND CYnUS. 21

of desorting troops, and hy their aid overturned the Median throno

—558 n.o.

Croesus.—This last King of Lydia was tho riost famous. Tho

name of Croesus (508-554 B.C.) became a proverb for great wealth,

lie it was whose boast of liappincss was rebuked by Solon tho

Wise, with the words, " that no man can be called happy till ho

dies." Extending his dominion eastward to the ITalys, he was

rash enough to measure his strength with Cyrus. The Persian

{iuddenly appeared before the towered rock of Sardis, and put tho

Lydian cavalry to flight by forming his front line of camels, an

animal hated by the horse. The siege of Sardis then began. ALydian, who had dropped his helmet over the edge of the rock and

was climbing down for it, was seen l)y a Medc, who ascended by

the same path ; other soldiers following, the citadel was

taken, 554 n.o. "When Croesus was mounting the funeral- 554pile, to which Cyrus condemned liim, he uttered Solon's B.C.

name thrice in a mournful tone. Cyrus asked tho meaning

of the exclamation ; and on hearing the story of Solon's rebuke

granted life and favour to the fallen king. Asia Minor in general

.soon acknowledged the supremacy of Cyrus.

Jews Restored.—The second gi'cat event in the reign of Cyrus

was the conquest of Babylon, already described. An immediate re-

sult of his success was the celebrated Edict of 53G B.C., by which

he restored the captive Jews to their own land, providing thcni

with food and money for the journey, collecting tlicir sacred

vessels from the l^abylonian temples, and even adding offerings

for the Temple. Such was tho fulfilment of the prophetic words,

in which Isaiah uttered the very name of this king, so favoured

of God.

Death of Cyrus.—Tlio twenty-nine years of Cyrus' reign

closed in a war with tho Massagetaj, a Scythian tribe dwelling

east of the Caspian. Tomyris, the barbarian queen,

wreaked a brutal revenge on her dead enemy by dipping 529his head in a skinful of gore, " to give him," she said, e.g.

" his fill of blood." The sword of Cyrus extended tho

ersian Empire from the Indus to the Hellespont, from the Jax-•D

mri

lis

i:

if

Mi

I

mI'

t

v\

I Mi

\{

\

I''

; m

I*'

i

22 TUP. PERfTAK EMriBE.

nrtcs to the Syi-ian shore. Egypt was the only important territory

afterwards added to it., . i r

Camhyses—The son of Cyrns succeeded him, and reigned for

pcven years (520-52-2 n.c). The chief event of Cambyses' reign

was his invasion of Egypt in 525 luc. Led by a mercenary

guide across the desert between Philistia and ]\gypt, lie took

Memphis, and soon afterwards forced the Egyptian king Tsam-

inenitus to drink poison. Among his efforts to extend his power

in Egypt was tlie despatch of an army of 50,000 to destroy tlic

temple in the Oasis of Amnion, now called Slwah; but the ex-

pedition perished—probably in a simoom, although the current

story asserted that they were whelmed in a sand-storm. Cam-

byses gave way in Egypt to his wantonness and cruelty. lb;

Hhocked the Egyptians by stabbing a calf, which they regarded

as sacred. On one occasion, when a courtier told hiin at his own

reciuest that popular rumour blamed him for drinking to excesf^^,

he proved the steadiness of his hand and eye by piercing the

heart of that courtier's son with an arrow. He also murdered

his brother Smerdis. But a IMagian impostor, professing to be

Smerdis, proclaimed himself king; and, when the news reached

Cambyses, he went to mount his horse, and was accidentally

wounded in the thigh with the point of his own dagger—522 B.C.

Darius I.—A few months saw the death of Smerdis, upon

which Darius Hystaspes, a monarch second only to Cyrus in fame,

ascended the Persian throne. His reign lasted for thirty-six

years (521-485 b.c). Ho o-'r:nized the vast empire, making

roads to every part, and so bli Uno" the distant provinces to the

great centres of Persian j>.>wt-r. Tiiese were Susa, the spring

residence of the king; Ecbatana, his summer abode; and Baby-

lon, the winter quarters. The power of the Satrops, as the

governors of provinces were called, was checked by frequently

giving the command of the soldiers and the administration of

law to hands independent of them.

Darius waged important wars in opposite corners of his realm.

He sent soldiers into India, and lie went in person across the

Danube to fight with the Scythians. It was here tliat the

t. >

HISTORY ov nur.NiniA. 23

: territory

)ignc(l for

ses' reign

ncrcciuary

,he took

no: Psam-

liis power

cstroy tliG

t tlio cx-

10 current

n. Cam-

3ltv. IIo

r regarded

it his own

to excesr?,

arcing the

murdered

;ing to 1)0

^'3 readied

:cidentally

—522 B.C.

rdis, upon

IS in fame,

thirty-six

•e, making

nccs to the

the spring

and Bahy-

fj}s, as the

frequently

stration of

his realm.

across the

2 tliat the

Greeks kept guard over his hridgo of hoats, and Miltladcs pro-

posed to destroy the Persian amiy by breaking it up—a proposal

foiled by the craft of Ilistianis. Wliile Arta[»hernes, brother of

Darius was ruling the western provinces, Ionia revolted from the

Persian King (r)01 w c). This brought Greec(i and Persia into

collision; and on the phun of Marathon (490 d.c.) the despot of

the East learned a lesson, of which more shall afterwards be said.

IIo was preparing for a second invasion of Greece, when a re-

volt in Kgypt turned him from the project. His death took

place in the following year—iST) n.c.

Later Events.—Nearly all that is striking in the history of

ancient Persia henceforth interweaves itself with the story of

(J recce, and shall be more fully set forth there.

Xerxes—the Ahasuerus of l']sther *—who reigned from 485 B.C.

to 405 B.C., recovered Kgypt, but underwent terrible defeats at

Thermopylae and Salamis. lie was murdered by conspirators.

Artaxerxcs Longinianus (404-425 B.C.) and Darius II. suc-

ceeded; but greater events happened in the reign of Artaxerxcs

Mnemon, to ^\ho.sc time belong the Ptctvcat of the Ten Thou-

sand and the campaigns of Agesilaus. It was Darius Codo-

mannus who fought with Alexander the Great at Arbela in

*>il B.C., and was slain by Bessus, Satrap of Bactria.

' J

m

OTHER ANCIENT STATES.

Phoenicia.—The land called Phoenicia, from the Greek Phocnicr^

" land of the date-palm," was a strip between Lebanon and tho

sea. Its shore, rich in good anchorage for ships, came to be tho

scat of great sea-ports, of which Tyro and Sidon were the most

celebrated. It is probable that the population, originally Ilamitic,

was overwhelmed by a Semitic wave. Growing strong in com-

merce, Phoenicia rose to bo the great colonizing power in tho

ancient world. The first step w\as naturally to Cyprus; but it is

easy to see how tho rakish fifty-oared galleys would dart across

* /f/'(Tsvrr;(.'? was a name applied to several Tcrsian monarclis. In Daniel it rcpro

Ecnts Cyaxarcs—in Ezra, Cambyses— in Esther, Xerxes.

jtJ

m

>/ii

% 1

i'i

I

\

I

ft'

11

V"

.11

I

^.

I-

24 HISTORY OF riKENICIA.

to Asia Miiior, visit the Grecian sliores, cross to Sicily, from that

centre reach Africa by way of Malta, and Spain by way of Sar-

dinia and the Balearic Isk-R, and would even venture througli

the great gate of the Mediterranean and breast the waves of the

Atlantic. In later times her ships reached the Canaries and the

southern shores of Britain. Among their earliest colonics we find

Gades (Cadiz) in Spain, and Utica in Africa. The legend of

Cadmus, a Phoenician emigrant, who founded Thebes in Bojotia,

and taught the alphabet to the Greeks, is based on some early

colonizing expedition.

Sidon and Tyre existed—the former having the greater power

—at the time that Canaan Avas divided among the tribes. Those

cities were included in Asher, but were not subdued by the

Hebrews. A blow inflicted upon Sidon by the Philistines raised

Tyre to higher power.

When Illram, the friend and ally of David and Solomon, was

king, the commerce of Tyre was veiy extensive. Her ships

mailed to Tarshish (the south of Spain), and on another sea sought

the gold of Ophir along the eastern coast of Africa. Phcenicia

grew rich also by exports, of which the chief were the embroidery

and glass of Sidon, and the Tyrian purple, a dye yielded by th(5

local shell-fish, in the shape of a single drop of cream-coloured

juice from each mollusc. There was also an active slave-trade.

The marriage of wicked Ahab, King of Israel, with wicked

Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King of the Sidonlaus, brought

misery on the former land. This Ethbaal was a priest, who had suc-

ceeded in overturning the dynasty and founding a sacerdotal power.

The greatest of the Phoenician colonies was Carthage—the

New City—founded near Utica on the African coast, in a central

commanding position. The legend runs as follows :

—

Pygmalion and his sister Dido were tlic great-grandchildren of

Ethbaal. Dido's husband, a wcaltliy priest, was murdered by

Pygmalion, who hoped to secure his liehes. But Dido carried

off the treasure, and sailed away with a retinue of discontented

Tyrians. They finally landed on the African coast and built the

citadel Bp'sa, from which grew Carthage. The story concludes

V:«i

HISTORY or ATI AM. 25

i'

om that

of Sar-

tlironcrli

!S of tlio

and tlio

\ve find

g'cnd of

Boeotia,

10 early

!!' power

These

by the

es raised

lion, was

or ships

!a sought

[Phoenicia

Lbroidcry

1 by tho

•coloured

!-trade.

li wicked

l)ronght

I had sue-

al power,

age—the

a central

lildren of

dered by

o carried

contented

built tho

concludes

by describing tho suicide of Dido on a vast pyre, in order to

escape from a marriag-e with the Lil)y.^r, king. Tlie foundation

of Carthage is assigned to the year 878 B.C. A probable conjec-

ture supposes the real origin of this great city to have been tho

building of a factory by the merchants of Utica, to whom aid

came from tlie mother-city.

Tyre underwent several sieges, the most noted being those by

Sargon the Assyrian (721-717 r..c.)—Nebuchadnezzar, King of

Babylon (598-585 e.g.)—and Alexander the Great (332 B.C.).

The Persians under Cyrus gained ascendency in Phoenicia, and

f )r a considerable time tho Phoomcian navies formed a far-stretch-

ing arm of Persian power. The land of Phoenicia then came to

lie a prize contested by Syria and Egypt, falling to the latter

in the days of Antiochus the Great—198 B.C. Neither the foun-

dation of Alexandria as a rival port, nor tho subjugation of Syria

by the Bomans destroyed the commercial greatness of Tyre; for

she still gathered into her ships the riches of the East, and sent

t1iem abroad througli the Great Sea. It was not until tho

IMiddlc Ages that her light went out : and she became a " place

for tho drying of nets."

Aram.—The descendants of Aram, one of the five sons of Shem,

occupied the highlands of Syria and Mesopotamia. The city of

Damascus and the state Ilamath appear frequently in the history

of the Jews. King David achieved a great victory over Ilad-

ade/er, Iving of Zobah, and defeated also a great army from

Damascus, wliich reduced that city to a tributary condition.

Bezon, a servant of defeated Iladadezer, maintained a guerilla

warfare among the mountains, and in the days of Solomon suc-

ceeded in re-establishing the power of Damascus. Henceforth

Israel had a formidable foe to contend with on the north.

Beidiadad I. troubled Israel with war. Benhadad II. fought

Avith Ahab, and received a terrible defeat at Aphek. Ilazael,

nerv'ant of this Syrian monarch, smothered his master by laying a

wet cloth on his iace, and thus became king. He carried off the

sacred vessels from the Temple at Jerusalem. But the end came,

when Beziu was Kinc of Damascus and that state had existed as a

mI 1

f.

.r.

•II

M

'^

[:20 STATE? or ASIA MINOB.

i

kin£?dom for 235 years. Tiglatli-pilcscr of Af>syria came against

Damascus, killed the king, and canicd off tlio people into cap-

tivity—740 B.C. Syria rose into new splendour after the death

of Alexander the Great, when one of his generals, Seleucus, estah-

lishcd a dynasty, to which the celehrated Antiochus afterwards

helongcd. But the closing pages of Syrian history belong to the

annals of Rome.

States in Asia Minor.—Very early in history wo find in tho

peninsula of Asia Minor the names of certain kingdoms, which

are connected with the poetry and fable of the Greeks. Such

vras Troij or Ulmi, besieged for ten years by a host of confederate

Greeks under Agamemnon, King of Mycena\ The fall of Troy

is assigned to the year 1184 n.c. In the centre of tho peninsula

was I'Jmjr/la, whose peasant-king, chosen in obedience to an

oracle as iie jolted in his waggon into the market-place, placed

the cart in the temple. The twisted piece of bark, joining the pole

to the axle, formed the celebrated Gordian Knot, severed by the

Bword of Alexander. Midas, whose gold-creating finger and ass's

cars are familiar to every reader of Greek mythology, was the son

of Gordius. But far greater than those realms was the kingdom

o^Lydia, of which some account has been already given.

Tho western coast and islands of Asia Minor became Greek at

an early period. The iEolIau Greeks settled in Lesbos and on

the adjacent shore, where Smyrna for a while was their most

important city. Tlie I(jnians, an offshoot from Athens, occupied

the two great islands of Chios and Samos an.l tlie coast between

Ilermus and Meander. Ephesus and INIiletus were tho chief

Ionian cities. The Dorians held Caria and the adjacent islands,

especially llhodes. Tliese Grecian States became tributary, for

the most part—at first to Lydia under Crccsus, and afterwards to

Persia.

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Colonization.—From Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia jNIInor colo-

nists passed over the sea to Greece, and laid the foundation of

l.r^r earliest cities. The storv of the Trojan War is the first

I

li"* t[

i

mSTOIlY OF nnEEOE. 27

occaf^ion on which the Greeks appear prominently in history as

warriors. The ten years' siege of Troy, closing in 1184 B.C.,

afforded brilliant material for early poetry : the great Epic poet

Homer founded his Iliad and OJysscT/ on certain incidents and

consequence-i of this war.

The Return of the Heracleids— a movement of northern

Greeks upon the south—was the second great event in Grecian

history. Starting from Epirus, they descended into Thessaly,

and afterwards conquered Bocotia. This was called the JEolian

M'ujration—1124 B.C. A hand of Dorians from the north slope of

Parnassus moved, twenty years later, towards the Peloponnesus,

and, crossing the strait, overspread the peninsula

—

1104 B.C.

Sparta.—Of the Dorian States, thus founded in the Pelopon-

nesus, Sparta soon shot ahead. She ow^ed her organization to

the great lawgiver Lycurgus, who commenced his patriotic toil

in 884 B.C. To make the Spartan youth into hrave and hardy

soldiers, was the great object of his system of education. "When

Ills work of legislation was complete, he exacted an oath from tho

Sl>artans that they would make no change in his laws, until ho

returned from his travels : and he then left his native land for ever.

Messenian Wars.—Sparta soon came into collision with Mes-

pcnia, a grassy tract lying to tho west. The invaders seized

Aiiiphea, whereupon the Mcsscnians fortified Ithome. The first

war lasted for twenty years (743-723 B.C.) ;the second, in which

]<]ira was the Messenian stronghold and Aristomcnes the Mos-

Bonian hero, lasted for seventeen (G85-G08 B.C.). The result was

a dispersion of the Messenians in various colonics, of which one—

IMessina in Sicilv—retains its name to this day.

Athens.—As Sparta had her Lycurgus, so Athens had her

great statesman Solon, who gave laws to the flower of the Tonic

race. When Codrns, King of Athens, sacrificed his life to save his

city from her Dorian assailants (10G8 B.C.), the name of King was

abolished, and Athens was ruled by Archons. Confusion took

place ; and Draco issued a code of laws so severe that they wero

said to be written in blood. But it was upon Solon, a native of

Salamis, that the great task of shaping the Athenian Constitution Hi

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HISTORY OF GREECE.

devolved. Named Archon in 594 B.C., he relieved hopeles.

deul, aLolished most of Draco's laws, and organized the

Jovern;ent. Before his death, which took place m 5o9 B.C., he

saw rbe^innin, of a revolution, which ultimately raised Pisis-

"u the head of Athenian affairs. As Tyrant, winch m is

e"-lier sense simply meant a democratic usurper he rided w sc y

or many years, encouraging literature, and especially disting nsli-

4 himself h; collecting in writing the scattered Homenc lays

U;on his death in 527 B.C., his power devolved upmi his .nee

sons ; and the survivor of these, Ilippias, was expelled from Athens

^vith'the aid of a Spartan force, 510 B.C.

Persian Wars.-Greece and Persia soon afterwards canie mto

^varlike collision. We have already seen how the great Kastcru

monarchv, founded by Cyrus and built up b; Cambyses, was

consolidated by Parius Ilystaspes, who became king in .) 1 lu

First irar.-The aid given by Athens to Anstagoras of Mile-

tus who had taken up arms against the Persian monarch, drew

down the wrath oi Darius upon Greece. After a preliminary

failure in 492 B.C. by Mardonius, a great Persian fleet sailed

across the .Egean, under the command of Datis and Arlapliernes.

ilippias was on board. After reducing several islands, a descent

^vas made on Eubcea, when the town of Eretria fell. ]5ut the

plain of 3Iarathm was the final scene. There, 1 etween the

mountains and the sea, one of the greatest conflicts in history

took place. The Athenians had no aid except six hundred men

from Platava. Their leader on the day of battle was IMiltiades,

who as Tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese had already

49C become acquainted with the Persians during a campaign

B c of Darius in Scythia. Permitting the Asiatics to pierce

his centre, this skilful general closed his wings upon

them, and inflicted a decisive defeat, which brought the war to

an end—490 B.C.

f^ecoml TFar.—Xerxes, the son of Darius, resolved to avengo

the Persian loss at Marathon. After si)ending four years in

preparation, he crossed the Hellespont with a force of nearly two

millions. Athens and Sparta united their strength to resist liin.i-.

m

HISTORY OF GREECE. 20

Lcoiiifli^s, with tlircG hundred Spartans and five thousand others,

withstood the Perriiau host at the pass of Thermopylae^ between

the sea and a ridi^e of precipitous cliffs. The defence was suc-

cessful, until a traitor led a band of Persians by a path across

the mountains, and thus enabled them to attack the Greeks in

the rear. The Spartans died almost to a man: seven

hundred brave Thespians shared their fiite—480 B.C. 480The Persians, however, sustained a great defeat in the B.C.

narrow strait of Scdamis, where the wily Athenian,

Themistocles, forced the allied Greek fleet to give them battle.

Xerxes then hurried baek to Asia, leaving Mardonius with

r»00,000 men to continue the war. This general was defeated

and slain by the Greeks at Plata?a; and on the very same day

a victory, won by the Greeks on the promontory of Mycale

in Asia Minor, filled Xerxes with alarm that these invincible

I'uropenns might think of striking at the heart of his own em-

pire in reprisal for his invasion. A colleague of Themistocles

iu the war against the Persians was Aristides the Just, the

great political work of whose life was the formation of a vast

Ionian Confedeiacy, at the head of which stood Athens. The

Tliird IMesscnian War (404-455 r.c), and the formation in

445 B.C. of a Thirty Years' Truce between Athens and Sparta^

carry us on to the age of Athenian splendour under Pericles.

Age of Pericles.—The leaders of parties in Athens now came

to be Cimon, head of the aristocratic faction, and Pericles, wlio

represented democracy. The banishment of Cimon left Pericles

witliout a rival. Under him art and literature flourished exceed-

ingly at Athens, and the foundation was laid of that intellectual

supremacy, which Athens maintained over the ancient world.

Peloponnesian War.—Before the death of Pericles, the rivalry

b(>t\veen Athens and Sj^arta had broken out into a contest, known

as the Peloponnesian AVar (482-404 B.C.). Sparta, a military

power, represented the aristocratic principle; Athens, a naval

power, represented democracy. The Thirty Years' Truce was

oidy half expired at the outbreiilv of hostilities.

The immediate occasion of the war was a conflict between

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hk plan o£ warfare u-as followed namclj, .0co

Athenian force .virtuu the city, m.l tl.o 'levBtahon oE the e^jycoasts with Athenian ships. But he ched m 42J B.C., and

iilace was hut poorly filled hy the noisy tloon., , „ „f

'

T , "^volt of lLs from Athens, and the hravc de enooino ie%on, ci

„.„ „„,,,t events iu the earlier part

P?((tea against the fcpaitiius%\ciCoU,.if.>,ln,.Ic.„led

of the war. The affair at ,'^,,/,«c<on« wlicr he hkcW d

Athenians were relieved hy Cleon ;and the

"f-'° ^^f^nians at DcUum in Bocotia were also notahlc. Biasul. s, tu^

:r si-tan general, and Cleon the A;|-;-^^f "IZat Amphipolis, the victory remaining with the Spa'

^^- / °

reue of Nicias (-ISl ii.c.) then gave a tempovaiy ics to lu.

LiXtlts. Though made for fitty years, it lasted only a few

'"Tl'cihiades, a handsome dissolute pupil of Soer..tes induced

the A " ive o renew the war. lie then persuaded the Athenians

setd\n expedition against ,S>-««, ,a «-k co^-'y -f^-^>

'

The command of the armament was given to N'c a,U adiu

and Alcibiadcs; hut the last-named, hemg recalled '» AU'cns <,i

a char-e of impictv, contrived to escape to Sparta. Ihe by.a

:4.n :xpediti„\. .Vs a total failure ; and the »"empt o^Je a^^^^^

to escape hy land ended in ;gnonunious_surrender. Ihese events

of the Sicilian campaign occurred 111 -lla-llo ii.c.

Alcihiades passed from Sparta to Sard.s, where he made .a f, end

of Tissaphernes the Versian satrap. By the veeoyery of Lux. a

and some hrllUant naval victories, he seemed a ruimphal retu n

Athens, when tears of joy welcomed him. But the intrigues

of a hostile faction drove him into a second exile. Athens, wi

the madness that precedes ruin, executed six other generals and

a fatal blow tell, when Lysander surprised their heaehed gallej

at .©'os-potanJ in the Hellespont (405 ,..c,). The siege and

surrender of Athens in the following year hrouglit t 'O war to au

cud Wo owe our knowledge of this contest eluelly to lUu.N-

I

HISTORY OF GREECE. 3t

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dicIcB, wlio wroto the history of its first twenty-one years:Xeno-

phon narrates the events of the remaining six.

Thirty Tyrants.— Thirty magistrates, called tlio Thirty

Ti/rants, ruled Athens with the aid of a Spartan force, until

Thrasyhulus seized the Piraeus, and deposed the rapacious

archons. A Council of Ten was then elected. Athens stooped

to receive Persian gold for the rebuildhig of the Long Walls and

the ramparts of the Piraius, which Lysander had destroyed.

This was hut one of many preparations, that were making

throughout Greece, to curb the overhearing pride of Sparta.

The expedition of Cyrus (401-400 B.C.) afforded to the world

a fine example of Greek prowess and fortitude. Starting from

Sardis, 13,000 Greeks, under Clearchus, a Spartan, marched to

the Euphrates, and fought the battle of Cunaxa victoriously; but

Cyrus was killed. Then began the Bctreat of the Ten ThousanJ,

in which the historian Xenophon was their leader. Through

Media and Armenia they struggled on to the shore of the Black

Sea, whence tliey made their way home.

The ascendency of Sparta was wv]\ maintained by Agesilau,^.

But a naval defeat at Cnidus (394 u.c.) shook her power; ami

soon the Peace of Antalcidas was concluded (387 B.C.), giving up

the Asiatic cities to the Persian King.

Sparta and Thebes.—As the power of Sparta shook, that of

Thebes grew bright and strong. The two rivals soon engaged

in war. Phoebidas, a Spartan general, seized the Cadmea, or

citadel of Thebes ; but the foreign garrison was expelled by a

band headed by the brave Pelopidas. Athens sent assistance to

Thebes ; and Pel(»pidas, chiefly with the aid of the famous Sacred

Band, consisting of 300 chosen Tliebans, secured the supremacy

of Thebes in Bcrotia. But Athens then deserted her ally;and

Thebes maintained the struggle alone. Cleombrotus the

Spartan, with 10,000 men, was signally defeated at Lcnc- 371

ira bv Ei'^-^nnondas and Pelopidas, who led only COOO b.c.

soldiers to battle, 371 B.C.

Tlie Thebans then began to invade the Peloponnesus; but

they were not successful in reducing Sparta. Arcadia, at fust

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their friend, broke off, as Athens had done, from their alliance.

Pelopidas fell in a Thcssalian ^var ; and at Mcmthcxi, facint; a

confederate host of Spartans, Arcadians, and Athenians, the great

Epaminondas died of a spear-wound in the breast—3G2 b.c.

THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.

Origin.—A fourth claimant for supremo power now arose in

the north, where the kingdom of Macedon had been growing fur

about three centuries. Its territory was separated from Thraco

by the River Strvmon, and from Thessaly by Mount Olympus.

A population of Illyrian and Thracian tribes, with a mixture of

Hellenic settlers, occupied the soil.

Philip.—The residence of riiilip, son of Amyntas, in Thebes,

where he was detained as a hostage, afforded him an opportunity

of studying Greek literature and politics. And, when ho

359 ascended the throne in 359 B.C., he organized an army,

B.C. which in his skilful hand proved to be a weapon of

victory. He began by seizing Amphipolis, and estab-

lishing the niilitary station of riiillppi. Choosing a time when

the Athenians were embarrassed with a Social War, whicli

cost thciu the control of many islands, he interfered in tho

Sacred War, which had arisen in 357 B.C. between Tiiebc.l

iuid Phocis. A victory over the Thocians left him master of

Tliessaly: and he then laid vigorous siege to Olynthus, which

he took and levelled to tlie ground. Meanwhile the great

Athenian orator Demosthenes had been uttering the thunder

of his voice in warnings, which his countrymen took but tardily.

The conquering Northern then overran Phocis, and received

a scat in the Amphictyonic Council. It was at Perinthus

and Byzantium in the north that tho Macedonians and Athe-

nians first came into collision. The Athenians under Phocion

forced him to raise the siege of these cities. His sudden seizure

of Elatea brought about an alliance between Athens and Thebes.

But victory crowned the Macedonian arms at ChcGronea (338 B.C.);

and Athens gladly accepted the humiliating terms of peace offered

!i

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Or

by tlic conqueror. A Macedonian garrison occupied Hicbcs. AHthings augured success to Philip, until an assassin named Pausanias

slew him at Mgtxi during the procession of a marriage—336 b.c.

Alexander the Great, aged twenty, then ascended the throne.

llraced with campaigning in Scythia and Illyria, he fell sud-

denly on Thebes, which liad revolted against the Macedonian

garrison, and put the inhabitants to the sword. Athens trem-

bled in expectation of similar treatment ; but a plan for the

conquest of Asia fdled the mind of the ambitious youth.

Leaving Antipatcr as regent in Macedonia, he crossed the

Hellespont with a small army, and advanced to the Granicus—334 n.c. A Persian army, lining the banks of this stream, could

not withstand the charge of the phalanx, which Alexander led in

person. lie then passed victoriously through Asia Minor, amongother achievements " cutting the Gordian Knot," which fastened

the pole of a Phrygian car at Gordium. Meanwhile, the Persian

king, Darius Codomannus, had been getting his ponderous army

into marcliing order, and moving towards the scene of action.

The monavchs of East and West met in conflict on the narrow

plains of Isms^ where the vastness of the Persian army proved to

be worse than useless. Tiie rout was complete. Darius fled

with speed, leaving his mother and liis wife as captives—333 n.c.

Alexander's next achievement was the reduction of Tyre. Tlie

siege cost him seven months ; but lie built a pier across the

F.trait, half a mile wiile, which separated the island-city from the

maiuland, and thus gained access to the walls, which were

b'vttercd and carried by ^;torm. lie then reduced Gaza, paid a

visit to Jerusalem, and passed into Kgypt, whose people desired

to throw off the Persian yoke. The foundation of the great sea-

port Alexandria, on the site of a village called Bacotis, was a

result of his sojourn in that country.

But the invasion of Persia called him eastward. Eflcctinjr the

passage of the Euphrates at Thapsacus, he mnrelied through

Mesopotamia, and then struck down the Tigris. Darius chose the

plain of Gaugamela, twenty miles from the town of ArhcJa, as tlie

arena on which the decisive battle was to be fought. The result

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ALF-XAXUEr. THE GREAT.

was the .amc n« tlmt of Issus. A milUou of Persia.,, were scaUcrcJ

by less than fifty thousand Greek.. T>.mM <.n<l Alex-

331„„,ler, then aged twentyfive, .vas lor^l of Western Asu-

The nuulcr' of Barlus hy Bessus, Satrap of Baetria; the

assun.ption of the Persian .Iress and nmnners hy A oxan.ler;

the

foundation of other Alexaudrias, still surv.v.ng .n //c™( and

CanMa,; followed, as the vietor fought his way through As.a,

nast the Caspian, to the Jaxartes., a„ ,1-

He soon invaded Northern India. Crossing the Indus .at Attod

,

he pushed on to the Ilydaspes (now the Jhelu.n), .and forced h,s

,vav over that stream to fight with Porus, whose elephants Imcd

the opposite hank. The monstrous animals, bemg goaded to

madness hy the Greek horse, broke loose; the phalanx let them

pass, and then pierced the Indian lines-32G n.c. The Mace-

donian King advanced to the Sutloj ; hut then turned hack, and

hnilt a fleet to float down the Indus. The voviige took sewn

months, after which, leaving the boats to Nearchus Alexander

marched through the terrible desert of Gedrosia, and nia.le Susa

the head-<iuarters of his Persian luxury. There remams but

Utile to tell. Bathing incautiously after a fit of hard drmking,

he took a fever, which carried him off at Babylon in the very

noon of his fame—3'2o B.C.

A.'is of Sparta opposed Antipater, Regent of Miicedoma, m vain.

Tlio Atlioniaii.s, too, cntoml on tlie Lauuaii A\ ai (o-o-o-^ u.t.;

to no purpose. A Macclonian -arrison was forced npon Athens.

Partition of the Empire.—T lie generals of Alexander con-

tf^nded fiercely for the fragments into ^vllicll his great empire

fell. The treaty of Triparadisus made the following division,

B.C. 322 :—

1. Sdencus ... rcceivc<l

2. Antigonus ... j>

3. Lysiraachus ... $t

4. Aiitipater ... a5. Ptolemy Lagns, „

ruliyloMia.

Asia Miimr.

Thnco.

Miicotlonu and Greece.

Egypt.

Asia Minor.—The kingdom of Asia Minor, soon after the

If N-

IIISTOUY OF CUEECE. 35 nn

bnttlc of Ipsus (301 r.c), bvokc into several indcpciv.lcut states

—

hitliyii' Pontus, C .(l0( Galatia ; l)iit tlicsorergaiuf

were gradually absorbed into tlic spreading ]^]nipire of Home.

Syria 'vvill bo referred to under lloman history.

Later Events.—Tbo later liistory of Macedou was very

cliangeriil. After tlio death of Antipater, Polyspercbon and

Oassander contended for the mastery. Demetrius Poliorcetcs,

sou of Antigonus, who calbnl liiniself King of Asia INIinor, de-

feated tbo latter and relieved Athens more than once.

A great defeat at Ipsus in Phrygia, where Antigonus \vas 301

killed, checked the career of Demetrius for a while, but li.c.

lie ultimately made himself King of Macedon. lie wart

supplanted by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who himself gave placo

to Lysiniachus ; l)ut Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, re-

covered the IMacedonian crown, and founded a dynasty that lasted

for more than seventy yeai's. Phil"p V. and Perseus were the

hist kings of Macedon, which became a Pvoman province in 1G8 r.c,

after the battle of Fyfhia.

Achaean League.—The later history of Greece is a confused

jumble of changing names, fruitless wars, intriguing and blood-

shed. But two names shine out clearly, Amtus and riiUopocmeii^

both connected with a patriotic confederacy called the Aclia'an

Lcwjuc. This was a democratic association, originating with

four towns of Aehaia, but idtimately spreading over nearly all

the Peloponnesus. Its main object was at first to withstand

the Macedonian power. Aratus, a native? of SIcyon, expelled the

tyrant from his birth-place, and secured that city for the League.

]>eing made Stndajus in 245 B.C., ho was reappointed seventeen

times ; and under him the Achaean League gained the adhesion

ol Corinth and Megara. Sparta, however, opposed the League

;

and Cleomcnes took the field and fought victoriously, until

Aratus called in Macedonian aid. The battle of SeJIasia

(222 B.C.) ended disastrously for the Spartans. It was at this

battle that Philopoemen, a young soldier of Megalopolis, first

won distinction. He, too, became Strategus of the League several

times ; and in the exercise of his duty razed the walls of Sparta,

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and forced the pcoi^Ic to abandon the code of Lycurgns. Taken

prisoner by the rebel Messenians, lie was killed by poison—

183 B.C.

But before that event the Komans had begun to intcrloro iii

the affairs of Greece. It k necessary now to trace the rise and

progress of that mighty nation.

Chief Grecian Colonies.—Besides the Greek colonies in Asi:i

Minor, there were others which played an important part in

history. The southern part of Ilesperia or Italy was studded

^vith Greek cities, more or less thriving ;and from this fiict it

took its name of 3rarjna Gmcla. The earliest founded of these

Avas tlie ^olic colony of Cumcp., on the northern promontory of

the Bay of Naples. Tarcntnm, founded by Spartans in 707 B.C.,

was at one time the most powerful city in Magna Gnecia.^

But

it was in Sicily that Greek colonization planted itself most firmly

in this region. Zandc or Messana, A'a.ro.s, Syracuse, Gcia, and

Agrigenium were among the most noted settlements in the ishuid.

Syracuse especially, founded by Corinthians in 734 B.C., bore tlic

brunt of wars with the Carthaginians, who contended for^ the

dominion of the island. Gelon, Iliero, and Dionysius the Elder

were the leading Syracusan despots.

The colony of MassaVui (Marseilles), founded near the mouth

of the Rhone in GOO b.c, by tlic Ionian Tlioca^a, headed a cluster

of satellite Greek cities on that part of tlic Mediterranean.

And on the African coast, some enterprising Spartans founded

Curenc, opposite the Morca. Tlic kings of this region, whicli

was called Cyrenaica, held their qww stoutly against the attacks

of the Egyptians, but became sul>ject with Egypt for a time to

Persia. The government of Cyrenaica afterwards became a

democracy,

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HISTOEY OP ROME.

Rome Founded.—Before the foundation of Rome, a race

called the Etruscans, of considerable progress in civilization,

occupied the territory we call Tuscany. As wc liavc already

Been, the Greeks planted numerous colonies along the Kshorcs of

IIISTOllY OP ROME. 37

Foutliern Italy. Between tiicso two powers of Etruria and

Magna Grascia, on seven hills about fourteen miles from the

mouth ol' the Tiber, a city arose, which was destined to sway the

world in more ^vays than one. Its foundation is generally

assigned to 753 u.c, and its reputed founder was llomulus. For

about tw.) centuries and a half Kings reigned in Home ; but the

details of their history are largely mixed v.ith legend.

The list of Kings is as follows ;

—

1. Romulus, 753-715

2. Numa rorapilius, 715-672

8. Tullus llostilius, 072-^40

4. Ancus Murcius, 640-616

5, Tarquin the Ekler, G16-57S

G. Servius Tullius, 578-531

7. Turquiu the Uaughty, 534-509

Kings of Rome.—By making his city an asylum for all the

vagabonds in the vicinity, Boimdus filled it with inhabitants,

who then stole wives from the Sabines. Under the rule of

lionmlus the citizens were organized into three tribes ;

—

Baimia^,

or Ilomans ; Titles^ or Sabines ; Luccrcs, probably Etruscans,

'i'lie reign of Numa was noted for institutions of religion ; 2\iUus,

the third king, warred with the Albans, whom he conquered and

incorporated with Home ; Ancus devoted himself chiefly to works

of peace ;Tanjuin the IJIder, who was an Etruscan stranger,

secured the throne for himself, when left as guardian over the

cliildren of Ancus. He built the Great Sewer and the Great

Circus. It was to Servius Tullius that the ideheians^ a lower

class, formed by multitudes of conquered people being drafted

into the city during Alban and Latin wars, owed the recognition

of their right to meet in public assembly for political discussion.

The last king of Homo was Tarquin the Ilauyhfij, who gained the

crown by the murder of Servius, his father-in-law. But ho was

inferior in wickedness to his wife Tullia, who drove her chariot

over the body of her father, as it lay in the Wicked Street.

A reign so begun could not end well. The tyranny of Tarquin

made many foes in Home • and the brutal conduct of his son

Sextus towards a lady named Lucretia, who slew herself for

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shame, roused a revolution, l.y ^vlucll the luitod aim y wero

eKpelled. Brutus and Collailnus, Lucrctia's liusl.and, ueic

tlicn appointed Consuh, for inonarcliy ^va,s overturned and tlio

name of King abolished—509 n.c.

Efforts to Restore the Tarduins.—When the peoi>le of ^1 ai-

quinii and A^eii formed an army to restore the exiles, Brutus was

slain in a duel with Aruns Tarquin. He had previously, as

Consul, condemned his own sons to death for sharing m a eou-

F]>iracy in favour of the expelled tyrant.

Lars Porseniia of Clusium, lor.l of the Kiriiscan cities, soon

laid sieo-e to Home in behalf of Tarquin. Every reach'r of

Macauhiy's Lays kn-ows ho^v IToratius kept the bridge in tlu^

face of the whole Etruscan army. In spite of such a l)rave

defence, and other heroic deeds, rorsenna reduced Home; but

the Tarquins were not restored.

The thirty Lalin cities then united under a Dictator; an

example followed by the citizens of Home, who appointed Lartius

to be their first Dictator*—41)0 ii.c. Tlio battle of Lake Uojilhi.^^

in Tusculum, fought two yeai-s later, destroyed all the hopes of

restoration, long cherished by tlic Tarquins.

Tribunes of the Plebs.—The population of Home was divided

into two sections, severed at this time by a wide gulf. Tim

ratriciavs were descend<-l from the old Bomans ;the Plrheiau^

were the newer importations of conquered pecqile—not a mere

mob of paupers, but chielly yeomen or small farmers. Debt

pressed sorely on the latter ; and the rich drove the poor to mad-

ness by usury and the cruelties permitted by law to a creditor.

The matter came to a crisis at length. Tlie IMebeians refused

to take the field against the Volscians, and seceded to MomSacer, two miles from Home, where some of the wihler

494 spirits talked of founding a new city~4i)4 n.o. But the

u.c. fable of the ]5elly and the Limbs, told by a knowing old

Patrician, induced them to listen to a compromise.

Debtors were relieved ; slaves for debt were si't free;and, more

* A Dictator received supreme and irresponsible command for a limited time under

the pressure of some cmcrgenry. lie luul nut, like tlic CousuU:, to render an account

of hU command,

niFTOllY OF noMi^ S9

iinpovtmit Rtlll, two mno-istrat(>s, clioscn from tlio ri(l)olans, aiul

called Trlhum-s of the richs, were appoiutecl. Those afterwards

iHH-amo Ini iii uniuLer. They held office for a year, diirin.i^ which

their persons were sacred ; aiul they could nunily any deci-ee oi

Ihc Senate by the word Vc(<>, I forhid it.

Patrician Heroes.— Of these Coriohmus was one. IIavin,<^

^von this surname hy valour at Cori..li, lie displayed great arro-

puico towards the Pleheians, especially when he insisted that

lJ,(W should sell their right to have Trihunes for a supply of corn

-in |";imine tini(N. '.riie storm t.liis demand raised drove him from

j{onu\ lie found refuge at Autium, a Volscian town, and ^soon

.vturned at the heaJ of a Vulsciaii army to hesiegc Ilcnne. Every

t-ltort to turn him from his purpose proved vain, until he yielded

to the tetirs of his wife and his mother. He was afterwards

killed hy the A^dscians.

Cincinnatns was another Tatriciau hero. Taken from his

little farm to liead tin? lloman army as Dictator, he relieved the

Consul, who was heset in a narrow valley by a host of il^iipiians,

and then r(^tired to his rustic honie.

Decemvirs.—Tn -151 i\.v,. ion men (Dcccmvirr) were cliosen

from the Patricians to arrange a code of laws, ^riiese enactments

were graven on copper, and set up in the Forum. During the

iirst ytvir the Decemvirs acted well, and they were ro-clected, as

the work was not complete. After the second year they became

oppressive. The murder of a brave v)hl centurion named Den-

tatus, and the death of young Virginia, whom her father stabbed

rather than let her fall into the hands of Appius Claudius the

Decemvir, r.)us(>d a storm of anger, whicb overthrew the tyranny

of those magistrates.

The Gauls.—After the siege of Yeii, which cost the Homans

ten years, and fell in ^% n.c. before the prowess of CamiUus,

the Senones, a Gallic tribe, invaded Etruria and advanced towards

Home. Drennus was their leader. The llonums were defeated

at the River Alia (300 u.o.), and the Gauls entered the city.

]Jut the Ca[.it(d held out for seven months, until the Gauls, tired

of the siege, agreed to go on receipt of a thousand pounds of gold.

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40 HISTORY OF ROME.

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The Plebeian Struggle.— Tlie struggle for political riglit.^

upon which the Plebeians entered by tlie first secession to MonsSacer, continued for a long time, but ended in tlieir favour. AnAgrarian Law, proposed in 4SG B.C. by Spurius Cassius, was a])oint of contention, for it aimed at dividing the domain-land ofthe expelled kings among tlio Plebeians. The tyranny of tlio

Decemvirs gained sympatliy for tlie struggling suilerers. Butthe contest reached its heiglit, wJien Licinius and Sextius, Tri-l»unes of the Plebs, brought forwaixl a series of Bills known a.s

the Licinian Ilogations. Tlie most important provision of thesewas that one of the two Consuls should henceforth be a Plebeian.After a contest of ten years the llogations passed into law—obi B.C.

Lucius Sextius—3G5 b.c—was the first Plebeian Consul. Oneoffice after another opened to the victors—Dictatoivshij), Censor-ship, Pra^torship, and finally, in 300 B.C., the sacred functions ofPontiff and Augur.

Samnite and Latin Wars.—When Capua in Campania, beingthreatened by the Samnites, implored tlie aid of Kome, tlie lir.st

Samnite War began. It lasted two years—343-341 b.c. Aftera war with the Latins, Rome engaged in a second and lou'-erstruggle witli the Samnites—320-304 b.c—dui-ing Avhicir aPtomau army, having surrendered at the Caudine Foi-ks, wasforced to pass under the yoke. But the P.omans soon re-trieved their position. And in the third Avar th(5 decisive)battle of Scntinum (L>95 b.c.) crushed a great alliance of Sam-nites, Umbrians, and Gauls, who had united to overNvheluiKome.

Campaigns of Pyrrlii:3.-The Greek cities of Southern Italywatched these successes with jealous eyes. Tarentuni soon be-came embroiled in a quarrel with Home, and sought the aid ofPyrrhus, King of Epirus. This region, lying west of Thessalyand Macedonia, was the seat of tlie ancient Pelasgic religion- andIts kings claimed descent from Achilles.

'

Pyrrhus, coming with 25,000 men," subjec-fed the luxurimislarentmes to a rigorous discipline. At ITcraclea—281 b.c—Greek

IIISTOllY OF ROME. 41

and Roman met for the first time in war. Tho Romans fouglitstoutly, until what tliey conceived to be gigantic gray oxen cametliundering down on them; and before these unexpected foestliey turned and fled. Thus Pyrrhus owed his victory to hiselephants. That the Roman spirit was not broken by this blow,may be judged from the reply made to Cincas, an eloquent«n-ator in the service of Pyrrhus, '' that the immediate departureof the King of Epirus from Italy was the only condition onwhich the Romans would listen to terms," Pyrrhus defeatedtlie Romans ut Asculum in tho second campaign, and thenpassed into Sicily to make war with the Mamertines and thoCarthaginians. Ills failure in the siege of Lilyba3um led himto leave the island after three years. And his great defeat atIknevenium, where Curius Dentatus headed the victorious Romansdrove him from Italy—275 n.c.

'

The First Punic War.—Rome was now mistress of Italy.But on the opposite shore of the Mediterranean lay a great rivalcity, called Carthage, a colony, as we have seen, from Tyre; andwith this she now came into collision. Sicily and the sea' werethe first arenas of this struggle. The expulsion by the Romans ofa Carthaginian garrison from Messana commenced the First PuiiioViw, which lasted twenty-throe years (2G3-241 b.c). The reduc-tion of Agrigentum was the first great exploit of the Romans.In order to cope with the Carthaginians at sea, they built a fleet,taking a stranded ship as a model; and by grappling with thjenemy's ships secured a naval victory at Myhe. Another triumphby sea at l^^cnomus opened tho way to Africa, whither Reguluswent in command of a Roman force. Rut he was defeated atTunis and made prisoner~255 n.c. The war was then confinedto Sicily, where the Carthaginians suffeied a severe defeat atranornuis. Rut disasters at sea befel the Romans, who lostfleet after fleet, until a navy raised by public subscription tookthe sea, and by the victory of A^:<jma reduced the Carthaginiansto seek a peace

—

241 b.c.

^Second or Great Punic War.—Ikforc this war broke out, tlio

Romans were engaged iu coiKpiering Tcuta, tho warlike queeu

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of tlio Illyrliins. Tlie Gauls in Northern Italy were also de-

feated in the battle of Telamon—225 li.c.

It was in Spain that the cause of the Second Punic "War arose.

A Carthaginian kingdom had been founded there by Haniilcar,

father of the celebrated Hannibal. "When Hannibal, aged twenty-

nine, was elected to the command in Spain, lie pushed the Car-

thaginian dominions up to tha Ebro, and besieged the city of

Snguntum, an ally of Home. The city fell after eight months;

and the Iiomans declared M'ar.

Hannibal resolved upon a daring movement—a march from

Spain to Italy. ' Turning the eastern 2>"int of the Pyrenees, ]io

crossed the Rhone, marched up the valley of that river

218 to the island of the Allobrogcs, north of the Isere, as-

B.G* cended that river to the valley of Chambory, and climbed

over the Alps by the pass of the St. Bernard. Thomarch took about four months, and cost him oo,000 num—218 n.c.

Once in Italy, he lost no time. A cavalry skirmish on tho

Tici}io—a battle on the Trebia, near PJaccntia—loft him masterof Northern Italy. In spring he passed into i]\Q basin of tho

Arno and routed tho Romans in a fog by " reedy ^'m.smR??c"

—217 Ji.c. The citizens of Home expected an immediate attack;

but he turned in among the Apennines, from whoso lieights thocautious Fabiiis watched and harassed his movements. A disaster

worse than any yet undergone awaited the lloman arms. Onthe bloody field of Cannw, strewn with the golden rings of

lloman knighthood, Hannibal won a signal victory—as Mil-tiades had won Marathon—by pcrmilting his weak centre to bopierced, and then enclosing the exhausted assailants with liis

wings—21G R.c.

So far all things smiled on ITannibars onterpriso. lie met hisfirst check at Nola, where J^rarecllus repulsed him in ;; sallv. Awinter at Capua disorganized his army and weakened his soidiers.

And the Carthaginians would send him little or no aid.

Several years of desultory wai-lai-e followed, during which thoRomans gained ground, taking Capua and Tarentum from Hanni-bal, who was hemmed into the toe of the peninsula.

^i

IIISTOUY OF HOME. 43

^loaTiwliIlo ill Spain a young Iloman soldier—PuLllus Sclpio

—

M-iis inflicting scvcro loss upon Carthage. Taking the Puniccapital there, lie reduced Spain to the condition of a llonian pro-

vince—20G IJ.C. Ilasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, escaped

from the peninsula, and entered Italy by the same route as his

illustrious brother liad followed. Intercepting him on the Afc-

tanrns^ a Ptonian general defeated and slew him; and the first

intimation Hannibal received of liis brother's arrival in Italy wastlie sight of that brother's bloody head tossed in contempt into

liis camp—207 u.c.

Scipio then carried war into Africa. Forming a naval camp,

lie lay there for a winter. He then defeated the Carthaginians

at the Great Plains so sorely that they called urgently to Hanni-

bal to return. He came; and on the plain of Zama the final

battle of the war was fought. In vain Hannibal reserved

Ills Italian veterans, and at a critical moment launched 202them against the Koman lines. The victory went against u.c.

liim ; andCarthagegladlysuedforpeace—202 B.C. Forthis

glorious termination of the war Scipio received the inxmeAfricamis.

Macedonian Wars.—When Philip V. of Macedon made a

treaty with Hannibal, lie put liimself in opposition to Home;and war speedily ensued. The first war (215-205 b.c.) was

barren in great events. But in the second Flamininus com-pletely broke the Macedonian power at Cynosccplialce in Thessaly

—PJ7 B.C.; and in the ibllowing year there was a great public

demonstration in the amphitheatre at Corinth, upon which occa-

sion the Iloman Consul proclaimed that Greece was free. I*er-

Fous, the successor of Philip, entered on the Third Macedonian

War in 171 B.C. After some campaigns, which deluded Perseus

with gleams of success, the battle of rydna took place in 108 b.c.

This triumph of tlio Iloman arms overturned the ^laccdoniau

throne for ever.

Syrian Wars.—In 280 b.c. Seleucus Nicator founded a dynasty,

Tinder which Syria flourished and grew great. An uneventful

period passed away, until, in 223 b.c, Antiochus III., or the Great,

jisceudcd the throne. A great object of this monarch's ambition

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was tliG conquest of all Asia Minor; and in alliance with Philipof Macedon he engaged in o])crations hurtful to Rome. Thoreception of exiled Hannibal at Ephesus placed Iiini in moi-oopen hostility; so that wlien the J^]tolians, discontented withtlie Romans for preference shown towards tlie Achiuan Lca/nio,invited him into Greece, ho was nothing loatli to go. He seizedJ'^ubwa, hut in the following year was defeated at Tliermopyla?and driven into Asia, whither the two Scipios folloAved him.He made a stand at 3Ia<jnesia in Lydia; but was totally defeatedtliere. The chief terms of liis submission were the surrender ofall his territory north of Taurus, and the giving up of Hannibalto the Romans. Hannibal, however, had timj to escape toRithynia, where he killed himself with poison.

Third Punic War.—Cato the Censor, a stern foe to the luxurythat was creeping into fashion at Rome, as a result of intercoursewith the East, excited a Third Punic War by ending all hi3speeches wdth the w^ords, " Carthage nuist be destroyed." Tliohumbled Carthaginians made several concessions; 'but, whenRome proposed to raze their city by the sea and send them toWyQ inland, they prepared fur war. Tlie Slcje of CurUutre(149-146 B.C.) was the one event of this final struggle. Tliowomen gave their tresses to make bow-strings; the men pouredout their blood in vain. Under tho command of Scipio, thoadopted son of tho elder Africanus, the Romans gained entiancoto the city; and at lengtli reduced i\iQ Citadel. Tliis successformed the Cartliaginiau territory into a Roman province, undertlie name of Libya.

In the same year—146 B.c.—the Roman Consul Mummiusliaving gained the battle of Leucopetra, committed Corinth tothe (lames.

Thus Rome became supremo on nearly every shore of thoMediterranean.

Spain and Sicily.—It took time and trouble finally to subdueSpain. Cato the Censor smote the people with an iron handSempronius Gracchus made a treaty with them in 179 h.c. Rutunder Viriathus they maintained warfare in Lusitania rPor*tu..>-al)

IIISTORY or ROME.

*"

T\'liile tlio ColilLoriniis of Castile collected their strength in Nu-

inantia, which defied the Romans, until Scijiio Afiicanus the

younger reduced it in 133 B.C. An insurrection of slaves in

Sicily, who fixed their stronghold at Enna, also created muchanxiety at Rome, until suppressed by Rupilius.

The Gracchi.—Class was once more arrayed against class in

Rome. The Optlmate^^ or new nobility, contended bitterly with

the PojniJares, or masses of the people. Tiberius Gracchus, being

elected Tribune, projioscd an Agrarian Law, to limit the quan-

tity of land held by individuals, and to divide the surplus land

among the poor. Octavius pronounced tha veto ; but Gracchus,

too strong for him, secured a vote of the Tribes expelling Octa-

vius from the tribuncship. But at the Capitol, having raised

his hand to his head, the action was interpreted to mean that lie

sought a crown; and, a mob of Senators rushing out with clubs,

he was beaten to death—133 B.C.

Ten years later, his brother Cains was made Tribune. lie

harped ceaselessly on the death of Sempronius, but also proposed

many laws for the benefit of the people. Ilis arch-foe Opimius,

being made Consul, excited the Patrician fury against him, and

a conflict took place, in which tlic ex-Tribune was slain—121 n.c.

Jugurthine War.—Jugurtha having usurped the entire king-

dom of Numidia, the Romans entered on a war with him.

3Ietellus held the chief command; but his lieutenant Marius dii:-

jilaccd him. Tlie capture of Jugurtha, however, which ended

the war, Avas due to a young oflicer of cavalry named Sulla.

Here we find, in close connection, the names of two men, whose

later contest for supremacy deluged Rome witli blood. 11io

Jugurthine war lasted six years—111-105 B.C.

Gallic and Servile Wars.—A great movement of Gallic tribes

—the Teutones and the Cimbri—upon Northern Italy was bafllcd

ly the victory of Aix, won in 102 b.c. by Marius; and that on

the Raudian Plain near Vercellai, won in the following year. ABecond Slave "NYar, crushed by Atiuillius, belongs to the sanio

time.

Social or Marsic War.—"When the Rouiun franchise was rc-

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40 IIlSTOnV OF ROME.

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fused to the Italian Allies, tlic latter, amowg whoiii the foremostwere the warlike Marsians, fixed on Corfinium as a rival capitaland took the field, at first with much success. The Julian Law,granting the franchise to some, allayed the hostility a little; butsome of the allies held out, until Sulla brouy-ht the war to a dose(90-88 B.C.).

Marius and Sulla.—A contest between lAIarius and Sulla (orthe command in the Mithridatic War caused the latter to leadhis soldiers to Home, whence Mai-iiis fied. After some perils onthe Italian coast the old man found his way to Africa. Sullamranwliile besieged and burned Atliens. Taking advantage ofintestine struggles, Marius, upori the invitation of an expelledConsul, returned to Italy, and entered Kome. Fur a week adreadful massacre continued—87 li.o. Marius and Cinna becameConsuls without election; and, a fortnight later, the former died.

Sulla, having enriched his soldiers with the spoils of Asia,conducted his army across Greece and landed at l^rundusium!His chief opponents were Carbo and young Marius. The armyof the former, leagued with the Samnites, was defeated by Sullaat the Colline Gate of Home, and the fall of Pra>neste droveMarius to suicide. The blood of massacre then flowed a secondtime—in a yet greater stream. Lists of proscription were pub-hshed every day; and the porch of Sulla's house was full ofheads. Calling himself Dictator, Sulla then proceeded to reformthe State after its ancient constitution. Of the changes he made,the Criininal Code was the most successful. ]^-evious to hisdeath (78 B.C.), he passed two years in luxurious ease at Puteoli

Sertorian and other Wars.-The boldest stand for the Mariancause was made in Spain by Sertorius. Pompey opposed him ; butM ith little success, until the brave Spaniard was murdered. A warhmdled by Spartacus a gladiator, who had escaped from Capua'Avas crushed by Crassus

; and Pompey swept the IMediterranea.ldear of pirates, especially by a blow inilicted at Coracesiuni ontnc Cilician coast.

Mithridatic Wars—A Second Mitl.ri.latic War took jilacol^o-bi B.C.). Tho Thir.I, aii.sin- from an iidevkvam of t!.o

JEWISH IIISTOUY, If

pontic King with Bithynia, began in 74 n.c. Lucullus took

d Mithridates fled LuciiUito Armcji:

soon supplanted by Pompcy, who continued the Armenian War.Mithridatcs took poison in 63 B.C., previous to which Tompeymade Syria a Roman province, and devoted three months to tho

tsicge of Jerusalem. Tliis is a convenient place to take up tho

thread of Jewish history for a time.

Jewisli History (530-37 r..c.).~Tho Edict of Cyrus brought

a portion of the nation under Zeruhbabel back to Palestino, whereafter some years a new Temple (the second) arose—515 B.C.

Prom tho time of Cyrus to that of Alexander the land was a

\)in't of tho Persian Empire, its affairs being ruled by high-priests.

A Jew named Mordecai was made prime minister at the Persian

court of Xerxes, as related in the story of Esther; and in tho

time of Artaxcrxes, two Jews—Ezi-a, a priest, and Nehemiah,

cup-bearer to tlm King—distinguished themselves by reformin^ij

and organizing the Jewish people, and putting Jerusalem in

a state of defence. The chief trouble of the restored nation camofrom iSamaria, which was occupied with a mixed population of

J^'ibylonians and renegade Israelites, who set up a rival temple on

3Iount Gerizim. Alexander the Great visited Jerusalem, and, it

is said, offered sacrillcc in the Temple.

V/lien Alexander's empire was torn to pieces by his generals,

Ptolemy the son of Lagus took Palestine, which remained under

tlie rule of J'^gypt for a century, enjoying a peaceful prosperity

for a considerable time. It then became a subject of contention

between ]\gypt and Syria, and fell into the power of the latter

in 198 B.C., when Antiochus the Great defeated the Egyptians

at Panium near the source of the Jordan.

The struggles of an Egyj)tian and a Syrian faction then con-

vulsed the nation, which began to be affected too by influenced

from Greece. "SMicn Antiochus IV. took Jerusalem by storm,

lie offered up swine on the altar, in order to destroy the Jewisli

veneration for their religious rites. This and other oppressiona

roused the Jews to a struggle for independence.

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48 JETTI^II IIISTOrir.

nfter the Syrian fasliion excited a piicst named Mattathias, thendwelling at Modin, to revolt. lie .slow an officer of Antioclnis

and pulled down the licatlicn altar. The Jews rallied roundhim, and the work of reformation spread. But Mattathias, old

and feeble, died in 1G7 B.C., leaving the war to his five sons.

The third of these was the famous Judas Maccabaeus,* fromwhose surname the whole family received the name o^ 3faccahccs,

Tlicy were also called the Asmoimaii line, from Chasmon auancestor. In a succession of victories—at Bethoron, Emmansand Bethsura—Judas routed the Syrian armies, and won auentrance into Jerusalem. There he restored the service of the

Temiile. When the successor of Antiochus IV. marclicd to

relieve the Syrian garrison of Mount Zion, Eleazar, one of theMaccabees, crept under an elephant and stabbed it. The deeil

cost him his life, but taught the Jews, previously terrified by themonsters, that elephants were not invincible. The victory of

Adasa—161 B.C.—won over the Syrians by Judas, all but securedthe independence of the insurgents. The JMaccabec then soughtalliance with Borne, which the Senate granted. J^ut at this

critical time, in face of a Syrian army, the Assid<Tans, oradlierents of the Law, deserted the standard of Judas, and left

him to die at Eleasa with 800 followers.

Jonathan, the youngest brother, continued the struggle for

independence, which was formally acknowledged by Syria in

143 B.C. This was the first year of Simon's rule. The peacoand in-ospcrity conferred on the land by this last of the Macca-b;ean brothci-s was ill repaid by his murder at a baniiuet atJericho in 135 B.C.

John Hyrcaims relieved Jiida?a from the Syrian yoke, whichhad been almost replaced—128 b.c; and he succeeded too 'in con-quering Samaria and Idumrea. From the tumults of this timo.sprang tlie Pharisees and Sadducees, sects whoso names arofamiliar to us in the Gospels.

The Asmona^ans then exchanged the mitro for the crownthe bloody Aristobulus being the first king—lOG B.C.

*

* Uaccalnxus probably means a hammer. Compare the name of Ch^^rlcs Martcl

IllSTOIlY »;!• rOMK. 41)

tl

"When Pompcy invaded Asia, tlicrc wa:: ?. ooptost for the

)f Jiultva hi hroth, Aiistobuhis II. and Ily)-

ranus, the latter of ^v]lom Avas guided by the counsels of a wily

IdunuTan uohle, named Antipater. The adherents of Aristohulu;

defied the Ilonian battering -engines in Jerusalem for three

months—03 n.c; hut Pompcy ^vas finally victorious.

In order to preserve the connection, it may he well hero to

glance lorward a few years. Out of the tunrults of the time

Antipater shaped a way for himself, and became Procurator of

Judiea. His second son, ITerod, marrying JMariamne an Asmo-Uiean princess, set up as representative of that race. His convivial

(pialltics won the favour of vVntony, and, wheu he fled to Rome,that of Octavian too. With Roman aid Herod laid siej^e to

Jerusalem, which fell in 87 u.c. Thus ended the Asmona;anrule in Jud;ea.

Roman History Resumed.—Catiline's Plot. When the great

orator Cicero was Consul at Rome, Catiline, a needy Patrician,

formed a conspiracy, of which the murder of the Consul and the

burning of Rome were portions. A woman betrayed the plot to

Cicero; and Catiline flctl from Rome. The accomplices of Cati-

line, who remained, tried to tamper with the discontented envovs

of the AUobroges, then in Rome; bat these Ganls also gave

information— (];> n.c. Nothing then remained for Catiline but

to die, sword in hand, which he did at Pistoreia.

The First Triumvirate.— Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caisar

formed the First Tiiumvirate in 59 i\.c. Cato the Stoic wastlieir principal opponent; but he was sent as Praetor to Cyprus;while Cicero, through the intrigues of Clodius, was exiled fromRome.

Campaigns of Csssar in Gaul.—-In .58 r,.c. Ca\sar began the

successful Gallic Wars described in his Covnncntarics. Carrvin:--

iire and sword through Helvetia, Caul, and Germany, he reached

the narrow sea, beyond which lay Rritain. And on this island

he made two attacks, neither more than temporarily successful.

While he was winning such laurels, the death of his daughterJulia, Pompey 's wife, and the n.iurder of Crussus in Parthia

(1871

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50 lIISTOnV OF KOMK.

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whither lie li;ul gone to lay hantU on the treasures of Onxh's,broke up tlie Triumvirate; and events rajjidly brouyht Ciesar

and Pompey into liostility.

Pompey'a demand tliat some of Caesar's legions should hegiven up, caused Ca}sar, who had come to Eavennti, to cross thelluhicon, and l)egin a civil war in 49 u.c.

Corfinium soon fell; and the departure of Pompey into Clreeeo

left Ca?sar master of Italy. Instead of following l*ompey, Ciesar

went to Spain, which he subdued. IJut the decisive battle wasonly postponed. It took place at Phaisah'a in Tliessaly—48 n.c.

The veterans of Ca\sar proved too strong for the new levies ofPompey, wdio was foi-ced to seek a refuge in Egypt. Thei-e howas nmrdered, as he was 2)reparing to step ashore.

When Cicsar reached Egypt, he was fascinated by Cl(>opatra,

who afterwards became Queen; but, although he delayed a longtime there, he found time also to hund.le Pharnaces, son ofMithridates, in the battle of Zela in Syria. It was after thisbattle that he wrote his llmious despatch, couched in the words,•^Vcni : vidi : ricf.

After Caasar returned to Europe, he suppressed a dangerousmutiny at Capua, and then crossed to Africa, where he scatteredthe remnant of Pompey's party at Thupsns—4G n.c. Cato thoStoic committed suicide at Utiea in consequence of this defeat.

Cicsar was then created Dictator for ion yeai\s. lie wentto Spain, defeated the sons of Pompey at JlfniiJa, and cam (3

back to Rome to accomplish and meditate on great reforms.The people suspected him of aiming at a crown, and Antonytried their temper by offering him a diadem at the feast of Pan.

Discontent grew into conspiracy, of which the chief

44 movei-s were Brutus and Cassius. And on the Idesli.c. (i.e., 15tli) of March, 44 b.c, Julius Ca>sar sank bleeding '

Avith mortal wounds at the foot of Poinppy's statue.The Second Triumvirate.—Antony and Octavius now r(.^.^ to

the head of affairs at Pome. Together with Lepidus, theyarranged a coalition called the Seccmd Triumvirate. The fii.^t

care of the Triumvirs was to slay their foes at Rome. Cicero.

> .

lIlSTOr.Y OF ROMK. 51' '

vl'.o was limitlercd jiear lus vma n t ¥ormuo, was llic no>blobt

vit;tiiii of Una proscription. Then followed tlic inilltaiy opera-

tions in Greece, wlicre tlio battle of riiilippl ruined for ever the

cause of l>rutus and Cassius, who killed themselves—42 B.C.

Tlic Iionian world was then divided between Antony and

Uctavian. '^^Flie former, whoso portion was tlie East, met Cleo-

patra at Tarsus, and accompanied her to Alexandria. Tlie Par-

tliians were then in arms; and Sextus Poinpcy bad established

liimself as a pirate-chief in Sicily. Agrippa reduced Pompey,

and Veiitidius defeated the Parthians. IMcanwhile Antony sank

(lcc})cr in indolent luxury, while Octavian was fighting in tlio

West. A cpiarrel arose between them ; and Octavian, armed

with a decree of the Senate, entered npon a war witli Cleopatra.

Tlie Queen's flight in the naval battle of Acthnn, fonglit off tbo

Aiubracian Gulf, decided the victory in favour of Octavian. Theik'feated pair sailed to Egypt, where Antony stabbed liimself,

and Cleopatra, according to the common story, killed liersclf byletting an asp bite her—30 tj.c.

Reign of Augustus.—Rome now changed from a Ptopublio

to an Empire. In 27 B.C. Octavian, saluted witli the

titles of Augustus and Imperator, began a reign distin- 27guished by works of peace and literary splendour. Horace, B.C.

A'irgil, Livy, and Ovid were among the great names that

added lustre to the time. Augustus instituted the Praetorian

Guard, a body of soldiers which afterwards influenced the destinies

of the Empire considerably.

The few wars of the reign were on the remote borders of the

]']nipirc—in Spain, Parthia, and Germany. In tlie last-named

country a great disaster befell the Roman arms in 9 a.d., wlieu

the Governor Varus was induced by Hermann (Arminius), chief

of the Cherusci, to undertake an expedition, which led him into

an ambuscade. For three days the Romans were mercilessly

beset in the dark woods, till scarce a man survived. Augustus

died at Nola

—

14 a.d.

Birth of Jesus Christ.—Herod the Great signalized his acces-

^h)\\ to the throne of Judaea, Avhen the favour of Antony trana*

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HISTORY OF ROME,

Tetrarch to a King, by a massacre of lils

tllG ofenemies. Under his tyranny Jerusalem wore tlic aspect oi a

Homan city, with a theatre and gladiatorial games. He changcil

tliC Temple of Zerubhabel, which had grown ruinous through

time and war, into a magnificent structure of white marble and

gold, which gleamed on the summit of Moriah like :i crest of

snow. lie put to death some of his sons for plotting against liis

life; and lived a life of constant terror. It was this whicli

induced him as he lay on his death -bed, a mass of ulcers, to issue

tlie order which led to what we call "The Massacre of Innocents

at Bethlehem." For in that little city of David there

0: was born in the year 3 b.u. a child Jesus, whom the wise

B.G. men of the East hailed as the King of the Jews, whom

ice revere and love as the Saviour of Mankind— God

made manifest in the flesh. Bethlehem was so small a place, that

the number of children under two years could scarcely have been

more than twelve.

Reign of Tiberius.—The twenty-three years of t liis reign con-

tain some of the darkest pages in Roman history. The jealousy

of Tiberius Avas excited by the victorious career of his nephew

and adopted son, Gennauicus. The legions in Germany ])ro-

posed to raise this gallant soldier to the purple; but he resisted

the temptation. Nevcrlhcless Tiberius [»L)tted his dowufnll.

Ilecalled from Germany, he was sent to ihe j^ast, wherc^ he was

poisoned near Antioch by Piso, a creature of Tiberius. The

Emperor afterwards yielded to the persuasions of Scjufu/f^, who

undertook the government, while Tiberius lived secluded on the

island of Capretc. Tiberius did little state-work in his retreat

but sign death-warrants: Sejamis, whose statues surpassed those

of the Emperor in nmnber. excelled his master in bloodshed and

rapacity. But the Senate received a letter, as Sejanus thought,

appointing him Tribune, but in reality charging him with liigh

treason. lie was killed that very day. Macro then took the

post of favourite; and with the aid of Caius—afterwards Caligula

—son of the good Gcrmanicus, smothered the Emperor with

[)illows—87 A.D.

i

IlISTOllY OF ROME

-Before Ilcvod tlic Great Jicd in r.c.

S3

3, hoThe Herods.

y,,a<lc a will, leaving JudcTa to Archelaus, and making another

.on Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee, while the northern dis-

tricts beyond Jordan were left to Thilip. The Roman Emperor

.\u-ustus sanctioned this will. But in 7 A.i). Augustus banished

tlic'^crucl Archelaus to Gaul; and Judiva, as a portion of Syria,

was placed under a Roman Procurator.

Ilcrod Avtipar., Tetrarch of Galileo, was the ITerod who

il.nired in the' Gospels as "that lbx "—the slayer of John the

]^,tist—and the sharer with Pilate in the condemnation of the

Saviour. Caligula banished him to Gaul in 89 a.d.

A<-ripi^a, a friend of Caligula, received the re-united realm of

Ilovod the Great in 41 a.d., from Claudius, whom afterwards ho

supported. He ii was, styled llcrod-A<jripf>a I., who persecuted

the infant Church of Christ, slaying James the brother of John:

aval he was the impious king, upon whom, as he sat, clad in a

silver dress, in the blazing sunlight amid the shouts of flatterers,

the judgment of God fell suddenly, bo that "he was eaten of

worms' —41 a.d.

His son .IIcrn,I-A<jnppa IT. held a sort of kingship at Jeru-

salem under the patronage of Nero. We know him as the

" King Agrippa" before whom the case of St. Paul v as heard.

The Crucifixion and Early Church.—In the year 30 a.d.,

during the reign of Tiberius, Jesus Christ, " the Son of God,"

was crueified on Calvary, condemned first by the Sanhedrim—

a

great Jewish Council of seventy-one members—and then by

]V)ntius Pihito, a Roman Procurator, under whose tyranny Judiea

uas groaning. The descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of

Pont(^-ost emlowed the infant Church of Clirist with the gift of

tongues. It was soon to be baptized in the fires of persecution.

i Antioch in Svria, where ]5arnabas and Saul taught the faith,

[\o disciples were first called Christians. And then began those

journeys by which St. Paul carried the gospel through Asia

Minor ainl Greece, iintd, in God's providence, he was hiinseU

carried a prisoner to Rome, to die there in the reign of Nero.

Eeisn of Claudius.—Caligula, having reigned for four years of

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the \vilJost folly, was succeeded by liis uncle Claudius. Under

the sceptre of this Emperor the Ilomans gained a footing in

Britain, a spot distant from the lieart of the empire, hut destined

one day to be itself a centre of civilization. The Britisli hero ui

this war was Caractacus, chief of the Silurcs, who maintained a

bravo strut^dc aL-'ainst the Ilomans, until he was defeated in

Wales and betrayed. His demeanour during tlio triumph at

Rome won his pardon from Claudius. When a poisoned feather,

applied to his tliruat, put an end to the life of Claudius, Nero

assumeil ilio purple o( the Cicsars.

Eeign of Nero.—This man—last of the five Ctrsars who were

really of the Julian line—was of accomplished mind and delicate

taste. The lapse of years developed in him a character of the

worst kind. The murder of his mother and his wife were pre-

liminary trilles in his career of guilt. His name has become

proverbial for cruel tyranny. To his reign belongs the iir.st

great persecution of the Christians, who were maliciously accused

of having set Rome on lire—a disaster more probably due to a

wicked freak of Nero himself. In 04 a.d. the arena swam vvith

Christian blood, under the teeth of tigers or the .^teel of gladia-

tors : and martyrs, clad in pitched sackcloth, blazed as torches

to illumine the chariot-course of Xero. A rebellion of the Prto-

torian Guards under Galba drove this tyrant to ixot himself killed

— 08 A.D.

The Jews,—MHien Gessius Florus became Procurator, the

Jews were ground under such intolerable oppression that they

revolted against Rome in GO a.u. The Roman soldiers and the

Zealots came into iierco collision; and the latter under Kleazai.*

worsted their opponents. Then the Holy Land was filled wiili

massacre. Cestius Gallus, Governor of Syria, laid siege to Jeni-

salem ; but was driven northward in headlong flight. Nero

entrusted the Jewish "War to A\>spasian, under whom his sou

Titus held a command. The Jews were divided into a Moderate

party and the Zealots, who would bro(dc no subjection to Ronso

on any terms. Among the former a leading man was a jjriest,

Joscjjhus, whosc skill in languages fitted him to be the historian

ing 1

'iTl

HISTORY OF HOME. 55

of the war. This man, tlefcatccl by Vespasian at Jotapata, hid

in a cave until he made terms with his conqueror, to whose train

he attached liimself as a mediator and interpreter. Ptolcmais or

Acre was the point at which Vespasian concentrated his forces,

while preparing for a great hlow, which should crush the Jews

for ever. Before long he was called to the purple by the soldiers

(G9 A.D.); and the task of quelling the Jews devolved on Titus.

Then began the most terrible siege earth has ever seen. Gathering

round Jerusalem in April, 70 a.d., the lloman legions began to rain

rocks and javelins from their siege-engines on the place. All tho

efforts of the garrison, which was torn with intestine

factions, could avail notiiing. On the fifteenth day the 70

first wall yielded. Famine soon began its tortures. Tho a.d.

llomans stormed the Tower of Antonia ; and in August

firo was set to the Temple, whose fall was echoed by a wail

from the despairing Jews, as they gazed on the conflagration.

The siege had lasted one hundred and thirty-four days.

Titus and his Successors.—During tho reign of Vespasian,

Agricola, who made more impression upon tho ancient Britons

than any other Koman soldier, began tho career of victory of

which wo read in Tacitus. Hi:] campaigns were seven;and in

81 A.D. he fought tho battle of the Gnwqnans, in which Galgacus

was defeated. Upon the death of Titus (79-81 a.d.), Domitian,

a persecutor of the Christians, became Emperor; and his murder

in UG a.d. placed Nerva on the throne. But his reign, a time of

economy and peace, presents no striking events.

Reign of Trajan.—The Spanish soldier Trajan, who had won

renown in German wars, and had endeared himself to the legions

by mixing familiarly among them and sharing their toils, was

made Kmperor in 1)8 a.d. llis lirst movement was upon Dacia,

where beyond the Danube the barbarians were already threaten-

ing Home. Building a bridge over the great river, Trajan fol-

lowed Decebalus into the heart of his territory, inllicted a signal

defeat on him, and made Dacia a Boiiuin province. A pevsiM-\i-

tion of the Christians in ]5ithynia and Pontus occurred duiing

this reign. Trajan afterwards undertook a war in the Kast, wheiu

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50 HISTORY OF ROME.

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he roduccd Armenia, Paillila, and Persia, following for a time

the track of conquering Alexander. The reduction of Ctesiphon

beyond the Tigris was one of his exploits. He died on his way

home at Selinus in Cilicia—117 a.d.

Hadrian, who succeeded Tiajan, spent a gi'cat part of his reign

in travelling through the Roman Empire, visiting its extreme

l)0unds— Britain, Parthia, Africa. He spent six years at Athens,

and some time at Alexandria, gratifying his philosophic tastes.

Among the works of his useful reign were the cstablislimcnt of

the Atlienceum, as the germ of a Roman university, and the pub-

lication of Edictum Ferjjetuum, a collection of edicts spoken by

magistrates and emperors. He died of dropsy in 138 a.d. While

ill Britain he left a memorial of his name in a wall, built from

the Solway to the Tyne.

The Three Antonines.—The reign of the first Antonino, who

was surnamed Pius, presents a time of unruffled peace, thongli

the noise of mustering barbarians was to be heard on the eastern

and northern frontiers of the Empire. The second of the Anto-

nines was Marcus AurcVius the Philosopher—so called from his

Stoic opinions. A war in Parthia crowned the Roman arms

with success, which was due chiefly to the prowess of the ofTicers

of Verus. An avenging plague came back with the army, and

swept Italy with fatal effect, in spite of all that men like Galen

could do. A war with a coalition of northern tribes, of whomtlie Qua M and Marcomanni were most prominent, called Aurelius

to the field. While the li^uil contest with the QuaJi was going

on in ITi a.d., a smhlen b c of rain and thunder, in answer,

says the story, to the prave of a Christian legion, refreshed the

Romans but distressed their foes. IJeforo his death in 180 a.d.

Aurelius had associated his wortldess son Ormmodus w'ith him in

tlie p]nipire. Two persecutions of the Cliristian Church disgraced

this reign : the one at Smyrna, when Polycarp suffered martyr-

dom—the other in the heart of Gaul, at Lyons and Yienne.

Commodus, priding himself on his enormous strength, wore a

lion's ekin in imitation of Hercules, and fonglit with the

gladiators in the arena. His useless and detrraded

Mi

ireturn was

57IIISTOUY OF nOME.

closed by assassination. His mistress Mavcia, seeing a cnp of

poison fail to kill him, called in a wrestler, ulio succeeded m

slranglinj? this last of the Antonines—192 a.d.

After the Kmpiro was held for a year by Pcrtinax, who had

risen from the hmnblc grade of a charcoal-burner, U was sold by

auction by the Praitorians to Didius Julianus—193 a.d.

'

Severus came from Germany to expel this stupid mati, who

,vas soon beheaded. But two rivals contested the purple with

Severus. The defeat of Niger at Issus in Syria, and Albmus at

Lyons in Gaul, left him victor. In 208 a.d. he went to Britain

with his sons Caracalia and Geta ; and penetrated through the

Caledonian forests to the Moray Prith. He died at York m

211 A.D./. -n r\C

The next sixty years saw sixteen Emperors of Komo. Vi

these, the effenihiate and tyrannical Elagabalus was worst:

\loxander Severus was the best. Through all the confusion of

generals proclaimed and emperors killed, signs of weakness were

growing visible in the lloman state. Tribes of ominous name-

Goths, Franks, Alciuanni—were bursting through the northern

frontlei-s of the Empire.

Aurelian, a peasant's son, proclaimed by the legions on the

Danube, became Emperor in 270 a.d. Under him Home shono

with a revived lustre. He pacified the Goths and broke the

power of the Alcmanui in Northern Italy. But his greatest

exploit was the subjugation of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. This

princess, whoso beauty was equal to her courage, was versed in

many tongues, and skilled in the chase of bear and lion. ^Yith

her aid her husband Odcnathus had repelled the Persians and

the Goths. Now, left a widow by his murder, she measured her

strength with that of the Emperor of the West. But the strife

was miequal. This daughter of the Ptolemys, defeated at Antioch

and Emesa, retreated to Palmyra, whose walls rose amid a gird-

ling tract of scorching t^and. Hither came Aurelian to besiege

the^city. But all her ballistas and engines that flung lire from

the walls were unavailing. Palmyra fiill; and the dromedary, on

which she sought flight, was outstripped by a bund of lloman

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58 HISTORY OF ROME.

horse. Among those wlio cHed was Longinus, the Greek cntic,

who had been her prime minister—273 a.d. Zenobia, in chains

of gokl, adorned Aurelian's trimnph at Kome.

Am-elian was nmrdered by conspirators near tho Bosporus

.

Diocletian reigned for twenty-one years (284-305 a.d.). Not

content with dividing the Empire with Maximian, lio took

Galerius as an assistant for himself, and enjoined his colleaguo

to take Constantius Clilonis. During his reign Britain was for

a time lost to Rome, when Carausius, admiral of tho lloman fleet

in those seas, declared his independence, and maintained it for

seven years. In 303 a.d. the fiercest of all the persecutions that

strengthened and spread early Christianity broke out in Nico-

media, a city of Bithynia, selected by Diocletian as his capital.

An edict appeared condemning Cliristiau worship, and

303 degrading all who followed Christ. For eight y(>ars

A.D. every mode of torture was put in force against the

* unhappy people; nor did the flames die, till coming

death terrified Galerius into withdrawing the edict of perse-

cution.

The chief Christian persecutions were :

—

1. Under Nero at Rome,

2. Under Domilian,

3. Under Trajan in Uitliynla,

4. Under ]\Iarcus Aurelius at Smyrna,

5. Under Aurelius in Gaul,

C. Under Soverus in Africa,

7. Under Decius Trajan,

8. Under Valerian,

9. Under Diocletian,

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177

202

249

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111 305 A.D. Diocletian abdicated tho purple, obliging IMaximiau

to do the same. Tlien came a struggle of nearly twenty years,

during which, at ono time, six claimants contended for the

empire. Of these, Constantine, son of Constantius Chlorus,

proved the most successful, defeating Maxentius at the Red Kocks

near Rome, and Licinius in Thrace. In 324 a.d. tliis man, whohas been dignified witli the title of Great, ruled alone over tlio

Roman world. His reign of thirteen years (324-337 a.d.) wu3

•('

HISTORY OF ROME. 59i'J-i

gignalized by tlic erection of a new capital, where Byzantium

stood by tlio Bosporus. On tlie day of dedication in

3.30 A.D. the name of New Rome was given to the city: 330

I :t this was soon exchanged for Constantinople (^Stam- a.d.

loul). There is a tendency to call Constantine the first

Christian Emperor of Home ; but he gave little evidence that his

profession of the Christian faith was sincere.

The reign of Julian (301-303 a.d.) is notable for his unavailing

efforts to "overturn Christianity and restore the worship of the

old lloman idols. It was a complete failure ;though he applied

to the task all the philosophy that the works of Plato could

teach him. His name—Julian the Apostate—was bestowed

owing to his public renunciation of Christianity, while he was

governor of Gaul.

While Valens and Valentinian reigned, the Roman Empire

was finally divided into East and West—304 a.d. The fall of

the latter half closes the record of Ancient History.

It was a fatal day for Rome when Valens permitted a million

of Goths, pressed hard by the Huns, to settle in 370 a.d. south

of the Danube, which had hitherto been the great barrier of the

Roman Empire on the north. In two years he was engaged in

war with them, and was soon slain near Adrianople. And in

exactly a centuiy after this blunder Rome fell.

Theodosius, becoming Emperor in 379 a.d., fixed his camp at

Thessalonica, whence he assailed and repelled the Goths. But

his death in 395 a.d. left two feeble sons, Arcadius and Honorius,

to face a task too strong for them. Honorius abandoned

Rome and hid himself among the swamps and pine-trees of

Ravenna, when he heard that a great chieftain of the Goths,

named Alaric, who had wrested from Arcadius the sway over

Illyricum, was coming into Italy. There was indeed a Roman

o-eneral, Stllicho, able to withstand the invader: but Honorius

killed him; and the Goths swept round Rome, clamouring for

the destruction of the ancient city. In 410 a.d. the capital of

the Ci^sars was for a week a prey to the ruthless barbarians.

Genscric, at the head of the Vandals, overran Africa; and a worse

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tluiu either Alaiic or Genscric appeared in the person of A'ttila

the Hun, who invadeil Gaul in 451 a.d. The decisive battle of

Chalons, won by Aetius and Tlieodoric, checked his career for a

time; but he turned into Italy and menaced Rome, until the prayers

or the offerings of Bishop Leo induced him to spare the city.

The next miserable event in the story of Home is the sack of

the city in 455 a.d. by the Vandals and Moois. Leo tried to

soften the barbarous heart again;, but failed this second time.

Tlie glories of art were strewn in shapeless pieces through the

streets. In the later days of Konie, Count Kicimer, sou of a

Sucvian chief, made and unmade monarchs as he pleased ; and in

472 A.D., a month or so before he died, he gratified his instincts

by nlundering Rome. Romulus Augustulus, whose name might

have kindled some spark of the ancient fire in the breast of him

who bore it, was the last of the Roman Emperors. Odoacer,

476 chief of the Ileruli, a Gothic tribe, was proclaimed King

A.D of Italy in 476 a.d., when Augustulus was pensioned off,

and went to live at Misenum. Thus ended Ancient History.

Eastern History.—The kingdom of Sijria, even before the

time of Antiochus the Great, was beginning to break asunder.

Arsaces declared himself independent in Parthia in 250 B.C.; and

one of his successors, Mithridates I., conquered Asia between the

Euphrates and the Indus. The Mithridatic ^Yars of Rome have

l>ccn already mentioned. It was in Parthia, fighting against

Orodes, that Crassus was slain ; and there was a grim humour in

the victor's rebuke of avarice by pouring melted gold into the

mouth of the doad Roman. ''J'he Parthian cavalry were diflicult

to subdue, owing to their method of shooting arrows backward

as they fled. Phraates IV. defeated Antony in 35 n.e. : and

later kings came in collision with Nero and with Trajan, by the

latter of whom Parthia was reduced.

In 22G a.d. a new rcrsian Empire was established on the over-

thrown Parthian Kingdom by Artaxerxes, son of Sassan; from

whom a dynasty, reigning more than four centuries (226-651 a.d.),

was called the HassaniJ.es. The second of these monarchs—Sapor I.—took prisoner the Roman Emperor Valerian ; but waa

ANCIENT CIinOXOLOGY. V*

subilucd in turn Ly Aurelian. Another—Sapor II.—was suc-

cessful against Constantino, and extended his conquests to^ India.

Armenia too broke off from Syria in two parts—Major and

Minor. Tigrancs, ruling Armenia Major, joined Mithridates

ngainst the Romans—80 u.c. Dojotarus was raised by Pompey

in C4 B.C. to the throne of Armenia Minor, which afterwards was

probably joined to Major. Armenia became a Roman province

in 11-i A.D. ; and was conr|uercd by Persia in 412 a.d.

CHIEF DATES OP ANCIENT HISTORY.

The I)clu,2C (Usalier),

K,'vpt invailed by the Shepherd King",

Call of Abraham,

Clialda'a overrun by Arabs,

Exodus of Israelites from Egypt (Ussher), ...

Period of Hebrew Judges begins, ...

Ramoses II. (Sesostris) reigns in Egypt,

Fall of Troy,

^olian migration ia Greece,

Dorian migration,

Death of Codrus at Athens,

David King of all Israel, ...

Ileign of Solomon,

Foundation of the Jewish Tem])1o,

Division of the kingdom into Israel and Judah,

Probable foundation of Carthage, ...

Legislation of Lycurgus, ...

Reputed foundation of Rome,

Era of Nabonassar, ...

First Messenian War,

Captivity of Ten Tribes—End of Israel as a kingdom,

Reign of Sennacherib in Assyria, ...

Reign of Psammetichus in Egypt, ...

Destruction of Nineveh by Cyaxincs,

Reign of Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon,

SIXTU CENTURY, B.C.

Solon Archon at Athcn3, ...

Kingdom of Judah overthrown,

Revolution of Pisistratus at Athens,

Cyrus founds the Persian Empire,

Reign of Croesus in Lydia,

Cyrus tiikcs Babylon, ... .»» ••> »•

ft. ft

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1491

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1121

not10G3

1043

1015-975

1012

975

8Sl

753

747

... 743-23

721

... 702-680

... G04-G11

625

... 60-1-5CI

58S

560

553

568-554

533

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62 ANCIKXT CIIRONOLOa'f.

' •Hi

h

Restoration of Jews by Cyrus,

Death of Cyrus, ...

Pisistratids expelled from Athens,

Tarqulns expelled from Home,

FIFTH CENTURY, B.C.

First ofRr riebs_ _ . secession of lloraan

First Porsiau invasion of Greece under Darius I.,

P>attle of Marathon,

Invasion of Greece by Xerxes,

IJatUes of Thermopylae and Sulamis, ... ...

Twelve Tables at Rome, ...

Alliens under Pericles,

reloponnesiau War,

Battle of Delium,...

Peace of Nicias, ... ... ... ••• .••

Siege of Syracuse, ... ...

Eattle of Cuiiaxa,

FOURTH CENTURY, B.C.

Death of Socrates, ... ••• ••• •••

Suck of Rome by the Gauls,

Theban War, ... ... ... ••• •••

Liciiiian Rogations passed at Rora«», ... ...

Reign of Philip of Macedon, ... ... ...

Reign of Alexander the Great,

Lattle of Arbela, ... ... ...

Surrender of Romans at Caudine Forks,

Battle of Ipsus—Third partition of the Macedonian Enii>iio,

THIRD CENTURY, B.C.

Defeat of the Samnites at Seutiuum,

Pyrrhus defeated at Beneventum, ...

First Punic War,

Aratus head of the Achaean League,

Siege of Saguntum, ... ... ... ...

Second Piuiic War, ... ... ... ...

l>attle of Cannne, ... ... ... ... ...

Buttle of Zam.a, ... ... ... ... ...

SECOND CENTURY, B.C.

Philoposmcn abolishes the laws of Lycurgus,

Cato Censor at Rome,

Battle of Pydna overthrows I\Iacedoniau Monarchy, ...

Fall of Carthage and of Corinth, ... ... *m

Ti:iie of tlie Gracchi,

Marias made Consul, ... ... ... ...

.1.

...

...

*.

...

...

...

...

...

B.C.

536

5-'9

510

609

49t

492

490

480

450

445-29

432-04

424

421

415-13

400

399

?,90

3S2-(32

307

359-36

335-23

831

821

301

295

275

203-41

245

219

218-02

216

202

183

184

108

146

... 133-121

107

ff«t

t*t

• ••

%••

• ••

Marl.an mai

Proscriptio:

Conspiracy

First Triur

Julius CaiSi

His invasio

He crosses

Battle of PMurder of

Second Tri'

Battle of P

Battle of Aj\ ccession (

Birth of J«

Defeat of T

Death of I

praetorian

The Crucil

Claudius i

Kero pers(

Siege and

Agricola ii

Keigu of 'J

Trajan cot

Ivlictum I

Jerusalem

The Empi

Severn s ii

Sapor of 1

Palmyra t

Division o

Fourfold (

Christian:

Kcign of (

ANCIENT CIIRONOLOQY.

FIl.ST CENTUIIY, B.C.

Marian massacre at Ronao,

Proscriptions of Sulla,

Conspiracy of Catiline,

First Triumvirate,

Julius Cajsar in Gaul,

His invasion of Britain, ..

He crosses the Rubicon, ..

Battle of Pharsalia,

Murder of Caesar,

Second Triumvirate,

IJattle of Philippl,

Uattle of Actium, •

Accession of Augustus,

Birtli of Jesus Christ,

•••

• ••

THF. CHRISTIAN ERA.

FIRST CENTURY, A.D.

• ••

Defeat of Varus in Germany,

Death of Augustus,

Prwtorian Guards quartered at Ronif*,

The Crucifixion, ... .

.

••• ••• •••

Claudius invades I'ritain, ... ... ••• •••

Kero persecutes the Christians, ... ..

Siege and destruction of Jei-usulciii, . ... •••

Agricola in Britain, ...

Keiga of Trajan, ...

SECOND CENTURY, A.D.

Trajan conquers Dacia,

lidictum Porpetuum pul)lished by Hadrian,

Jerusalem restored as iElia Capitolina,

The Empire sold by auction,

TUIRD CENTURY, A.D.

Sevcnis invades Britain, ... ...

Sapor of Persia takes Antiocli,

Palmyra taken by Aurelian,

Divisiuu of the Roman Empire under Diocletian,

I'ourfold division of the Empire, ...

FOURTU CENTURY, A.D.

Christians persecuted by Diocletian,

Kcign of Coustuntinei >•» •••

)3

B.C.

87

82

63

59

[^

65

4i»

iS

44

43

m81

27

3

A.n.

S)

U23

30

43

64

70

78-84

98-117

lOi

131

137

193

203

261

273

286

292

303

.. .)-!—(Jul/

M:

- * \%

\ I'-''\\

•'I

: if

Ml

l-ri.

Ci ANCIENT CIIRONOLOGT.

Constantinople m.Kb Capit.il of the East, ...

Valcna and Valentinian divide the Einpiic, ...

Goths allowed to settle in Thrace, ...

Paganism abolished by law,

FIFTH CKNTURV, A.D.

Ala.-ic the Goth sacks Rome,

Romans abandon Britain,

Carthage seized by the Vanlals,

Teutonic settlements in Britain bc^;'in,

Battle of Chalons,

Pillage of Rome by the Vandals,

Fall of Rome before Odoacer—End of Ancient History,

An.330

'MA

37')

3L/i

dlO

4r!9

449

451

•155

47ti

TiiK Inst

ill 47G A,

of very i

first six ]

l)iirlj.'irisi:

traces of

Tlio ^

portions

I. ]

IT. ]

III. ]

Tlic 1

tiiiiau's

of Charl

doiii in

if

1^

Relig

mistress

(474-41

iiig the

U87)

THE ]MID1)LE AGES.

TiiK Llstovy of tlic Middle Ages extends from tlie Fall of Rome

ill 47G A.D. to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 a.d.—a period

of VL>ry nearly one thonsand years. Of these ten centuries tlio

first six liavc been called tlie Dark Ages, from the ignorance and

harharisni which overf;i)read the world, suLmei-ging almost all the

traces of ancient civilization.

The ^Middle Ages may for convenience Lc divided into three

portions :

—

I. From 47G to 814— the Death of Charlemagne.

IT. From 814 to 1201—the End of the Crusades.

HI. From 1291 to 1453—the Fall of Constantinople.

FIRST FERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

FROM 47G A.D. TO 8U A.D.

The leading events of this Period were the conrpicsts of Jus-

tinian's reign; the growth of Mohammedanism; the foundation

of Charlemagne's empire; the establishment of a Teutonic king-

dom in England ; and the origin of the Papal Power.

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE (476-867 A.D.).

Religious Strife.—The downfall of Komc left Constantinople

mistress of the world. Zeno was then Emperor of the East

(474-401 A.D.\ Previous to his time a great controversy regard-

ing the nature of the Saviour had been convulsing the Eastern

(187) 6

I

|i h|f

•'

• li

• ill

!•:

\ i

-y

GO BYZANTTNK HISTORY.

in

UH ^-f-

M.«

Chuvcl., in spite of soTCral General Council ca led lo ,lecMe

„pou the questions in dispute. The pn .heat.on hy Ze„o o£ an

liuet of union ealled IIc»ot!c<,n availed l.ttle to ealm the storn,.

The rival faetions-the orthodox :vearing W«o, their opponents

,.,.oe«-otteu met in deadly eonilict, strewing the streets ^vith

dead.

The Persians and the Huns were the cliief foes of llio Byzan-

tine Empire at tin's time.^

Justinian (527-5G5 A.D.)--Aftcr Anastasms and the peasant-

Lorn Justin Irul reigned, a nepliew of the latter attained th,3

crown He was called Justinian-a name connected honoural.ly

with the great task of reducing the chaotic Roman laws into a

simple and orderly system. Justinian was fortunate In possessmg

a o-cneral named Belisarius c.f famous military genius. Having

1,1^533 A.D. coiuiuered Gelimer, the Vandal King, and taken roiii

Carthage the vess-ds of the Jewish temple, this great soldier

crossed the sea, ana overran Southern Italy, nntil he was master

of Rome. The Ostrogoths, who then held Italy, mustered to

besiege the daring victor in Home ; hut he repulsed them, took

Ravenna, and was thus master of Italy. In later years ho

inflicted signal defeats upon Nushirvan, a distinguished monarch

of the race called Sassanides, who held the Persian throne from

'^^G to G51 A.D. In spite of these glorious services, he was

recalled for uttering some rash words against the Empress, and

was disgraced. This was partly due to the intrigues of his rival

Narses. Ilis campaigns in Italy against Totilas the Goth, and

his repulse of the wild Bulgarians, who crossed the frozen

Panuhe to inenaco Constantinople, were his later achievements.

After this, worse disgraces were indietcid on him. Narses, hav-

inn- in 553 overthrown the Ostrogothic kingdom in It:dy, Lecamo

the first Exarch oi Ravenna.

Justinian's system of law, compiled with aid from Tribonian,

consisted of—1. The Code, an J'Jjntomc ; 2. The Inylilnlcs, w

Elements ; 3. The Di'jcst, or Fandrch, containing the Roman

jurisprudence ;4. The Novels, or Justinian's new laws.

Tiie religious riots and massuovoH still continued ; one in 532

BYZANTINE IITSTORY. 67

A.-n. called Nika, was specially notable. Justinian died in

5G5A.D.

Decline of Power.— Under Justin II., successor of Justinian,

Narses invited tlie Lombards under Alboin into Italy. Origin-

ally from tlie Baltic, they now came out of Pannonia, and estab-

lished themselves in the plain that bears their name— 5G8 a.d.

Tlic Persians, too, began to assail the Empire on the cast. Nor

was it until Ileraclius the African gained the Byzantine throne,

by means of a revolution which overthrew the vicious Phocas,

that the tide turned. Chosrocs II. was then King of Persia.

Antioch, Jerusalem, even Tripoli fell before him ; and a Persian

camp lay for ten years in sight of Constantinople, on the oppo-

site side of the Bosporus. Ileraclius concluded a peace and

promised tribute. But he then made a mighty effort, and suc-

ceeded in driving the Persians back over the Euphrates, and

expelling Chosroes from Ctesiphon. He reigned from GIO to

040 A.D.

Of the twenty-two Byzantine l^hnpcrors, who filled the throne

l)ctween the death of Ileraclius and the beginning of the Mace-

donian Dynasty in 8G7, but few deserve mention. The seat of

tlie ]<'astern Empire was tlircatened by Bulgarians and Arabians,

especially the Latter, against whom in the great seven years' siege

(G08-GT5 A.D.) the famous Greek fn-o was used with telling effect.

During tins time a controversy about the worship of images

began to convulse the Church. Gregory III. in Pome de-

nounced the sin of inuige-breaking, after Leo III. at Constanti-

nople had interdicted the worship of images. The successors of

the latter coiithmed to forbid the idolatry; until Irene, mother

of Constantino YL, assumed power as Ilcgent, and soon caused

her son to bo blinded and al'terw^ards slain. By her exertions

the Council of Nica^a in 787 declared the worship of imager

-ood and right. But the Eastern Church never accepted tho

roconeiliati..u with Home, opened by this change. The idolatries

of the East grew so great as to call forth the Synod of Frankfort,

]u>ld in 701 by Charlemagne, at wiiich all image-worship was

distinctly forbidden. Irene was dethroned in 802 a.d.

\ 5m

M-tt^

! (

M\^ m

A

ft

C8 HISTORY OF ITALY.

• Under Thcoelora, luotlier and guardian of Micliacl III., the

veneration of images, but not tlieir worship, \va.s restored in tho

East hy a Council of Nica\a, hchl in 842 a.d.

In 8GT the Macedonian Dynasty was founded hy Basilius, a

man of humble extraction.

As Italy and Persia have been named frequently in tho fore-

going sketch of Byzantine history, I now take up the thread (.f

events in these countries, before proceeding to describe the

straui^c doings in Arabia under Mohammed.

ITALY (47G-774 A.D.).

Odoacer.—Tliis chief of the Ileruli ruled in Italy as Fatyiciim

over the llomans, and Kuig of his own Goths until 403 a.d. He

permitted the Visigoths to hold Southern Gaul and the Vandals to

occupy Sicily. But it was from Constantinople that danger came.

Zeno saved the Eastern Capital from a menaced siege by inducing

Theodoric the Ostrogoth—a gallant prince, who as a hostage had

resided long at the Byzantine court—to turn his arms against

Italy. Defeated at Verona, Odoacer retired to Bavenna, and was

soon afterwards slain at a feast—493 a.d.

Theodoric—The reign of Theodoric (493-52G) was poacofiil

and prosperous. New buildings arose, and the land was culti-

vated. Though a holder of the Arian tenets, which denied the

divinity of Christ, he tolerated other creeds. The Italians held

most of the civil offices ; but he retained military posts for tho

Goths. Cassiodorus the historian was his prime minister. In

addition to Italy he ruled over Bhaetia, Illyricum, and Sicily;

and by the marriage of his daughters extended his influence into

Spain and Gaul. In his latter years he became suspicious of

intrigues formed against him at the court of Constantinople; and

among the victims of his fears was Jh/dhtiis, who, being im-

prisoned at Pavia, wrote a well-known book, De Consolalivm

rhilosopldcc. Theodoric died in 520 a.d.

Decline of the Ostrogothic Kingdom.—The Greeks under

Bclisurius, a general already named, soun invaded Italy. A'itigi s

I

fho Ostr.

him. T

King of

Byzantii

s;arius.

Pvavenna

disagree

Empero]

to iuvad

Lomlwhose c

seated i

ilture

drunk 1:

508 A.I

descend

his capl

into lla

Lorn'

with g

thirty-!-

siding ;

AmonpBomanAdrlat;

dation^

f »r ten

Lombi"

pnnnii

Jlothai

Anoth

Bubdu(

on Be

giantc

Desid*

Ori;

insTor.Y or italv. C9

fho Ostvogothio King ^vas defeated, and Rome .vas wrested from

l,im The Franks also took Milan. Nor was Totilas, tlio next

King of the Ostrogoths, ahle to withstand the amis of the

livzantinos, when directed hy Narses, the successful rival of Boli-

.arius. Having slain Totilas, the conqueror, as I«areh of

Itavcnna, administered the affairs of Italy wisely for a time. A

aisagrccnicnt between Narses and Justin II the By.antino

Kmperor, led the former to invite Alhoin, King of the Lombards,

to invade Italy. , , , t i tLombard Invasion of Italy—The Loml)aras ov Longobanli,

^vhose orii^hial scat probal.ly ^vas tlie bank of Elbe were tbcn

seated in Pannonia ; and Alboiii was rejoicin- over the disconi-

ilture of the Gepid«, from whoso king's skull he had

drunk blood after the fashion of those brutal times. In 5 6 d

508 A D. he led his whole nation over the Alps;and a.d.

descended into the basin of the Po. There Pavia became^ ^

his capital. The Byzantine power shrank before this mvasion

into Ilavenna, Home, Naples, and a portion of the coast-line

Lombard Rule in Italy.-The Lombards treated the Italians

with great cruelty. After the murder of Alboin am Cleph,

thirty-six Dukes held the power for ten years (5<4-8-i). Ke-

.Idlng in the towns, they extended their ravages on cN-ery side.

•Vmong the results of such oppression was the flight of various

lloman families to the islands and lagoons at the head of the

\driatic, where, engaging in a seafaring life, they laid the foun-

ciations of the Venetian State. After the Dukes had held power

for ten vears, elective monarchy came into favour again; and the

Lomba;ds engaged in struggles with the Popes, now nsing into

l,rominence at Kome. The most noted Lombard King was

Jlnthans, who published in 644 a.d. a code of written laws

Another able lawgiver was Luitprand, whose successor Aistulf

subdued Ilavennn, and overthrew the Exarchate. His designs

on Home sent the Pope to the Franks for aid;which Pepm

granted, defeating the Lombards. The last Lombard King was

Desiderius, who was made prisoner by Charlemagne in n4 a.I).

Origin of tlio Paioacy.—Side by side with the Lombard King-

i ! ; ;ssjin:^m

' r 4-.

,{*^

If--»

i' I

I ^!i:!f|i(

HIi:

A\

a

Im

\

70 IIISTOny OF ITALY.

dom and tlio Exardiato, a power had Leon growing up at Rome,

destined to a lifo and influence incalculably greater than these.

This was the Papal Power. From very early times the Bishop

of Porno became a leader in the Christian Church. The first

great pontili was Innocent, who, while llonorius cowered in

ilavenna, was head of Pome, and who, when Alaric Backed the

city, raised it from its ashes. The controversy between Augustino

and Telagius, regarding original sin, raged during his time : and

he sided with the great African.

Leo I. (440-4G1 a.d.) was the Pope, who headed a procession

of priests to the camp of Attila the Ilun, and prevailed upon the

barbarian to spare Pome. He was less successful with Genseric

the Vandal. Meanwhile men like Jerome, And)rosc of Milan,^

and Augustine of Hippo were shaping the doctrines of the grow-

ing Church.

Gregory the Great (590-60-1 a.d.) wrote a well-known letter

to the Patriarch of Constantinople, objecting to the use by that

pontiff of the title. Universal Bishop. It was under this Pope

that Augustine was despatched to Britain in order to bring that

distant island within the pale of the Church. He saw the fierce

Lombards also yielding to the softening influences of Chris-

tianity.

Under Gregory II. (715-731) the controversy about the wor-

ship of images, already referred to, arose between Pome and Con-

stantinople. Tlio beginning of the temporal power of the Pope

dated from the ,^'Ift by Pcpln the Sliurt to Pope Stephen 11. of

the Exarchate, taken from the Lombards (755).

PEESIA (220 A.D.-G51 A.D.).

TIiO Sassanides.—l^y the overthrow of the Arsacidcs in

220 A.D., Parilila becnmc a new Persia, with an Artaxerxes on i(s

tlirono. This monarch, and his successors—the Sapors—waged

victorious war against the llomans; and, when Pome had fallen,

the Sassanides measured their strength again and again with the

generals of tho Past, In pai'tlcul.'ir, Cho^iroos or Nushirvun

PEnSIA AND ARARIA. 71

^531-579 A.D.) contcndca with Bclisarius fiercely and not witli-

out result. Unaer this great nionarch Pcrnia extended its

herders from the Mediterranean to the Indus, and from the

Jaxartes to Arahla. Chosroes 11. engaged in war with Ilcraclm.

the Byzanthio Emperor; hut, after a career of victory m Syria,

rulestinc, and Asia Minor, he yielded to superior geniu. re-

tveated hevond the Euphrates, and was expelM from Ctesiphon.

The last Sassanid monarch was Yczdcjcrd IIL, ^vho.c empire

bank in 051 a.d. hcforo the Aruhs.

rt

lii

Mi

.

•

m

ARABIA to 753 A.D.

Two Ilaces.-In addition to the Bedouin?;, claiming descent

from Ishmael, who wandered among the oases of Arahia, ther.

^vas a coast population, husily engaged in commerce and the ar ..

Spices, jewels, and rich cloths were the articles o their trade

The centre of their worship was the Caaha at Mecca, rehun.

about 4-10 by the head of the family Korci^h, which henceforth

acted as guardians of the sacred place. In 525 ^.n. a conciuerm;:

army from Abyssinia taught Christianity in \emen, the south-

^vestern angle of the peninsula ; but these were expelled by a

Persian force in 575 a.p.

Mohammed.-The great founder of Islam was horn at Mecca

in 571, from parents of the nohle race KoreUh-i\io guardians of

tlie Caaha. After forty years spent in mercantile life, he pro-

clain.ed his system and his mission (Gil a.d.). The preaching

of his dortrincs excited his own tribe against him to such a degree

that nothing but a si.cody flight from Mecca saved his

life The date of this escape—July 10, id'l a.d.— b.:.^

f.rms th.e llcjh-a, from wliich Moslems reckon the years a.d.

of their liistorv. Medina was the place of IMohammed s

vofu-c. Eroin a ther,rist on religion he became a fierce warrior,

aunmmeing that '4he sword is the key of heaven aiid lu:ll

^Varriug hoth with the KonAsJi. and the Jews settled n

Northern Arabia, b.o won the .rcat battle of Ilonem. And a.

M"la i-ar the Dead Sea he met the Byzantiue troops, and rg-

w

it

,!

}^4

I

l;u,!i;

.1;

f!Hi

ii'ii'iii

y ^.%ti;

72 MOHAMMED.

Ml

^'1

W.M:

m

'If

nally defeated tlicm. In 629 a.b. lie occupied Mecca ^v^tll liia

Koldicrs, and strewed the Caaba witli the fragiiionts of tliree liuii-

di-cd and sixty idols. His lieutenant took Akaba on the lied

Sea : and he was going to Damascus himself, when he felt the

approaches of death, and returned to 3Icdina, where fever cut him

offin632 A.D.

Omar.—After Abu Beker, one father-in-law of Mohammed,

had reigned for two years as CaJijih or successor, Omar, another

father-in-law, took the caliphate. lie in G37 conquered Jeru-

salem, where a mosque with his name soon rose to replace the

Jewish temple. The conquest of Syria followed. In Egypt

Amru took Alexandria; in Persia another lieutenant defeated the

last Sassanid King at Kadcsia and took Madayn his cupltul.

Omar was assassinated in 044 A.n.

Othman and Ali.—Under Othman the conquest of Persia was

completed, and the power of the Arabs extended to Tripoli in

Africa. Having built a fleet, the Kmir of Syria took Cyprus and

llhodes, in the latter place breaking to pieces the brass Colossus

or statue of the Sun. In order to curb the pretensions of men,

who strove to interpret the Koran after their own fashion, Oth-

man published a new edition of the book, altered to meet h!,t

views of government. The murder of Othman made Ali caliph;

but discord was beginning to break up the central power of

Islam. Two great factions arose

—

Soiniites or Orthodox, ami

Shilies or Schismatics (as their foes called them). Tlie former

opposed Ali : and the division thus begun runs through tluj

whole history of Moslemism, separating to this day the Turks,

who are Sonnitcs, from the Persians, who arc Shiitin, The

murder of Ali in GGl elevated Moawyah, 3'hnir of Syria, to the

caliphate. lie was the first of the Ommiyadcs, who held power

until 749 a.d.

Dynasty of the Ommiyades.—This race took their name from

Onimiyah, one of the Koreish, who governed Syria under Omar.

Moawyah, the first caliph of the lino, fixed liis ca|)ital at

Damascus, as more central than Mecca, and, with a fieet on the

Mediterranean under an Amir-al-Ma (captain at sea, the original

hi

MOf?LEMISM. T

dciv. Hi

icutcnaut

admiraT), lie extciulcd liis territory

:bali conquered the nortlicrn shore of Africa as far

as Tunis, south of which he founded Cairouan. At two points

—

the Bosporus and the Strait of Gibraltar—Europe ahnost touches

anotlier continent : and at these the Arabs made fierce invasions.

For seven years (GG8-G75) they carried on a siege of Constanti-

nople, but were repelled by the Greek fire. Another attempt in

717 was still more signally foiled. But thcs • defeats wei-c

counterbalanced by success in Africa, where Cyrcne, Tripoli,

Carthage yielded in succession ; and the Moslems poured on in a

resistless flood to the headlands opposite Spain. It was during

the caliphate of Walid that Tarlk, a lieutenant of Musa .

the Saracen leader, led an army across the Strait of 710

Gibraltar to the peninsula, where a great Yisigothic king- a.d.

doiu had been existing since before the fall of Home,

lloderick, " last of the Goths," was defeated on the field of Xeres

3[usa secured the conquest—and the Moslems soon established

themselves in Cordova as a centre. But Spain did not content

them. Crossing the Pyrenees, they attempted the conquest of

Franco also; but a defeat at Tours, inflicted in 732 a.d. by

Charles Martel, drove them southward beyond the mountaiii-

>vall.

Discontent grew into rebellion at the centre of Moslemism.

Ibrahim rose against Mervan II., last of the Ommlyad Caliphs;

and, when the rebel was slain, his more successful brother tool;

up ids sword, and drove ISIervan in flight to Egypt, where he was

hiUod in 750 A.I). This ended the Onmiiyad line in the East

:

the Abbasides now began to hold the caliphate.

Although this does not bring the history of Moslemism down

to the time of Charlemagne, it is convenient to drop the thread

at this point, and turn to the history of the Franks.

THE TRANKS to 814 A.D.

Clovis.—AMien the feeble hand of Borne let go, in her decay,

the possession of Gaul and Germany, a great number of wild

I

i

m\-^

•\ :-.*,•

\. ;i'^!

1 1 ii'i

]

7-1 niSTORY OF FRANCK.

f

tribes reigned riotously in tlio dark forests of tliosc lands. But

the Franks (franh, free) rose to tlic head of affairs, especially

when Clovis, a captain of the Sallan Franks, who at first occupioil

Belgium, fixed liis station at Lulctia or Paris, and set up a show

of royalty with a crown and mantle, sent to him from Constan-

tinople— 511 A.D. This man, whoso softened name is fomiliar in

French history as Louis, founded the Frankish monarchy.

Merovingian Dynasty (511-75:2).—The race of Clovis liad

already been called the Merovingians, from Mcroic<j, a sea-warrior,

who was third of their chiefs. This name specially belongs tt)

the dynasty founded by Clovis, and lasting from 511 to 752 a.d.

An immediate result of Clovis* death was the division of hi^

kingdom into fom* parts;—1. Austrasia, east of Rhine; 2. Neustrlii,

north of Loire; 3. Aquitaine, from Loire to the Pyrenees;

4. Burgundy, in the centre. There was a redistribution under

Clotaire I. ; but the strong hand of Dagobert I. (622-C38) seized

the whole monarchy.

After his time the Merovingian Kings sank into more puppet.*?

—vols faineants—wdio cherished their great fleeces of hair, but

left the affairs of government to a prime minister, known as Mayor

of the Palace. Pepin of Ileristal, Mayor of Thcodoric III., ruling

from G87 to 714, matic this influential oflice hereditary.

Pepin's son was the great Charles Martd (the Hammer), whoruled in Austrasia. Franco, and indeed all "Western Europe^,

owed much to his j^rowess; for, when the Arabs came pouring

through the gorges of the Pyrenees upon the fertile river-basins

of France, he met them on a plain near Tours (732 a.d.), and

inflicted on them a decisive defeat.

Pepin the Short succeeded his father as !Mayor. Having given

his aid to Pope Zachary, he was repaid by that pontiif by bein.i*

put on the throne of Franco, to the exclusion of Childeric I1L»

who went to a convent. This brought the iMerovingian DynaKt;T

to a close in 752 a.d. The Saxon Winifred—afterw.ir Is niadf

Archbishop of Mayence—gave Pepin important assistairce in con-

trolling and Christianizing his subjects.

Charlemagne.—Pepin was the first monarch of the Carlovingian

line. I

The dea

niagnc—

the two

Charl

who d\v

^Vittiki]

finally <

804 A.D

A sh

final sti

assumed

The 1

778 A.D

dova—

f

grown i

' Navarre

defdc

Basf|ue^

having

Ilungar

The;

Christn

St. Pet(

the lloi

Witl;

own on

while li

was ill

1^14 A.I

Teul

and 11

Ih

CIIAKLEMAGXE, mline. Dying in 7G8, lie left two sons—Carloman and Charles.

The death of the former left Charles—better known as Charlc-

iiuignc—monarch of an extensive realm, comprising portions of

tlie two countries wo now call France and Germany—771 a.d.

Charlemagne waged a great and tedious war with the Saxons,

>vho dwelt chiefly round the Wcser. They had a brave warrior,

"Wittikind, who appeared in arms again and again, until he was

fmally defeated at Dethmold. This war lasted from 772 to

804 A.D.

A shorter war defeated Dcsiderius the Lombard King, whoso

final stand was made at Pavia— 77-i a.d. Charlemagne then

assumed the iron crown of Lombardy.

The remembrance of the field of Tours excited Charlemagne in

778 a.d. to lead an army into Spain, where the Emirate of Cor-

Jova—a Moslem power independent of the Abbasido Caliphs—had

grown into strength. The capture of Saragossa laid Aragon and

' Navarre at his feet. But the disaster oflioncesvalles,where in a

dtjfde of the Pyrenees his rear-guard was destroyed by the

Basques, took some brightness from these laurels. Charlemagne

having engaged in a war with the Avars, his son penetrated

Hungary, and took the Pving at Buda, a fortress stored with riches.

Tlie proudest day in this great monarch's reign was the

Christmas of 800, when Pope Leo III. crowned him in

St. Peter's at Home as '' Charles Augustus, Emperor of

the llomans."

"With sad foresight Charlemagne feared the Norsemen,

own empire, whose centre was Aix-la-Chapellc, was safe enough,

wliile he lived; but the gentle Louis, who was to succeed him,

was ill fitted to cope with foes so fierce. Charlemagne died in

SI 1 A.D.

800A.D.

Ilig

THE BRITISH ISLES.

ENGLAND (4i9-827 A.D.}.

Teutonic Conquest.—It is said that three ships, led by Ilengist

and llorsa, came to Tlianet in Kent in 449 a.d., and landed

t

liltll

\ t

PSi*'i

I.J

ii

^i

! 11:1

iil

76 TiiK imiTi?=ii ism:?.

Lands rcprcscntlnj,' tlircc Teutonic tribes—Anglos, Saxons, nn.l

Jutes. During tlie next century and a luilf seven kingdoms,

called tlie Saxon Ileptarcliy, were founded along the castei-n and

southern coasts, and in the centre of South Britain. These

^vere:—I.Kent; 2. Sussex; 3. Wessex; 4. Ksscx; 5. Northuni-

bria; G. East Anglia; 7. Mercia.

Various men of power arose in the wars which convulsed these

j;tates ;—such as Edwin of Dcira; Ina, the lawgiver of AVessex;

Penda and Ofia, fierce men of war, who ruled in Mercia: but the

tendency of every change was to centralize all power ultimately

in Wessex, which extended its bounds from Hants and Wilts

until it occupied the whole land. The wars, which fused the

Seven States into the single realm of ICmjIaml, blended the

various, though kindred, races of the early settlements into the

Anglo-Saxon nation.

During the progress of this change, the coming of Augustino

as a missionary from Home in 597, and the beginning of Danish

invasions at Dorchester in 787, were notable events.

Egbert, King of "Wessex, who attained to supreme power over

all England in 827, was a contemporary and friend of Charle-

magne, who giW'Q him shelter for fourteen years, during which a

usurper held the throne of his rightful kingdom.

SCOTLAND.

North Britain was at first inhalntod by the Calodcmians, or

" people of the woods," who arc regarded as being of (lothie de-

scent. The tribe Scoti, who ultimately gave a name fo tho

country, emigrated early in the Christian era from the nortli of

Ireland to Argyll, whore they founded a kingdom called JJal-

rlada. A nation called tlie ricla hold the districts north of

Forth and Clyde, while a small independent realm, lleged or

Strathclyde, occupied the basin of the Clyde. The same process

of conquest as expanded "Wessex into England, made Kenneth

MacAlpin, King of Dalriada, sole monarch of the northern part

of the island in 848 a.d. But the name of Scotland was not in

use for at least a century afterwards.

Scotlai

passed fr^

—the Cu

nortli of

Thop<

fies, gave

were in 1

tiou is a

last refu!

Meath.

the narr

called"

uf the c:

hide in t

the Dan

iu the s(

The

many ol

the Nor

eTenghiz

over tw

uf the S

In A^losleiii

Al-3Iai

centre <

his . tal

Tlin MOIIAMMKDANS. 77

Scotland was Clni.stiauuod by aii Iilsli monk, ColumLa, who

passed from D'.iiogal to lona about 503 A.D., and whose disciples

—the Culdcc.-^—spread the knowledge of the Crospel even into tho

north of England.IllELAND.

The position of Ireland in tho extreme west, as its name signi-

fies, gave it peace from external foes, while England and Scotland

were in the throes of national construction. The present condi-

tion is a sad reverse of the picture. Tinder Uie Komans it was a

last refuge of the Druids, who fixed their great temple at Tara in

:\Ioath. But St. Patrick, who was a native of Strathclyde, crossed

the narrow sea to preach Ohristia.iity in what afterwards was

called " The Island of the Sa hits." Leogaii i MacNelU was first

uf the Christian Kings. Religion and learning prospered side by

tiido in this island; and some of the arts also flourished. At last

the Danes found their way to the coasts, and obtained a footing

in tho sea-ports, where they were called Ostmen.

SECOND PEKIOD JF THE MIDDLE AGES.

rr.O.M SU A.D. TO 1291 A.D.

The reign of Alfred the Great (871- 1); tho reign in Ger-

many of Otho the Great (9G-2-l)73/, the conriiKbtof Eiigla'xl by

the Normans in luGG; the Papacy of Hildebrand; the career of

Jenghi/. Khan; and the Crusades, eight in number and extending

over'two centuries (109G-1291), form the mo 't notable features

of tlic Second Period, into which I have divided the Middle Age i.

THE LIOHAWMEDANo (753 to 1250 A.D.).

in Asia.—

"We liave seen that Abul Abbas established the

IMoslem dynasty of the Abbasides in 75:] A.D. To his successor

Al-Mansur was due the foundation of Bagdad, which became a

centre of Eastern splendour. But the Caliph, who most adorne 1

his station and wielded the widest influence iu the world, was

1P11 i-;;'. :'

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H ..

THK MOTTA^IMKBANS.IS

Ilarouii-al-rtabdiid (Auruu the Jusl), tlic coiileinponiiy of Charle-

magne.

Distinguished in early life for valour disi^laycd in wars against

the Greeks, Haroun, becoming Caliph in 78G, began to encourage

arts and letters. In the story-book called The Arahian

786 N'ifjhts we find a picture of the city he ruled, and the life

A.D. he lived. In a war of some length he obliged the ]iy-

zantine Emperor, Nicephorus I., to pay tribute tliat was

due. One stain rests on the name of Ilaroun—a wild revenge

he took upon his I^armecide vizier, of whom he became ground-

lessly jealous. Ilaroun died in 808, while conducting an expedi-

tion against the rebel satrap of Khorasan.

Contests for the Caliphate wore out its strength; and iMo-

tasem (833-42) formed a body-guard of Turks—natives of bleak

Turkestan—who had been converted to the ^Moslem faith. These

guards gained an ascendency at Bagdad similar to that of the

Pnutorians in Rome; and at length secured the right of electing

their own captain. One jorovince after another then broke off

from the Caliphate, until it shrank almost to Bagdad alone, and

the power of the Caliphs was delegated to an officer called Emir-

al-Omra (/.c, Captain of Captains), who resembled somewhat

the French Mayor of the Palace. By this arrangement tlio

Caliph became a mere cipher, exercising a nominal rule as Iligh-

Priest of the Mosque.

The Emirate, becoming a source of contention, was held in

turn by the JJuidcs, a family who had conquered Persia, and the

ScJJnJi's, a Turkish race, who gained the position in 1056. ''J'ho

Turks were already beginning to grow strong. One of themnamed Achmcd conquered Egypt in 8(58; and the Sultan Mah-moud, subduing Central Asia from the Sea of Aral to the Ganges,

established the dynasty of the Gaznavidc^^ who took their namefrom Gazna, the Sultan's residence (about 1000 a.d.).

Togrul Beg, ruling the Scljuk Turks at the time of the

Norman Conquest of England, wrested from the Caliph both

Jjugdad and the dignity of Emir-al-Omra. His nephew AlpArslan warred with the Byzantine Emperor successfully; and

Th

dova, c

-HI

THE MOIIAMMLDAXS. '9

Blalek Shah, the son of this warrior, reduced Syriti and Palo^^tino

under Turkish dominion in 107G a.d.

Tliis event brings the liistory of the East and the "West into

close conn(5ction. for from tlic brutal ti'catment of Christian pil-

grims l)y these Turkish masters of Jerusalem arose the anger

which kindled the Crusades.

In Africa.—The Moslem dominions along the Barbary shore

broke into two kingdoms. The Afjhihilcs governed from Egypt

to Tunis during the ninth century ; the Edritilles ruled in Ceuta,

Fez, and Mauretania. But botli fell in 912 before the prowess

of the FalimiteSj who claimed descent from Mohammed's daughter

Fatima.

The Fatimitcs then ruled from the Atlantic to the Bed Son,

and, fixing their seat of power at Cairo, extended their sway over

I^dcstine and Syria. ]Jut dissension produced decay here too;

and in 1171 the last Fatimite yielded to the Sultan Saladin.

In Spain.—In 755 Abd-el-llahman, of the Ommiyad line, fled

from Asia to Spain, and, placing the centre of his power at Cor-

dova, erected in the Peninsula an independent Emirate. Charle-

magne and the Goths troubled him on the north.

Abd-el-llahman III. extended the Moslem power in Spain, and

made the land rich in crops and the cities rich in learning. Ilis

successor Al-IIakem also encouraged literature. There soon

arose in the north a formidable foe— Alphonso VI. of Castile—to withstand -whose attacks the Arabs, or Saracens, as they were

called, invited over to their aid Joseph, King of Morocco. Hecame and defeated the Castilian; but he took occasion to estab-

lish a Moorish Empire in Spain by tlie con(|uestof those who had

invited him to come—1087 a.d. In these wars Diaz do Bivar,

known as the Cid, displayed his valour.

The battle of Navas de Tolosa, won over the jMoovs in 1212

by Al2»honso IX. of Castile, who connnanded an allied force of

Christian soldiers, was fatal to the extension of IMoslem power in

Spain. Tlie advantage thus gained v^•as improved, until in 1250

the Moorish dominions had shrunk to the single province of

Granada.

i

ulilC

»:

!il*'lli

iiii

i

P *

%

80 IIISTOllY OK THE t'KUSADES.

1. ;

'.' U

THE CUUSADES (1096-1291 A.D.).

There were eight Cnisades, or Wars of tlic Cross.

Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, liaving ohtained leave

from Tope Urban II., travelled through Italy and France, calling

npon all true Christian soldiers to fight for the rescue of the

Iluly Sepulchre from the Infidels.

1. The First Crusade set out in 109G under Godfrey of

Boulogne. It took them nine months to march across Euro})o

to Constantinople. The siege of Nice, and a victory at Dory-

la.'uni over the Turkish horse marked their progress through

Asia Minor, from which they did not emerge -without much

suffering during their passage through Taurus. The siege of

Syrian Antiocli then detained them; hut at last they

1099 reached Jerusalem, -which fell in five weeks. Godfrey,

A.D. elected King of Jerusalem, defeated the Sultan of Egypt

in the battle of Ascalon.

2. St. Bernard of Clairvaux wa?, the apostle of the Second

Crusade, which begau in 1147. Following the path of Iho

earlier Crusaders, Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Ger-

many passed across Europe and Asia INIinor. The army of the

latter was destroyed in Cappadocia; and, though Louis struggled

on to Jerusalem, the Crusade was an utter failure.

3. More romance gilds the story of the Third Crusade

(llSO-92). Ilichard III. of England, Thilip Augustus of France,

and Frederic Barbarossa of Germany assumed the Cross. Freihn'Ic,

starting first, passed victoriously into Asia Minor; but was cut

off by death in Cilicia. The fortress of Acre, opposite Mount Car-

mcl, and regarded as a key of Falestine, had fallen into the hands

of Saladin, the Turkish Monarch, who had made himself nuistcr

of JerusahiJii in 1187.

Saladin, who had raised himself from being A'izier of .l\gypt to

the Turkish throne by the overthrow of the last Fatiniite Caliph,

was a great soldier with a chivalrous heart.

There was much delay in the transport of the I'higlish army to

iirsTor.v OF ttii: chusadks. 81

Palestine, riiilip reached Acre long before llieliard; but it was

not until the Lion -heart arrived that Acre fell. But this war>

nlmost all that the English King achieved, lie won a battle at

Joppa, advanced within twenty miles of Jerusalem, and then

made a truce with Saladin before returning to Europe.

4. The events of the Fourth Crusade (1195-97), undertaken

by Henry A''!., Emperor of Germany, were the capture of Beirout,

and tlie ignominious flight of the Crusaders from the siege of

Thoron.

5. The soldiers of the Fifth. Crusade never reached Jerusalem

.

Pandolo, Doge of Venice, who was to supply transports, induced

them to retake for him the city of Zara in Dalraatia, which had

revolted. ^J'hey then accepted an invitation to restore Isaac, the

dethroned Emperor, to his position in Constantinople.

])andolo, though blind, lent them valuable aid even in 1203actual fight; and the fall of Constantinople (1203) caused a.d.

the usurper to vacate the throne of the Byzantine Empire.

G. Frederic II. of Germany headed the Sixth Crusade. Afeud with the Pope, Gregory IX., however, caused the clergy to

look coldly on his successes in Palestine. These were rather

works of peace than of war; for he secured by treaty the pos-

session of JerusaliMU and Bethlehem (i*2:i9).

7. The Seventh Crusade was led by Saint Louis IX. of

I'rance. ITis principal exploit was the reduction of Damietta;

but a defeat at Manriourah pi'eparcd the way for his ca])turc at

jMinieh. xhe restoration of Damietta and the payment of a largo

sum in gold purchased his release, after which he spent four use-

less years at Acre previous to his return to France.

8. Saint Louis went upon an Eighth Crusade to Africa, where

l)estilence cut liim off. Edward I. of England, then only Prince

Edward, afterwards led his Crusaders to the Holy Land, but

achieved nothing of consequence there. The fall of Acre in

1291 before Sultan Khalil and his Mamelukes may be regarded

ns closing this great series of wa::;.

(187)

lIlSTn.'lV OF 'II'IIMANY.

n^

^If F

t

if *

GSrvMAlTY (314-1373 A.D.).

Division of Empire.—Louis Ic Dcbonnairc, a gentle moukisli

scholar, who succeeded his father Charlemagne in 814, felt the task

01* govornlng so much beyond liis strength, that he divided his

cMupire among his three sons, giving a preference to Lothairo tlio

eldest. This made Louis and Charles discontented; and after

ilieir father's death, which occurred in 840, they united their

strength and defeated Lothairo at Fontcnaille. Two843 years after this battle, a treaty was concluded at A^erduii

A.D. (S43 A.D.), by which Louis received Germany, and

Cliarles France, while Italy was left to Lothairo.

Charles the Fat, a son of Louis, became Emperor of all in S84;

but liis feeble rule ceased in 887, and out of the Frankish

monarchy grew four States—France, Germany, Italy, and Bur-

gundy— of which three are still represented on the map of

Europe,

THE SAXON EJirEROIiS.

Carlovinginns ruled in Gennany until 911, when Conrad of

Franconia was raised to the throne. At this time live Dukesbecame prominent, possessing a power largely independent. 13ut

of the five—Saxon, Suabian, Bavarian, Franeonian, Tluiringian

—

the first gained the supremacy, and Saxon Emperors began to

rule in Germany. These, five iii number, held the Imperial

throne for more than a century.

Henry I. (the Fowler).— The union of Saxons and Franco-

nians placed Henry, a Saxon, on tl':c throne in Oil). His first

task was the subjugation of certain Dukes, who opposed liis elec-

tion. But the irruption of Hungarians from the east gave himmost trouble. IL; built fortified castles on that frontier, cipiippcil

.1 fine cavalry force, and so withstood the fierce ^Magyars, that he

broke thfir power f )r a time in the battle of ^Merseburg in 9J);>.

Before his death, in 930, he had attained the position of being

the greatest monarch in Eurojje.

Otho I. (the Great) succeeded his father. A victory on the

i

^

Lcchfelc

inroads;

Austria-

uf Lotlu

of the \\

.Tolni Xiron crc

needed 1

named I

The lav

to the

freedom,

Otho

Kmpero:

uion of '.

were bai

Bon, thr(

Otho

acted as

feelings

his fathc

the lead

air and ]

the age

Henr:

ruled ui]

Conrn

Tinder 1

1039.

Eenr:

nnd opp

nobles t<

during t

Evcr

Li

%

niSTORY OF GEKMAXY. ISI

Lcclifcld near Augsburg relieved his territory from Hungarian

inroads; and ho then formed an Eastern district—tlio nucleus of

Austria—to guard his frontier. Having married Adelaide, widow

of Lotliairc, King of Italy, he applied to the Pope for the crown

of the Western Emjurc. Ho received it in 1)G2 from Pope

eJolin XII., having been previously dignified with the 962iron crown of the Lombards at Milan. Italy much a.d.

needed the strong hand of a reformer. The Pope, sur-

iianied Infamous, was forced to give place' to an honestc/ man.

The lawless nobles were stripped of power, which was given

to the bishops; and beautiful Italy felt again the breath of

freedom.

Ctho II. married Thoophano, daughter of the Byzantine

Kinperor, Romanus II., who gave him as a dowry the domi-

nion of Lower Italy. But his efforts to secure his power there

were baffled by a defeat at llossano. He died in 983, leaving a

son, three years old, to succeed him.

Otho III., brought up by his mother and grandmother, whoacted as regents, took a sharp revenge, when lie came to have tho

feehngs of a num, upon Home, whoso factions had been liustile to

liis father and himself. The Consul Crescentius, who had been

tho leader of the opposite party, suffered death. But the Italian

air and liis Iloman troubles combined to cut off the Emperor at

tho age of twenty-two—lOOii a.d.

Henry II. of Bavaria was then elected to the empire, and

ruled until 1021, when the line of Saxon Emperors ended.

FIIANCONIAN' EMPlUiOllS (1024-1125 A.D.).

Conrad II., Duke of Pranconia, was then elected Emperor.Tinder him Burgundy was added to tho empire. lie died in

1031).

Henry III, his sou, in onler to relieve his poo^do under famino

nnd oppression, promulgated the Truce of God^ which obliged all

nobles to observe peace from Wednesday evening to Monday, andduring the seasons called Advent and Lent.

Ever since the time of Otho the Great, the Emperors had been

ij.'

C: ^

i« I%

!\-

il )

m^

'!:

Hi-

i^ii

I

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84 IlTSTOnV OF nrr.MAN'Y.

ar-customc-l to wield great influcuco in the papal elections, until

the llomaii nol)les, who tlesired to sell the oftice, began to claim

the right of interference. Henry put this firmly clown, taking

the election of Pope into liis own hands (104G). lie also curbed

the German dukes, and disponed of their duchies in various ways.

Henry IV. succeeded his father. During liis nonage there

were contests as to the care of his person ; hut lie fell into the

liands of Adalbert. Archbishop of Bremen, wlio encouraged him

in luxury and vice. The most striking event of his reign was

connected with a serious quarrel that broke out between him and

Pope Gregory YIT., earlier known as the 3Ionk Hildebrand.

Tlie grand aim of this pontiff being to make the papal power

supreme over all Christendom, he issued a decree that all the

clergy, who had been appointed by laymen, should resign. This

was specially levelled at Henry, who, instead of submitting,

appointed an Archbishop of Cologne. The Emperor, moreover,

convoked a synod of German bishops, who declared that Gregory

had no right to the tiara. The Pope retaliated by

1077 cxcomn-iunicating Henry : and in 1077 the greatest

A.D. temporal monarch in the world was forced to stand

barefoot on the frosty earth at Canossa for three days

waiting for admission to the presence of Gregory, v.-ho withdrew

liis direful edict only on condition of complete submission. l>ut

Henry failed to keep his promises : Ptudolf of Sual>ia was elected

Kmperor: and a war began between the rivals. In lOSO Iiud(jlf

die(l of a wound. The tide then turned. Henry besieged Rome,

wliicli fell in three years. Guido of Kaveniia, under the name of

Clement III, was made Pope, Gregory having been driven into

exile at Salerno. Then died Hildebrand in 10S5, almost with

Ills last breath uttering maledictions on Henry and the Pope of

his election. The last days of Henry were troubled by the

rebellion of his sons, and continual struggles with the Pukes ainl

Counts of the Empire regarding whether the succession should

be elective or hereditary. They supported the former plan; he

fought for the latter. In 1105 the old Emperor resigned the

crown of a realm which under him had been torn with endless

f^:.

I'CCO

iinP'

i

IIISTOUY or G HUMAN Y.

ClVl 1 tliscovd ; find in the following year lie died snddcnly at

Li<',u'e.

Henry V. continued the "War of Invest iiurcs until the question

was compromised between tlic Emperor ;;; 1 tlic Pope by the Con-

canhtt of Worms^ in 1122. Another and fiercer strugghj wan

liilo orrowing to a head. This was the war between tlioinoanw

Guelphs and the Ghibellincs, to which further allusion will bo

made in the history of Italy. The feud arose from a bequest

made to the Church by Countess Matilda of Tuscany. Tlio

Ouelphs upheld the Italian cause; the Ghibellincs that of tho

Kmpcror. Henry V.. last of the Franconian Emperors, died iu

1125.

suABiAN' rMi'Knons :n2j-i2:2 a.p.).

After Lothalrc of Saxony had held tho Imperial crown lor

twelve years, it passed to Conrad of Suabia, \vho ruled as

Conrad III. (llo7~1152). lie stripped of all liis dominions

Henry the Proud of Bavaria, who had received also Hanover and

Saxony by marriage ; but he restored Saxony to Henry the Lion.

His name has been mentioned as a sharer iu tho disasters of the

Second Crusade.

Frederic Barbarossa (Ked-beard), tho nephew of Conrad, was

elected to succeed him. Ho soon engaged in a struggle with th-^

Lombard cities of Northern Italy, now growing strong and pros-

porous, and claiming tho rights of repulilics. Milan fell before

liim in 11G2; but a strong resistance, called tho Lewjnc of Lvm-

hinh/, was framed, and the struggle lasted for nino years, ending

at tho battle of Legnano (1176) in the deci. ive triumph of tho

(-ities, wiiicli by tho peace of Constance (1183) acquired tho right

to govern themselves. A successful war with Henry tho Lion

of Siixony also marked his reign.

Frederic met his death in Asia Minor, while bound for Pales-

tine to fight in tlie aiiird Crusade—1189.

Henry VI., surnamed tho Severe, reigned for scarcely eight

years. His con<|uest of Naples and Sicily was marked with exces-

sive cruelty.

During the minority of Frederic II., Otho IV. managed to

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80 HISTORY OF GERMANY.

RGCuro the crown : l>ut tlio Poi^o turned against liim ; and wlion

rrederic bccanio old enough, lio received the mipevial power,

llesiding" for Iho most part in Italy, Frederic delayed to

fulfil his promise of taking the Cross, until the Pope rehukcil

him. Frederic ravaged the raj)al territory, and drew down (ci

Iiimself the thunder of cxconmiunication. Then ho weiit t'l

Palestine in spito of the Pope, and, as heforc related, suececilu I

in obtaining Jerusalem by treaty from the Sultan.

The rest of Frederic's reign was .spent in an Ita.li;ni war,

fomented by the Pope, Gregory IX., who stirred up the Cities

against him. A defeat at Parma caused him to retire to Naples,

v.herc he died of fever in 1250.

Hanseatic Leaf^ue.—In 1247 Hamburg and Lubeck united

in a league to defend their shij-jping against pirates, and to extend

their commerce. This league, known as the Ilavsa, attracted

all the chief cities of the .sea-bord along the German Ocean an<l

the 13altic Sea, "whose waters they commanded. It flourished for

about four centuries ; 'but, when the discoveries of Columbus and

Vasco turned the commerce of Europo into other channels, it

decayed and broke. The cities of the Khine formed a similar

league of mutual defence.

After Frederic's death thero was a period of anarchy, during

which two rival claimants for the Imperial cro-wn—Richard Earl

of Cornwall, brother to Henry III. of England, and Alphonso X.

gf Castile—being elected by opposing factions, bore the empty

honour. Many German cities began to govern themselves; and

the petty princes acted independently. This lasted until l27o,

when the first of the Ilapsburgs became Emperor,

^

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FRANCE (S14 TO 1328 A.D.),

Carlovingians.—When Louis the German nnd Charles of

Neustria defeated Lothairo in the battle of Fontenaillo (841), Ger-

many and France had birth as separate nations. The Treaty of

Verdun (843) confirmed the issue of that battle, leaving tho

)

ITISTOIIY 01' FRANCE. 87

Illiinc as a partial boundary—of ^vllicll, however, the Tcutoiiii

have always had the tighter liold.

Norsemen.—France under the cfi'etc descendants of Charle-

magne suffered much from the attacks of Norse ph-atcs, ^\•h()

Failed uji the Seine in flat-hottonied skiffs even to Paris. Paring

the reign of Charles the Simple, Kollo the Norseman, or Norman,

.scoured a footing in the fair province, whoso name reminds us of

the fact. The territory was yielded on condition that an

oath of fealty should bo sworn to Fi-ance. Hollo, when 911the time came to kiss the foot of Charles, bade one of his a.d.

retainers perform the task ; which the rough .soldier did

BO effectually, that the lifting of the royal leg from the groun<l

laid Charles on his back.

Odo, Count of Paris, had Kelzed the throne before the accession

of Charles the Simple. Robert, Odo's brother, began a civil

war, which placed Charles in a prison, and drove his son Louis

an exile into England. Kodolf of Burgundy was then elected,

and ruled amid a storm of civil war, until Louis D'Outrcnier

{from Icijoml sat) returned to occupy his father's place. His

great supporter was lingo, Duke of Francia. Lothaire and

Louis v. closed the lino of Carlovingians in Franco.

THE CAPET KlXfiS (9S7-132S A.D.)

Hugh Capet, tho son of lingo tha Great, Count of Franci.i,

became King in virtue of his strength and ni.anhood at a timo

when universal fear darkened the Clulstlau world. For it was

currently believed that when the last hour of 0',)U slunild lapse

away, the note of tho fiiud destruction was to sound. Tlie earth

was not tilled; famine began to ravage the lands; and menpreyed even ou one another's flesh, Hugh died in 990 ; and his

son Robert succeeded him.

Eobert (990-1081) was forced by the Pope, who laid an Inter-

dict upon the land, to give up Bertha, a wife he loved, because

she was his cousin in the fourth degree.

Henry I. (1031-00) ruleil over a land ravaged by tho brutality

of feudal nobles, to resist whose cruelties the clergy j)roclaim'^d

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88 HISTORY OF FHANCK.

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tliat " Truco of God '' already referred to. The new leaRO, wln'ch

8ecnied to be accorded to the world hy tlio risinp: suns of the

year 1000—notably to those olden people a year of .i^racc

—

turned many to religious works, suck as tlic huildin.ii: of cathe-

drals, and the prosecution of pilgrimages. One of the most

distinguished pilg)-i.ns was Robert of Normandy, who died at

Nica\a in 1035 on hia journey homeward ; and one of the most

active and tasteiul ecclesiastical builders was his son Williunj,

whom we know in ]]nglisli history as the Conqueror.

Philip I. was only seven wlien his father Henry died. During

liis minority William of Normandy, intent upon the invasion of

England, was drawing all the restless nobles to his banner ; and

when the year lOGG witnessed his success, the conquest of the lower

island still kept the French swords employed. Philip was very

weak ; and though the nobles were engaged, the Church was not.

It was the Papacy of Ilildebrand (1073-85), a man of the people,

and ho exerted his giant power successfully against this poor

weakling. The First Crusade, in which France joined with iui-

mense enthusiasm, began during Philip's reign.

Louis VI., surnamed the Fat, benefited the nation much, espe-

cially by the establishment of the Communes with important

privileges. Henry I. of England, now Duke of Normandy, gavo

this monarcli much trouble, for as King of England he despised

liis Suzerain in France.

Louis VIL (1137-1180), a wise and gentle prince, suffered

great loss of territory by divorcing his profligate wife Eleanor:

for Henry II. of England married her at once, and she brought

liim as a dowry most of France, from the Loire to the Pyrenees

;

which, as he already held Anjou and Normandy, made him lord

of twice as much territory in France as the nominal King of Franco

could claim.

Philip Augustus (1180-1223) was a powerful King. His

character does not appear in a favourable light, as the associate

of Coeur de Lion in the Third Crusade. But at home he dis-

played skill and str<'ngth. He secured Artois ; and, summoning

recreant John of England to be tried as a vassal of France, for

grew

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IIISTOUY OF FRANCE. 8a

the murder of young Arthur, ho wrcsteil from that monarch, on

Ills refusal to appear, Touraine, Anjou, Maine, and Normandy.

In liis reign a Crusade, stirred up by the Pone, moved against

the Alhi'jcnscs of Languedoc, who denied certain doctrines of

]l(.nie. The war lasted for more than twenty years, and ended

ill the tc*al RuLjection of the Albigenses, who were trampled out

.IS a separate people. Simon Montfort, father of the founder of

our EngHsli House of Commons, was the leader of the crusading

forces for a long time; while Raymond of Toulouse, and his

Iravc nephew Raymond Roger, fought for the Albigensian cause.

This secured for France the Mediterranean shore.

In 1214 the Emperor Otho, John of England, and the

Count of Flanders made a league against Philip Augustus;

but the French King, by his victory at Bouvines, broke its

strength.

Louis VIII. was an unworthy successor of his great father.

lie attempted the conquest of England, and continued the

Crusade against the Albigenses.

Louis IX. was surnamed Saint, from the contrast his gentle

character bore to the fierce turbulence of the times. Somewhat

of this he owed to liis mother, Blanche of Castile. We have

already seen Saint Louis on tlie Crusades. During his minority

the feudal nobles resisted the royal power: but the burgesses

rallied rcmnd their young King and his mother ; and, when Louis

grew to inaidiood,*he made all classes in the land respect his

rule. He married a princess of Provence. The Eighth Crusado

was fatal to him, for he died of fever in Africa, 1270.

Philip the Bold succeeded (1270-1285). The chief events of

his reign were connected with a Spanish war, in which he

nc(piired Navarre.

Philip the Fair (1285-1314) was l)old and warlike. Taking

advantage of a quarrel between the English and the Norman sailors,

ho seized Guienne from Edward T. of England. He attempted

to get possession of Flanders; but at Courtrai (1302) a body

of weavers, armed with rude pikes, defeated his choice chivalry.

But his great contest was with the Pope, Boniface VIII., who

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in vain Rumnioncd the French clergy to Rome, They Hided

witli tlieir King, who audaciously declared, " that thoro wcro

kings in Franco hcforo there were l)isho2:is/' Out of this contest

grew tlio Sl(({cs-Gcnc)'(iJ, or rejiresentatives of tho three estate??,

convened for the first time in 1302. Pliilip, with much cruelty,

:ilK)lishcd tlic order of the Knights Templars. The threo sons

of Philiii—Louis X., Philip V., Charles IV.—reigned in succes-

.sion hetwccn loll and 1328 ; liis daughter Isahella was married

to l^^dward II. of England.

Jane, tho daughter of Louis Ilutin (ike QnarrcJsomc), wasdeprived of her chance of succession by Philip her uncle, whos<}

adherents secured tho operation of tiio Salic law, excluding

Avomen from tho throne. Tlic kingdoni has never thcrelore^' fallen to the distaff/' With tho death of Charles IV. tho lino

of Capet, properly so called, ceased to hold tho French throne

;

and that branch of it called the House of Valois commenced to

rcign.

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KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY (679-1032 A.D.).

During this period a Kingdom of Burgundy, wdiich must not

be confounded with tho Duchy of Bui-gundy, that was so .sharp a

thorn in tho side of France, rose and fell.

It broke off from Franco in 879 imder Boso, under tho nameAries, or Lower Burgundy^ which contained the upper basins of

Illione and Saone. lu 934 it was joined by lludolf II. to

Upper Burgmidy; and the kingdom expanded to tho delt:; of

tho Rhone, and over a great part of Switzerland. But in 1032the stronger power of Germany absorbed it,

ITALY (774-1305 A.D.}.

Wg must noAV view the history of Italy in four sections :

—

1. Northern Italy under tho Franks and tho Emperors; 2. PapalItaly; 3. Southern Italy ; 4. Venice.

Northern Italy.—The defeat of tho Lombar.ls in 774 left

IIT?TOn\ >V ITALY. MCharlemagne master of NoiMicvu Ital '. lu SUO lir -is .< wnetl

at St. Peter's as Emperor oi' tlio Romans.

Ill 8^8 tlio Dukes of Spoleto and Friuli contested tlio crown

;

(ind a iieriod of confusion followed, wMdi ,ok tlio Ftron!^ Iiaitd

<)f the Kmporor Otho I. to bring to some degree of order. TIij

power of the Emperors in Italy then gradually declined, wliib

tliat of tlio Lombard Cities grew strong, in spite of bitter ani-

mosities among tliemselvcs. The Lombard League \s formed

in 11G7; and the rcaco of Constance in 1183 sccuica the iudc-

pcndencc of the cities.

The growth of tho contest between Guelphs and Ghlbollino.;

lias been already noticed. It devastated the land, but stimulated thii

intellect of Italy, some of whoso greatest men belonged to this time.

Papal Italy.—We have already seen how tho Pope became a

temporal sovereign. It took some furth^.r tinio to consolidate

Iiis power. .

Under Leo III. (795-SlG) tho Arians were suppressed In Spain

and Italy; Boniface preached tho supremacy of the Popo in

Germany; and the Pontiff acquired tho rank of first Bishop in

the West, although lie still continued to bo a vassal of the Prankish

Monarch.

During tho anarchy whicli arose in Italy under the later

Carlovingians, tho power of tho Popo steadily increased, This

however, as already told, met with a decided check from tho

German Emperors, who claimed and exercised the right of inter-

fering in the Papal election. It was midcr Gregory VII. that

the contest between Emperor and Pope blazed most fiercely.

This great Pontiff (1073-85), whose original name was Ililde-

brand, was a Tuscan. When lie assumed the tiara, simony (i.e.,

the selling of ecclesiastical preferments) was rife everywhere

;

and he set himself to root out tho evil. Upon this point he came

into collision with tho Emperor Henry IV.—with what result wehave seen. Gregory died at Salerno, wdiither he had retired upon

the triumph of Henry. He, like our AVolsey, had his famous" last words "— *' I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and

therefore I die in exile."

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It was umloi' Th'ban U. that tlio Orusailcs began. Tlic qiiarvel

about Invest itiiros was not settled until 1122, under PopeCalixtus TT., wlion a oomjn'omise was made, assigning to tlie ro2)(j

tlie right of investing bishops with ring and crozier, and to tho

i^nipcror the conferring of tlie sceptre in sign of temporal power.

The language of the Popes thenceforward grew more aiitliori-

(ative, reaching even tho point of speaking of Germany as a Papal

i'.d. "When Adrian IV. granted Ireland to Henry II., he did so

on tho ground that all islands were tlio property of St. Peter.

Innocent in. (1198-1210) vastly increased the Papal jiowor.

lie forced tho Imperial Prefect at Konie to swear allegiance to

liiiu. IIo set on foot tho Crusade that crushed tho Alhigenses.

lie ]iuml)led King John of England, and imposed a tribute uponbim. Ill fact he claimed to he Sovereign of Europe

—

an earthly

King of kings. Tho extirpation of lieresy and tho exaltation of

tlie tiara over every diadem in Christendom— these were tho

objects he pursued with unflinching rigour. This great Pontiff

died in 121G at Perugia, after having raised tho Papacy to tho

greatest power it attained.

To his time was duo tho institution of monastic orders—the

Dominicans or IJlackfriars, and the Franciscans; and after hhdeath the terrible machinery of the Inquisition was put in force.

The greed of the clergy for money, combined with tlie corrup-

tion of tho Roman Court, excited anger in many lands ; hut tho

Popes tried to wield a still more despotic power. Tho quarrel

reached a crisis between Boniface VIII. (1294-1.303) and Philip

tlie Fair of Franco. It was like the contest between Henry IV.and Hildcbrand. Philip forbade tnc French clergy to pay any-

thing without leave. He arrested tho Papal Legato, and burnedthe Papal Imlls. Boniface excommunicated him, and confonedFrance on the Emperor Albert I. Philip retorted that the Pope's

election Avas illegal , and, going further, sent Nogarct into Italy

to seize the sacred person of the Pontiff. A fever, arising fromrage, killed Boniface ; and las successor, yielding the point, can-

celled the bull of excommunication.

Southern Italy.—After the death of Charlemagne the Arabs

ill K

Ilf

IIISTOKY OF nALV. 93

conquered Sicily, toolv Tlail. mid plundered Rome. Malta fell

into tlieir power in 870; I'ut in tlie following year Louis II. ex-

pelled tilem from Bari. The Arab and the Greek Avero then

engaged in constant wars, until the Othos of Germany sought to

fiubdue the southern peninsula; thi.s caused a union against Iho

common foe between the recent enemies, who triumphed.

A band of Norman adventurers did good service, soon after

the year 1000, in repelling Saracen pirates from Salerno. They

soon made a lodgment for themselves in this luxurious country,

llobert Guiscard, and his brother Roger, two handsome daring

Normans, subdued Apulia and Calabria. In battle with the

Byzantine troops the former won the field of Durazzo. The

latter took Sicily from the Moslems.

Roger II. succeeded his father Robert as King of Naples and

Sicily, and fixed liis capital at Palermo. He drove both Greeks

and Arabs from his realm.

The crown of Naples and Sicily was transferred from the

Normans to a prince of the llohenstaufens by the marriage of

the Kmperor Henry YI. to Constant ia, daughter of Roger II.

"When she died. Innocent HI., for his own purposes, became

guardian of young Frederic II. This prince made Naples his

capital. After the reign of Com*ad there was a strngglo for the

crown of Naples between Manfred, Frederic's illegitimate son, and

Charles of Anjou, the nominee of the Pope. The death of Manfred

and the execution of Conradin, the last heir of his name, led to a

Btriiggle between Charles of Anjou and Peter of Aragon, who had

married Manfred's daughter. Naples declared for the former;

Sicily for the latter : and before the year in which both died

(P285), the island and the mainland had become separate realms.

A striking incident in Italian history is known by the name of

the Sicilian Vespers. The execution of the handsome young

Conradin by Charles of Anjou, the French compieror of

Naples, festered in the hearts of the Italians, with whom 1282the vcnddta is often an hereditary duty. This feeling A.D.

blazed out into massacre on the 30th of 3Iarcli 1282, at

ralermo. It ia said that a Frenchman iusiulted a lady in the cathe-

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dral. However that may have been, the iirst notes of the vpspcr-bell had seaicely rung, when every stiletto leaped from its sheath;and Ly next dawn there was scarcely a Frenchman alive in Sicily!

Venice.—-On the lagoon.s at the mouth of the Brenta a colonyof iibhermen and salt-makers huilt a city, over which ruled aBo-c. Its patron saint was Saint Mark ; its foundation datedfrom 809. And when the Crusades caused the silks, gems, mnlspices of the 3!:ast to flow into Europe, the commerce centred L. thijj

Queen of the Adriatic. Genoa grew rich from the same source.One of the most celebrated of the early Doges was " blind old

Dandolo,'* who, at the age of m'uety, in spite of Ids blindness, lodthe successful attack of the Crusaders upon Constautinoj)le iu1204, and i.fused the Imperial crown, which they offered hini iuadiraration.

Venlco gradually acquired Balmatia, the :^Iorca, Candia, andCyprus. For a time she monopolized the East Indian trade. Itwas about this time (1275) that Marco Polo, a great Venetiantraveller, crossed Asia, visiting Kublai Khan in Chinese Tartary,and having passed through China to the racific, sailed by Ceylonback to the Persian aulf.

THE BYZANTINE EMPIEE (867-1261 A.D.}.

The Macedonian Dynasty (807-1050).-- This dvnnsty wasfounded in 807 by Jjaslllus I., who reigned from 807 to 880.iris successor was Leo \L (880-911), surnamed tlie Plulosopher.I3ut John Zimisces (909-975) was the most famous of tlic lino.The empire was then pressed by foes on tlirec sides—Arabs,

l^ulgarians, and llusslaus. During John's reign the last, uudeJa savage leader named Swastoslof, penetrated as far south asAdrianople

;but the Emperor drove him back upon the Danube.

This was a splendid period in JJyzantine history. 'J'he silksand woollen cloths of ConstantIno])le were prized everywhere

;

and the gorgeousness of the Court struck wonder into euvovgfrom the infant states of the West.

liusil II., who couiiuered the Bulgarians, left tlio throne iu

THE BYZANTINE EMflRE. 05

1028 to liib daughter Zoe. She murdered lier liu.sband to raiso

a Paphlagoniaii to the throne; hut this favourite, in a fit of

remorse, rejected the guilty Hi»lendour. Zoo then made his cousinMichael Cahipliatcs emperor ; hut his disohedieucc cost him athrone and his Bight. Her hist choice was Constantino Mono-maehus. Theodora, sister of the wicked Zoe, was the hist of thoMacedonian lino, which clof^od in 105G.

The Comneni (1057-1185).—Tho wise hut infirm Isaac Com-nenus was elected to the throne hy the army. His rctirenu nt

led to tlio appointment of Constant ine Ducas, against whom theScljtik Turks made successful inroads from tlieir caj)Ital of Ico-

nium in Asia Minor. Ills widow Eudocia married a soldier offortune named Komanus Diogenes, who was made prisoner hythe 8eljuks. When released, lie found his wife in captivity andhis throne cxnipled. He was then hlinded.

The Seljuks of Asia and the Normans of South Italy werel)ressing the empire so hard that Isaac and Alexius, nephews ofIsaac Coninenus, were placed in command. The latter of thesehecame Emperor in lOSl.

^It was in his reign (1081-1118) that the sons of Tancred the

Norman wrested from the Greeks the last remains of the Ex-archate in Italy. Otic of them, indeed, Kobert Guiseard, carried

the war across the Ionian Sea, and hcsieged Durazzo ; where, in

si)ite of the bravo A'aranglans—a Norman body-guard of the]>yzantiiicl']mperor—the victory rested witli the invaders (1081).Great was the dismay of Alexius, when the half-million of wildwarriors, bound on the First Crusade, came trooping into Con-stantinople

;and great was his roller, when he saw them safe in

Asia, engaged with the Seljuks.

The succeeding Comncnl—John II. and Manuel I.—held their

own, although the hitter was pressed in 1148 by lloger of Sicily,

because he tried to tliwait (lie movements of the Second Crusade.'I'hc murder of Alexius II. by Andronlcus was punished in 1185,when Isaac Angelus dethroned and slew the murderer.

House of Angelo (1185-1201).— Isaac was dethroned andhlinded by his brother Alexius ; whereupon his bou Alexius IV.

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Rouglit tlic aitl of the Crusaders, then engaged in warring on be-half of Venice against Palinatia. The French and the Venetianshanded togetlier against Constantinople, to whieli they saile<l.

From Scutari the mailed knights crossed the Bosporus, while thoVenetian galleys assailed the entrance of the Golden Horn.Pandolo led the attack, and in eleven days the city fell. Themurder of Alexius IV., which the Crusaders pretended to avenge

prepared the way for a second siege. Baldwin, Count of

1204 Flanders, was elected Emperor; and the remainder of

A.D. the ]}yzantine territory was parcelled out between Venieoand the French—1204.

Latin and Greek Empires.—There was then .1 divided empirefor half a centuiy

; the Latin portion centreing in Constantinople,the Grecian in Nica?a. There was .ilso a Comnenian Einperor at

Trchisond, and another in Thessalonica. Matters continued to

be troubled and divided until Michael Pahvologus, in TJOl, withthe aid of the Genoese, took the city of Constantinople in onenight.

ENGLAND (827-1399 A.D.j.

Early Saxon Kings.—Egbert was tho first Saxon King of

Wessex, who ruled over all England. The reign of his grandsonAlfred (S71-901), was the brightest period of Anglo-Saxon his-

tory;

for the Banes were defeated both at Ethandune and at

"Ware upon the Lea, and an example of devotion to literature wasKct by the wise and good King. A])out half a century after thedeath of Alfred a priest named Dunstan acquired supremo i)o\ver

in England, making and unmaking kings at liis will. lie wasthe great champion of the Benedictine monks in their strugglewith the English clergy, as to whether priests could marry; andat a certain .issembly in the town-hall of Calno, the fall of i)art of

the floor deprived a number of his enemies of life. In the reignof Ethelred the Unready (978-1017) occurred the foolish nuissac"ro

of Danes on St. Bricc's Bay (1002) ; which roused the wrath of

Sweyn, King of Benmurk, against England, and led to the cbtab-

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IIISTOKY OF i:^ULANI3. 97

lishmcnt on the English tlirone of a sliort-Kvc.1 DaiMi dynasty,of which Canute was the chief representative.

In 1041 the Saxons recovered the throne in the person of

Edward the Confessor. The most powerful nohle in Englandtlicn was Hirl Godwin, hetwccn whom and tlic King a quarrcdhrokc out. The son of Godwin, Harold, was elected King, at atime wlicn England was threatened by two foes—Ilaidrada, Kingof Norway, and William, Duke of Normandy. Tlie

former was defeated and Hlaiu at Stamford l^ridgc ; the 106

G

latter conquered and slew Harold upon the decisive field of a.d.

Hastings (lOGG). Tliis brought the Saxon line to an end.

Early Norman Kings.—William of Normandy ruled Englandunder the title of William I., surnamed the Conqueror, for twenty-one years (lOGG-87). The siege of Exeter and the desolation ofYorkshire and Durham secured his hold upon the island. Theiiereest stand in tlie Saxon cause was made by Hereward, who inIlls Camp among the marshes of Ely defied the Normans until1071. Waltheof of Northumbvia, last of the grejit Anglo-Saxons,was executed for engaging in a plot with some discontented Nor-mans.

^

William II. (1087-llOOj was sumamcd llufus. The FirstCrusade sot out in his reign, his gallant but thriftless brotherliobert being among those wlio assumed the Cross.

Then came the reign of Henry I. or Deauclcrc, who in thebattle of Tenchebrai deprived Robert of Normandy. The samequestion of Investitures, which caused hostility between Tope andEmperor, was fought out in England between Anselm and Henry.The encouragement of learning was a favourable feature of this

reign (1100-1185).

The reign of Stephen (1185-1154) was occupied almost entirelywith a civil war, between the King and Matilda, Henry's daughter,whose second husband had been Geoffrey Plantagenet, the boyish'Count of Anjou. Tliis war, of which the battle of Lincoln an.ltlio siege of Oxford were principal events, was concluded in 115:jby the Treaty of Winchester, which appointed Henry, Matilda'seon, to be Stephen's successor.

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0^ IIISTOnY OF ENGLAND,

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The Plantagenet Line (1154-1485).— Duiln^^ sixteen years of

tliG reign of Henry II. (1156-1189), Thomas il Becket, avIio roso

from tlie rank of a merchant's son to bo Chancellor and PrimatG,

•was the central figure in English Iwstory. A rupture took place

hctwecn Henry and IJecket, owing to the demand of the former that

priests taken in crime should be tried before lay trihujials. Agreat council, held at Clarendon to settle tlie dispute, failed to doso; and I5ccketwent into exile in France fornix years. Ileturu-

iiig III 1170, ho was murdered at Canterbury by four retainers of

Ilenrv.

Another great event of Henry's reign was tlio Norman in-

vasion of Ireland inllGD, which resulted in u partial con<iue.st of

the island,

Richard I. (Ca^ur do Lion) reigned next (1180-1100). De-voted to the Third Crusade and certain wars in the heart of

France, lie spent in England only a few months out of ten years.

During his relgu the London citizens rose in riot under Fitz-

csbert or Longbeard.

The reign of John (1109-1210), owing to weakness and folly

on the part of the sovereign, was fruitful in good to the nation.

Tlie French King stripped him of Normandy and other possessions.

He quarrelled with the Pope about tlie Bee of Canterburv. and.

after the imposition of an Interdict, .submitted to a disgraceful

humiliation at Dover, when lie swore to liold England as apapal fief. These things and his personal oppression roused thebarons of England against him. Appearing in arms, they forced

liim to grant them a Great Charter QUvjiia Charta) of

1215 liberty, wlileh was signed at Kunnymede by the ThamesA.D. in 1215. Louis VITI. of France made an invasion of Emr-

land, during the course of which John died at Newark.Henry III., sou ofJohn, reigned for ilfly-slx years (1 21G-1272).

During his minority there was a struggle fur the regency betweenDc 33urgh and Do lloches, of whom the latter was successful.

There were some weak invasions of France. IJut the facts mostimportant in the reign are (1) the confirmation and remodellingof Mivjva Charta in 1225, upon which occasion Ilcury adnl hid

mSTORY OP EJiOlASD. 09 i !i»ii

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l\irHamciit for moiioy ; ami (2), forty years later, tlic forinal foun-

dation of the Englisli House of Commons in 12G5,

Simon Montfort put liimsclf at tlio head of the angry harons.

Tlie Frovinionfi of Oxford Averc enacted in 125S ; \var broke out

In'twceu the King and Km nohles; at Lewes in 1204 Henry wii^

defeated and made captive ; and then Sir Simon tlio llighteous

issued writs, wliicli added to the h)rds, clergy, and knights of

the sliiro, two hurgcsscs from every "borough. Tlio great career of

Montfort closed on the field of Evcbham (1205), •where ho died,

defeated by I'rinco Edward.

The energies of Edward I. (1272-1307) wore devoted to the

conquest of Wales, which ho achieved in 1282, slaying Llewellyn

;

and the invasion of Scotland, then troubled with a disputed

succession. The events of this struggle belong to the history of

J»eotland. Edward died in lo07, leaving a reputation as tlio

greatest of the Plantagencts.

Edward II. (lo07-27) was a weak prince, mucli under tho

d(jminion of vicious favourites. Tho most notorious of these was(Javeston, against whom tho barons combined. lie suffered

death near Warwick. Before his execution a council of twenty-'

one peers to manage tho King's household had been appointed,

under the name of Onlaincrs. Edward's wife was Isabella of

France, who excited a movement against him, until he was killed

mysteriously in Berkeley Castle. Edward's signal defeat at

Bannockburn will bo afterwards noticed.

In the reign of Edward IIL (1827-77), after a Scottish war,during which was fought the battle of Ilalidou Hill, disastrous

to tho Scots, a claim, founded upon the fact that Edward was a"

grandson of Philip IV., was made upon the crown of Franco

(1337).

Tlic Englisli won a naval victory at Sluys; but a more im-portant triumph at Crecy (134G) afterwards crowned their arms.A successful siege of Calais followed. Tho Prince of Wales,known as tho Black Prince, licld Bordeaux as a centre of \mpower for years ; and, in 1350 penetrating the heart of Franco,

woa the battle of Poitiers, where King JoLu of France was mado

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100 HISTORY OF KNGLAXD.

prisoner. Tlio Treaty of Urctigiiy in 13G0 closcl tlic war. TIip

lilaek Prince then invaded Sjiain, Avlierc lie won the Held .,f

Navarretta, and laid the foundation of the debt and disease whiclibroiiglit him prematurely to the grave. It was durhig this reignthat John Wycliffc the Reformer M'as cited for heresy.

Kichard II., son of the Black Prin(>e, resembled Kdward II. inhis nature and his fato. His reign was troubled with discontentamong the Commons, which blazed out into an insurrection headedby Wat Tyler. The death of the rebel, who was .struck to theground in Smithfield by Walworth, the Lord flavor, put an endto the rising. TIio jealous .struggles of the King's uncles formedanother source of trouble. In this reign Wyeliffe's disciples,

called Lollards, began to preach vigorously against the Church ofHome. Richard was deposed by Henry Duke of Hereford, sonof John of Gaunt; and in a few months was murdered at Ponte-fract Castle. With him ended the direct I'lantagcnet lino in

139D.

SCOTLAND (843-132D A.D.)

The story of Duncan and 3Iacbeth derives from the play ofShaksperc an interest greater than it really Jias in Scottish his-tory. Duncan was certainly slain; but it was in daylight atRothgowan—a smith's hut, as some consider the wordto nican.His son Malcolm Canmorc, escaping to England, got from K.l-ward the Confessor aid, whicli enabled him to recover his father'sthrone.

Malcolm III. (1050-93) married a Saxon princess, ^largaret,who did much to soften the barbarism of the Scottish people.The shires of Northumberland and Cumberland then formed adistrict^contested fiercely between Scotland and England. Dur-ing an incursion southward Malcolm was killed at Alnwick.

In the reign of David L (1124-53) was fought the battle ofthe Stan.lard. Espousing the cause of Matilda Plantagcnct,David met an English army on the Moor of Northallerton, andwas signally defeated (1138). David founded many rcli^'ioui

n

msTor.v or ?!f'(rrr..\vn. 101

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Iiiiuscs. anioiiL^ wnicli wno tlic ubbcys (il.l) Unl Vl'ooU illU 1 Mel lOSO.

M

111 1153 lie was louud dead in bed willi liii luiiids joined, us if iu

j)rayor.

After tlic reign of Malcolm the Maiden (1153-05), who ceded

lo Knojland all right over Cuinl)crland and Northumberland,

William the Lion ascended the Scottish throne. Ilis reign

—

tlie longest in Scottish lustory (11G5-1214)—is chiefly notable for

his submission to the English King Henry II., "wliosc prisoner he

became at Almvick iu 1174. In order to obtain his freedom, he

agreed to hold Scothmd as a fief of tlic English Crown, sm-render-

ingat the same thne live castles—Edinbm-gh, Stirling, Roxburgh,

Jedlmrgh, and Berwick. Long before William died, llichard T. of

England, who was gathering in money on every side to meet tlio

cost of a Crusade, restored the freedom of Scotland for 10,000

merks.

Alexander IT. was chiefly engaged in wars with the Celts and

the English. Ilis successor, Alexander III., played the same part

in repressing Norwegian incursions as English Alfred had played

in repelling the Danes. Ilaco, King of Norway, having passed

from the conquest of Bute and Anan to the Ayrshire coast, was

defeated at Largs (1203) and «leprived of the Hebrides. Alexander

curbed the nobles and administered a purer justice to his subjects.

Ills death left the crown to Margaret his grand-daughter, the

3Iaid of Norway ; but she died at Orkney in 1290.

Hubert Bruce and John Baliol, both descended from David I.,

then claimed the crown. Edward I. of England, reviving the

cancelled vassalage of Scotland, put Baliol on the throne, but soon

found a pretext for removing him and invading Scotland. At

this crisis William Wallace arose. Having successfully stormed

several castles, he met the English at Stirling Bridge

(1297) and completely routed them. Next year he was 1297defeated at Falkirk; and was soon afterwards betrayed a.d,

into the hands of the English, who hanged him.

The great Bruce, grandson of Baliol's rival, now came into

prominence. The sacrilegious blow, by which Bruce laid Comyn

Lis rival bleeding on the altar-steps at Dumfries, cost him many

ijini.

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SCOTLAND AND IltELAND.

fnonds; l,i,i ],o was crownal in 1.300. The no^rs evoJ^l n

The Initio of Bannockl.urn r.Tnnn 24 l:n4) .vaq f1>.

13U iiUr, ,„ts a«g in fr„ut cE the So„(tM, li„e, -ami"^.... of s,,, ,, , , ,,^ , .„^^ rw;::r ; ;

:':

li.'li iiito a (li.-i^-raci'fiil (|i„l,i"

K.hvaivl ir. In.sk.goa liorwia- vainly in 1310 • !„ loo,-.^ ;.

l>a,Iian,ont adcnowl.lgea „,o i,!,,,.pc„!,i ^stfl u

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'""' " ""-• i"ll""j,- year llulert IJrucc die'l.'

lEElASD (1005-1313 A.D.).

The ffroat opponent of the Banes in Ireland wi. Kin,, 11 •

Boru, who fought tu-cntv-r.vo battles (hJl.T ^ ^^'"S I^'"'"

lacing at Clont^vf in nil U^^'J^t^^'^ "Tf'"'""'

111 lolS at Pa^rlier near Duudalk. ^

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STATES PJSIKG IKTO STRENGTH.

.u1?''a7^^''^''''' "'^"'"^^ '^^•^ ^^^^^^^^^^« "^ '^^^ Iberian Tenin.

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STATES IlISIXO INTO STllENGTII. 103

AlplionfiO VI. of Castile resigned Portugal to ]m cousin, Ilonfy

of Buvgimdy, iu 1005. The Saracens received a decisive bl(j\v

at Tolosa ill I'Jl'i ; and were soon reduced to the possession ol

only Granada,

Switzerland during tlio nintli century Lelongeil to tlio Icing-

dom of Ijurgundy, l)Ut ^vas afterwards attached to the lloniano-

Germanic Kinpire. Among its small, semi-independent Canton>;,

those round the head of Lake Luccrn rose to prominence. One

of these, Sclnjw::^ gave its name to the whole country.

Northern Europe.—The Xorsemen appear in history as pirates

ahout the time of Kghert. In Vanish history Gorni the Old

f^hines out, as ruler of Jutland and the Danish Isles in 8G3. lie

was virtually the founder of Pennuuk. Harold Ilaarfagcr of

Norway was a contemporary of Alfred. After the death of

Canute, who added England to his realm, Sweyn Kstritson in

1047 estahlished a new dynasty in Denmark. Of this the most

powerful was Waldomar I. (1157-8-) and Canute YI., under

whom Pomcrania, Ilolstein, and Esthonia were suhdued. ]>ut

iu 1227 the defeat of Bornhovede cost Denmark all these new

possessions.

The Kings of Normajj turned much of their force upon the

British Isles, where they came to possess the Hebrides, Man, and

even Cantvro. King Olav introduced Christianity into Norway,

whence it spread to Iceland, and even to Greenland ahout

1000 A.D.

I'liis caused a groat contention in Sweden, where the Pagans of

Upsala elected a Si'-rrhcr king in opposition to the StoJcil king

of the Christians. The hitter were soon extirpated.

The great power of Itussia was founded in a little nucleus

called Novgorod, hy Iturio in 802. His daughter-in-law, Olga,

estahlished there the Christianity of the Greek Church. ]]ut it

was Waldlmir the Great who, ahout 1000, planted this creed

firmly iu Russia.

Prussia.—^Tho fierce Borussi having troubled Poland, a luili-

tary brotherhood, called the Short-swords, instituted by llie

Bishop of lllga in 1201, were sent against them in vain. A

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101 STATKS IirsiXa INTO STKEXGTir.

Ktvor.gov forcG was then summoned—tlio cnisading order ofTeutonic Kniglits, wlio from tlieir cai)ital of Thorn waged a fiercenn^d successful, war against tlie native tribes for fifty years.\Vlien tlie conquest was complete, the Order fixed their capitulfit Marienberg. These soldiers ruled Prussia until 14()G.

Poland.—^J^hc duchy of Tolonia, inhabited by the Sclavonians,expanded into the kingdom of Poland about 1025 under Albertof Prague. For a time its existence was a ceaseless struggle withGermany. Its chief city was Cracow.

Hungary.—Pannonia, conciuered by the ^fagyars from :\rounfc

Ural, grew into the kingdom of Hungary. Stephen the Sainttaught the nation Christianity about 1000, and organized tl,,i

state. Their worst foes came from Asia in the person of invad-ing Moguls, wdio in 12-11 reduced the basin of the Thelss to adesert.

II!

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THIRD PERIOD OF THE .MIDDLE AGES.

PJIOM 1-291 A.D, TO lirij A.D.

The leading events and features of the Third Pci'^.d nf n,,,

Middle Ages consist of,

—

1. The brilliance of Italian literature and ])ower, csneciallv atr lorence and Ivome.

2. The successful struggle of Switzerland against Austi-ja ; acontest ill which infantry jn-oved victorious over mailed knighthood.

^8. Tlie struggle for one hundred years between Ihigland and

France, resulting in the almost complete expuLsion ..f the formerfrom the Continent.

4. The beginnings of the Rcf irmallon. as sln.wn in ih.- livesof 'W^'ycliffe, IIuss, and Jerome.

5. The Asiatic conquests of Timor (h(> Tartar.

(). The invention of Printintr.

7. The fall of the ]3yzantiiie Empire.8. The successful accomplisliment of two great voyages- ih-it

of Columbus in 141J2, opening the West— thai of A'a.sco'di Gamain 1498, opening the East, to commerce.

UISTORY OF GERMANY. 100

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GERMANY '1273-1493).

THE IIArSBURGS AND OTHER EMrEROKS.

Rudolf I., ^v]lo took Ills name of Ilaps'burg from the Ilawlv'n

Castle on thu river Aar in Switzerland, was chosen Er.iperor iu

127o, \\lien ho was engaged i?i the siege of Basle. His domin-

ion extended over the Aargau and other portions of Switzerland.

Pope Gregory X. acknowledged him as Emperor, the more readily

t^inco lludolf gave up all jurisdiction over Home, Ancona, and

Hpoleto, retaining only the right of investing new hishops. Ilia

chief opponent was Ottocar of Bohemia, from whom lie wrested

Austria, Styria, and Carniola, which ho made over to his son

Albert, thus founding the dominion of the Austrian Empire,

lludolf ruled Germany wisely with a strong hand, devoting

himself to the reduction of rcjhhor-nohles, and the cucourugemeut

of commercial towns. He died in 1*201.

A struggle between Adolf of Nassau, and Albert, Rudolf's son,

resulted iu 1298 in the success of ;ho latter.

Albert I. was the Huko of Austria under whoso oppressive

rule the Swiss Cantons made their remarkable rising for independ-

ence. Tlie Tliree Forest Cantons—Schwintz, Uri, and Underwal-

den—were those in which the flamo broke out. And it centred

at first in the case of William Tell. Kefusing to bow before the

ducal cap of Austria, set on a pole at Altorf, Tell was forced to

try his famous shot. And, when he was being carried in chains

across the lake, and was bidden to steer the boat in a squall, ho

contrived to leap ashore. Gesler fell a victim to a bolt from his

deadly cross-bow after a time (1308).

AVlicu Albeit heard of this, he hurried to Switzerland, where

liL- met his death. Having crossed the Reuss in a boat without

liis guards, he was murdered by his nephew, John of Suubia

(l;]()s).

Death })rev(Mitod Henry of Luxemburg, the next Emperor,

fioiii secuviiig Italy with a firm grasp: and his successor, Louis

of Bavaria, who gained the Empire by the victory of Muhldorf

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100 IIISTOrvY OF GERMANY.

over Frcaorie of Austria, continued to strni^jrle ^-itli tlie Popeand the King of Naples. The Pontiff used the ohl weapons ofcurse and interdict

: but six of the German Electors united atllensc (1338) to maintain tlio cause of Germany against Italy.

The principal event in the reign of Charles IV. of Bohemia,who next secured the imperial crown, was the publication atNureml.erg of the Oohlen Jhdl (13oG), which settled the numherof Electors and the laws of election to the German Enii-iro. ThoSeven Electors were :

—

1, ArcM)Isliop of Mainz.

2. ArcliLishop of Treves,

S. Archbisliop of Colo^'ne.

4. King of Uoliemia.

5. Count Palatine of the Rhine.6. Duke of Saxony.

'. Margrave of Brandenburg.

The reign of Charles lasted for thirty-one years (1347-78).After a period of thirty-two years, during which Wonceslaus

of Bohemia, Frederic of Brunswick, and Kupert of tho Khiuoreigned in succession, tho Empire devolved on Sigismund Kinjof Hungary (1410^37), a younger son of Charles lY.

Sigismund underwent reverses of fortune, before he attained totlio I'hnplre. lie was not popular in Hungary, and a defeat hytlie WallacLians and Turks at Nicopolis (1390) drove him o.s anexile to Piliudes, Constantinople, and Venice. When he returnedto Hungary, tlie discontented nohles imprisoned him; hut hoescaped, defeated his foes, and resumed tho crown. He ruledover P>ohemia too; .ind hecoming Emiuu'or, secured Moravia,Ijrandeuhurg, and Silesia.

The story of John ITuss, a disciple of our English Wycliffo,casts a dark stain on Sigismund. As rector of tho universityof Prague, this man preached against tho Pope, purgatory, andindulgences. Tho Archl)ishop of Prague tried in vain to silencehim. Excommunication drove him from Prague, hut lio after-

wards returned holder than ever. He was then summoned to

attend the Council of Constance j to which ho went, armed with

AUSTRIA AND STVITZERLAKD. 107

a Riifc-coiKluct from Sigismund. There he was arrested andbumed. Jerome his disciple soon shared his fate. Sigis-

mund paid dearly for his treachery, for a war flamed up 1415in all Boheuiia, where Zisca led the Hussite armies and a.d.

defeated the imperial troops in many battles. Peacewas not concluded until 1437, when with mucli difficulty theCouncil of Basel effected a compromise. Proeopius led the

Hussites after the death of Zisca.

Sigismund visited Franco and England. Ilis death in 1437caused the Empire to pass to the Austrian line.

AUSTRIAN EMPEROrvS FROM 1437.

The short reign of An3ert II. was followed by the long reign

of his cousin Frederic III. (1440-1493), who had been i)ulve of

Styria. This prince, who was more devoted to the study of

botany and alchemy than to the toils of empire, had views so

ambitious that ho inscribed on his palaces the vowels, A. E. I.

0. U. : for Austria est imperare orhi imiverso. But his powersfell short of his plans. He managed so badly that he was kept

in constant trouble by wars in Hungary and Bohemia, and in-

testine feuds throughout the Empire. But he succeeded in

cementing one of the most important marriages of mediajval

history, when he secured Mary of Burgundy, the rich heiress cf

Charles the Bold, as a wife for his son Maximilian (1477). It i 5

notable also that the invention of printing took place in Germanyor Holland during this reign. In 148G Maximilian was madeKing of the Romans.

SWITZERLAND (1264-1481).

The Hapsburg family inherited the possessions of Kyburg in

12G4, and soon afterwards, by the election of Rudolf to the

Empire, as already narrated, gained ascendency in Europe.

Duke Albert's oj^prcssion of the Swiss, and the resistance of

Tell have been spoken of. This was only a beginning. DukQ

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lOS fiWITZEnLAXD AND ITALY.

V.-

Leopold, Albert's son, went into Switzerland in 1315 to punish

the rebels ; but he was caught with his army in the narrow pass

of Morgarten, and utterly defeated by the mountaineers. Then

was formed a league, which was a revival of the old coalition of

Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden ; and soon after 1350 the list

of the Eight Cantons was complete.

There was, however, another battle to bo fought : it took phu-e

at Scmpach in 1386, when Arnold of Wiulvelried devoted his life

to his country. The victory of Nefels followed ; and in 1303 the

Sempach Convention united more firndy the cantons, now free

from the Austrian voice.

In the following century Switzerland gathered strength ; but

it was severely tested in 143G by a civil war, in which the cantons

allied themselves against Zurich. The siege of Zurich was

formed ; and then the French came to the aid of the citizens.

In 1452 the Austrians lost their hold on Switzerland, which was

soon afterwards engaged in a fierce struggle with Charles the

15old of Burgundy. In this contest the Swiss shepherds es-

tablished their character as soldiers, especially in the battles of

Gransi ,. and Morat (1476), in both of which Cliarles was defeated.

A heap of bones, covered with grass, long continued to mark the

scene of the latter. The Duke of Burgundy fought his last field

in a winter-storm at Nancy in 1477, when the Swiss were again

victors. His body was found among the trampled and bloody

snow. Henceforth Burgundy was powerless either against Franco

or Switzerland.

The Convention of Stanz admitted Solcurc and Freiburg to

the Helvetian Union.

t3

ITALY (1305-1600).

The history of Italy divides itself into several branches, which

must be taken in succession, including Milan, Tuscany, Genoa,

Savoy, Venice, the Papacy, Naples, and Sicily.

Milan, which was the leading republic city in central Lom-bardy, was ruled for one hundred and fifty-nine years (1288-1447)

UISTOIIY OF ITALY. 109

by a family named Vhconti^ of which the founder was ^latteo.

Having wrested the power from the liands of the DeUa Torre

faction, he incurred the wrath of Pope John XXII., by appoint-

ing his son Giovanni to the see of Mihan. The bull of excom-

munication was recalled by another Pontiff ; but it finally broko

the spirit of Matteo, who died in 1C41.

Francis Sforza^ a soldier of fortune, who married Bianca the

daughter of the last of the Visconti, made himself master of

^lilan in 1450. The Sfurzas ruled this capital of Lombardy for

half a century, soon after which it became an Austrian possession.

Ludovico Sforza, surnamed the Moor from his dark complexion,

liaving a quarrel with Ferdinand of Naples, invited the French

to his aid, and Charles VIII. invaded Naples. But Ludovico

soon saw tlie necessity of driving out the foreign soldiers. Louis

XII. of France took Milan in 1499 ; but a revolution restored

the dukedom to Ludovico. The defection of his Swiss guards

placed // Moro in a French prison, where he died.

In Tuscany Florence and Pisa were the centres of power and

Bplendour at this time. Pisa equipped a fleet, and embarked in

war with Genoa, until the naval cugagemcnt off Meloria in 12G4

crippled her power, and rendered her an easy prey to Florence.

Florence fell in 1250 under a democratic magistracy called tho

Si'jnoria. The Guelph faction then split into the Bianclu and

the Kcri, or White and Black. "SValter Brienne, Duke of Athens,

a leader of Free Lances, seized the city in 1342. But out of all

change and trouble sprang the illustrious house of Medici,

The first of these to rule the state, though under no distinct

name of authoi'iy, was Cosmo di Medici, son of Giovanni, tho

money-changer. lie died in 14G4, honoured with the title of

" Father of his country."

Lorenzo, frustrating a conspiracy of tho Pazzi, then became

ruler of Florence, in room of his grandfather. A lyric poet and

student of Plato, Lorenzo encouraged art and letters. He spent

much money and care in tho collection of Eastern MSS.; and

afforded aid and refuge to the scholars of Constantinople scattered

by the fall of that learned city. In many ways he earned liia

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iianio of the jhvjnificent. A few years before liis dcatli, wliieli

liapi^cncil ill 1492, the Italian rcfonaer Savonarola, afterwards

burned for heresy, began to preach at Florence.

Lorenzo's second son Giovanni transferred the family splendour

to Home, %vhen lie became Pope as Leo X. The Florentine re-

public came to an end in 1537, Avhcn one of the 3Iedici was madoDuke.

Genoa.—After liaving crushed Pisa as a rival by sea, Genoacame into collision with Venice. This was partly caused by the

favour sliown to the Genoese by the Byzantine Empire. Owingto aid given in the wresting of Constantinople from the liatins,

Michael Palreologus permitted the Genoese to occupy the .suburb

of Pcra, whence they extended their trade into the Black Sea.

Genoa at one time (1378) was so near victory that her ships werein tlie lagoons of Venice, and her soldiers camped upon the islet

of Chioggia. But Venice made a desperate eflbrt, besieged the

island, and forced the Genoese to an ignominious surrender.

At home Genoa was troubled with Guel])!! and Ghibelline feuds,

in which the Fieschi on the one side and the Doria on the other

were the principal contending families. The latter have given

more than one great name to Italian history. The defeat at

Chioggia and the fall of Constantinople were among the chief

causes of the decline of power in Genoa, The influence of 3Iilau

prevailed there for a long time.

Venice.—The rise of Venice has been already noticed. Ilcr

golden period of commerce -was now past : and that darkly

romantic time had come, when the Council of Ten (1325) andthe still more terrible and mysterious Three (1454) held the

threads of life and death in Venice. The dagger—the poisoned

flower or ring—the close gondola—the still deep canal were all

at hand as the instruments of secret execution wrought uponthose whose names were branded with suspicion.

Marino Faliero, who was beheaded in 1355 for conspiracy

against the State; and Francesco Foscari, under whom Lombardywas conquered, but who died an exile, were among the great

Doges of this period.

[« '

tllSTOnY OP ITAT.Y. Ill

Venice clM good service to Europe by (IcfcatJn.^ tlic Tmlciis'i

fleets ill tlic Mediterranean. Her decline may be dated from tlie

voyage of Vasco (1498) and the League of Cambray (1508).

Papal Power,—For seventy-two years (1305-77) the Pope.i

dwelt at Avignon in the south of France. Komc was meanwlulo

convulsed witli internal feuds among great families such as the

Colonnas, the Savelli, and the Orsini, Out of these struggles

arose Rienzi, the last of the Tribunes.

This scholar, a man of humble birth but a friend of Petrarch

the poet, took advantage of Stephen Colonna's absence to seize

the chief power in Rome. The nobles being expelled, he ruled

for about seven months, until his vanity estranged the citizens,

and, when a time of peril came, none gathered to his side.

]<jscaping from Rome, he died in exile. His revolution occupied

the summer of 1347.

The Papal exile, beginning with Clement V., ended with

Gregory XI.

There was then a schlsrn in the Papacy for thirty-nine years

(1378-1417), during which rival Popes dwelt at Rome and at

Avignon.

The fifteenth century is noted for its ecclesiastical councils.

The Council of Pisa (1400), by deposing the two existing Popes

in favour of a third, made the schism worse } for none of themwould yield, and there were therefore for a time three Popes. TheCouncil of Constance reduced the number to one by electing

3Iartin V. There v^ere then several temporary assemblies in

Various places, until at Basle a council sat (1433-49), which

abolished the tax called annates^ and the reservation of bishoprics,

two impositions of the grasping PontiiY, John XXII. A ten-

dency to oppose Papal exactions was then rife in all Europe, and

the Popes were forced to confine their interference in political

matters henceforth to the Italian peninsula.

The Jhvfjias, a Spanish family, became at this time prominent

in the history of Rome. The father Alfonso was made Pope in

1455 as Calixtus III. His second son Ciesar was a profligate

and daring man, who £ung aside the cardinal's robe to be a leader

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112 ITALY ANT) FKAXCR.

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of nioiTcnarlcs, and ^vho «iimcil ^vitll tlio jissistancc of the Pope at

making himself master of Roniagna and Umbria. The doutli hy

poison of Alexander VI. in 1503 destroyed liis liopcs, and lie died

ns a volnntecr in Spain. His sister Lucrezia Borgia was not the

very wicked woman that tho French drama represents her as

having been.

Under Julius II. St. Peter's Church was begun, and tho

League of Cambray was formed in 1508 against Venice. Ilis

successor Leo X., a learned and polished mend)er of the 3Iedii,-i

family, was Pope when Luther began his work of Reformation.

Naples and Sicily.—These states continued separate from

about tho time of the Sicilian Vespers (1282), until they wcro

united in 1435 under Alfonso V. of Aragon. But Sicily

separated again in 1458. The conquest of Naples by Charles

A'lII. has been already referred to; but there was another

claimant of Naples in the person of Ferdinand the Catholic of

Aragon, who had iidierited Sicily. The latter succeeded in 1504

in expelling the French ; and until 1 700 Naples and Sicily were

dependencies of Spain.

*i, *

FBAKCE (1328-1483).

HOUSE OF VALOIS {132S-15SD).

The House of Valois, represented by Philip VI., were scarcely

settled on the throne of France, when Edward III. put in his

claim as a rival for the crown. That claim was founded on his

mother's rights as a daughter of Philip lo Bel. The war between

Franco and England that thus arose is calletl the Hundred

Years' War, though it lasted longer (I3J>7-1453). A naval

victory at Sluys in 1340, and, yet more decisive, that victory at

Cre^y, won chiefly by the English archers, in 1340, gave the

English power predominance. The capture of Calais in 1347

afforded to tho islanders a firm footing in France. Tho ravages

of the Black Plague then caused war to languish for a time.

The struggle centred for a time in Southern France, until Johnthe next King was taken prisoner at Poitiers, where the French

!l

iiTSTonY or rnAxcE. 113

Rufi'orca a groat ilofcat at tlic liands of tlio Black Prince in 1350.The captive moiiavch was conducteil \vlt]» niuclj ccreiiiouy to Lon-don, wlicre lie lived in the Savoy. Edward concluded the Treatyof Brctigni with Franco in 13C0, but John found his people soturbulent that lie left them to the Dauphin and returned to Lisprison, where he died in 13G4.

Charles V. (13G4-80), who succeeded John, was surnamcdthe Wise. lie had to aid liiin against the English the sword of

iJertrand du GnescHn, one of the greatest soldiers France lias

produce<l During this reign the Black Prince crossed tlio

Pyrenees to light for Pedro of Castile, to the aid of whosobrother Du Guesclin liad come. The decisive battle was atNavarretta (13G7), where the French soldier was taken prisoner.

Afterwards ransomed, Du Guesclin was made Constable of France,and fought with such vigour that in a little while, of all Bretagne,]]rcst alone remained under English power. Du Guesclin andthe King both died in 1380—events which postponed for a timethe fall of the English Empire in France.

Charles VI. (1380-1422) being a boy of thirteen at his father's

death, his three uncles, the Dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy,struggled for ascendency. The insanity of the King left thecontest ultimately between Burgundy and Orleans, tlie brother ofCharles. The assassination of Orleans left the field seemingly clear,

but Ills father-in-law Armagnac headed the Orleans party, whichtook his name. 3Iattcrs grew worse, until the massacre of theArmagnacs brought a lull of desolation to the troubled land.

France was invaded in this reign by Henry V. of England,who won the glorious field of Agincourt (1415), and by theconquest of Eoucn gained possession of Normandy. The Treatyof 'J'roycs (1420) arranged that Henry should succeed Charleson the French thro-'», and he continued the war against theDauphin for two yea. a more. Charles died in 1422.

Charles VII. (1422-61) at the age of twenty came to a thronewhich seemed scarcely worth the having. The infant Henry ofEngland had been already crowned King of France. Bedford,the English Regent, won the great haith of Verneuil, and the

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territory of tlic French King slirank so iiuicli that there wns lllf!»»

mockery in calling him, as lie wan called, " King of IJourges."

TliG struggle between France ami England at last centred in

Orleans, to wliicli Salisbury and Talbot with an English hurt

laid siege. Tlie siege became a blockade; and the hopes of

France, wasted almost to despair, were saved by a peasant girl,

the famous Joan of Arc, who, riding on n black horse wiili u

holy banner in her hands, led a strong reinforcement into the city.

She then fulfilled her destiny by crowning Charles at

1429 Rhelms (1420). This turned the tide. Joan, made pri-

A.D. soner by the Knglish, was burned at llouen (1431); but

the work she inaugurated went on steadily to success.

Burgundy became reconciled to the King—he had prcvIo»isly

supported the English—and Charles ruled in reality after 1437.

This monarch created a standing army, and turned it to so good

account, that, in spite of all that valiant John Talbot could do,

Bordeaux fell in 1453, leaving England no footing in France

except Calais. The rebellion and wickedness of the Dauphin

embittered the later life of Charles, who died in 14G1,

Louis XI. (14C1-83) was a strange mixture of craft, cruelty,

and superstition. lie had not been long on the throne until the

nobles, perceiving that the monarcliy was fast verging to a des-

potism, took up arms .against him in the War of the VuUlc Good

(14G5). The ruling spirit of this league was Charles the Bohl,

Count of Charolais, afterwards Duke of Burgundy. The v/ar

ended by the concession on the King's part of all the points in

dispute, especially those regarding remission of taxes. An inva-

sion of France by Edward IV. of Englaml was staved oil* by

Louis, "who bribed so skilfully that he obtained the Treaty of

Pecquigny. Louis had removed previous foes by poison: he

was now strong enough for a public revenge ; and the head of

the Constable St. Pol, who had been among the rebel nobles, fell

under the headsman's sword at Paris in 1475. How the Swiss

rose against the Duke of Burgundy and defeated him at Granson

and Morat; and how, to the great joy of Louis, Charles the Bold

lost Lis life at Naucy (1477), have been already uurrattid.

IIISTOUY OF FllANCE. 113

Tl»o liand of Mary of Ijiirgimdy, tlic liclicss of Charles, was a

fi^rcat prize, for Lcsidcs Ijiiryiiiuly .she rulLvl all Flaiuk-rs and the

Low CVuntries. Louis rosolvcd to marry lior to the l)aii[)lnii, pro-

posinLj to take possession at once in lils sou's name of lier terri-

tories. But she preferred Maximilian, the Emperor's

Boii, to whom yhe was married in 1477. After this Louiti 1477prepared to try his dead vassal, Charles of Burgundy, a.d.

fur treason, for the purpose of confiscating his estates.

The trial was ahandoned; hut ]\raxiniilian took up arms. Thebattle of Guinegate decided nothing, hut taught Louis the ucces-

bity of training a large infantry force for war.

As Louis grew old, his superstition and cruelty increased.

lie used to wear little lead images of saints in his hat, and would

often take them out and implore them with fervent prayers. In

1478 lie caused the Duke of Nemours to be beheaded, and under

the loose planks of the scaffold he placed the five children of the

sufferer, that the dripping of their father's blood upon their heads

might teach them the duty of submission to a King.

Louis XI. died in 1483. His reign is a turning point in French

hiistury, marking the close of the Middle Ages.

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ENGLAND (130D-1485).

The history of England under the rival Houses of Lancaster

.ind York, into which the Plantagenet family divided in lo'J'J, is

included in the present period.

Henry IV. (l^J!)y-1413) was the first Lancastrian King. He wasthe son of John of Gaunt, third son of Edwaid III. Ilis reign w;is

troubled with plots and revolts, of which the most formidable wasthe alliance between the Percys, a great Northumbrian family, and

Owen Glendower, a gentleman of Wales, whose learning caused

men to believe in his complicity with Satan. Hotspur, the son

of Northumberland, was slain in the battle of Shrewsbury, in

v.-Iiicli Henry broke the power of the rebels (140C). In this

reigii a persccutiou arose against the Lollards, or disciples of

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Wycliffo, one of wlioni, nainod Sawtro, a Lotvlon clori^yinan, wu:]

]»urncil. Henry died in 1413.

HenryV. (1413-22), the** Pilnco ITul" of Slialvsporo, dlsap.

pointed all liis boon companions by turnini,' wise and steady after

liis aceession. lie continued tlie Lollard perseeution, coniniittin,:^

to the flames a leader of the sect I<noun as Sir John Oldeastlo,

or the Lord of Cohhanu But his campaigns in France represent

the central interest of Ids reip^n.

Sailing from Sontliampton in 1415, ho took the fortress of

Ilarfleur at the month of the Seine, and then marched ahmg the

coast towards Calais. The Sonnne was guarded by the French,

hut he crossed it at a ford liigh up, and won the battle of Agin-

court. He then returned to Kngland. In 1419 he took Ilouen,

which made him master of Normandy; and theTreatyof Troyes wan

then concludctl, appointing Henry King of France in succession

to Charles. The Dauphin kept up a show of hostility with some

aid from Scotland; but the fall of Meaux destroyed all liis liopes

of resisting Henry. Li this hour of victory the Knglish King died.

Henry VI. (1422-Gl) was a child not yet a year old. Kngland

was placed under Humphrey of Gloucester, while the great Duko

of Bedford governed the Knglish possessions In France. So long

ns the latter lived, the English power remaiii'^d aibroken; and

the victories of Crevant and Yerneuil crippled the resources of

the Dauidiin, who claimed to be Charles A^III. It was d(<tcr-

inined to cross the Loire, and as a preparatory step, the I'higlish

besieged Orleans (1428). Then appeared that strange })easnnt

girl, n uaiivo ')f Donu'cmi in Lorraine, who is known as Joan of

Arc M 5.1' PuccIIc. In white armour, on a black steed, she

cntertd the besieged city during a storm, and in nine days drove

the English from its walls (1429). She fuUillcd the second ])art

of the mission she believed to be divine by causing Cliarles to be

crowned at Rheims. Taken prisoner at Compicgnc, she was

imprisoned for a year, and in 1431 was burned at Rouen. Tlio

English rule in Franco thenceforth grew weak. The Treaty of

.Arras (1435) did not succeed in procuring peace. The death of

iJcdl'ord left England almost without u leader in France ; and iu

ninonv of i:Noi..\Nn. 117

i

a few years, as has been alrciidy said, tlio Kngllsh possessions had

tlwindled to t1:<» singhi town of (^ahiis.

At liomo, during tlio reign of Henry, who was n weak-nnndcd

])rincc, there were many jdots ^)receding the great Civil War.

Tlio rehellicn of Jack Cade, Avho with a rabble lield Londnv for

n few days, ended in the death of the leader. ]5ut tliis

was only a beginning of troubles. In 1455 that great 14 55

civil war, known as the "Wars of tlie Hoses, from the op- A.D.

jiosing sides wearing white and red roses as emblems,

began at St Albans. It arose from the Duke of York, who had

been Protector during the insanity of the King, disliking to let

go his power. The Lancasters, as represented l)y Henry, were

descended from John of Gaunt, third son—the York family, as

represented by Ilichard, Duke of York, from the fourth son of

I'Mward III. After some battles had taken place, the great con-

tn)lling spirits on the contending sides came to be Margaret of

Anjou. the wife of the Lancastrian King, and tliat great Earl of

Warwick, known to liistory as the King-nudcer. Six years of

war resulted in the accession of Edward IV., fion of Fachardj Duke

of York.HOUSE OP YOllK.

Edward IV. (14G1-S3).—The first years of Edward's reign

were spent in meeting tlie efforts of Margaret, who was joined in

14GG by Warwick. But at Barnet in 1471 this great soldier

was killed ; and the field of Tewdvcsbury shattered all Margaret's

hopes a few weeks hiter. The secret murder of Henry in the

Tower and the open murder of his son Edward left the crown

in the hands of the White Hoses. During these troubles William

Caxton, an English mercer, brought the art of printing into Eng-

land (1474). How Louis XI. cajoled Edward into the Treaty of

Decquigny has been already noticed.

Edward V. (April to June, 1483).—Seized at Stony-Stratford

after his father's death, young Edward was placed in the Tower,

while his crafty uncle, Richard of Gloucester, schemed his way

to the throne. Lords Hastings and Rivers, friends of the youth-

lul KiuL'^, were removed by execution.

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^Richard III. (1483-S5)._W]ulo Ukhavd was on his way to

York, makmg a royal progress tliroiigli the land, the runionrspread that young Edward and liis little hrother had Leeiimurdered in the Tower. The story forms a mysterious page inEnglish history. If it was true, an avenger soon appeared in theperson of a Lancastrian Earl oi" Piichmond, who in Franco pre-pared for the invasion of England. The Duke of ]]uckiiighani,to whose efforts on his behalf Pi ichard nniinly oAvcd the crown, re-belled against the King, but was taken and executed. Then camothe last scene. Eichmond landed at jMilford ILiven : Pi ichardtook his post with a treacherous army in the centre of his king-

dom. On Bosworth Piehl in Leicestershire they met;1485 and a skirmish took place, which closed in a rush byA.D. Piichard in his despair upon the guards that encircled

Henry. The vain bravo etfoi-t ended in his death.With him ended, in 1485, the Yorkist branch of the PlantagenetDynasty in England

; and the same date may be fixed as closingthe History of the Middle Ages in this country.

SCOTLAND (1329-1487^.

David II. (1320-70).—Robert Bruce left a son aged six tosucceed him. During the minority Edward III. of Englandattempted to make Edward Daliol King of Scotland ; and de-feated the Scots at Ilalidon Hill (1338). Put they adopted apLan of laying waste the country, which baffled his attacks, andhis designs on Franco turned his energies in another direction.

While Edward was in France, in 1340, the year of Crecy, Davidinvaded England, and was met, about a mile from Dui-ham, onthe field of Nevil's Cross, by Queen Philippa, and was m'adoprisoner. Pansomed after eleven years, he returned to hisnative land to intrigue with the Englisli against its interests.

He died in 1370.THE STUART DYNASTY.

^

Robert II. (1370-90) was the fir.st Stuart King of Scotland,This celebrated but hapless family took its name from the fact

\

'

IITSTOllY OP SCOTT>ANT>. no

tluxt ^T-'^vjorlo Bnico marvie<l AValtor llic Steward of Scotland.

llobcvt's reign was nmnavked ])y any great event. The turhu-

Icnt nobles, regardless of rule or law, engaged in private wars.

During this reign the battle of Otterburne (13S8), depicted with

f^ome fictitious incidents in the ballad of Chevy Chase, wa:i

fought. It was a contest between the Percys and the Donglases.

Roljert III. (1390-140G) was really called John, but changed

his name, lest it wight prove a bad omen. He was so indolent

that he left the government chiefly in the hands of his brother,

.vhom he made Duke of Albany. A quarrel arose between thi^

crafty man and his nephew, Eobert's eldest son, the Duke of Rothe-

say. The young prince was found dead in Falkland, starved, it

is said, by his uncle; through fear of wdiom King Robert sent hiri

surviving son James, aged twelve, away in a ship bound for France.

Off Norfolk the ship was taken, and the prince was carried a

])risoner to England. This broke the King's heart (1400).

James I. (1400-37) was a poet—author of the "King's

Quhair." "While he continued for nineteen years in custody in

FiUgland, chiefly at "Windsor, Albany was for the most part

Hegent of Scotland. During this time the seeds of Protestant-

ism began to be sown in the northern kingdom; and John Ptesby

a disciple of Wycliffe, was burned at Perth for preaching. In

1411 a fierce battle was fought at Ilarlaw between the Earl of

jNIar and the Lord of the Isles, resulting in the defeat of the

Highlanders, who had mustered under the banner of the former

chieftain. The death of Albany in 1419 allowed the nobles to

gi-ow more disorderly ; so that wdicn James w^as released in 1424

he had a hard task before him. He executed some of the lawless

nobles; established the I*arliament on a better foundation; ma.lo

good laws; and kept the wild Highlanders in check by timely

severity. Tie was idain at Perth by conspirators in 1437.

James II. (1437-00), surnamed of the Fiery Face, was handed

from one noble to another during his minority; but of all the

nobles the Douglases were most powerful. He met this ascen-

dency in a treacherous way by inviting the Earl of Douglas to

dinner at Edinburgh, and then causing hin to be beheaded.

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120 IIISTOnY OV SCOTLAND.

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This (IcvIcG was repeated at Stirling some years later, whenanother Douglas foil after dinner under the dagger of thoKing liiniseir. Jmues II. was killed in 14G0 by the burstingof a cannon, while lie was directing the siege of RoxburghCastle, a fortress w liich Iiad been long in tho hands of the Eng-lish.

James III. (1400-88), also a minor, fell into the hands of thoBoyds, who allowed him to grow into a dissolute and idle man,taking pleasure in the society of low favourites. Tho chief of

these was a builder, named Cochrane, whom ho made Earl of3Iar. When the arrogance of this man grew intolerable, thonobles, then assembled in arms to fight with England, seizedand hanged him at Lauder Bridge, after which they kept thoKing in prison for a time. Some time later, they proclaimedPrince James King, and defeated the father near Bannockbum.While galloping from the field, James fell from his horse, and,while lying stunned in a mill, was stabbed to death by a manpretending to be a priest.

James IV. (1488-1 51:5) was a gay and politic monarch, whowisely kept on good terms witli his nobility. lie created aScottish navy, of which Sir Andrew Wood of Largo was thogreat ornament. James IV. was united in marriage to MargaretTudor, daughter of Henry VII. of England. This wedding,which took i)lace at Lambertou on the Border in 1502, is

notable as being tho event on whicli hinged afterwards thodestinies of the Scottish crown in relation to England.

In this reign Walter Cliapman introduced printing into Scot-land. A quarrel between England and Scotland resulted in an

invasion of England by a Scottish army. James pitched

1513 his camp on Flodden, a hill jutting from the Cheviots.A.D. Surrey, who commanded the English host, made a move-

ment which cut off tho retreat of James. Setting firo

to their camp, the Scots rushed on in the smoke, but were finally

broken, with the loss of their King and the flower of the nation.

^James V. (15 3^2) was the "King of the Commons," tho

Fitz James of Scott's poetic romance. A^juiu the curse of a

HISTORY OP SCOTLAND. 121 m

IS

i

royal minority troubled Scotland. But in 1524 jAmcs, a lad of

sixteen, who had been trained under the care of the poet, Sir

David Lindesay, escaped from Falkland, where the Douglas

family kept him in ward, and reached Stirling. King James re-

duced the Border—always a troublesome region—to order, by the

execution of Johnnie Armstrong and other freebooters. He also

established the Court of Session. The beginnings of the actual

Ileformation belong to this reign, in which Patrick Hamilton,

an abbot of noble blood, was burned at St. Andrews (1528)

for his Protestantism. "His smoke infected all it blew on;"

and the poet Lindesay added his satiric verses to the influences

and aids of the Reformation. James of Scotland, whose second

wife was Mary of Guise, refused to meet Henry VIII. of England

at York ; and war began between the potentates. Oliver Sin-

clair commanded the Scots on the Border ; but the army disliked

this royal favourite, and three hundred English horse under

Dacro and Musgravo scattered an army of ten thousj-nd men.

This was the rout of " Solway 3Ioss." It broke the heart of

James V., who died at Falkland of wasting fever, leaving his

crown to a little " lass," aged not many days.

Mary (1542-67).—The Picgcncy was now contested between

Cardinal Beatoun and the Earl of Arran, of whom the latter

gained the prize. But both united to resist Protestantism,

which was supported, even to the length of warlike invasion, by

England. John Knox and George "Wisliavt then appeared as

preachers of the Reformation. Tlic latter was burned at St.

Andrews in 1540 in view of Cardinal Beatoun, who was nmrderetl,

three months later, by conspirators in the castle of the same old

city. The story of John Knox was a most changeful tale.

After lifting a bold voice in St. Andrews, he was made prisoner

by a French armament, and condemned to the galleys, in which

he toiled at the oar for two years.

Meanwhile, Henry of England had been pushing on a marriage

treaty between his son Edward and Mary, the young Scottish

Queen. The Scots, in the succeeding English reign, were so

averse to the match, that the Regent Somerset sent into Scotland

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122 HISTORY OP SCOTLAND.

mi army, wliicli routed the Scots at Pinkie, but did not succeedin bringing tlio marriage affair to a successful tennination.

Every month advanced the Protestant cause in Scotland.

Knox camo home from Geneva, fdled with a zeal whicli inter-

course with Calvin liad sharpened. The young Queen, as thowife of tho Fromh Pauphin, was learning to cling to tlio Catholicfaith. In 15G1, her husband being dead, she came back to

Scotland, to spend seven years of trouble and wretchedness.

She married Lord Darnley, with whom she did not agree well,

and at one time she showed special favour to a musician, namedIliz/jo. Ilnu certain men slew in Ilolyrood, liaving draggedhim from the Queen's supper-table. Tiic Earl of Bothwell scemnto have acted out tho Qnecn'a revenge ; for shortly afterwardsDamley was killed, a lonely house near Edinburgh in which hothen resided being blown up. Tljrco months later, Mary mar-ried 33othwell. This rousetl the nobles to arms ; and Mary sur-

rendered at Carberry Hill, only to bo placed in coiifinement at

Lochlcven. Escaping thence, after eleven months* captivity, shoraised an army and met tho llegent Moray at Langside. Beingutterly defeated there, sho fled to England; and, after beingdetained by l^^lizabcth in various prisons for niuctccn years, wasbeheaded at Fotlicringay in 1587.

James VI. (15G7-1C03) was only a year old when Ids h.apless

mother abdicated the throne. Tlio country prospered under thollcgency vl 3Ioray; but in 1570 ho w.^s shot in the street of

Linlithgow by namilton of Uothwellhaugh. Lennox, 3Lar, and]Morton tlien governed the unhappy land ; until James, growingup under tho tuition of George Buchanan, was old enough toreign. In 1572 John Knox, to whom most of all Scotland owedher Protestautism, died. In IGOO occurred that strange transac-

tion known as the Gowrio Conspiracy. James reached GowrioHouse in Perth, and dined there. After dinner tho Earl of*

Gowrio and his brother were killed—in self-defence, for theymeant to murder him, the King said. On tho death of Elizfibeth

the Stuarts ascended tho English throne, and tho history of

Scotland merges in that of Great Britain.

1

IRnLASD AND SPAIX.

IRELAND.

123

Tlio lilstory of Irelrtnil dnring this period pi'Cf5cnts only vcl)cllion

on tlio part of tlu> natives, and repression on the part of tlio

]]nj^lish. In 1405 Vinju'iD^jH Law gave tlio Knglish Sovereign

{'oniplcto control over the rarlianicnt of Ireland. Henry VIII.

raised Ireland to the rank of a kingdom in 1541. 15 ut the actual

eon(piest of Ireland was not completed until the reign of Eliza-

heth, when in hotli south and north the rel)elliou.s chiefs woro

defeated. Hugh O'Neill, Karl of Tyrone, the most formidable of

these, was finally crushed in 1G02 by Lord Mountjoy.

SPAIN (1212-1492).

After the battle of Tolosa in 1212, the Mohammedans declined

in power, and two kingdoms—Castile and Aragon—grew great

steadily. Castile occu[)ied the centre of the peninsula, and under

Ferdinand III. absorbed Leon, Estremadura, and Murcia. Tho

reign of Alfonso X. was distinguished for advance in science and

law, but was troubled with conspiracies. Greater trouble convulsed

the realm under IVtcr the Cruel, a contemporary of Du Guesclin

and the W \ck Prince. Henry, a brother of Peter, having seized

the throne, by means of aid from France, Peter offered Biscay

as a bribe to the Black Prince, who invaded Spain, won tho

great victory of Navarretta, and restored the deposed tyrant. Onthe retirement of the English prince, however, Henry slew Peter.

The smaller kingdonr of Aragon owed much to James I.

(12L3-127G), who conaucrcd Valencia and the Balearic Isles.

Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia also became appendages of this

realm. Disputes for the crown produced great troubles ; but at

last it passed to Ferdinand the Catholic, who, in 14G9, had been

married to Isabella of Castile.

This imion of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, which took

place in 1470, may be regarded as the beginning of the greatness

of Spain.

II

i

n -

1 'is'r: !

"

Ir'

1

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;' ;:' r

: t

Ir^tli'.^'hP f '

"

124 SPAIN AND PORTIJOAL.

These two great monarclis set themselves to perform the task

that lay before them—the uprooting of the Moorish power in

Spain.

The war of Granatla began in 1481 by the surprise of Zahara.

The sack of Albania, regartloil as the key of G rauada, occurred

in the following year. Malaga and Baza fell; and in 1491

Ferdinand pitched his camp by Granada. Famine at last forced

llie gates, and on the second day of 1492 the keys of the Alhani-

bra were surrendered.

This great year, 1492, was further signalized by the discovery

of America by Columbus, an Italian mariner, to whom1492 the Spanish Queen Isabella gave the use of three ships.

A.D. The expedition sailed from Palos, and in less than

three months saw the low green shore of Guanahani,

or San Salvador, one of the Bahamas.

Navarre, lying close to France, had come by various marriages

to belong to such great French houses as Evreux, Foix, Albret;

but the Kings of Aragon contrived to lay their liands ou a great

portion of the territory.

PORTUGAL.

The kingdom of Portugal was an off-shoot from that of Castile.

In 1095 Alfonso VI. of Castile made over this maritime distjii.t

to his son-in-law, Ilt-nry of }?urgundy, whose son Alfonso as-

sumed the title of King in 1139. For many years there was a

fierce contest with Castile. ^J'he Pope gave a weighty decision

in favour of Portugal possessing a separate regal dignity. In

1290 the University of Lisbon was foundo<l. The kings had

much trouble in checking the power of the Cliurch at this time.

Beatrice of Portugal being married to John I. of Castile, tlio

crown of Portugal seemed in danger of returning again to tlio

latter power. But a revolution, excited chiefly by Jo) n, Grand

Master of Avis, overturned the Castilian hopes; and the brittle

of Aljubanotto (1385), in which the Castilians were bignuUy

defeated, couflrmed the crown to the Master of Avis.

i MI

SCAXPTXATTA. 125

III

i

Tlicn licgan an cm of discovery, wliicli miicli advanced tho

maritime power of Portugal, and by opening the command of

the sea saved her from the extinction that must otherwise have

lecn the result of her vicinity to a neighhour so powerful as

Spain. The coast of Africa was traced, chiefly under the direc-

tion of John's son, Prince Henry the JIariner. Madeira and tiio

Azores were seized for Portugal. And under John II. (1481-05)

Diaz, a Portuguese captain, caught sight, in 1486, of that

notable Cape, whose storms baffled his attempts to sail past it,

and to which on his return, be gave, at the King's suggestion,

the name "Cape of Good Hope." The "good hope" was re-

alized by Vasco do Gama, who doubled the Cape in 1498, and

opened a sea-route to India. This voyage and that of Columbus,

six years earlier, revolutionized tho history of commerce and of

the world.

SCANDINAVIA.

Tlic stream of history in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden runs

in three separate currents until tho close of the fourteenth

ccntmy.

From the proximity of the countries the history of Norway

toucho<l that of ^Scotland at certain points. The " Maid of Nor-

way " and the " Battle of Largs " have been already noticed.

Margaret, daughter of Waldomar III. of Denmark, married

Hufo of Norway in 13G3. Margaret's son, Olav, who had been

recognized King of Denmark, and her husband Ilaco, baving

both died, she became Sovereign over the two countries. But this

did not content the ambition of tho " Scmiramis of the North."

Tliere was a party in Sweden unfriendly to Albert of Mccklcn-

burtr, whom others had invited to the crown. Seizing this

opportunity, Margaret made war on Albert, whom she took

prisoner. The price of his release, after seven years of captivity,

was arranged to bo the formal recognition of 3Iargaret as

Sovereign of Sweden.

lu 1397 the Estates of the three kingdoms assembled at Calmar

W%

4iii

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'i n*

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f

120 HISTORY OF POLAND,

I')

ill Sweden, where was framed the cclehrated Union of Ctilmar^

constituting the triple monarchy elective.

The union did not last long. On the death of Mari,Mrct in

1411, her grand-nephew Erik became King, hut was expelled iu

1439 in favour of Christopher of Uavaria.

The House of Oldenburg, in the person of Christian T., Countof Oldenburg, now (1448) obtained the Danish tlirone. Tlii,^

prince aciiuircd Ilolsteiu and Schlcswig by inheritance from hUmother. In Norway ho was acknowledged King; but the

Swedes under Karl Knutson, and Steu Sturo, Administrators,

maintained a desultory independence for a time.

POLAND.

The ancient dynasty of Polish Kings—the P/</a7/, who hadniled the rich corn-land for five hundred years, termiaated witli

the reign of Casimir the Great (13oG-T0). »

This prince was the son of a great warrior, Vladislav II., whoworsted the Teutonic Knights in the battle of PIowco in lool;

and the son well upheld the father's fame, thougli iu a morepeaceful way. Making concessions to Bohemia and the TouLonlc

Order for the sake of securing peace, ho devoted himself to the

improvement of agriculture. The angry nobles, curbed from

oppression by his strong hand, nicknamed him The remind Kt'ixj.

To him Poland owed its earliest code of laws.

Louis of Hungary succeeded Caslmir, but quite neglected

Poland. Ills daughter married Jagello, Duke of Lilliuania, whobecame after baptism, for he was a pagan, King A'hidislav.

Under his rule was fought in 1410 the battle of Tanuenberg,

which broke the power of the Teutonic Order.

Vladislav III., also elected King of Hungary, fell Iu the battle

of Varna with the Turks in 1444.

Caslmir of Lithuania was then made King. A revolt of

the Prussian provinces led to a war with the Teutonic Knights,

M'hich closed in 14G0 by the Peace of Thorn assigning a portion

of Prussia to Poland. Before the long icIlju uf Casiiuir closed

rnrpsiA and iifsnAnv. 127

in 1402, an avvaiigcmtnt was uuilIo to divulo Polaml into ileotoral

iHstricts, each of wliicli returned a rcpresoutativo to an ass^embly,

which was to ilelibcrato independently of senate or nobles.

Vladislav, eon of Casimir, became Kiuij of Hungary and Bo-

heutia.

lit

PRUSSIA.

The Knights of the Teutonic Order, who conquered Prussiil

between lliol and 128a, gradually extended their Kway over

Livonia and Cuurland. Prosperity engendered luxury, and

luxury begot vice. The aid of the Poles was called in to repress

the tyranny of the Order, The battle of Tannenberg, in which

the Knights suffered a signal defeat (1410), was a heavy blow,

from which they never recovered.

Ill 1511 Albert of Brandenburg was Grand Master of Iho

Order. Under him the Ktruggle with Poland was continued,

until about 1525, when Kasteru Prussia was assigned to this

prince as an hereditary ducal fief of Poland.

HUNGARY.

During the closing centuries of the Middle Ages, Hungary was

ruled by various sovereigns, amongst whom Charles llobert of

Naples, Louis the Great, Siglsinund of Bohemia, and greatest of

all, iMatthias Corvinus, were prominent. The war with Naples

led the Hungarians to become more civilized, and amongst other

improvements the cultivation of the vino was introduced at

Tolcay. Louis united in his person the monarchies of Hungary

and Poland.

SIgisnmnd (1380-1437) was defeated by the Turks at Nicopolis

in 1390. It may hero be noticed that Europe owed much at this

and later tinies to the Hungai'Ians, who maimed the banks of the

Danube and repelled the incessant attempts of the Turks to

penetrate Central Europe. What the Pyrenees and the Franks

had done ttt uu earlier date to restrict the Moslems to the Spanish

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12S HUNGARY AXn RUSSTA,

peninsula, %vlicncc tlicv were at last cxpolletl, ihls gullanl nntton

and this liroad current tli'l for Em )po now.

Matthias Corvinus, son of Jdlin Iluniades.a tllstinguishcd general,

who was victorious over the Turks at I5elgrade, was the greatest

King of Hungary. Ilis conquests extended towards the IJlaek Sea

and the Adriatic. lie gained possession of Vienna for a time (1485j.

The feeble Vladislav permitted the Austrians to secure a firm

hold of Ilungai'V, and certain outlying portions of the kingdom

broke off—Dalmatia seeking protection from Venice, and Moldavia

falling under the power of Poland. After 1527 the kingdom vi

Hungary was ruled by the House of Hapsbuig,

RUSSIA.

The vast .ind bleak jdain of Russia was thinly tenanted at

first by wandering tribes of Slavi. The first germ of government

appeared in 8G2, when Iluric the Norseman fixed his residence

at Novgorod. And a further great advance was made when

Vladimir the Great was bapti;^ed a Christian in 986. The in-

cursions of the Moguls troubled Russia for a long time, and it

lay in subjection to these savage Asiatics, a nominal Grand Dnkoholding his court at Moscow, while the real masters of the soil

desolated the country in the collection of their tribute. Timur

the Tartar overran Russia, as will be seen further on; .and it

was not imtil Ivan Vasilovitch (1402-1505) became Czar that

the Russian {State can be regarded as fairly consolidated. It diil

not come into prominence as a Great Power in Kuropo until two

more centuries had passed.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE (1261-1453).

After Michael Pala^ologus had recovered Constant Inopln in

12G1, he imited the Greek and Latin Churches in the hope of

plcr.sing the Pope. His feeble successor dissolved this iinion,

find the time and strength of the Greeks were wasted in vagua

religious disputations.

li

BYZANTIXK IIISTOUY. 120

Meanwhile tlio Turks were piislung tliclr npproaclios nearer.

During the vei.qu of John V. Paljeologus, Othman having lixed

his camp at Prusa in Bithynia, the Emperor's guardian, John

Oantaeuzemis, was forced to appease the inlidcl by ponuittmg liis

daughter to marry him. Another liumiliation was enihired in

loio, when the representative of tlie ancient Ixoman purp]e, ter-

rified by the fall of Adrianoplc before the Turks, agreed to pay

tribute to these Asiatic invaders.

Amurath the Emir of the Turks, who took the name Osmanli

or Ottomans from Othman, created a military band called Jan is-

sorus, by devoting to warlike duties one-third of the Christian

youths taken captive. By their aid he won the battle of

Cassovia.

Meanwhile discord was weakening the Byzantines. A quarrel

arose between John the Emperor and his son, and the latter with

the assistance of the Genoese shut his father in prison for two

years. Bajazet, now the Turkish Sultan, met a great allied

force, in which the French fought under the banner of Sigisnmnd,

King of Hungary, and defeated them at Nicopolis (1396).

I^Ianuel Pala^ologus then submitted himself to the Turks,

consenting to pay tribute and to build a mosque in Constanti-

nople: but this did not avail; the Turks began a siege; and

throughout all Europe he could get no aid. At this juncture

(1402) Timur, whose career will bo sketched in the section

upon Asiatic History, threatened Asia Minor, and compelled the

Turkish Sultan to turn aside from Constantinople. Defeated at

Angora, Bajazet was carried as a captive in a litter latticed with

iron, until he died of shame and vexation.

The Greeks now ventured to raise their heads again, in the

liope that the Turkish power was destroyed. They broke down

the mosque, and proceeded to retake several places near Constan-

tinople. But the tinal blow was only delayed. It fell in 1453,

a date which may be regarded, though it is hard to fix an exact

date that will suit all countries, as closing the History of the

Middle Ages.

rail of Constantinople.—Mohammed II., the Sultan of the

US7i 9

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1.30 FALL OF CON'STAXTlXOPLfi.

Turks, pfiUlicrod an army of 70,0U0 lor llic roJurllon of Con.Ktantinoplo. Witliin tlio city Constantino XI., last of tlio Paljvo-

logi, coukl muster only GOUO soldiers for the defcnco, and tliora

were no foreign allies except 2000 Genoese. The Turk.s

1453 had 320 ships; the Greeks only 14, which were chained

A.D. within the harbour of the Golden Horn. The wall^j

were assailed with stones and arrows, and a rude cannon-ade. Fiercely the defenders fought, and at first with succcsi?.

Five ships from Chios forced their way through the Turkish fleet,

and Lore food and men into the liarhour. But the Hultaucarried some galleys across a neck of land, launched them in

the harbour, and bombarded with such effect that a practicable

breach was made in the central rampart. Then came the final

assault, the triumph of the Turks, and the death of tho

Emperor Constantine—last of the Caesars—who was slain in the

struggle by some unknown hand. 'J1uis the Turks obtained afirm footing in one corner of Europe, to which they have beenrestricted.

ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

Tho chief Asiatic races, which came in contact with those of

Europe and left a name in history during the Middle Ages, werothe Turks and the Moguls or Mongols.

We have already noticed the deeds of the former, of whom twobranches were especially prominent—the Seljnks and llio Otto-

mans. For a time it seemed as if the power of the 31ongol9 wasto obliterate all other Asiatic dynasties.

Tlie cradle of the Mongol race is still called Mongolia

—

a

portion of Chinese Tartary. There, upon a vast table-land,

walled in and intersected by mighty mountain-ranges, they lived

tho restless life of nomads.

The Mongol chief who achieved most in Asia at this poiI<id

was Zenghis Khan (Greatest Khan), who assumed this title in-

f;tead of Temugin, his original name. Driven horn his father's

kingdom, while yet a boy, he found a refuge with Oungh Khun

i.lk-4

ASIA IN THE MIDDLK AGES. V>1

—(lie Rupposcil original of Prcstcr Juliii, ii iiiyHtorlous Christiim

luoimrch of Asia, in whom early popes, travellers, and navIgat()r.^

liclieveJ, and who kept his court near the Amour, north of tlio

Chinese Wall. Zenghis Khan repaid the protection and confidence

of Ouiigh, who had given him his daughter to wife, by btealing

the affections of his soldiers and defeating him in hattlc. Thenat the Selinga the daring chief caused a great assembly of Mongol.4

and Tartars to proclaim him under his proud title (1205). Anold seer confirmed his election by describing a vision he had seen

from heaven, ^vherciu the monarch was proclaimed by the en-

throned Deity.

After making laws and organizing an army, Zonghis proceeded

on his career of conc^uest. His first acquisition was China ; ho

then overran in succession Tibet, Cashmere, and parts of Persia

and llindostan, laying in the last iianied country the foundation

of a great Mogul Empire, which afterwards centred at Dcllii.

Mohammed Kothbeddin, the Turkish Sultan, attempted to with-

stand his approach towards Western Asia; but in vain. Thobattle was fought in 1218 near the Jaxartes; and resulted in tho

ultimate victory of Zenghis. Having marched in triumph into

the great cities of Carizmc, Herat, Balkli, Candahar, Bokhara,

and Samarcand, he found himself master of a vast conglomcrato

empire, extending from the Volga to the Pacific, from the Altai

to the Persian Gulf. Zenghis Khan died in 1227.

The sons, and more especially the grandsons, of Zenghis, ex-

tended and completed his conquests. His grandsons, Batu,

Hoolagoo, and Kublai, devoted themselves to different portions

of the Eastern World.

Batu, son of Joojec, invaded Russia, defeated the great Alex-

ander Nevski, and exacted tribute from the House of lluric. Notcontent with this, he advanced into Poland, burned Cracow and

]5reslau, and so threatened Central Europe that a great gathering

of nations under Henry of Silesia met him at NoUstadt near

Liegnitz in 1242, and were defeated. Nothing could then have

saved Europe from being overrun but the inability of the Mongolto take w\allcd cities. They did not know the art of besieging.

(i

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ASIA TN THE MIDDLE ACiES.

Hoolagoo, anotlicr grandson of Zongliis, retlucctl Bagdad, tlie

capital of the ^Moslem Calijihs, in 125S ; and followed up his vic-

tory by the invasion of Syria and the Holy Land. But the

Mamelukes expelled the Mongols from the latter.

Kublvii established the Mongol i)Ower firmly in China in I'iTO,

by overthrowing the Sonj dynasty, and conc^uering the province

Quang-tong. lie died in 1294.

The four divisions of the empire then were :—1. Iran, or

Persia. 2. Zcxjafai or South-eastern Asia. 8. Kaplscha/r^ a

part of Russia bordering on the Caspian. 4, China.

The power of the Mongols grew to yet greater prominence

under Timur (i.e., Iron), a descendant of Zengliis Klian and a

native of Zagatai. He is otherwise called Tamerlane, a corrup-

tion of Timm'-lenk, or Timur the Lame. This soldier of fortune

secured his iwsition, like Zenghis, by an act of ingratitude.

Turning against Ilusein of Khorassan, he defeated him, took the

throne of Zagatai, and fixed his capital at Samarcand. Ilis first

important conquest was Great Tartary, or Turkestan, and part of

Siberia, which he took from the Getes. The storming of Herat,

whose beautiful iron gates he carried off, laid Khorassan at his

feet. Persia, weakened by the contention of its petty prhices,

then became his prey, though not until a war of five years had

wasted it.

He then pushed liIs way towards Lidia, conquering I^agdad as

lie went. His prudence as a general may l)e judged from the fact

that, when he took this city he emptied all the wine-skins in the

[ilace into the Tigris.

The year 1398 witnessed his famous campaign in the norlli of

India. Penetrating the Hindoo-Koosh by means of the passes,

lie reached the Indus, which he crossed at Attock, where Alex-

ander of Macedon had also made the passage. Before he crossed

the Sutlej, as he was passing across the Punjaub, he collected

so many captives, that he deemed it necessary to slaughter themall in one great pile, lest they might rise in mutiny against him.

Near Delhi, which with its vast treasures fell into his hands, he

defeated the Indian army.

i

I

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^

the

ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 1^3

Turning then to Asia Minor ho came in collision ^vith iha

Ottoman Turks, uliose city of Siwas (Sebaste) lio took, and

^vhose Sultan's son he murdcrca. Sultan Bajazct (i.e., U<jhhutuj,

from the swiftness of his marches), met Timur at Angora

ill Asia Minor, and there suffered a most signal defeat. 1402

Having made the Turkisli Sultan captive, the Tartar a.d.

chief carried him with his army, wherever he went, hut

only in a palanciuin, not in an iron cage, as the legend used to

relate.

In 1405 Timur, while on liis march to China, died at Otrar on

tlie Jaxartcs.

Persia after the death of Timur fell under the dominion of the

Turkish trihes, which were called Black Slieep and White Sheep

from the emblematic devices on their standards.

It will afterwards appear how Baber revived the splendours ot

tlie Mogul Empire in Northern India.

CHIEF DATES OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

FIFTH CENTUrwY, A.D.

Teutonic invasion of En;:rlanib

Zciio rei<;ns at Byzantium,

Clovis rules tlie Franks, ...

Death of Odoaccr in Italy,

SIXTH CKNTURY, A.D.

Kcign of Justinian,

Narses Exarch of Ravenna,

St. Columba lands at lona,

Lombards invade Italy,

liirth of Moliaramed,

Paijacy of Gregory I. (the Great),

Mission of Augustine to England,

SEVENTH CKNTUIIV, A.D.

The Ilogira,

Death of Muharamed,

Omar takes Jerusalem,

Laws of llotharis the Lombard,

The Arabs besiege Coustantiuoitle,

A. p.

4 111

... ArlA^i

... 4S0-.'dl

4'JJ

... o27-G5

;,(]?>

5C3

571

... 590-GO-t

5D7

C-22

632

g:37

044

GCS-75

\i

mm

S i;

mi MEI>I.i:VATi OHROSOLOaT.

'*/ n

iiyti h

•*!'.

J{•

ElOimi CKNTUUY, A.D.

Samccns invade Spain, ..t

Battle of Tours, ... ... ,.,

Meroviiif^ian Dynasty (Franks) ends,

Dynasty of Abbasides established,

Ileign of Charlemagne,

Charlemagne defeats Desidcrlus tlie Lomlard,lleign of Caliph Harouu-al-llaseliid,

Danes begin to invade England,

Chailemagno crowned at Homo, ...

NINTH CENTl-'UY, A.D.

Irene detlironed (Byzantine), ... ...

Venice founded, ... ... ...

Egbert reigns iii England, ... ... ...

Treaty of Verdun,

Kenneth JlacAlpinc rules all Scotland,

Kuric founds tl.e Russian Empire,

Gorm the Old unites the Danish Isles,

Alfred reigus in England, ...

TENTH CENTUUY, A.D.

Rollo the Norseman settles in France, ... ...

]leign of Otho the Great in Germany,Otlio crowned at Rome,lleign of John Zimisces (Byzantine),

Capet Dynasty begins (France),

ELKVKNTII CENTUUY, A.I).

Massacre of St. Brioe (England), ...

Battle of Hastings (England), ...

Papacy of Ilildebrand, ... ...

Seljuk Turks take Palestine,

Henry IV. of Germany excommunicated, .,.

Siege of Dnrazzo by tlie Nornianp, ... ... ...

Tiloorish Empire established in Spain, ... ...

Portugal separated from Castile, ...

First Crusade begins, ... ...

The Eight Crusades continue,

TWELFTH CENTUUY, A.D.

Battle of the Standard (Enghmd), ...

Plantagenets begin to reign in England,

The Lombard League, ... ... ... ...

• ••

• tt

•••

A.1>.

••• 710

••t 752

••• 752

• t* 1 t>J

• •• 771-8U••• 771

• • • 7SG-803

• It 7S7

8<j0

• •• 802

#• feua

••• 827

tt* 813

• •t —• •• 802

• •t 803

«*t 87M'ol

t«t mi%•* ono-73

tl» 1)02

•« 900 T'l

• •• VbT

3002

lOOiJ

... 107:! ^:i

1077

losi

10>7

101i.>

10% un

tft • •t ussttt t*t 11.̂ t

«•• ttt 11G7

MEPIJE^'ATi ClIRONOLOflY.

• •I

• ••

Saladin conquers the Fallmilcs iu Esiypt

The English occupy Ireluml,

13;ittle of Legnano (Italy), ...

J'hilip Augustus reigus iu France, ...

Third Crusade, ... ••• ••• ••• •••

THIRTEENTH CENTURY, A.D.

Crusaders (5th) take Constautiuoiile,

Zenghis Klian proclaimed,

Battle of Tolosa (Spain), ...

Magna Chavta signed, ... •••

Teutonic Knights conquer Trussia,

J3attle of Liegnitz,

Ilausa League formed,

Moors in Spain possess Granada only,

Latin Empirf> of Constantinople overthrown,

Hattle of Largs (Scotland),

Kudolf of Hapsburg emperor,

Sicilian Vespers, ...

Wales conquered,

...

...

...

...

...

...

••• • ••

••• • ••

••• ••t

•t« t*t

• •t • If

* *• •••

••• • t*

• f«

• tt

•••

• ••

FOURTEENTH CENTURY, A.D.

Popes at Avignon,

llobert Bruce reigns in Scotland,

"William Tell

Battle of Bannockburn, ...

Battle of Morgarteu,

Council of Ten at Venice, ...

Casimir the Great rules iu Poland,

Beginning of Hundred Years' War,

Battle of Crc^y, ...

llevolutlon of Ilienzi,

Llarino Faliero beheaded, ...

liattle of Poitiers,

P>:ittle of Navarretta,

Stuart dynasty in Scotland,

Genoese defeated at Chioggia,

Convention of Sempach, ...

Battle of Nicopolis,

Union of Calmar,

Timur the Tartar takes Delhi,

• ••

• ••

• ••

• ••

• ••

FIFTEENTH CENTURY, A.D.

Timur defeats Bujazot at Angora, ...

I'altio of Shrewsbury, ... ••• •••

• I*

#••

•tt

ttt

13.5

A. p.

... 1171

1172

... 117G

1180-1223

... 118&-D2

t«t

• tt

1203

1205

1212

... 1215

... 1228-81

1242

1247

1250

... 12G1

12G3

1273

... 1282

• II 1305-77

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BaUlcof Agmroiirt

Martyrdom of Ilnss at Constance, ...

Sic^e of Rouen by the En.trlisli,

Orleans relieved by Joan of Arc, ...

Council of Basle, . ..

Invention of printing about,

House of Oldenburg reisn in Denmark,Francis Sforza takes I\Ii!an,

Constantinople taken by the Turk.«,

Council of Three at Venice,

M'ar of the Hoses begins, ...

Keign of Lmis XI. of France,

Cosmo di Medici dies,

War of the Public Good (Franco), ...

Printing iiitroducod into England, ...

J'attlos of Gransiin and Morat,jllary of llurgundy marries Ma.\itnili;in of Aiutrla,liattle of Bosworth,

Granada wrested from tlie Moors, ...

Columbus discovers America,

Vu;:CO dc Gaiua doubles the Caj.o, ...

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MODERN HISTORY.

In undertaking an outline Sketch of ^loilcrn History, embracing

every event of striking importance that took place during thi?

porioil in every country of the World, it seems be.si to give up the

plan, hitherto adopted, of making the various histories run, as fur

as possible, in lines abreast of each other, and to fall back upon a

plan which, in dealing with a multiplicity of details, will be less

confusing. Henceforth, when the thread of a country's history is

taken up, it will be followed to the present time. The order

adopted, based upon relative importance or geographical position,

will be as follows :

—

EUROPE.

1. British Empire.

2. Adjacent Countries: i.e., France—Belgium—Holland—Denmark—Sweden—Norway.

3. Central Countries: i,e., Germany—Prussia— Austria

—

Switzerland.

4. Southern Countries: i.e., Portugal—Spain—Italy—Greece

—Turkey.V

5. Kastern : llussia.

ASIA.

1. Colonization of Asia.

2. India.

3. China and Japan.

4. llest of Asia.

NOHTII AMKUTCA.

1. Discovery and Colonizatiun.

2. United States.

3. British America.

4. Mexico.

5. West Indies.

6. Best of North America. ^I'L-iii^l^

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ins IIISTOKY OP KNCLAND.

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SOUTH AMERICA.

1. Discovery ami Colonizati r. ' S. Oiiili.

2- l^i-i^^il.: 4. Host of South America.

AusTRAMA,—Discovery aiul Colonization.

Africa,—Colonization and Exploration.

HISTORY OP ENGLAND.

THE TUDOR SOVERKIOXS (11S3-1G03>.

Henry VII. (1485-1509) was a cautious and economical man,who by his marriage Avith Klizahetli of Yoilc, represcntativoof the White Hoses, managed to unite tlic parties whoso warsImd convulsed tlie land. His reign was full of conspiracies.First came Siiunel, a baker's son, pretending to bo the Earl of"Warwick, a son of Clarence. The battle of Stoke crushed liii

claims. Then appeared, also in Ireland, Perkin AVarbeck, wlioannounced himself to be Richard Duke of York, the younger ofthose princes whom popular rumour regarded as having beensmothered in the Tower by Richard III. A landing at Deal-—a visit to Scotland, where James IV. received him kindly—

a

fruitless invasion of England on the north—and a Cornish insur-rection, after which Perkin deserted his army, only to be takenprisoner, were the leading events of this imposture.

In 1502 took place the wedding of the Hose and the Thistle—the marriage of James IV. King of Scotland to ^largaret Tudor,daughter of Henry VII. Upon this uni(m rested the claims ofIiapless Mary Qwccn of Scots to the English throne, and tho.succession of her son tu the same royal seat.

Henry VII., who saw how England might rise to an extendedcommerce, built ships, and encouraged maritime enterprise.Under his patronage the Cabots sailed from Bristol and dis-covered Labrador (1497).

Henry VIII. (1509-1547) had for his minister during twentyyears the celebrated Thomas Wolsey, who raised himself by

nTST0R7 OP ENGLAND. 139

force of talent from a Immblc station to bo Archbishop and

Cardinal of York, High Chancellor of England, and Papal

Legate. Henry won two battles early in \m reign ;—

one in Franco at Gulnogatc, known as tho battle of 1513

Spurs ; tho other at Flodden, where Surrey defeated and a.d.

slew James IV. of Scotland (1518).

V/hen Henry VIII. heard of tho doings of Luther in Germany,

he (or Wolsey) wrote a treatise defending the seven sacraments

of the llomish Church. For this the Pope rewarded him witli

the title Fidel Defensor. But it soon happened that Henry,

enamoured of Anne Boleyn, wished to obtain a divorce from

Catherine of Aragon, his first wife. Wolsey, acting under the

Pope's inlluence, delayed the gratification of this wish, and so

lost favour with his royal nuister. In 1529 the Cardinal was

banished from court, and in the following year he died at

Leicester Abbey. Sir Thomas More succeeded him as Chanccl-

'lor, but lost his head in 1535, because he refused to ackuowlcdgo

the King's supremacy as Head of the Church.

During the remainder of his reign Henry was engaged in

attempts to force on the Kngllsh people a religious system of his

own, the details of which he often changed. He embodied his

doctrines in a set of Acts in 1539, which he called the Six

Articles, but which the people came to call iho Bloothj Statute

.

In addition to this, he suppressed and plundered the monasteries,

but rather for the spoil they yielded than from a religious mo-

tive. He was lickle in his choice both of wives and of ministers.

Of the former he married in all six ; and of these two—Anne

])uleyn and Catherine Howard—were beheaded. Of the latter

four were prominent; and of these two also—More and Thomas

Cromwell—went to the block. His great contemporaries in

Kurope were the Emperor Charles V. and Francis I. of France.

His interview with the latter in 1520 near Calais was culled the

Field of the Cloth of Gold.

The last victim of Henry's ferocity was that accomplished Earl

of Surrey, who wrote the first blank verse used in English poetry,

and whose only crime was the adoption of the arms of Edward

in

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140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

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tlie Confessor on his shioUl. Ilonry died in 1517, Lelng tliou

ngcil fifty-six.

Edward VI. (1547-1553) reigned for only six years, l)ut tliev

were years teeming with great resnlts. Under tlio Protector

iSomerset a war witli Scotland began. An English army invaded

Scotland, and defeated the Regent Arran at Pinkie, not far fromEdinburgh (1547). Yet this did not force the Scottish people to

marry their little princess Mary to young Edward. An enemy to

Protector Somerset aroso in the person of Warwick, afterward,!

Puke of Northumberland, through whose intrigues the Protector

came to the scaffold in 1552. Put the greatest event of the reign

was the foundation of the Anglican Cluirch in a Protestant form,

.•md the publication of that beautiful Jjitnrgy— the ]>0()k of Com-mon Prayer—which came forth in English under the superin-

tendence of Archbishop Cranmer. The death of Edwar<l

1552 at the ago of sixteen caused Lady Jane Grey, to wlioni

A.D. Northumberland liad married his son, to assume tho

crown, which she can scarcely be said to have worn, for

in ton days a stronger party get Mury, daughter of Catherino

of Aragon, on the throne.

Mary I. (1553-1558) brought the history of England into con-

tact with that of Spain by marrying Philip II. This was a step

in the great task she devoted herself to—the restoration of tlio

lloman Catholic faith in England. Cardinal Pole came to Eng-land as Papal Legate at her invitation; and a solemn ceremony

took place in 1554, for the purp(jso of reconciling the estranged

daughter to forgiving Motlier Church. A fierce persecution of

Protestants ensued, beginning in 1555 with the martyrdom of

Rogers at Smith field, Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer were tho

most notable sufferers.

The last year of Mary's reign was marked by the loss of Calais,

which the Duke of Guise attacked in the middle of winter, hav-

ing crossed the frozen marshes which enclosed the town. Thuf^

ended—happily for England, though the loss was sorely felt at

first—the dream of an English dominion in Franco.

Elizabeth (1558-1003), daughter of Anne Boleyn, was the la:^,t

HISTORY or EXGLA!7D. Itl

of tlic royal Tiulovs. The first years of lior veign, afterwards so

l.iUliaiit, were disturbed by a schisiu in the ne\Yly founded Church;

from uhich in 15GG a Hcctlon, calling themselves rnritam^^

pcceded. The distinctive principles of this body were founded

mainly upon doctrines imbibed at Frankfort and Geneva, whither

Komc of them had lied during the recent persecutions.

Kll>^abetli owed much to her statesmen, of whom the ehief

were Cecil, afterwards Lord Burleigh, and Francis Walsinghani.

The hitter had much to do with the uidiappy affairs of 3Iary

.Stuart. Driven from lier Scottish throne, this rash, perha[).4

guilty, woman fled in 15GS to England. There the Duke of

Norfolk—the leading lloman Catholic noble—sought her in mar-

riage. It was a perilous time ; and the air was charged with ter-

rors of conspiracy and massacre. The frightful carnage of St.

]5artholonie\v in France (1572) added to the terror; and, when

one plot after another arose to set Mary on the throne of Englautl

and kill Elizabeth, it was deemed necessary to bring the Scottish

Queen to trial for connivance in Babington's conspiracy. Tried at

Fotheringay, she was found guilty : after some reluctance, real or

pretended, 3':ilzabeth signed the death-warrant; and the grey head

of once beautiful Mary Avas struck off in Fotheringay Hall (1587).

In Iho following year Philip II. of Spain, having resolved, as

the champion of the lloman Catholic cause, to crush Elizabeth, a

defender of Frotestantism, sent out that great fleet of 132 ships,

known as the Invincihlc Armada. The Duke of Farma also col-

lected an army at Dunkirk, ready to invade England. Tho

English fleet, 191 strong, but composed of small and light

hhlps, was under Lord Howard of Efiingham. The foes 1588

came in sight near Plymouth, and for eleven days (July a.d.

ID-oO) tho active English vessels followed the heavy

castles that bore the Spaniards up the C^uumel, fighting as they

{ailed in pursuit. Eight little ships, filled with combustible

materials, were sent in among the Spanish fleet as they lay at

anchor near Calais ; and the Armada scattered in terrified flight.

There was no way open except that to the north ; so that the

remnant of the fleet was forced to sail home by the Pentlaud Fiiih.

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Durini^ tho Yc\<j;n of EHzabetlj tlio cuiU|Uost of Iivliiul, boii^un

hy Stvoiigljow under tlio first of tlio riaiitagonotH, ^vaf4 coinplctod.

In the south of the island Desmond was conquered in 158,']; anevent not without a literary interest, for Edmund Spenser re-

ceived from the forfeited estates of the chief Kileohnan, wliero

lie wrote the Faerie Qiiecnc, But a more .serious rebellion

—

that of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone—was crushed in 1002 byLord-Deputy Monntjoy.

Elizabeth died in 1603. ITer reign is remarkable for suecess

in maritime enterprise both in war and exploration, and for bril-

liance in literature, especially in a dramatic form.

GREAT SRITAXN.

THK STtJAPT S0VEREI0N3 (K.03-in4l

James I. (icon- 1(;25), the son of Ulary Queen of Scots, snc-

cccded Eliznbetli on tlie tlirone of England ; and Iieneetbrth hoceased to be known as James VI., his Scottish title. A iimnber

of plots arose at once ; of these the most remarkable was that in

Axvour of Arabella Stuart. Sir Walter Raleigh, being involved

in this, was sent to the Tower.

A more serious conspiracy followed—tlie GunpourJcr Plot of

1605, set on foot by discontented Roman Catholics, who, bylaying barrels of gunpowder below the House of Lords, prepared

to blow up the assembly of both Houses. An anonymous letter,

advising Lord 3Iounteaglo to stay away, caused a search to bomade, and Guido Fawkes was taken in the cellar. With several

others he perished for his crime.

James endeavoured to establish Episcopacy in Scotland; lio

planted new settlements in the north of Ireland, which greatly

promoted the pros])crity of Ulster. In England he was infhienced

much by favourites, of whom the chief were Carr and Villiers,

better known as Somerset and Ruckingham.Sir Walter Raleigh, after many years in prison, which ho

devoted to his '' History of the World," was released that homight point out a gold mine he knew of in Guiana. Sailing to

HISTORY OF CHEAT BRITAIN. ll:j

tlic Orinoco, ]\g attacked the town of St. Tliomas, and on Ins

leturii to England wasj beheaded (1G18), in order to appease tho

wratli of Spain.

The disgraco and deposition of Lord ChanceHor Bacon, another

fitar of English literature, occurred in 1021 as a lilting punisk-

luent for accepting bribes.

A marriage between Prince Charles and the Spanish Tnfimtii

wa^ proposed, \Yhich led the Prince and Buckingham to travel ia

disguise to Spain. But the match was broken off; and Henrietta-

Maria of France became the wife of Charles.

Charles I. (1G25-49) was the only monarch of England that

perished on a scaffold. From the very beginning of his reign ha

hlrovc to force a system of illegal taxation on the people. But

the Parliament resisted; and men such as Oliver Cromwell, John

Eliot, and John Hampden joined its ranks. The Parliament of

1028 wrested from Charles the famous rdiilon of JiiyJit, levelled

against illegal taxation and mijust imprisonment, whereupon in a

rage the King dissolved the assembly, and for eleven years called

no new Parliament.

Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, and Archbishop Laud then

directed the counsels of the King. The former ruled Ireland by

the cruel system which he called Thorough ; the latter prepared

a Liturgy for Scotland, which, on its first reading, excited a

riot iu St. Giles's, Edinburgh, and led to the signing of that

document called the National Covenant (1038).

The imposition of shlp-moncUy illegally levied in tho time of

peace on inland towns, excited the resistance of Hampden, a

Buckinghamshire squire, whose case was tried in the Court of

Exche(|uer; but the decision was given against him (1037).

The Short Parliament sat for less than a month of 1040 ; in

the autumn of tho same year met the famous Long Parliament.

Then the struggle began. Strafford was impeached and executed.

The King madly tried to arrest five leading members, among whomwere Pym and Hampden ; and in a short time a civil war began.

It lasted about three years (1042-45). At first the Cavaliers,

a.^ the Eoyaiists were called, had the advantage. The indecisive

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luitlle (jf Kdgoliill was the first cn.c^agomcnt, Clmvlcs; fixed liis

]ieail-(|uavtcvs at Oxford, and took Bristol. But lio was foilt'd in

besiegiiij^ Gloucester; and tlic Koundlicad caiiso soon acliicvcd a

Fpleudid triuni|)li at ]Mavstou Moor, chiefly owing to Oliver

Cromwell and liis Ironsides (1G44). Tlie battle of Naseby, also

a lloundhead victory, decided the result of the war.

Charles fled from Oxford to the Scots at Newark, where a

Covenanting army was encamped. '^J'he Sc(As gave him u[) to

tlic moderate English Presbyterians, but lie was seized and im-

prisoned by order of Cromwell. This daring genius then marclied

against the Scottish lloyalists mider Hamilton, whom he defeated

jit Preston. Tlicn, returning to London, he placed sohliers round

the Parliament House, to keep out the moderate Presbyterians, and

thus reduced the assembly to about forty Independents

1G49 devoted to his cause. Charles was then tried at West-

A.i). minster Hall for levying war against his i)eople ; and on

the 30th of Januarv 1049 he undaunted! v bowed h*« head

r.nder the axe in front of the Banqueting Hall of Whitehall Palace.

The Commonwealth (1G49-1GG0) then began. It consisted

of three periods. 1. From Charles' death to the appointment of

Cromwell as Lord Protector (1G49-53). 2. The Protectorate

of Cromwell (1G53-58). 3. The interval of anarchy (1058-00).

During the first period Cromwell reduced Ireland to subjection

with great severity. He then wont -with Monlc to Scotland,

where he won the battle of Dnnltar (1050) and secured the sur-

render of Edinburgh. Charles IT., appearing in the following

year in Scotland, invaded England at Carlisle, and penetrated

Koutluvard to Worcester, where Cromwell defeated him—1051.

IMeanwdiilc a naval war with the Dutch had been progressing,

3>lake being opposed to the Dutch admirals Van Tromp and De

Kuyter, whom ho defeated.

In 1053 Cromw^ell with his soldiers expelled the Long Par-

liament, and soon, by the Indntment of Guvcmmcnt, was mado

Lord Protector.

Under his firm rule the name of England grew great abroad.

Jamaica, one of her chief colonies, was taken from Spain in 1G55;

IlISTOUY OF GUKAT LJUITAIN. 115

nii'l ill 10')7 r>lakc (U'fcatc.l tlic Spaniards at Tenoriffo. At ]u)nio

lie ciiilurtMl iiuiny troubles from Levellers, FiCtli Muuareliy men,

(Quakers, and otlier strange growths of Puritanism. Ho selecteil

preachers by means of examiners called Triers, and for a timo

kept England under the military dominion of IMajor-Generals.

His later life was embittered by fears of assassination, and by tlio

re[)roaches of his favourite daughter, who died before liim. llo

breathed his last at Whitehall on the 3rd of Septcnd)er 1G58.

Kicliard Cromwell, Oliver's son, succeeded as Protector, but

held the ofiice for only eight months. Then followed a year of

anarchy, until Moidc came from Scotland with an army, the Long

]*arliament dissolved itself; and a Convention of Cavaliers and

Presbyterians invited Charles II. back to the throne of his father.

Charles II. (IGGO 85) entered London on the 29th May, 16G0.

I'or a time, like Konum Nero, he promised well, but his dissolulo

habits soon became apparent. The companion of his exile, Edward

1 lyde, was made Lord Clianccllor, with the title ot Lord Clarendon,

but in lf)G7 he lost favour and w^as deposed. Before this time

]'higland had suffered a great degradation at the hands of the Dutch,

who, under Admiral De Kuyter, sailed into the estuary of the

'J'hames and burned the Englii^h shipping. During this reign bitter

persecution was inflicted on the Scottish Covenanters, who, rising

in arms, were defeated in 1GG6 by Dalziel near the Pentlands;

but in 1G79, after the murder of Archbishop Sharp at Magus Muir,

gained a victory over Graham of Claverhouse at Drumclog.

The government of Charles after Clarendon's dismissal rested

with live men, called the Cabal from the initial letters of their

names. These were followed by Danby, and then by Temple

and Halifax. The chief political event of the reign

was the passing of the Habeas Corjms Act (1679), by 1679

which the detention of a person in prison after a cer- a.d.

tain time without trial is forbidden.

Towards the end of the reign, the "Whigs, led by Russell and

Sidney, formed a plot to put Monmouth, a natural son of Charles,

on the throne. This, called the Bye-house Plot, was crushed by

the execution of the chiefs. Charles died in 1685,

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James II. (1GS5-SS), previously Duke of York, snccoodod Lis

brother on tlio tlirone. Moiimoutli IuikUmI in Dorsetshire, luid

was defeated at Seilijcmoor witliin tlie year (Kisf)). TI<^ suffered

on tlic seaffold ; and Jeffreys, in Avliat Avas ealled tlie JJloodi/

Assi?:Cj inflieted capital punishment on more than three hundred

of his fulh)\vers.

With blind ol»s(ina(:y James attempted both to aet inde|)(Mi-

dently of th(3 laws, and to force the Konum (Jatholie religion

U[)on Kugland. lie published on his own authority a Declara-

tion «f I)i(luhjciicp^ giving lilierty of worship to all, and eom-

numded all elergy to read it from their pulpits. U'ho London

clergy refused to obey; and six bishops, headed by Archbishop San-

croft, the Primate, presented a petition against it. For this they

were tried, but were acquitted ; and about the same time William

of Orange, wdio in 1077 had nuirried IMary, the elder daughter of

James, Avas invited from Holland to iill the ]^]nglisli throno.

He landed at Torbay—James fled to France—and the Decla-

ration of Jii(jht;i, i")assed by a Convention (i.e., a Parliament not

summoned by a Sovereign), conferred on him and his wife the

crown of England (1080).

William III. and Mary II. (1080-04).— James, however, did

not yield without a struggle, of Avhicli Ireland was the chief

scene. IJesieging Londonderry in vain, ho was signally

1690 defeated at the Boyne in 1G90. After his return to

A.D. France his generals were further defeated at Aughrim

and Limerick (1001). Two years earlier, the death of

Olaverhouse, Viscount Dundee, at Killiecrankie in Perthshire,

had deprived the Stuart cause of its chief partisan in Scotland.

The death of IMary in 1004 left her husband to rule alone.

This he did liy prudently conceding a good deal to the Parliament,

providing that they gave him money ^o carry on the war with

Louis XIV. The chief events of this war were the defeat of the

French fleet off Cape La llogne (1002), the battles of Steinkiik

and Landen, and the siege of Namui'. The Treaty of Piyswick

brought the struggle to an end in 1007.

William did not treat Scotland w^ell. The ma.sbacrc of the

.

iTTSTOnY Oli' CnEAT BHITAIN. 147

Macdonalds nt. Gloucor (1002), and his iict>-lcct of the Seotli.^li

colony at Davien were two notable instances of tliis.

The chief enactment of the veign was the Act of ScUlcmad

(1701), hy which it was decreed that the Sovereign shonld

Ixdong to the Church of England. A fall from his horse caused

AViUiam's death in 1702.

Anne (1702-14), f.ccond daughter of James II., was the last

of the Stuart sovereigns. During a great part of her reign the

AVar of the Spanish Succession went on. Its chief theatres were

Spain and the Low Countries.

In 1704 Ivookc took Gibraltar, and IMarlborongh won the

battle of Blenheim; and then Kamilies (1700), Oudcnardc (1708),

^lalphupiet (1709) added new laurels to those won at Blenheim

by the great captain of the war. In Spain, Peterborough took

]>arcelona; but Berwick, fighting for the Bourbon, won in 1707

the great battle of Almanza. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

terminated the struggle.

The chief political events of Anne's reign were the Union of

the Scottish Parliament with that of England (1707)—a measure

which to a great extent laid the foundation of Scottish prosperity;

and the strn-vlo between the Whigs and the Tories, which culmi-

nated in 171 'J in the triumph of the latter. Ilarley and St. John

came into power; Sunderland was dismissed, and Marlborough

disgraced. But the intrigues of St. John (Bolmgbroke) caused

the" fall of Ilarley (Oxford) before Anne's death, which took

place in 1714.

THE BllUXSW^ICK SOVEREIGNS.

George I. (1714-27), Elector of Tlanovcr, now luH'nmo King

of Eiiti'laud, the link thnmgh which lie succeeded being tlie

marriage of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., with Erederie oE

Bohemia. His accession restored the Whigs to favour.

The .Tacobites—as the favourers of the Stuart cause were

called—intrigued continually for half the century. In 1715 a

rising took place in Scotland under the Earl of iMar ; but he was

defeated at Sheriffnmir. On the same d;iy the English Jaco-

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148 HISTORY OF GREAT DRITAIX.'

Ifitcs were cruslicd at Preston. The Pretender James merelyslioweil liimseir, ere lie fled from Montrose back to France.

The conmicrcial disasstcr called the South Sea Bubble bcloni^s

to this reign (1720). The shares of the company rose to anenormous price, and the nation went mad with speculation, until

reliction and ruin set in. Robert Walpolc saved the nation l)y

his prompt measures of finance.

The Septeimial Bill, limiting the duration of a Parliament to

seven years, was the leading enactment of the reign. George I.

died while travelling in Hanover (1727).

George II. (1727-GO), his son, succeeded. For nearly half

the reign—/.c, until 1742— Sir Ptobert Walpole ruled in the

councils of the State. In 1733 this minister, who managed tlio

Parliament by bribery, brought in an Excise Bill, which wasultimately withdrawn, owing to the storm of opposition it raised.

In 1736 the Porteous Mob excited a riot in Edinburgh, break-

ing into prison and hanging on a dyer's pole Captain Porteous,

who had ordered the City Guard to fire on a crowd.

Britain, having sided with Maria Theresa of Hungary, en-

gaged in war with France. Dcttingen (1743), in which* KingGeorge II. defeated a French army, and Fontenoy (1745), in

which Saxe defeated Cumberland, were the leading battles of

this war.

The Jacoliite rebellion of 1745 now began. Landing nearMoidart on the west coast of Scotland, Charles Edward, theyoung Pretender, pressed on to Edinburgh, where he resided in

Ilolyrood Palace. After wimiitig the battle of Prestonpans, heinvaded England, and penetrated to Derby, but turned there andretreated into Scotland. A victorious skirmish at Falkirkroused his hopes, but at Culloden he was finally defeated

(April 16, 1740).

The Treaty of Aixda-Chapello (1748) brought a temporarylull, but England was soon involved in tlie events of the SevenYears' War, with which was interwoven a struggle with Francoin India and America. In the former land the battle of Plassey

(1757), won by Clive, left the British masters of Bengal: in the

II

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cn-

iiistohy of great biiitain. 140

latter, the victory of Abraham's Plains, won above Quebec ancl

dearly bought by the death of General Wolfe, wrested the pro-

vince of Canada from the French (1759). Tha victory of Minden

iu Hanover was a further blow to French power in the same year.

William Pitt, tlie *' Great Commoner,'* afterwards Earl of

Cliatham, rose to eminence as a statesman during the last years

of George II., wlio died in 1760.

George III. (1700-1820) spent a nominal reign of sixty years,

but insanity and blindness made more than the last decade a

mournful blank. Ere the reign was five years old, symptoms of

the great and (to Britain) disastrous American War began to

appear. In 1705 was passed a SUunj) Act, imposing upon the

American colonies duties similar to those in England. This was

afterwards repealed ; but other taxes were imposed, which excited

the colonists to arms. The war broke out in 1775 at Lexington,

and the battle of Bunker's IIIU followed. In 177G the Ameri-

cans declared their independence ; and after seven campaigns,

during which George Washington was the hero of the struggle,

and the British were twice forced to surrender—at Saratoga and

at Yorktown—the mother country was forced to acknowledgo

the independence of her trans-atlantic daughter, who exchanged

monarchy for the republic, a form of government always dear

to the Puritans, by whom the thirteen States had been chiefly

founded (178o).

A war with France and Spain was chiefly notable for tlie great

siege of Gibraltar (1779-82), which was bravely defended by

Kliott, aiid relieved by Admiral Lord IIowo.

The reign of George III. was fruitful iu colonial history. The

vast island of Australia may be said to have been now joined to

our empire through the enterprise of Captain Cook and other

lieroes of discovery; and in India the work of conquest and

nnnexment, so well begun by Clivc, was continued by Warren

Hastings, who, however, on his return home in 1788, was brought

to trial for tyranny. On this occasion magniiicent orations wero

made by Sheridan and Burke.

Al)OUt midway in the reign the Frencli Revolution occurred.

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150 IITSTOnV OF GUEAT DRTTATN.

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and out of its bloodshed and confusion roso Napoleon Bonaparto,

one of tlio crrcatest foes ^vitll whom Britain has ever contended.

She was fortunate in possessing two defenders, who proved their

liirht to be ret^^arded as her greatest sailor and licr g-reatest

soldier. To Horatio Nelson, who destroyed the French lleet in

1708 at the Nile, and in 1805 died at Trafali^-ar, where he in-

fiieted a terrible dereat upon the navies of Franco and Spain,

belongs the glory of the former name ; Arthur, Duke of Welling-

ton, "the hero of a hundred lights, who never lost an English

gun," taught the Corsican to respect a nation, whosu soldiers

could withstand and repel the bravest troops of France.

In 1798 a rebellion broke out in Ireland ; it was crushed at

Vinegar Hill in Wexford: and in 1801 took place the Union,

which merired the Irish Parliament in that of the British Enn/n-o.

In 180G Pitt and Fox, two rival statesmen of tho greatest

eminence, died.

Tho earlier career of Napoleon I. will bo sketched afterwards.

It was in 1808 that he tried to make his brother Joseph King of

Spain. Britain resisted this, and war began.

For six years (1808-14) the Peninsula was tho scene of deadly

struggles, in which Wellesley—afterwards Wellington—step by

step drove the French marshals back, until the final triumph of

Vitoria (1813) sent them flying across the Pyrenees.

During these years politics at homo were troubled by discus-

sions about a Regency ; for George III., ever since 1788, liad been

showing symptoms of insanity. In 1809 an expedition of

English troops to Walcheren ended in miserable failure ; and t\

short American War (1812-14) took place, during which Canada

was invaded, and the British burned part of Washington.

The escape of Napoleon from Elba in 1815 called Europe onco

more to arms. Wellington commanded a British force

1815 in Belgium, where on the 18th June 1815 wns fought

A.D. the decisive battle of Waterloo. On thls^ eventful day,

aided by the Prussians, the British utterly defeated tho

splendid army of the Emperor, and deprived him of every hope.

The few remaining years of King George's life were barren m

\

iijLj of

I

IIISTOUY OF flllEAT HRITAIX. 151

events. Lord Exmoutli bombardcil Algiers, and crushed that

j.ivato-ncst in 1816; and in the following year the hope of the

nation—the Princess Charlotte, daughter of Prince George and

wife of Prince Leopold, died. The reign—which had been a

PiCgcncy since 1811—came to an end in 1820.

George IV. (1820-30) had already been Regent for nine years.

He was profligate and extravagant. A great scandal arose when

Queen Caroline, whom lie had treated badly, was repulsed from

the door of Westminster Abbey on the day of the coronation.

The ill-used princess died a few days later (1821). George

Canning was the great statesman of the reign. In 1827 Britain

took pa'i-t with Prance and Ilussia in forcing Turkey to acknow-

ledge the independence of Greece ; and the battle of Navarino

wa^ fought. The last year but one of this reign witnessed the

groat political struggle, which resulted in the emancipation of the

iloman Catholics from injurious penal laws. This measure,

passed under the ministry of Wellington and Peel, received the

royal signature in 1829. George IV. died iu the following year,

aged sixty-eight.

William IV. (1830-37) had been a sailor by profession ere ho

Fucceedcd his brother. The first railway—running from Liver-

pool to jManchester—was now opened, but the triumph was

marred by the sad accident of Mr. lluskisson's death. This

eminent statesman was killed by a passing engine

The fu-st Itr/onn BUI, proposed by Lord John, now Earl

Russell, was passed in 1832. By this measure the franchise was

extended in towns to tenants paying £10 of rent, in counties to

tenants paying £50, or freeholders of £10. Another political

achievement of the reign was the Negro Emanc'ipailon Bill,

by which, through the efforts chiefly of Wilberforce, all slavery

was abolished throughout the British Empire. William IV.

died in 1837, aged seventy-one.

Victoria (1837) has now reigned for more than thirty years.

Iler accession caused the separation of Hanover from the British

crown, since the Salic law prevailed in that state. Early in her

rcigu vioiyut Eudicais, culling themselves ChiUtists, dioturbed

f

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ir <r

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ii.,

Ji'^llh

It

"

152 IIISTOIIY OF CHEAT DRITAIN.

;-'

I

A

tlie peace at home; while abroad there was rebellion in Canada,

and soon afterwards war in Syria, Afg-hanistan, and China. Tlio

last, ending in 1842, was effective in opening many ports to

3>ritisli commerce.

In 1843 a number of ministers and laymen seceded from the

Clmrcli of Scotland, and founded the Free Church. This event

was named the Disruption.

The conquest of Scinde (184G) and the Punjaub (1849) in-

creased our Indian territory by the addition of the basin of the

Indus. Napier and Outram were the leaders in the former

struggle; Gough and Ilardinge in the latter.

A great domestic event was the llcpcul of ihe Corn Laii 3 in

1846. Lancashire was the cadle of the movement—Richaid

Cobden its ruling spirit. Certain classes, interested in l^^nglisli

agriculture, were for Protection

—

i.e., laying heavy duties on

corn from abroad. But Sir Robert Peel, at first resisting the

measure, yielded at last, and the Bill was passed, reducing the

tax on foreign grain.

The following year (1847) witnessed much loss and trouble

from wild speculation in railway shares.

In Ireland a blight of the potato crop was followed by famine

and fever; and the agitation for a repeal of the Union broke out

in 1848 into a feeble rebellion. Tliis was but a vibration of the

revolutionary throes which, as will be seen, shook all Europe

during this year.

In 1851 the first International Kxhibition of Arts and Manu-

factures was opened in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. The

experiment has been I'cpeatcd several times since, especially in

18G2 in London, and in 18G7 at Paris.

About this time England lost two of her greatest men ;—Sir

Robert Peel, who v.-as killed by a fall from his horse in 1850;

and the Duke of AVellinii'ton, who died in 1852 at the aure of

eighty-throe. Born in 1709, the latter was forty-six when he

won Waterloo : the rest of his long life was given to peace.

In 1853 the Russian War began, excited by the occupation of

Moldavia and Wallachia by tlic C/ar. France and JvnidanfiT;h!

IIISTOUY OV CHEAT nillTAIX. 153

sidcil Avith Turkey. There was fighting on the Danube and in

the Baltic; but the chief scene of the struggle -vvas the Crimea.

The Allies, having forced the passage of the Alma, formed the

siege of Sebastopol (Oct. 17, 1854). Close by, Avere fought tho

great battles of Balaklava and Inkermann—the former memorable

for a daring charge of tho Light Cavalry. Bitter were tho

sufferings of the troops in the trenches during the winter ; nor

was it until Sept. 8, 1855, that the French troops took a fort

called Malakoff, the key of the defence. Peace was signed in 185(5.

A little later occurred the Indian Mutiny. After its outbreak

at Mcerut in Northern India (May 10, 1857), the native troops

or Sepoys seized Delhi, which was besieged by tho British

(June 4-Sept. 20). Another centre of the struggle was Lucknow

on the Goomtce in Oudo, where the British were besieged in tho

llesidency by yelling mutineers, until relieved by the gallant and

pious Ilavelock. But he too was locked up by the approach of

a yet greater swarm of Sepoys ; and it was not for many weeks

that a second relief was effected by Sir Colin Campbell, who was

afterwards created Lord Clyde for his services in stamping out

the mutiny. The massacre of Cawnpore (June 27, 1857) was the

most tragic of all the terrible scenes enacted during this outbreak.

During the years 1850-57 a second Chinese War was proceeding.

An important result of the Indian Mutiny was the transfcrenco

of the government of this greatest of our Asiatic dependencies

from tho East India Company to tlie British Crown. This Avaa

accomplished by the India Bill of 1858 ; and Indian affairs are

now controlled by a special Secretary of State.

During a third Chinese War, in 1800, Pckin was entered by a

French and English force.

In the following year began that American "War, between North

and South, of whicli a sketch will be afterwards given. Britain

remained neutral; though for a time, owing to the seizure of

two Southern envoys on board of a British steam-boat, there wa.s

fear of entanglement. The war acted indirectly upon Britain by

stopping the supplies of cotton from the Southern States, ujion

which the mills of Lancashire then mainly depended; and the

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151 I5RITI«1I OHKOXOl-OaV,

I N !>l

work -people wero rediiccil for a tiiuo to want iliulng tliU

Cotton Famine.

Tlie death of Prince Albert in 18G1, ami tlie marriage of llio

Prince of Wales in 1803 were important events in the lloyal l^anilly.

In 18GG the l^^lectric Cal)le was Kuccessfully laid between

Ireland and America : and a cable, laid previously in 1858, was

recovered by grappling, and made fit for use.

A new Reform Act was passed in 1867, establishing a house-

hold franchise in boroughs, and a £lli franchise in counties. In

the following year an English force compelled the King of

Abyssinia to release a number of English captives whom lie

had seized.

MODERN BKITISII ClIUONOLOGY.

Accession of tlie Tudor SovcreI;'ns,

rcikiu Warbeck's iiuposLure crushed, ... ...

SIXTEICNTIl CRNTUR7, A.P.

^rarrlft;rc of James IV. of ScotluuJ to Mury Tudor, ....

Uattle of Floddon, ... ... ... ...

Wolsey a Papal Lcj^ato, ... ... ... ...

Death of Cardinal Wolsey, ... ... ...

Act of Supremacy passed, ... ... ...

Suppression of the IMouasterics complete, ...

Battle of Pinkie, ... ... ... ... ...

Anglican Liturgy completed, ...

The Spanish marriage, ... ...

The ]\rarian persecuLious, ... ...

Loss of Calais, ... ... ...

Puritan secession, ... ...

Kxecution of ]\Iary Qnoeu of Scots,

Defeat of the Spanish Armada, ...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

SKVKNTEENTII CENTURY, A.D.

Accession of Stuart Sovereigns, ... ... ...

Gunpowder Plot,

Kxecution of Raleigh,

Disgrace of Bacon,

Petition of Right,

Trial of Hampden,National Covenant signed,

Long Parliament uiccts,

...

...

...

...

•..

...

...

...

A.n.

1185

1502

1513

1513

1530

1531

1539

1517

1552

1551

1555-G

155S

15C0

1587

... Henry VIL

... Henry VII.

... licnry VIII.

... Edward VI.

... Mary I.

... Elizabeth.

1G03

1605

1618

1621

162S

1637

1633

1610

... James r.

... Chai'lea I.

BRITISH CIIRONOLOaY. 155

tliUCivil War, ... •«*

ICxccution of Charles I.

IS.ittle of Dunbar,

li.ittle of Worcester, ...

Long ravliament expellotl,

Cromwell Protector, ...

l)catl» of Cronnvoll, ...

Kestorutiou of Stuarts,

Ilabuiis Cori)U3 Act, ...

I'.attlo of Sedgemoor, ...

Trial of the Seven Bishops,

f>'i.'Coml Kiij^li ih Revolution,

];:ittle of the Uuyue, ...

Jklussacre of (ilcucoe, ...

•••

•••

•*•

•••

•••

A.D.

1642-5 ... Charles I.

1649 —1650 ... Oliver Cromwell.

1651 —1653 —

••

• ••

tfl*

•••

•t*

••t 1653 —16G0 ... Charles II.

1C79 —1685 ... James II.

... 1683.

—... 1688-91 —

1C90 ... William III.

... 1692 —

EIQUTEENTH CENIUR7, A.D.

•••

• ••

Act of Settlement,

iSattle of Blen'.ieim,

Scottish Union,

Treaty of Utrecht,

First Jacobite Rebellion,

South Sea IJubble,

liattle of Dettingen, ...

I'attle of Tontenoy, ...

Second Jacobite Rebellion,

I'attle of Cullotlcn,

Battle of riassey,

Canada taken,

The Stamp Act,

American War, ...

Trial of Warren Hastings,

Battle of the Kile, ...

• ••

• II

• •f

III

• ••

1701 ... William III.

1704 ... Aauc.

1707 —1713 —1715 ... Gco)ge I.

171^0 —1743 ... George II.

1745 —

174G *-

1757 —1759 —1765 ... UeorKG III.

... 1775-83

... 1783

... 1793

KINIIEEKIH CENIU&Y, A.D.

Irish Union, ... *»

Battle of Trafalgar, ...

I'eninsular War,

Battle of Waterloo, ..t

Catholic Kmancipation,

First Reform Bill,

Repeal of Corn Laws, ..

Russian War, ..

Indian Mutiny, ..

The India Bill,

Atlantic Cable laid,

Second Reform BUI,

•••

«ii

III

1801 ... George III.,

1805 —... 1808-14 —

1815 —1829 ... George IV.

1832 ... William IV.

1816 ... Victoria.

... 1853-5G —

... 1857 ••

... 1853 —

... Isoo -^

... 1867 •-

il 1

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156 IIISTOUY OF FRANCE.

HISTORY OP TRANCE (since 1483).

IlorsK C? VALOIS—conft'nita?.

Charles VIII. (148n-9S).--Of tlio twelve sovereigns of tlie

ITouso of Valols wlio governed France, seven reigned after Loui;?

XI. His son, a feeble child, came to the throne as Charles VIIT.

Tlio sister of this boy, Anno of Bcuujeau, and Louis of Orhuujs,

next heir to the crown, contended for supremacy, which the

former gained. Tliis stern and sagacious womaii forced her

brother, in spite of his betrothal to tlie little daughter of 3Iaxi-

niilian of Austria, to marry Anne of IJretagno, a powerful heiress,

for whose hand Maximilian himself was seeking. Anil)itious to

be classed among conquerors ]il;c Caesar and Alexander, Cllarle.'^

invaded Italy iu 1494, and swept victorious through Tuscany,

Komc, and Naples. But there his course was stayed by tlio

coalition of A''eniee, Milan, the Pope, and Maximilian, who united

iigninst him, obliged him to retrace his steps, and in spite of liis

victory at Fovnovo over the Venetians, stripped him of all his

conquests. The chief result of his campaigning was the love of

art he imbibed in Italy. An injury, received by knoclung hi:i

head against a beam while showing a new tennis-court to tho

Queen, caused his death in 1408.

Louis XII. (1498-151')).—Louis of Orleans, casting tho ser-

pent's skin lie had worn but retaining the wisdom ascribed to

that reptile, now succeeded as Louis XII. Obtaining a dispen-

sation from tho Pope to put away his wife, he married Anne of

IJretagne, the widow of tho late sovereign. Claiming the two

Sicilies, he, in conjunction witli Ferdinand of Aragon, invaded

Italy, and in 1499 forced Frederic of Naples to surrender. But

a quarrel arose between France and Spain regarding the partition

of the conquest, and the su2)erior craft of Ferdinand induced

Louis to weaken his forces, so that, in spite of the devotion of

tho Chevalier Bayard and others, tho Spanish Captain Gonsalvo

drove the French from Naples. Louis had engaged to marry his

daughter to the grandson of Ferdinand ; but an assembly of tho

French people, convened at Tours, absolved him from the neces"

HISTORY OF FRAN'CR. loT

Kity of fulfilling this promise, and p^ratefully calling liini " tliu

rutlicr of Ills rcoplo," rctiucstecl liini to bestow the hand of tlio

princess on the Duke of Angoulcnie, afterwards Francis T.

Julius II., more a warrior than a Pope, after vainly striving to

rid Italy of foreigners hy cmLroiling the I'rench and S[)aniards,

joined the Kniperor and them in the Lcatjuc of Camhrarj against

Venice (1508). Louis overthrew the Venetians at Agnatlello, but

the defeated Italians made submission to the Pope, who won the

Spaniards over and turned against the French. Then, like a

briglit but fleeting meteor, came the splendid campaign of Gas-

ton do Foix, wlio conipiered Italy in a single season, and died

in a blaze of victory at Ravenna in 151 12. The success, however,

melted into nothing; for the French could not keep Italy.

"When death deprived liim of Anne of Bretagiie, Louis married

tho Princess Mary of England, sister of Ilemy VIII., a gay

young creature of sixteen, who loved dances and shows ; and in

three months his death left her a widow.

Francis I. (1515-47) is prominent in history as the contem-

porary of llcmy VIII. of Fiiigland and Charles V. of Germany.

Lured by the deceitful lustre of Italian conrpiests, he invaded

that land in 1515, won the battle of Marignano, and reduced Milan.

His vanity was sorely hurt in 1519 by the election of Charle.i

of Spain to the Empire; for ho had sought that liigli station

himself. Francis and Charles, thus pitted against each other,

courted Henry of England. Francis met him at the Field of tho

Cloth of Gold ; Charles negotiated m<)re tpiietly and cheaply in

England, and bribed Wolsey by promising to use his iulluence

in the next election for Pope.

Francis made an enemy of the Constable do Boiubon, whofled from France and intrigued with the Spaniards and Italians.

Tlic renegade drew the sword in Korthern Italy. To him was

opposed Bonnivet; but this leader was driven across the Ticino.

In tho battle at tho bridge, the celebrated Bayard, last of the

Knights, -was killed by a bullet in the side. Francis chn^eil

Bourbon, who had reached Marseilles, back into Italy, and with

a btdendid army laid siei?o to Pavia. There in 1525 ho suffered

mil

III

i- <i.

m niSTOKY OF rnAN*oi!.

4 '

% f

u terrible (kfoat from tlicj Iiuporiulists, losing' too liis frcclom;

for lio was made prisoner. Ili.s dospatcli io his motlicr

1525 lias uiado famous tlic words " All is lust Imt lionour/' lii

A.D. about a year the signature of a paper, making concessions,

gained Lis release from Charles ; hut the people of France

refused permission to carry out the concessions thus extorted.

Ill 1529 the I'hnperor and the French King agreed to peace at

Oandiray. It was called " The Ladies' Peace," "being negutiatnl

by their sisters.

'in 153G Charles attempted the invasion of Franco; but was

forced to retreat by the desolation of a wasted land, which

supplied no food; and most of his soldiers perished miserably

among the Alps.

The fourth war between Charles and Francis, in which Soly-

mau of Turkey was the ally of the latter, and Henry of England

the ally of the former, caused France to be invaded both from.

England and from Spain. But the combatants ceased from

.strife and made a treaty at Crespy (1514), in order that they

might together turn a-ainst Protestantism. The Pope sum-

moned the great Council of Trent; and Francis let loose the

terrors of persecution on the Albigensos. The end came in 1517,

a year which saw both him and Henry of England die.

Henry II. (1517-59) persecuted the Protestants relentlessly.

His leading generals were the Constable Montmorency and th.e

Duke of Guise. The latter taught Charles V. a severe lesson at

Metz, round which the Emperor pourcl his legions in vain in

1552. It was during this reign (1558) that Mary Queen of

Scots was married to the Dauphin. Ere this Spain and England

—united by the marriage of Philip H. to Mary I.—had defeated

Montmorency at St. Quentin (1557). But the capture of Calai.J

from the English, which Guise achieved in mid-winter by crossing

the frozen marshes (1558), amply at.med for this defeat. Henry

was killed at a tournament held in honour of the marriage of

Mary to the Dauidiin. While tilting with a Scotchman named

Montgomery, a splinter of his opponent's lance passed through

his eve into his brain.

iirsTonv 01' i'uanck. 150

ill

Francis II. (1559--0(ij ivigncd iioinin;illy for sovcntcon moiitlu?,

(lurinj^ wliicli llio Guises, imclcs of llic Scoitlsli Quoen, rulcil

luiprcmc, ami i)eisccuti()ii raged against llio rrotcslauts. Tliy

lliigueiiols, as Freucli Trotcstaiits wcro calk'd, liad laiely received

into tlieir vaiiks tlio King of Navarre, Coudu liis Lrotlier, and

Adniiml Coligny; and preparations were made hy the Guises fur

trying Konio of them, when Franeis died .suddenly.

Charles IX. (inoO-T-i), a younger son of Catlierinc dc !MedicIs,

tlien became King; his Italian mother acting as llegent. The

htrngglo between Trotestants and lloman Catholics now grew to

a crisis. Catherine moved like a dark spirit bccwcen the faction.-i

of Guise and Condo, pretending to grant privileges to the Ilnguc-

nots but secretly liating them with a bitter liatred, following

them, as lias been said, " as a shark follows a vessel through calm

and storm expectant of its prey."

Orleans became the head-quarters of Condu ;but he was soon

mado prisoner in the battle of Dreux (15G2). The siege of

Orleans was interrui)led by the assassination of Guise. Mont-

morency fell in 15G7 at St. Denis; and the Huguenots lost their

great leader Condo in 15G9 at Jarnac. The Peace of St. Germain

en Laye (1570), giving certain privileges to the Protestants, cast

a deceitful gleam of hope on their affairs ; but the shadow of a

Iragedv, more terrible than anv that had vet befallen the cause,

was darkening on the horizon. This was the Massacre of St.

Bartholomew's Day (Aug. 24th 1572). Instigated by his mother,

Charles sent soldiers at midnight, who, beginning with Coligny,

murdered 10,000 Huguenots in Paris during the succeed-

ing week. In the restof France 70,000 perished. Eighteen 1572months later, Charles, who was tortured with memories a.d.

uf this carnage, died at the age of twenty-five.

Henry III. (1574-89), formerly Duke of Anjou, had a year

earlier been elected King of Poland. lie now stole out of his

palace, and rode off to be King of Prance. He was an effeminate

and dissolute man. The Huguenots recovered spirit and strength,

when Henry, King of Navarre, who had been in custody since

the massacre, escaped and rejoined their ranks. Then was formed

I

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I-

100 IITSTOUY 0? FKANCE.

The Holy League (1576), to oxtirpatc tlio Huguenots and pLw'o

Ilrnry of Guise on the thvonc Avlien a vacancy occuiTcd. Tlio

stru-o-le that ensued has hccn called tlie War of the Three Hen r;,,

—lienry the Kin-, Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre. Pans

having dcdared for Guise, tlie cruel King enticed him to a con-

ference at Blois, Avlicre he ^vas murdered at the door of tlie

audienec-chamher. The King, deserted hy his disgusted people,

Avas now joined hy Henry of Navarre, who f,)rtlnvitli hcsieged

Cayenne in Paris. Into tlie besieging camp came a Jacohiu friar,

named Clement, with a knife in his sleeve; and, seeking an nndl-

tMice of the King to deliver letters, he gave the monarch a mor-

tal stab (1589). Thus perished the last of the royal Vulois race.

nOlTSE OF 350UHB0N.

Henry IV. (1 5^0-1 61 0") was the first monarch of iho Bourhon

hranch of the Capet line.' Before he could consider his throne

secure, there lay before him the task of crushing the League, of

v.hich dark Mayenne was now the great soldier. His victories

at Arques and Ivry shattered its power. The latter

1590 victory (1590), which has been celebrated in ]\Iacaulay's

A.D. stirring verse, displayed conspicuously the personal valour

of the King, whose white plmne was a star of hope to

his soldiers.

In order to gain over the partisans of Home, Henry, acting on

Sully's advice, recanted his Protestantism. But he did not

forget those whose ranks he had desertc.l. In 1 598 he published

the'^Edict of Nantes, granting right to hold office and liberty of

worship to the Protestants. The Peace of Vervins closed his

war with Spain.

The rest of his reign-twelve years—was given to reforms m

taxation and general government. In the former his great ai.l

was Sully. The intrigues of Biron, a favourite marshal, who

deservedly forfeited his life for his treason, scarcely marred the

general calm.k tt /• •

Ills later years were given to the formation of a grand ' i <>lin-

cal JJeaijn; '"whicli was to produce a balance of power in Europe

f'-i I

mSTOTlY OF FRANOrJ. 101

Tlby slicaiing tlic overweening greatness of the IlapsLurgs, who

iu Spain and Germany swayed the destinies of more than half

]<iUrope. A vacancy in the dukedom of Clcvcs set the King and

the Emperor in opposition, Henry supporting a Protestant

candidate. But the dagger of ilavaillac, who stabbed hiiu

tln'ough the glass of liis carriage-window, on the eve of his

departure for the Rhine to head his army, cut short his mighty

schemes for ever. He was only fifty-seven.

Louis XIII. (1010-43) was only nine when liis father died.

Ilis mother, jNIary de Meuicis, was appointed Regent, and by tho

departure of Sully from court, was left to depend upon favourites.

I'^leanora Concini and lier husband gained the supremacy, and tho

young King was kept a sort of prisoner in the gardens of tho

Tuileries, where De Luynes taught him to fly hawks.

The noblo« headed bv Condo, formed an association for tho

Pnllic Good. In 1G17 Concini was murdered ; the queen-mother

was sent to I51ois ; and Elcanora, supposed to be a dealer in

witchcraft, was torn to pieces by the Paris mob. De Luynes

was then first favourite. But one of the greatcfst men Franco

has produced soon appeared.

This was Cardinal Richelieu, otherwise Jean Avmand Du-

plessis, who when Bishop of Luc;on had attracted attention by a

speech he made in 1014 at the meeting of the States-General.

lie was then twenty-nine : at thirty-seven lie was a Cardinal, and

at thirty-nine (1024) he was ruler of France

!

Ilis chief domestic object was the crushing of the Huguenots.

He paralyzed their power for a time by the tiiking of La Rochelle,

their stronghold, whose harbour, imitating Macedonian Alexander

at Tyre, he blocked up with a strong dike of stone.

The principal aim of his foreign policy was the humiliation of

Austria. This he accomplished partly by giving liis aid to

Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War: and after the

death of that hero France took the field directly as one of the

combatants of the struggle.

The power of the nobles was always hostile to RIclielieu ; but

his stern resolve aiirl deep craft thwarted all their schemes against

(187) 11

i« :

^i,

r

i »

1;S

1G2 HISTORY OP PPvAtfCU.

liini. When lio got tlicm in liis grasp he did not spare, as Mont-

morency, Cinq-Mars, and De Tliou—all of whom were executed

for plots against him—bitterly experienced.

In 1G42 this great Cardinal died. He was the founder of the

l<'rencli Academy and the Palais Royal. Five months later died

the nobody who wore the crown.

Louis XIV. (1G43-1715) occupied the throne of France for the

extraordinarily long period of seventy-two years. 35ut of these

about fifty-four may bo regarded as forming the actual reign

(lGGl-1715). Another Cardinal, Mazarin by name and an

Italian by bi'ih, became the Prime Minister of Franco. Hi^i

share in the Thirty Years' War was marked witli two defeats of

the French armies—at Diittlingcn and Friburg. The civil war

of the Fronde began in 1G48, and lasted for six years. It was a

struggle between the court and the people : the great Condo sided

for a time with the King ; and there was much changing of sides,

but Mazarin linally triumphed (1G53).

France at this time was engaged in a Spanish war, in which

I\Iarshal Turcnne opposed Condo, who had sold his sword to

Spain. Duiing the struggle, which desolated the Low Countries,

Dunkirk was taken by tlie French and given to Cromwell as a

recompense for the aid he had afforded.

The defeat of Louis in 1G58 in his aspirations towards the

Empire filled his heart with hatred of Austria.

The death of Mazarin, who left enormous wealth, occurred in

IGGl. A great financier named Colbert then undertook the

management of affairs.

The ambition of Louis soon involved Kuropc in war. Claim-

ing the Siianlsh Netherlands, he invaded Belgium, and frightened

England, Sweden, and Holland Into forming the Triple Alliance.

But a soldier—William of Orange—was growing U}^ to oppose

hhn. With Condo and Turenne Louis invaded the Low Countries

in 1572; but he was met by the foaming waters, which rushed

through the opened sluices over the land. The Peace of Nlme-

guen was made in 1G78, and then there was a lull for eleven years.

In 1G85 Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes ; and tho

of tlio

: died

niSTOIlY OF FRANCE. 163

fierce persecution that arose drove the Ilugucuots with their in-

dustry and skill to enrich other Lauds.

The war re-opcncd iii 1G89, after William of Orange had hoen

called to the English throne. Admiral Tom-villo defeated tho

Dutch and English ships off Beachy Head, and the French took

Naniur. But in 1G92 llussell inflicted a terrible defeat upon tho

French navy off Cape La Hogue.

Tliough beaten by Luxembourg at Stcinkirk and Neerwinden,

AVilliam III. of England ultimately took Namur, and forced Louis

into making the Tnatj oflii/siuick (1G97).

Tliere was another great war, in whicli Louis was tho movin;j

spirit—(he War of the Siianish Succcssioyi. The French Kingnamed Philip of Anjou as the successor of Charles II, of Spain

:

the Archduke Charles of Austria appeared as a rival for the throne.

In the course of this war, which raged in Belgium, Spain, amiBavaria, as well as by sea, Marlborough won those great victories

idready named in the reign of Queen Anno, while the victory at

Vigo and the cupturo of Gibraltar added new laurels to those wonby England at sea.

The Treaty of Utrecht closed the war (1713); and in the

following year the Peace of llastadt, completing the Europeanarrangements, was concluded.

Louis XIV., whom his flatterers called Le Gmml, died in

1715. !Moliere, Corneille, Baclne, and a host of other eminentliterary men lived during his reign. It was a time of artificial

manners : and this influence spread beyond France, affecting evenour Ihiglish life and letters for the better part of a century.

Louis XV. (1715-74) being only five years of age, the Regencyfell into the hands of the dissolute Duke of Orleans, whoseUiinister was the Cardinal Dubois, a fitting associate. Thcsorulers were attracted by a golden scheme, devised by a Scotch

adventurer called John Law, who proposed to issue paper moneyon (he security of certain mines by the ^Mississippi. All Franco

went mad with speculation: but the Mississippi Bubble burst

(1719), as the South Sea Bubble burst in England iu the follow-

ing year, and thousands were ruined.

kit7

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104 niSTORY UF FRANCE.

Pf

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I

J

The (Icatlis of Orleans and Dubois in 17'23 left Louis ruler at

Ihc age of fourteen. Louis of Bourbon, the new minister, caused

tlic King, liaving sent back a princess of Spain, to marry Mane

(laugbter of Stanislaus, the discrownca King of Poland. CM\Flcurv soon became minister, and cherished peace until l<d„,

Avlien the fiery young blood of France, fevered by the witty writing?,

of Voltaire and others, found occupation in a war, undertaken to

phxce Stanislaas on the throne of Poland. But three years' fighting

ended in France guaranteeing the succession of Maria Iheresa in

wliose favour her father, the Emperor Charles VI, had revoked

the Salic Law by an Act called the Pmrjmatlc Sanction. But

when the Emperor died (1740), in the war which arose to wrest

Maria Theresa's dominions from lier, France forgot her guarantee,

and opposed the Princess, whoso story shall be told afterwards.

England, defending Maria's rights, defeated a French ariny at

Dettingcn, when our King George IL was under fire (174o)

;

and, two years later, Louis was present at the victory of Fontenoy,

won by his troops over the English under the Duke of Cumber-

land (1745). ^ ^ /In America England was meanwhile seizing Cape Breton an-l

other French possessions; and in India, Dupleix, Governor ot

Pondichcrry, was dreaming of imperial power in India—a dream

never to be realize;!.

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) gave rest to Europe for

a time. But soon the Scccn Years' War (175G-G'i) broke out.

It belongs rather to Prussian history. Franco however wa«

embroiled in it chiefly as the antagonist of England, whoso

Bchemcs against French power in India and North America were

beginning to wear the colours of success.

With the exception of the capture of Minorca by Kicheljou

(1750), the French arms enjoyed no success in this war, whi.-h

raged, so far as France was concerned, chiefly in North America

ami along the Bhine. She lost Canada and her West Indian

possessions; her armies were driven back over the Ilhine by the

English and the Uanoverlans ; and in 1759 were signally defeated

at Minden--a battle which saved the Electorate of Hanover.

ulcr at

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lIIsTOIlY OF FRANCE. 1C5i

i

The Teaec of Paris (17G3) left France shorn of great possessions,

and heavily laden with new taxes.

The remaining eleven years of the reign were fdlcd with iniqui-

tous jobs to raise money, whicli was squandered in vice. In 1709

Corsica became a French possession, its struggle for liberty under

I'aoU having come to an end : and in fliat same year the rocky

island gave birth to a child, whose fate was bound up with the

future history of France.

Louis XV. died, worn out with debauchery, in 1774.

Louis XVI. (1774-1793).—Wo now reach the most terrible

and tragic period of French history—althouglt that history is by

no means barren in tragedy. The splendid habits of the young

royal couple— Louis and his wife Mario Antoinette, Maria

Theresa's daughter—were extremely unfavourable to the pay-

ment of the enormous debt left by their predecessor on the

throne. Minister succeeded minister—Neckcr, Calonne, Brienne,

Ncckcr again; but all in vain. The national difficulties grew

worse, and in 1789 exploded in Bcvolution.

The French Revolution (1789-95) began, when the tiers claf^

refusing to be separated in the meeting of the States-General

from the nobles and bishops, formed themselves into the National

jUscmUy, The mob without, hearing that soldiers were coming

to dissolve this body, rose, and stormed the prison called BastUe

(J\dy 14, 1789). In October a mob sacked the palace at Ver-

t;ailles. Next year (1790), acting chiefly under the sway of

Mirabeau, the Assembly reorganized the Constitution; but tho

death of Mirabeau (1791) brought chaos.

The Constituent Assembly gave place (Oct. 1, 1791) to the

Legislative Assembly. But Austria and Prussia ma>-dicd to tho

rescue of the French King. This kindled tho mob. The

Tuileries was stormed, and the King imprisoned. Meanwhile,

Dumourie/. defeated the advancing armies at Jemappes (1792).

Before this Franco had been made a Republic—tho Assembly

giving place to the National Convention, of which Danton,

Marat, and Robespierre were the leaders. A time of blood and

terror was inaugurated by the execution of Louis XVI. by the

h !^^il

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1. 1^̂r\'

166 HISTORY OP FRANCE.

guillotine (Jan. 21, 1793). The Jacobins turned on tlic Girondists,and slew without mercy. The Queen was beheaded: and thomob glutted their cruel eyes with tho spectacle of bleedingheads.

Meantime tho Royalists were in ai'ms in Vendee and tlio

south. At Toulon tlic cannon of the Republic were successfullydirected by Colonel Ronaparto. The death of Robespierre bythe guillotine marks the end of a period, justly called Tha lleuju

of Terror. ...

Louis XVII. died in tho Temple, wasted by suffering andprivation, at tho age of ten (1795).

In that year the Convention was succeeded by the Directory^during the establishment of wh-ch Napoleon Bonaparte,

1795 being placed in charge of the artillery, tore a hostile crowdA.D. to pieces with grape-shot. The peal of this cannonado

may be regarded as the knell of tlie Revolution Period.

^

Henceforward for twenty years Napoleon Bonaparte, to whosaI'irth in Corsica allusion has been made, is the central figure inFrench history.

In 179G, appointed G-encral of tlie Army of Italy, he achievedin that and the following year a succession of the most brilliant

victories. And yet lie was only twenty-six. Lodi, Areola,Rivoli were among tho battles, in which lie scattered thoAustrian armies. Having overthroAvn the Government ofVenice, lie made tho Treaty of Campo Formic (1797).

His next military expedition was to Egypt, en ronte as hofondly hoped to India. Rut Nelson destroyed his fleet at thoNile, and he was repulsed from Acre, Returning home, hooverthrew the Directory, clearing tiic ball with soldiers, and hothen becanu! First Consul (1790). Remembering the nationalpassion for military glory, it is easy to understand how this greatmilitary genius became the idol of the French nation. Austriawas at first his great foe. Undertaking a second Italian cam-paign, he crossed the Alps in 1800, cmu'aiing Hannibal's achieve-ment

;and inflicted a great defeat upon the Austrians at

Marengo. Beaten iu the same year (1800) at Hohenliuden,

HISTORY OF FRANCE. 107

they were glad to conclude tho Treaty of Luncvillc (1801). In

the following year the Peace of Amiens, between France and

Kngland, enabled Napoleon to gather new strength.

In 1804 he assumed the title of Emperor with tho consent of

the nation. Recognizing in Britain the rival he had most cause

to dread, ho revolved a plan of invading that island, but was

baffled chiefly by tho vigilance of Lord Nelson, who guarded tho

Channel with eagle-watch.

The star of Napoleon shone brightest in tho victory of

Austerlitz, where he delcated a host of Austrians and

Kussians (Dec. 2, 1805). Under his control the ancient 1805Kmpire of Germany was then merged in a new Empiro a.d.

—that of Austria—which began to exist in 1800.

In order to secure his hold on various countries, ho placed

friends and relations on the thrones. Joseph was made King of

Naples ; Louis, King of Holland ; Murat, Grand Duke of Berg.

Having subdued Austria, he set himself to humble Prussia.

The battle of Jena (1800) crushed the power of that nation,

and opened a path of triumph into Berlin. Thence he issued

decrees ordaining that no British goods were to be received into

the ports of the Continent.

In the battles of Eylau and Friedland he repulsed the Russians

(1807) : but in the following year his attempt to place Joseph

on the throne of Spain excited the Peninsular War, in which tho

Duke of Wellington so signally defeated his most skilful generals.

The Emperor was so much occupied elsewhere, that ho left this

war almost entirely to his marshals.

A last hostile effort of Austria to resist the conqueror's power

ended in utter prostration at tho village of Wagram near Vienna

(1809); and the humbled Hapsburgs were glad to give this

Corsican soldier of fortune a wife from their princely ranks.

Divorcing the faithful Josephine, he married Maria Louisa in

1810. His annexment of the Papal States and seizure of the

Pope soon followed.

But retribution came. J 1812 he invaded Russia, intending

to winter at Moscow; but, when he reached that central city, it

'Uillf

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IGS IIISTOUY OF FRANCE.

broke into flame, and lie was forced to order a retreat. Ills'tory

lias nothing more terrible than the story of that struggle with

the horrors of a Russian winter. Of more than half a million, ho

could muster only a few thousands, as the frontier was repassed.

At Leipsic in 1813 he made a final stand against the allied

hosts, sternly gathered to crush his overweening ambition; and in

1814 by a movement of the Allies on Paris was forced to abdi-

cate, and was imprisoned in the small Italian island called Elba.

After ten months in Elba Napoleon escaped. Landing near

Cannes, he pushed on to Paris, whence Louis XVIII., who had

returned to the Bourbon throne, fled to Ghent. A Congress

was sitting at Vienna, which from its central position has been

often selected for such meetings ; and the task of reconstructing

the map of Europe, so rudely shaken and altered by the ex-

Emperor, was going merrily on, when this news came. It ix

Baid to have been greeted by the assembled diplomatists, fi;st

with a silent stare of incredulity, and then with a roar of laughter.

But Napoleon was in Paris, levying troops: action must bo

prompt and decisive. Ilesolvetl to deal firoL with the armies near-

est to him, Napoleon invaded Belgium, where Welling-

1815 ton and Blucher lay. And there at Waterloo—a field

A.D. which the French call Mont St. Jcan~he was signally

and finally defeated by the British and the Prussians

(18th June, 1815).

In the October of the same year he was landed on the island

of St. Helena, where he died in 1821 of an ulcer in the stomach.

His last words, spoken as he lay dying amid the crash and glaro

of a tropical thunder-storm, were suggestive :" Tctc iVarmcc'^

Louis XVIII. (1814-24).—The nine years between Waterloo

and the death of this King were spent in efforts to establish a

parliamentary government in France. ^lagnificent orations

lihook the House of Assembly with the thunders of applause

they dii;-w forth ; but tlierc was an element of change and storm

Btill brooding. The only military enterprise of note was a

BuccessM expedition into Spain under the skilful Dnked'Angou-

leme for the purpose of reinstating the King Ferdinandj who had

1; -HI' f

HISTORY OF FRANCE. ICO

been ilctlirouctl by a revolution of Liberals. Louis XVIII. died

ia 1824, and was succeeded by

Charles X. (1824-30).—Absolutism now set in. Laws wevo

prepared to alter trial by jury and to crush tlic liberty of tlio

press. In vain the people expressed their opinion by shouts of

' No Censorship; " they were scornfully rebuked by the Kiiii,',

who was possessed of an obstinate blindness to results that

reminds us much of the Stuart infatuations. While the strugglo

between despotism and freedom was proceeding, with an ever-

growing Lil::^ral majority in the Chamber of Deputies, an expe-

dition was successful in wresting Algiers from the pirates, who

had been long the scourge of the 3Icditerranean.

The Second French Revolution (1830) deprived Charles X.

of his throne. Excited by three foolish Ordinances, repressing

liberty of speech and freedom of election, the people of ViXxU

mounted the tricolor cockade, tore up the pavements to erect

barricades, and made themselves masters of the city. The Duke

of Orleans, Louis Philippe, was elected King of the French, while

Charles found refuge in Ilolyrood at Ediuburgli.

Louis Philippe (1830-48).—The Citizen King, as the ncwly-

cleeted monarch was called, gradually acquired position, especially

by the recognition of England. The rising, excited in favour of

her son by the Duchess of Berri, failed. But the life of the King

was attempted more than once, notably by Fieschi, who caused

the explosion of a shell on the Boulevards, killing fourteen

persons, but not injuring the King.

A nephew of the great Emperor, by name Louis Napoleon,

the son of the King of Holland, now began to be heard of. He

liad one fixed idea—that he was destined to be Emperor, as his

uncle had been. In 1836 he made an attempt to excite insurrec-

tion at Strasbourg ; but it failed, and he was permitted to go to

America. After a residence in England he made a second effort

this time at Boulogne ; but he was arrested, tried, and com-

mitted to prison at Ham. After six years he escaped to England,

whence ho returned after the Revolution had opened his way to

the throne.

!!i= f

4 '

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170 IIISTOUT OF FnANCB.

The reign of Louis Philippe, whose avarice was insatiable,

dissatisfied the people, and estranged, by political trickery,

liiitain and other nations that had been friendly at first. At

hist the growing discontent canie to a licad ; ami he was expelled

from the throne (1848).

The Third French Revolution was excited by a refusal of the

Government to permit a Reform banquet on George Washington's

birthday. The King found a r'^fugo in England, where he died.

Louis Napoleon, elected for the department of Seine, was

voted President of the Republic in 1848. Three years later

(Dec. 2, 1851), by a coup iVttat—that is, a massacre by military

force and a midnight arrestment of his opponents—he gained

possession of Paris, which was only a step towards his election

as Emperor (Dec, 1852).

In 1854 the French and tlie English united in the Russian War.

The siege of Scbastopol was carried on by them in conjunction;

but the chief glory of reducing this great stronghold belongs to

our Gallic neighbours. The decisive coup was the storming of

the Malahoffow the 8th Sept. 1855. Marshal Pelissier was then

in command of the French forces—St. Arnaud having died, and

Canrobert having resigned.

While Britain and France united in a Chinese war in 1858, a

conspiracy, of which Orsini was the leader, aimed unsuccessfully

at the life of the Emperor ny the explosion of shells.

Li 1859, war having arisen between Austria and Sardinia, the

French Emperor in person took the field in Northern Italy as tho

ally of the latter state. Humbled at Montebello, and on the

greater fields of Magenta and Solferino, Austria sought peace,

which was concluded at Villafranca. The province of Lombardy

was ceded to France, and by that nation truusferi'd to Sardinia.

But as a recompense, France received Savoy and Nice.

In the autumn of 18G0 Pekln surrendered to the combined

forces of England and France, which had already gained several

victories over the Chinese ; and in 18G4 the same allies, in con-

junction with tho Dutch and the Americans, forced the Straits of

Siaioiio in Japan. Such expeditions have tended £;rcatly to opun

tvlC't.

5I0DEnN FllKNCII CIIRONOLOOY. ITl

to the infliicncos of civill/atioii those rcniot- Orioutnl < ^iiutries,

which have hcen soalcd up against fuicigu <oimut'ico by tho

jealousy of their rulcr.s.

In 1870 war broke out hotwccn France and Prussia. NapoleonIII. surrendered at Sedan. Tlie Empire was abolished, and a

Hcpullic was proclaimed. Tho war ended with the complete

triumph of Prussia. The ox-Emperor died in England in 1873.

.<i

ii. r

MODEUN FKKNCU CUUONOLOGV.

BIXTEE-NTH CKM'fUV, A.l>.

A.I>.

League of Canibray, ... • •1 • •t 15US It. Louis xir.Gaston dc Foix killed at Ha\ ouaa, • •• • •• 1512 _Inutile of Favia, • •• • •• 1525 lit Francis I.

Defence of Metz ly Guise, !•• • •• 1552 ... Henry II.

JJuttlc of Jarnrtc, • •• tit 156l> .11 Charles IX.

Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day • (t tat 1572 —Tiie Holy League, • •• tit 157(5 ... Henry III.

Kattle of Ivry, • ft ti* 1590 ... Uenry IV.

£dict of Nantes, • •f tit 1593 —SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, A.P.

Ascendency of Riclielicu, • •• • It 1621 '2 ... Louis XIIT.

Siege of La Rochelle, ... t»* • •• lQ2b-d —Keign of Louis XIV., • *t • •• 1G13-1715 ... Louis XIV.Peace of tlie Pyrenees, #•• •» 1C59 —Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, ... ••• : ^9 1GG3 •m.

Peace of Nimeguen, ... • •• • •t 1673 —

>

Battle of La Hogue, ... • •t III 1(392 —

.

Tr.aty of Eyswick, ... ttt tit iGDr —I-lOnTEKNin CENTUUY, A.

War of Spanisli Succession, ... • •• tit 170M3 ... Louis XIV.Tieaty of Kastadt, • ta ... 17H —Mi^:sissippi Bubble, ... ... «•» tit 1719 ... Louis XV.I'attle of Dettiiio'en, ... ... • •» • tt 1713 —JJuiile of Fontenoy, .« ... • •• • •• 17J5 —Second Treaty of Ai;. ''^hapellc, • It • •1 174S —Seven Years' War, ... • •* ail 1756-G3 —Peace of Paris, tit III 17G3 —Great French Revolution, •t • *• 1789-95 ... Louis XVI.France a Republic, ... • •• lit 1792 —

—

Kxecutiou of iving Louis XVI., • • > • *• 1793 —Reign of Terror, •It tit ] 793-1 ... Anarchy.

Kupok'ou Tlr^t Consul, ... •• • It ITJ'J —

I

•?i

iWmi^il^: I

72 MODKux i-u:::>cii ciiuoxology.

\4\

m

>M

Mil.

f!

NIXKTliliNTII CU.NrUr.Y, A.D.

Peace of Amiens,

Napoleon I. becomes Kiupovor,

Tattle of Austerlitz, ...

Disastrous Russian Campaign,

Tattle of Loipsic,

Napoleon ii; Elba,

I'.attle of Waterloo, ...

Second French Revolution,

Third French Revolution,

Louis Napoleon Kmneror,

Fall of Sebastopol, ...

Franco- Prussian War,

Proclaraatiou of Republic,

\.T>

1802 .

1804 .

1805

1812

1813

1814-15

1815

1830

1848

1852

18.o5

1S70-71

1870

Anarchy.

Napoleon I.

Louis xvirr.

Cliarlos X,

Louis riiiiippe.

Napoleon 111.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

In tliG earliest centuries of the Christian Era the swamps anil

sand hills of the Netherlands were held by three trihes—IJatavi,

]3el-a3, and Frisii, names which still exist in Batavia (capital of

the Dutch Asiatic colonies). Belgium, and Friesland. These wild

people lived a seafarin- life as fishermen and pirates. About

the sixth century the Franks overran the country;and it was

made in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun a part of Germany. Petty

princes, among whom the most powerful were the Bishop of

Utrecht and the Counts of Flanders, ruled it for the period

(1000-1300), after which it was absorbed into the spreadmj,'

Duchy of Bu'rguudy under Philip the Bold, Thilip the Good, and

Charles the Bold. Its cities—such as Brussels, Ghent, Mechlin,

and Antwerp—had already begun to grow rich and strong by

trade and manul\icturing industry.

We have seen how Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Bur-

-midy, fell in battle with the Swiss; and how his daughter, Mary

of Burgundy, married Maximilian of Austria. The latter event

brought the Netherlands under the dominion of Austria in 147/.

AVhen the great Emperor Charles V., who was Maxiniilum's

frrandson, reigned, the Seventeen Provinces were, by virtue of an

arrangement called the Pragmatic Sanction (1548), annexed to

^

HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. 173

tlic German Empire under the name of tlic Circle of Bnnjnmhj.

It was liowcvcr under Philip II. of Spain, the son and successor

of Charles, that the provinces emerged into great historical pvo-

mincnce.

The principles of the Reformation having taken firm hold in

the rich and freedom-loving cities of the Netherlands, I'hilip, who

was a bigot of the worst type, attempted to crush the newly-born

1^-otcstantism hy introducing the terrors of the Inquisition. Tho

Dutch nobles—whom scornful courtiers nicknamed the Berjgars—protested ; and the people soon secured their protest by insurrec-

tion. The Duke of Alva repressed the rising with massacre,

Counts Egmont and Horn paying for their patriotism with

their heads. This braced the spirit of the Dutch, who found a

worthy leader in "William of Orange, called in history the Silent.

IMic defence of Leyden, which was saved by cutting tho dikes

and flooding the Spanish trenches (1574), was a great blow to

Si)anish pride and power. William was made Stadtholder of

the Republic, and Trotestantism was established, the Union of tho

Provinces being accomplislicd by the Pacification of Ghent

(157G). The struggling Dutch were enabled to confirm

their constitution in 1570, when the Union of Utrecht 1579

formed the seven northern provinces into the Dutch Re- a.d.

public under the presidency of William as Stadtliolder.

This great prince was, by a base subterfuge of Philip, assas-

sinated at Ghent in 1584 by a pistol-shot.

Maurice (1585-1625), his second son, was elected in his stead.

The war with Spain continued to rage in the southern pro-

vinces, where the Duke of Parma made himself master of

Antwerp. The decay of prosperity in this city was beneficial

to the commerce of Amsterdam. Aid was given to the Re-

public by England in this war. The Earl of Leicester led

an army to Zutphen, near which Sidney received his mortal

wound. In 1600 Maurice defeated the Spaniards at Nieuport.

Tlien was formed tlie siege of Ostend (1601-1604), a city which

Spinola, the Spanish General, took with great difficulty at the

cost of much blood. His experience in this hopeless war induced

f>,

' i hi'

I

174 IlTPTOTlY OF TITF, KKTTIEnLAXT)?.

him to represent the impossibility of subduing the Dutch;and

in 1G09 a twelve years' truce was made, recognizing the right oi

the Dutch to carry on a trade with India, which they had estab-

lished, and from which they already were deriving great profits.

A Dutch East India Company had been established in 1G02.

A religious dissension troubled the Dutch llcpublic after this

time, when Barneveldt, an advocate of Arminianism, was opposed

to Maurice, who upheld Gomer, a champion of Calvinism. The,

Stadtholder, having convoked a National Synod at Dort, caused

his opponent to be executed fur " vexing the Church of God."

The extension of colonial dominion in the Eastern Seas brought

English and Dutch into collision at Amboyna, one of the Molucca

Islands, rich in cloves. So hot did the contention grow that a

number of English were seized, tried, and executed, for an alleged

conspiracy to expel the Dutch from this island. This affair has

been dignified by being named " The Massacre of Amboyna."

Maurice died in 1G25.

Under Frederic Henry (1G25-47) the Spanish war went on,

in conjunction with Dutch conquests in South America and

Ceylon. In 1G39 the Admiral Van Tromp gained a great naval

victory over the Si)aniards in the Channel.

WiUiam II. (1G47-1G50).—The Teace of Westphalia (1G48)

secured the final acknowledgment of the independence of the

Dutch Eepublic by Spain. The ten provinces in the south

(Belgium) remained under the rule of Spain, until the Treaty of

Bastadt transferred them to Austria.

After the death of AVilliam TI. (1G50) the office of Stadtholder

was abolished for the time. While Cromwell ruled England, the

English and Dutch fleets contended at sea, Blake being opposed

to Martin Van Tromp and Do lluyler. An Act havin.g b^eu

passed to exclude the House of Orange from holding supreme

power, and the control of the provinces being vested in ^tho

States-General, which were swayed entirely by John dc Witt,

Grand Pensionary of IlolUmd, Charles II. of England engagedjii

a war, nominally in behalf of his little kinsman, afterwards Wil-

liam HI. of England, really however to secure the chance of some

.^.^..

1 11

IIISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. 175

on,

money for his own pleasures. In tliis war (1004-07) a greatdisgrace fell on England, when Do Ruyter entered the Tlmnicsand Lui-ned the .shipping at the Medway. Charles after this wasonly too glad to make the Treaty of Breda (1067), by which thepossession of New York (previously called Now Amsterdam) was.secured to Britain.

At this time De Witt induced the States-General to pass thererpetual Edict (1007), abolishing for ever the office of Stadt-holder. He also formed the Triple Alliance with England andSweden, being alarmed at the ambition of Louis XIV. Cliarlcaof England however changed sides, r.nd Louis overran the Dutchpi-ovinces (1072); upon which the Perpetual Edict was repealed,and William of Orange (son of William II. and afterwards Kingof Great Britain) was made Hereditary Stadtholder. Tlii's

triumph of the Orange party w%as stained by the massacre of tlio

Dc Witts. Cornelius being impi-isoncd on a charge of aiming atA\'illiam's life, John, his brother, resigned his office, and wenl toreceive his brother as he came out of prison. The mob set upontlie carriage in the streets of the Hague, and murdered both thebrothers (1072).

William m. (1072-1702) found himself at once obliged toAice Louis le Grand, who crossed the lihine in 1072; and for alime it seemed likely that the Dutch would be forced to opentlie sluices mul flood their fields in self-defence. They had, however,a refuge in their navy, suppose the worst sliould come. Thoughseldom victorious, William contrived to hold his own, and to im-press the French King with a feeling, like that which Spinola hadexpressed, that it was impossil^le to crush the spirit of thesesturdy mariners. The ^JVeaty of Nimeguen was made in 1078.When AYilliam of Orange became in IGSS King of England,

he rejoiced in the opportunity of exercising greater resources inthe opposition of Louis. The war, in whidi tlie battles of Stein-kirk an<l Neerwinden, and the siege of Namur were the mostnotable events, ended in l(iij7 by the Trerdy of Byswick, afterhaving proved fruitful in nothing but the display of William'smilitarygenius andtho Cbtablishmeut of our gigantic NationulDobt.

m

miS I!

^^I" ^i::

ITG lIlSTOnY OF THE NiyniKTlLAXPS.

For some time after William's death there was no StadthoMcr,

the share which llollana took in the War of the Spanish Succei;-

Bion being directed by the Grand Pensionary Ileinsius. Tho

Treaty of Utrecht and tlie Barrier Treaty of 1715 gave to IIol-

huid a line of frontier fortresses, which were afterwards taken by

the French..

^

From this time Holland sank into the position of a secondary

European State. In 1747 the office of Stadthokhn- was revived

i,i the person of William IV. (1747-51); but he did nut enjoy

it long. - , . .

William V. (1751-95).—During the minority of this prince,

Holland, by maintaining a wise neutrality in the Seven Years'

War, grew quietly rich and prosperous. But after 17G6, when

William assumed power, the republican or anti-Orange faction,

which had never died, became most troublesome. Their sym-

j.athics, in the American AVar, lay against Britain, with whiJi

country a war took place in consequence.

By means of a Prussian army (William had married a Prussian

princess) the House of Orange was reinstated after having been

driven from the Hague. P>ut the success of the French Revolu-

tion kindled the flame of repuldicanism in the Netherlands high

and bright. Plchcgni and Jourdan, leading the army of th-^

French Republic, overran Holland, drove the family of Orange

from the land, and opened the way for the erection of the JUda-

vian BcpuhUc (1795).

This drew down the wrath of Britain, by whom Holland was

Ftrippcd of some valuable colonies such as the Capo of G.u.d

Hope, Ceylon, and Demerara ; and in 1797 A.lmlral Duncan in-

fllr-ted a severe defeat on the Dutch navy off Campcr.hnvn.

The English and the Russians then seized the shipping at the

Tcxcl, aftc^'r which a convention at Alkmaar arranged terms for

the evacuation of Holland by those triumphant enemies.

Holland, after the rupture of the Treaty of Amiens, was forced

--as a weak neighbour may be forced by a strong-to side wit,i

xXapoleon in his schemes of conciucst. This of course put tho

Dutch in opposition to the British, who conti^.iued to strike r,t

i»H

III.STOIIY or TIIK NKTIIKRLAXn?. 177

lioMcr,

Succei:-

. The

to IIol-

ikcn by

solidary

revived

)t cujoy

princo,

Years'

5, \vheii

faction,

iir sym-

1 wliiJi

Prussian

ng luMMl

Ilevolii-

ids liigli

' of tli-^

Orange

le Bata-

land was

of Good

ncaii in-

n.

ig at tlie

erius for

as forced

side with

e put tlio

strilu' i;t

{]\o most vi(;d part of tlic strength of ILdhmd—her ricli andnumerous colonies.

In 180G the J3atavlan ricpuhlic was changed into tlie Kingdon\of JTolhmd, on the throne of wliicli Napoleon put his brotherLouis. But in 1810 Louis, whoso government was too liberal

to please his iron brother, abdicated in favour of his sou ; an ar-

rangement however wdiich did not suit Napoleon's plans. Hoi-laud was thcN fore for a time annexed to Franco.

In 1813, wiien Europe was breaking the Napoleonic chains,

Holland rose in revolution, and recalled the House of Orange,making William Frederic ruler with the title of Sovereign Prince;under whom, after the French had been beaten at Antwerp anda treaty of peace, with some restitution of conrpiests, had beenmade with Britain, the Congress of Vienna (1815) decreed tlu;

union of the Seventeen Provinces (Holland and Belgium, whichbad been separated for two centuries) under the name of theKingdom of the Netherlands.

This union lasted for fifteen years; but in 1830 the Belgians,who aro French in their language and their manner of life, fol-

lowed the example of France, and by a revolution established

their independence. After Louis Philippe of France had refusedto permit his son to fdl the throne of the new kingdom, thehonour was offered to Leopold, a German pi-ince, wdio held thecrown until 18G5, when his son Leopold II. succeeded him quietly.

The Netherlands (as the Kingdom of Holland is now called)

are ruled by William III; and enjoy a quiet, untroubled, money-getting existence.

MOT)f]RN CURONOLOQY OF HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

Mary of Burgundy marries Maximilian of Austria,

ilevolt in tlie Northern Provinces,

Union of Utrecht— Dutch Republic coiistitutul, .

William the Silent assassinated, ...

Spain declires the Dutch independent,

The Perpetual Edicc, ...

Murder of the De Witts,

William of Orange hereditary Stadtholdpr,

(137) PJ

///

fff

aII

m

ii

!

178 IIISTOUY OF denmahk.

William Becomes King of England,

French under Pichegru ovcrruu Holland,

I3ataviau llepublic formed, ... ••• •••

Battle of Camperdown, ... ... ••• •••

Kingdom of Holland under Louis Bonaparte,

House of Orange restored,

lleceives the title of King,

Belgium made au independent Kingdom by a Revolution,

•••

A. Ut

1689

• •• 1793

t*« 1795

• •• 1797

• •• 1806-10

• •• 1813

••• 1815

• t* 1830

DENMARK (to the Present Time).

Tlic Uiii^n of Calmar (concluded in 1897) was dissolved, by

the triiinip^i of Swodisli struggles for independence, in 1523,

^vllcn Frederic I., Duke of Scldeswig and Holstein, was made

King of Denmark and Norway. Under liis auspices tlio prin-

ciples of the Lutheran Reformation spread in Denmark.

His son, Christian III., besides obtaining froni Norway au

acknowledgement of the suprennicy of Denmark " for ever," an-

nexed the' Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to the Danish

crown (1533). A code of law, styled the Recess of Kolding^

belongs to this reign.

The reign of Christian IV. (1 588-1C48) derives importance

from the share he took in the struggle of the Thirty Years'

War. There had grown up a keen rivalry between Denmark and

Sweden—all the keener because they were such close neighbours,

and because both claimed a right to take toll from passing vessels

at the Sound. Now there was need of a Protestant champion

;

and Christian hurried to arms in order to be beforehand with the

Swedes. He was opposed at first by Tilly, who defeated him at

Lutter in Hanover (1020), and afterwards found^ the peninsular

portion of his country overswept by the Imperial forces under

Wallensteln. So complete was his humiliation that ho gladly

acceded to the terms of the Peace, of Luhcck (1029). Later in

his reign (1043), Christian joined the war on the opposite side,

in order to check the encroachments of Sweden; but the

Swedes, under Torstenson, aided by the Dutch, forcedJiini to

a peae.'c, and to make various concessions giving to Sweden

t

•• 1689

• • 1793

• « 1795

••• 1797

f 1806-10

• «• 1813

••• 1815

• •• 1830

olvctl, by

in 1523,

vas iiiade

tlio pviu-

orway an

2ver/* aii-

ic Danlsli

nportanco

ty Years*

unark and

^^iglibouvH,

ng vessel ^4

champion

;

I with the

tod liiui at

peiiiusular

rccs under

ho gladly

Later in

losite iside,

but the

ed him to

Sweden

.mSTORY OF DENMAUK. 170

the islands of Gothland and Oesd—to Holland, a reduction ol

the Sound duties.

Frederic III. (1C48-70) engaged in wars \vith Sweden, tha

disasters of which, coupled with the tyranny of the nobles, in-

duced the Danish people, assembled in the National Diet of lOGO,

to confer absolute and hereditary powers upon the Sovereign.

The troubles of Danish history during the eighteenth century

arose chiefly from her desire to possess the Duchies of Schleswig

and Ilolstein, lying on the neck or isthmus of her peninsular

dominion. Having formed an alliance with Louis XIV., tht3

Danes secured Schlcswig in 1684; but it w-as not for nearly a

century later (1773) that Holstein was securely and finally

aimexcd, Kussia receiving in lieu of that duchy, on behalf of the

heir, Oldenburg and another county.

The eighteenth century was spent in growing prosperity by

Denmark. Trade was encouraged ; and some colonies were ac-

(juirod. Under ministers like Dernstorf intellectual pursuits w'cre

cherished, and vassalage was gradually abolished: the latter good

work being begun by Christian VII. in 17G7. Liberty of tho

])ress was also granted, though somewhat restricted afterwards,

But at tho opening of tho present century, Denmark, wlioso

chief strength lay in her navy and her position as gate-keeper of

the Baltic, became embroiled with England, then beginning to

be engaged in her deadly struggle with Napoleon.

In 1800 Britain, exercising a right she claimed of searching

ont.iin ships, took a Danish frigate, which had resisted. Thevc. sel was afterwards released; but Denmark joined with Russia,

Prussia, and Sweden, in a paction called The Armed Ncntmlitf/

if the Northf formed against the naval power of Britain. Admiral

Nelson retorted, on the part of Britain, by attacking the Danish

ileet in tho harbour of Cojioihagen, under the fire of tho batteries

on shore, nnd destroying it at a blow (1801).

In 1807 tho Treaty of Tilsit contained a secret article, pro-

mising to g!vc up the Danish fleet to the victorious Napoleon.

Having heard of this, tho British Oovornment resolved to bo

beforehand with those trying to outwit them ; and, accordingly,r*

^^

ISO niSTOrwY OF DFA'MATIK.

pt '1

? i

Gambior nnd Catlicart "bombardcfl Copenliagcn, until the floct

of tliiity-tlireo ships Avas .surrendered. A war ensued, in whicli

Denmark wivi stripped of several colonies; but the Peace of Kid(1814) restored all but the islet Heligoland, still in possession of

the British. At the same time Denmark received Ponierania

instead of Norway; but in 1815 she yielded this province to

Prussia, receiving in lieu of it the Duchy of Laucnburg.

As the present century grev.' older, it became more and more

evident that Denmark and the Duchies must separate ; for the

laws of royal succession differed in the two counti'ies ; and the

people of the Duchies were in language and national .sympathies

far more German than Scandinavian.

The year 1848, wliich kindled revolutionary fire through all

Kurope, excited the Duchies to struggle for tlieir independence,

in aiming at whicli they receivctl aid from Prussia. IJut Austria

threw her weight into the opposite scale, and thus the day of

reparation was postponed.

It came in 18G4, when Prussia and Austria in alliance crossed

the Kider into Schleswig and drove the Danes from a rampart

called the Dannewcrk. The fortress of Diippel was also taken

;

and so much loss inflicted on Denmark that she consented to part

with the three Duchies, wdiich were incorpoiated with Prussia.

The war of 1866, afterwards dcscribcil, may have consoled Den-

mark somewhat.

The marriage of the Prince of Wales in 186;» to Alexandra,

daughter of the Danish King, Christian IX., united Denmark to

England, as the cotmtries had been previously united twice; for

James I. married Anne of Denmark, and Quecu Anne married

Prince George also of that country. The present royal family of

Denmark indeed has since been suddenly lifted from semi-ob-

scurity : for George, the brother of the Princess of AVales, was

elected in 1863 to the throne of Greece ; while Dagmar (now

Maria) has lately been married to the Czarewitch, the heir of

Russia. Tlie Princess of Wales was wrongly styled by Tennyson,

in Ills Ode of Wclccmie, a *' daughtci of the Sea-Kings :" she is

a German princess of the House of Oldenburg.

the floct

in which

;c of Kidsession of

'onieraiiia

jvincc to

ind moro

; for th(j

and the

mpathios

rough all

)cnclenc«»,

fc Austria

ic day of

5 crossed

rampart

o taken;

d to part

Prussia.

ilcd Deu-

[oxandrn,

iiiiiark to

,vicc; for

married

family of

semi-ob-

alcs, was

lar (uoAV

J heir of

'einiyson,

; " siliG is

lIIiTOllY OF gWKDKX AND NOhWAY.

MODEUN CHRONOLOGY OF DENMARK.

Union of Calmar dissoIveJ,

(y'Uristian IV. joins in the Tliirty Years' War,l)auish crown luaJo absolute and hereditary,

Ilolstein and Sclileswig taken by Frederic IV.,

t'openhagen bombarded by Nelson,

Second bombardment of Copenhagen,

Ilevolt of the Danish Duohies,

l>eumark loses the Duchies,

ISl

A.n.

ir>24

1G25

16G0

171t>

ISOl

1807

ISl'J

ISCl

SWEDEN AND NORWAY (to the Present Time).

The dolivoranco of Sweden from tlie tyranny exercised hyCliristian II. of Denmark was wrought by Gustavus Erickson,

commonly called Gustavus Vasa.

In 1521 Christian, who had imprisoned Erickson, massacred

tiic flower of the Swedish nobles, among them slaying the father

of his captive. But Gustavus escaped from prison, .-ind wandered

among the mountains of Dolecarlia, workiug as a miner, and

undergoing perils of death and capture. Once, when he washitbh'n in a cart of straw, the Danish soldiers plunged their

Fpears into the strav:, and, tliougli a point pierced his thigh, ho

never moved ; so they passed on. Collecting an army, he soon

moved towards Stockholm, which he took after three sieges

(1523). Gustavus refused the crown at first; but at length,

seeing political intrigues still rife, ho assumed the state of a

monarcii (1527).

His reign of thirty-three years (1527-60) w.as signalized bythe adoption of tlic Lutheran doctrines, and the raising of Swedento a high place among the powers of Europe.

Four names—the cruel Erik ; John, favourer of Catholicism

;

PIgismund, who was also King of Poland through his mother;and Charles IX., elected in room of the last named King, whowas deposed by a civil war—carry us on to the glorious reign

ofGus'^avus Alolphus (lGll-82).

This great prince, whose measures were aide^ and carried outby his minister, Oxensticrn, at first engaged in war with Russia

il

IX \

f>l^I I

i

182 IIlSTOr.Y OF FWFnT:V A\T) NOHWAV.

and Polaml, wlilcli lio stripped of valuaMo possession?;. Vn\t it

Avas as Captain of the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War,after the failure of Christian IV. of Denmark, that his genius

disphiyed its full lustre.

Having', perhaps with fiomo presentiment of his coming fato,

committed his little daughter, aged four, to the caro of tho

assembled States of Sweden, lie crossed the l^altic to Kugeu(Ki^H)). The Lattle of licipsio—a glorious victory for Sweden—

-

u disastrous defeat for the Austrians under Tilly— secured tho

ficoduni of Germany (1(I:>1). j>ut the jollowing year was fatal

to the Swedish hero. "NValh-nsteiu pitched his camp

1632 1>y Liitzen; and there Gustavus attacked liim. ThoA.I). Swedish vlct(.)ry was signal and complete ; but tho

Swedish King, ritliiig with careless courage too near

the enemy, was shot dead (lOo'J).

Christina (1032-54) was educated like .a man—taught from

earliest childhood to listen without fear to tho roar of cannon.

She studied Ilehrew, Greek, and polities ; and rode, shot, and

liuuted in the dress of a man. Oxenstiern managed the Regency

wisely: in 1G44 she took tho reins liersclf. She engaged in a

Danish war (T(U3-45); and hy the Peace of Westphalia (1()4S)

ohtalned Pomerania, llugen, l>remen, and other territories. She

then <levoted lierself to the profuse patronage of art and litera-

ture; hut tired of " t5[)lendid slavery," she abdicated—being tlieii

only twenty-eight—in favour of her cousiuj the Count Palatine

of Deux-Ponts.

She lived to tho age of .sixty-throo, principally at Homo and

in France, cngagirig in political intrigues ami literary pursuits.

She put her master of the liorse, jMonaldesehi, to death, for soma

fault, alleging her power as ti Queen to do as ^he pleased with

her servants. Her chango to Human Catholicism greatly dis-

pleased the Swedes,

Charles Gustavus X. (1G54-G0) fought with Poland, but

gained most distinction by his movements against Denmark.

Marching from Poland to Ilolstelii, and crossing tho ice of tho

Belt (1657), ho inilictcd such loss ou Denmark as led to the

rint it

is' Wur,

J geuiu*

Ing fate,

5 of tho

I Iliig'eu

A'(hI'3U— -

ircd tlio

vas fatal

is camp

II. Tho

but tho

00 near

lit from

cannon.

lot, and

llcgoncy

;cl\ in ji

1 (1()4S)

's. She

(I litora-

iiitj;' tilen

Palatine

>mo and

mrsuits.

for Konio

cd with

[itly dis-

nd, but

enmaik.

c of tho

. to the

'«i

Ii;[!=TOnY OF SWF-DRN AND NftRTTAY. isn

rence of JlocsJdul (1058), wliicli made liiiu master of Scania,

and other portions of the Scandinavian peninsula held by tho

Danes. But a repulse at Copenhagen, where Trusslans and

Dutch assisted the Danes to resist Iiiin, is said to have hastened

his death by mortifying his ambition and vanity.

Charles XI. (lGGO-97), when in 1G72 ho becamo free from

Iho control of guardians, ruled with wisdom. In the first year

of his reign (1660) the Peace of OUva put an end to a war of

f;uceession, which had been ragin^' intermittently for sixty years.

The Swedes acquired Livonia, while the Poles gave up all claim

to the crown of Sweden. Charles was involved by the craft of

liouis XIV.—-that arch-uisturbcr of European peace during his

own century—in a war with Prussia, by which he was strii)pcd

of Pomerania—a territory, however, restored by the peace of

Fontaincbleau(1679), An important domestio change reached

its crisis during this reign. A struggle between the King on

the one hand, supported by the masses of the people, and tho

Senate and nobles on the other, ended in 1693, when the Diet by

a formal act declared Chivies absolute. His whole reign was

prosperous— debt was lessened, manufactures improved, and

foreign trade much advanced. He died in 1697.

Charlss XII. (loi>7-1718), surnamed "The Madman of the

North," succeeded his father at the age of fifteen. His history is

that of a monarch, so devoured with a passion for military glory,

as to forget the higher duties of a crown. Charles, however, was

forced into his first war by the coalition of Denmark, Poland, and

llussia, 1.0 dismember and share amongst them his kingdom o)

Sweden. This was called The Northern War. He first de-

feated the Danes, and- then inflicted a great defeat upon tho

llussians at Nar/a near the Gulf of Livonia (1700). Augustus,

Elector of Saxony, was then King of Poland ; and as a revenge

for the share which this prince had taken in the scheitfi'e against

Sweden, Charles, during tliree campaigns, dctlironed him, and

crowned in his stead Stanislaus Leczinski (1704). Tho invasion

of Saxony by Charles completed the humiliation of Augustus.

Then begau a great struggle between the two heroes of tho

'mh

u

i.(!

-,...<

fi

31]

184 nisTonv OF swepkn and nohwat.

North— Cliarlcs XII. of Sweden, and Peter the Great of Russia.

Of the latter more will be said in a succeeding chapter. Chdle^

in 1707 invaded llussia with 80,000 men, resolved, as ho boast-

fully said, to " treat with Peter nowhere but at Moscow." Peter

laid waste the land, and waited. Snow, icy winds, hunger,

fiickness harassed the Swedish army on their march;

1709 and, when their number was reduced to 18,000, and these

A.D. were engaged in the siege of Pultowa, Peter came up

with fresh troops, and utterly routed the Swedes (1709).

Charles took refuge in Turkey; and at first the Sultan mado

war witli Russia on his behalf. But ho afterwards quarrelhid

with his host, and yet refused to leave Turkey. Meanwhile,

Peter secured Livonia and Finland, while Prussia and Denmark

took possession of the Swedisli provinces south of the Baltic.

The last exploit of Charles, in which his former foe Peter was an

ally, was an attack on Norway. But at the siege of Fredcrii-k-

8hald (1718) he was killed instantly by a shot striking his head.

Ho was only thirty-seven years of age.

The sister of Charh's XII. was elected Queen; but in 1720 she

resigned her throne to her husband, Frederic of Ilesse-Cassel

(1720-51). Under this sovereign Sweden lost her position as a

great power in Europe. The Trcatij o/Nijstah (1721) mado over

a considerable portion of territory to Russia. Domestic politics

were troubled by a contest between two factions—the //<i/.<, a

party with French leanings ; and the Caps, inclined to Russia.

Nevertheless the country flourished, and the researches of Lin-

mvus in botanical science added lustre to the reign. Tlic Hat

party having gained the upper hand, there was a war with

Russia (1740-43), which country, at the Peace of Abo, obtaine«l

part of Finland.

The reign of Adolphus Frederic (1751-71) gave rise to com-

mercial companies, trading to the East Indies and the Levant.

No war of consequence occurred except the embroilment of

Sweden in opposition to Prussia iu the Seven Years' War.

This was owing to the influence of the Ifats,

Gustavus III. riT71-92) overturned the old constitution by

I

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to orig lai

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^1 tl

HISTORY or SWLDLN AND ^OlM'^ V. 185

niilitn ^ Tlio States v/cro to make 1 \vs, but these were

to ovIl, laic with the Throne. However, in a llussian war, wliich

nroso in 17b8 for the assistance of the Turks, tlie ofiicers

iiuitinicd, because their orders to take the fiehl had not procociled

from the States. Tliis event caused the Diet to confer on tlio

King a power of making war at liis own discretion ; tlio Senato

was abolislied at the same time. Gustavus III. was assassinated

in 179''

Un(. Gustavus IV. (1792-1809) Sweden suffered such re-

verses at the liands of Trance and llussia, especially in 1807-8,

that a number of m itary officers combined to effect his dethrone-

ment. This was easily effected, as he had shown signs of mental

derangement. Charles XIII. was then made King (1809-18).

In 1809 the Peace of Frcdcricl-fihamm, made with llussia,

Ktrlpped Sweden of Finland and Bothnia. The circumstances of

the country were such that it became necessary to appoint an heir

to the throne, who* should govern with vigour. The States se-

lected Bernadotte, Prince of Ponte-Corvo, one of Napoleon's

marshals, for this high position, which he accepted, and became

Crown Prince of Sweden (1810). lie was a native of Pan, had

fought at Austerlitz and Wagram, but had attracted notice in

Sweden chiefly by the wise and temperate use he made of his

command in North Germany. Henceforth Bernadotte was the

real ruler of Sweden.

Napoleon made inniiediato demands upon Sweden, which, in the

interests of the country he had come to govern, Bernadotte re-

fused to grant. This led to a rupture. In 1812, French troops

invaded Swedish Pomeraniti, upon which Bernadotte entered into

alliance with Britain and Russia. At the head of " the Armyof the North" the Crown Prince, during 1813, defended Berlin

by defeating Oudinot and Ney, and took a proinincnt share in

the decisive battles of Leipsic. Ho then defeated Davoust and

the Danes, forcing the latter to the conclusion of the Peace (J

Kiel (1814), by which Sweden obtained Norway. An effort on

the part of Norway to establish independence under Christian

Frederic of Denmark was subdu-^d; and in 1814, Norway, re-

it

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1 SC) TII>'TOUV OF :-^VF,^;IX ANT* NORWAY.

faining flio raiilc of a separate kingdom with its own constitution,

was formally joined to the Swedish croAvn. Charles XtlT. dieii

in 1818, Avhen the Crown Prince succeeded as

Charles XIV. (1818-44).—Having been solemnly crowned at

Stockholm and Trondjhcm, tliis ex-marshal of France, trained in

the camp, and used to war from his boyhood, beat his sword into a

ploughshare, and devoted himself to works of peace. Indeed m hh

opening speech, when appointed Crown Prince, he had indicated

his sense of the miseries of A\ar in the impressive worda, " No

conquest can console a country for the blood of its children ^slied

ilia foreign land." Swedisli commerce and agriculture flourished

greatly during the twenty-six years of tliis reign. The Gota

Canal, uniting the Baltic and North Seas, was opened in 1832.

Oscar I. (1844-59), tlio son, and Charles XV. (1859-72), and

Oscar II., the grandsons of Bernadotte, have reigned since liis

death. The last now occupies the throne of Sweden and Norway.

MODEUN GIIIIONOLOGY OP SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Revolution under Gustavus Vasa,

Guslavus A(lol[)lius killed at Lutzen, ...

Abdication of Christina,

Teace of Oliva (Sweden and Poland),

lleij^n of Cliarles XII., ... ... ... .••

Battle of Narva, ... ...

liaLtle of Piiltowa, ... ...

Treaty of Nystadt (Sweden and Russia),

Finland ceded to llussia, ... ... ...

Bernadotte made Crown Prince,

Treaty of Kiel places Norway under the Swedish crown,

jiernadottc made Kin?,

...

...

He dies,

.s.1521-3

1632

1654

1660

1C97-171S

1700

1703

1721

180D

1810

18U1813

1814

GEEMAL 'i (since 1493).

Maximilian I. (1493-1510), the husband of Mary of Bur-

gnndy and the son of Frederic III., became Emperor of Germ.iny

in 149:1. To the wisdom of this prince Germany owed much,

lie divided his empire into si.K Circles—Franconia, 33avaria,

TTTSTn-RY np nP,nM\XY 187

A.D.

1521-8

1632

1654

1660

I7-171S

1700

1709

1721

ISOIH

1810

181

J

ISU

Siialria, \]\c Uliiiu.', Westphalia, and Saxony ; to Avhicli were after-

Nvards added four other Circles— Austria, Burgundy, Lower

llhinc, and Upper Saxony. He also organized a standing army,

Avith the three branches of military service—horse, foot, and ar-

tillery—in complete equipment. .But wliat gives its chief interest

to the reign of this Emperor is the beginning of tho Reformation

in Germany.

Martin Luttier, a native of Eisleben in Saxony, while at

college at Erfurt, found in tho' library a Latin Bible, which gavo

light to his miiuL Afterwards appointed Professor at Witten-

berg, his anger v:as roused by the sale of indulgences, issued by

Pope Leo X. for the purpose of raising money to build St. Peter's

Church at Rome; and (1517) he nailed nindi/'five Theses on the

church door at Wittenberg, attacking these papers as impostures,

utterly unavailing to save tho soul. At Leipsic (1519) he dis-

puted with Eck; and in 1520 he burned a Papal bull, issued

against him by Leo, casting tho document into a fire of wood in

presence of many people of Wittenberg.

Charles V. (1519-58).—Summoned to the Diet of Wonm(1520), Luther appeared before the Emperor Charles V., who had

Bucceedcd his grandfather Maximilian in tho previous year; nor

could all the wrath and scorn he was subjected to shake the courage

of the monk, though sickness had assailed him on the way, and

the terrors of persecution for heresy loomed dark before him.

It may be well, in order to avoid tho chance of confusion, to

state shortly the other leading events of the Reformation in Ger-

many, though in so doing many years of the reign of Charles V.

nmst be anticipated.

The friendly arrest of Luther, after tho Diet of Worms, and

his confinement at Wartburg, it is supposed, by the Elector of

Saxony, afforded him an opportunity of translating the Bible into

German. In 1525, his marriage with a nun severed him still

more widely from the Church of Rome. Tho Protestants first

received their distinctive name in 1529 at Spires, when they j9ro-

iestcd against a Roman Catholic decree. And at Augsburg in

1530 they published their Confession ofFaith^ a document drawn

':,>

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.(

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18S UlSTOnY OF GERMANY.

u

np by Liitlicr ancl Melanctlion Jointly. They then at Smalcald

fonucd a league, which showed such deterniination that the Em-

peror, bent upon warlike schemes, cancelled his earlier edicts

against them.

Charles V. had been for three years King o! Spain, with the

title of Charles I., when he was elected to the Empire. Be-

hiucs Spain, he possessed Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples.

Ere long he engaged in war with Francis I. of France, who had

been a candidate against him for the Empire. A sketch of this

war has been already given.

About 1524 the Peasants* War, caused by the Anabaptists,

desolated the Rhenish provinces; and in 1535 there was another

Anabaptist o'^t break, of wh\ch tl'.e centre ^vas Munster, called by

them Mount Zioii.

Charles V. did good service as the opponent of the Turks, who,

having seized Belgrade and other forts on tlic Danube, had in-

vested Vienna—1520. In 1535 he defeated the pirate Barbarossa

at Tunis; but at Algiers in 1541 he underwent great loss and

disgrace.

The great Coimcil of Trent, wdiich was convened against Pro-

testantism, and in whose discussions the new sect called Jesuits

took a leading share, began its sittings in 1545,. and continued

to sit for eighteen years.

Towards the end of Charles* reign ho published an edict called

the Interim, which was offered as a settlement of the religious

troubles rending the nation. But it did not succeed. Tlie Pro-

testant cause was upheld by Maurice of Saxony, once a deserter

from its ranks, who, however, now concluded an alliance with

France, and took up arms against the Emperor. By u quick

movement upon Innspruck this active prince almost made Charles

a prisoner. The Treaty of Fassau (1552), confirmed three years

later by a Diet cf Augsburg, secured the safety of Protestantism.

In 155G the Emperor Charles V. resigned his sceptre to hh

brother Ferdinand, and retired to the cloister of St. Yusto in

Spain, where he died in 1558.

Ferdinand I. (1558-64) asked Pope Paul IV. to crown him;

i! i%i

nisToiiv GEn^IANY. 1S9

liim;

but Llie roul.a refused, because Charles Lad ulxlicatLHl \vilhuut

Papal consent. Paul's successor acknowledged Ferdinand as Em-

peror; but the dispute had the effect of causing the Electors to

abolish the custom of asking the crown from the Pope's hands,

instead of which a letter of conipliment was to be forwarded to

the Vatican. Ferdinand endeavoured to act as mediator between

the Protestant party and the Council of Trent; but the elements

were incapable of union. It may be noted that after the resigna-

tion of Charles V. the House of Hapsburg divided into two great

branches, one of which, descending from Charles V., ruled in

Spain, while the other, tracing their lineage from Ferdinand, held

bway in Germany and Austria.

After the wise reign of Maximilian II. (1564-76), whose tem-

perate treatment of both sides soothed tlio rebgious animosities

of the time, came Rudolf II. (1576-1612), under whom were

sown the seeds of a great European war. This Emperor was

under the influence of the Jesuits; and the feeling between

Catholics and Protestants soon took a hostile shape iu tlie forma-

tion of two associations—the Evangelical Union under Frederic

of the Palatinate, and the Catholic League under Maximilian

of Bavaria (1610).

Under Matthias (1612-1619) a contest for the crown of

Bohemia caused that great struggle, The Thirty Years' War, to

bc<an. The claimants for the vacant throne were Frederic',

Elector Palatine, whom the people of Bohemia, very Protes-

tant in their feelings, had elected; and Ferdinand, Duke of

Styria, one of the Hapsburgs, whom the Emperor wished to foist

upon the unwilling land. The war opened in 1618.

Ferdinand II. (1619-37) gained a great advantage by his ele-

vation to the imperial throne. The first battle— at the White

2\Iountains near Prague (1620)—almost annihilated the hopes of

the Protestant cause. For a time Mansfeldt held out for Frederic,

but the Bavarian general, Tilly, defeated him. As already de-

scribed. Christian IV. of Denmark took an unsuccessful part in

the war ns the champion of the Protestant cause.

•His great foe Wallcnsteiii, who had coutiuered the peninsula

f ,

in

I:

100 IIISTOUY OF GERMANV.

M k

* 1

i

,11

iIaH' 111

of Bcnmavlc, was dismissed l)y tlio Emperor tliroiigli tlio in-

trigues of Richelieu, who artfully induced Gustavus Adolphus of

Sweden—nothing loath to undertake the task—to assume the

command of the Protestant armies.

The campaigns of Gustavus contain the central interest of the

war. Landing at Rugen (1C30), he made his way to Frankfort,

which he took. The massacre at Magdeburg by Tilly—an act of

brutal vengeance—soon followed. At Leipsic, however, thi.s

cruelty was punished by Gustavus, who there defeated the perpe-

trator most signally (1G31). After taking Frankfort and Mentz,

the Swedes invaded Bavaria and took Munich: the Saxons had

already seized Prague. Then Wallenstein was called from his

retirement and invested with the supreme command of the

armies of Spain and Austria. After watching each other at

Nuremberg, within which the Swedish King intrenched himself

for some time, the armies met on the memorable field of

1632 Lutzen, twelve miles from Leipsic. There the Swedes

A.D obtained a glorious victory; but the triumph was sad-

dened by the loss of their King (1632).

Oxenstiern, chancellor of Gustavus, then took the conduct of

the war. Wullenstein was assassinated at Eger (1G34); and in

the same year the Swedes suffered a great defeat at NordliiKjcu

,

The tiuiG now seemed to Richelieu fit for his movements; and

he took the field against Spain, besides aiding the Swedes ia

Germany.

Terdinand III. (1637-57) succeeded his father; and the war

still lingered, Bernard of Weimar fighting on the Protestant

hide, Banner and Torstenson leading the Swedish armies. The

French suffered a great defeat at Diittlingcn (1643). The war

was ended in 164^^ by the Peace of Westphalia, which was

signed at IMunster. Among the terms of this treaty, which was

the basis of our map of Modern Europe, were these:That the

French should h(dd Alsace— that Holland should bo free—that

the Swiss Cantons should be also free. The wwx had desolated

Germany—the treaty stripped the German Empire of its olJ

power and splendour,

HISTORY OF GERMAKY. 191

1683A.D.

Leopold I, (1C58-1705) reigiicd for nearly half a century.

Hb pviucipal wars were with the Turks and France. In a con-

test with the former (1661-64), the Imperial general MontccucuU

gained a decisive victory at St. Gothard. This captain wati

afterwards matched against Turennc and Condo in the wars

wliich arose with Louis XIV., and he displayed a masterly

caution, which often saved hiui from ruinous defeat. The peace

of Nimeguen gave a little rest to the armies of Franco and the

Empire.

In 1683 a great host of Turks, whom Louis XIV. had in-

cited to an attack upon Austria, gathered round Vienna, from

which Leopold fled. The heart of the Empire was endangered.

15ut John Sobieski mustered an army and marched to tho

Danube. The Turkisli intrenchments seemed to his

despairing eye too strong to be attacked with any hope

of success ; but, when the Polish King saw the Vizier

calmly sipping coffee at his tent-door within the seem-

ingly impregnable line, his wrath was roused ; a rush of Polish

lancers cleared the way for the infantry, and the camp was taken

by storm. Having thus relieved Vienna, Sobieski chased tho

Turks back to the country they had made their own.

In 1688-9 the French ravaged the Palatinate with fire and

Bword; and an array of allies, among whom was Germany, were

arrayed against Louis and liis marshals. This was the war in

which William III. of England took so prominent a share. It

was closed by the Treaty of Byswick.

Prince Eugene of Savoy was the great soldier of the Empire at

this time. Having fought at Vienna in the relief just described,

he commanded against the French in Piedmont. At Zenth a on

the Theiss he won a great victory over the Turks (1697), which

resulted in the Peace of Carlowitz. But he took a still more

prominent part in the War of the Spanish Succession. After

two campaigns in Piedmont against the French, he was worsted

in tho battle of Luzara ; but his share in the success of Blenheim,

where lie led the imperial troops, atoned for this, The Emperor

Leopold I. died in 1705.

J-i

|.y|u

U

i'!

i^M

192 IIISTOUY or GEKMAXT.

Joseph I. (1705-11) reigned for six years, dunug ulikh die

great war of the Spanish Succession coiitiuuca to rage. Eugene,

coniinanding in Italy again, won the battle of Turin (170G),

which obliged the French to evacuate Pieduiont. lie aftcrWcwU

fought at Oudenarde, Lille, and Malplaciuet, receiving a wound

in the last-named field.

Charles VI. (1711-40) was the last of the Austrian ITaps-

hurgs. He had contested the crown of Spain, when Archduke

Charles, with Philip of Anjou, the nominee of the ]5ourbons.

The Treaty of Rastadt, a supplement to the Treaty of Utrecht,

waived the claims of Charles to Spain, but gave him Naples and

Sardinia.^

In 1710 the Emperor joined Venice in a war with the ruvUs.

Here Prince EugeiiC once more distinguished himself by defeat-

hig the Ottomans and taking Belgrade. The Peace of ras^aro-

xvitz (1718) terminated tliis war.

In 1724 Charles ' published a will called the Pragmatic

Sanction ; but it must be noted that this name is applied histori-

cally to certain other laws. This document decreed that, male

issue failing, the inheritance of the Austrian dominions should,

after Charles' death, revert to his daughter IMaria Theresa. Most

of the European powers, except France and Spain, agreed to this

arrangenient.

Charles VI. engaged in two other wars. In a Polish "SVar

in 1733 he upheld the claims of Augustus of Saxony to the

crown of Poland, in opposition to Stanislaus Leczinski, who was

supported by France. The Peace of Vienna (1735) confirmed

the succession of Augustus, making Stanislaus ruler of Lorraine.

A Turkish War, in which Belgrade, Servia, and Wallachia were

lost to Austria, began in 1738, but was closed in the following

year by the Treaty of Belgrade. Charles VI. died in 1740.

Immediately upon the death of Charles, states, which bad

guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, forgot the fact that they ha.l

done so. There was a general movement to strip IMaria Tlicresa

of her dominions. Britain alone remained faithful to her. Prussia

demanded Silesia j Bavaria desired to have Bohemia and the

niSTORY OF GERMANT. 193

l)Uvi»lc. A war of theA ustrian S'tccesslon bcc:an (1740). Frederic

of Prussia defeated the troops of ^laria at Molhvitz and C/aslaii,

and obliged her to yield Silesia. The Klector of IJavuria in

1742 hceamo Kinpcror as Charles VII. (1742-45), and, with aid

fi'oui Franco, advanced within a short distance of Vienna. !Mavia

Theresa fled to Prcslnirg, tlic ancient capital of Hungary, and

tlierc flung herself upon the loyalty and pity of the Magyars.

Dressed ia luournlng, with her baT>y in her arms, she came into

the hall where the Diet was assembled, and told the Hungarian

nobles that she liad no resource but their loyalty. With one

accord they drew their swords and shouted, " Morlamnr 2>ro re'jG

iwsfro Mavia 'llicrcf^a ! " This turned the tide ; the Bavarians

and Freuch were driven back.

Dnt Prussia, anxious to save Silesia from re-capture, camo

again into the field, invading Uuhcmia. Frederic, however, Diatle

the I'eace of Dresden with Maria in 1745. Dettingen and Fon-

tenoy, which have been already noticed, belong to this war, in

which 33rltain upheld, while France opposed, the cause of the

Austrian princess.

Cliarles VII. died in 1745, when the liusband of Marit^

Tlieresa, Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was

elected Kmperor.

Francis I. (1745-G5). In spite of the successes of France in

the Netherlands, affairs tended towards peace; and the proba-

bility of aid from Kussia being afforded to Austria, caused the

conclusion of the Trecdi/ of Aix-la-Chapcllc (1748).

The Seven Ye?vrs' War (175G-C3) occupied a great part of

Francis* reign. This contest lias been already alluded to, but

this is the fittest time to detail the events of the campaigns.

In 175G the Prussians, invading Saxony, occupied Dresden;

they also defeated the Austrians at Lowosit^. Tiio second was

the greate^st campaign of the seven. Its leading events were the

battle of Prague, a Prussian triumph; and the two great vic-

tories also won by Frederic at llossbach and Lcuthcn. In 175S

the Prussian King defeated the llussians at Zorndorff ; in 1759

they repaid the loss by routing hiui at Kunersdorr. The fifth

X

i

-I;i

(167) 13 < t

iUt UISTORY OF GERMANY.

campaign (17C0) way l>c rcgaraed as the final one. Duiinj? ihut

year the PiUbsum Kiin< boiiibanlca Drcselen, anil ihicatcd Austria

at Licguitz au.l Torgau. Utterly exhausted, Frcacric remained

in his intrenchca camp in Sih-sia, uncertuhi uhat the future

mi-ht bring, when the death of the Empress of llussia hrohe up

the alliance against him. Tlic reace of Hulertshurg (1703) was

made between Austria and Prussia—a peace having already been

concluded at Paris by England, Prance, and Spain.

Francis I. died in 1765.

Joseph II. (1765-90) was the eldest son of Maria Theresa. He

inaugurated many reforms, but they were not of a popular kind.

So long as his mother lived-she died in 1780-he did not

possess full control of affairs. Ilis edict of toleration, ap-

plying to all religions (1781), was one of his most noted

measures. Frederic of Prussia kept his warlike movements m

The leign of Leopold II. (1700-2) was noted for the whole-

sale abolition of most of the reforms established by his pre-

decessor. In 1791 he concluded the Treaty of PiUnitz with

Prussia against France.^

Francis II. (1792-1806) found himself at once involved m

war with France. Belgium was the first theatre of action. There

in 1792 Duraouriez defeated the Austrians at Jemappcs, but was

himself defeated in the following year at Neerwinden. In 179-t

the French marshals Pichcgru and Jourdan were triumphant iii

the Netherlands. But all their successes were outshone by the

brilliant victories of young Bonaparte in Italy during the year

179G. Driving the Archduke Charles into Styria, and VVurmser

into the Tyrol, the Corsican soldier forced Austria into con-

cluding the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), which gave Bel-

gium to France in exchange for Venice.

Second War.—lxi 1799 Austria and Russia, in alliance with

England, renewed the war—at first with considerable success in

Italy and Germany. But Napoleon's fortune became ascendant

again. He won the battle of Marengo (1800) ; and in the same

year his general Moreau, defeating the Austrians at Hohea-

llI5T0nt OP GEUMANY. 105

J? that

Austria

iiained

future

ako up

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y been

ia. Her kiml.

id not

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'. by the

the year

Vurmser

ato con-

ive Bcl-

[\ce with

uccess in

.scendant

the same

, Hohen-

linden, opened the way to Vienna, whoso fall was averted only

by the Peace of Luncville (1801).

Third War.—X new coalition of Austria, Russia, and Kngland

now took plaec. Uut nothin.ijr could withstand Napoleon's rc-

Bistlesi* march. He wa;< now l^hnperor, and in the Cathedral of

Milan (1805) ho assumed the old iri)n crown of the Lombards—

a sii;n that ho re-ardcd himself as the successor of Charlcmn-ne.

His'buccesscs, dimmed at sea by Nelson's sad glory of Trafalgar,

began anew. Mack, an Austrian general, was forced to sur-

render at Ulm with nO,0U0 men. The French entered Vienna,

and the battle of the Tlirec Emperors, the great victory at Aus-

terlitz, whose sun ho was afterwards wont grandilo-

(piently to invoke in general orders, gilded his sword 1805

with its chief splendour (1805). The Treaty of Pres- a.d.

burg closed this war.

A great change in the constitution of Germany now took

place.*' ]5avaria and Wurtemberg were erected into kingdoms.

The ancient German Empire, which had stood the storms of a

thousand years, was dissolved; and most of the states were

formed into the Confederation of the liUine, with Bonaparte as

Protector. Two years earlier, Francis H. had constituted Austria

an hereditary empire; this was now (1806) confirmed. As a

specimen of Napoleon's stern dealing with those who sulTcrcd

their patriotism to run counter to las schemes, we may notice

the execution of Palm, a bookseller of Nuremberg, who had

circulated a pamphlet deploring the humiliation of Germany.

Out of certain German states Napoleon, in 1807, formed the

kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome.

Fourth War.-'ln 1809 Austria began a fourth war with Napo-

leon. It reached a speedy close. The field of Eckmiihl—the

occupation of Vienna—the great battle of Wagram—were steps

of victory leading to the Treaty of Vienna, and the marriage of

the victor to an Austrian wife.

Two names are distinguished for personal daring at this time.

One was Andreio Hofer, an innkeeper of the Tyrol, who headed

an insurrection of the peasantry against the Bavarians, to whom

? M

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H'

Hi .

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r

196 HISIORY OP OERMANT.

i iJili''.

iililL An

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j

that province was transfcmvl by tlio Treaty of Trcsbur^. Three

times, with aid from Austria, thin aarin.cf lca<lcr defeated tho

French and Bavarians; l)Ut at last lie was hctrayed, and shot by

Napoleon's order at Mantua (1810). Schlll, a Prussian major, led

a Free Corps a.t^ahist the French ; hut he was slain at Stralsund.

Napoleon made use of liis Protectorship of the Confeaerated

States of the llhinc to raise levies for his Kussian war ;but after

the disasters of the miirch to and from Moscow Northern Ger-

many rose in revolt, the Duke of Mecklenburg being the first

to throw off the yoke and join the Allies. Davoust plundered

Hamburg. The battle of Dresden was fought. Then followed

the greater battle of Leipsic, in which Bonaparte was

1813 utterly routed after three bloody days (1813). He was

A.D. driven across the Rhine, and the Confederation dis-

solved, one state following another in seeking alllanco

with the enemies of the Corsican. The Allies then cntercil Paris,

and the Congress of Vienna met to arrange the afhiirs of Europe.

In 1815 the Germanic Confederation was formed, its central

Assembly being the Diet, which sat at Frankfort-on-the-Main.

The revolutionary movements of the year 1848 affected Ger-

many. A contest for supremacy in the affairs of the Confedera-

tion arose between Prussia and Austria; indeed the rivalry

between the two Powers had been growing for generations.

Prussia proposed a casting aside of all local and petty inde-

pendencies, and the establishment of a united nation under one

supreme control. An assembly at Frankfort maile the Archduke

John Regent of the German Empire; but at a later sitting

Austria was voted out of the Empire, and the King of Prussia was

made hereditary J^wiperor of the Germans (1849)—only, however,

by the votes of half the meeting. The absurdity of any change

under these circumstances soon became manifest.

But Prussia was merely obliged to wait a more fitting time.

This came in ISGG, whoa, as will be seen in the sketch of

Prussian history, the defeat of Austria in the Six Weeks' War

gave Prussia the ascendency ia Germany, and added very con-

gidirably to Prussian teriitory. By the Treaty of Berlin (180G)

i

cil the

liot by

jor, IimI

[\lsund.

Icrated

it alter

n Gcr-

le first

mJercd

allowed

rtc was

He ^vas

m tlis-

allianco

\ Paris,

liiurope.

central

^lain.

cd Gcr-

iifedera-

rivalry

^rations.

y iudc-

der one

rcliduko

sitting

Lssia was

lowcver,

change

\g time.

vetch of

ks' War3ry con-

1 (18G6)

I

HISTORY OF GERMANT. 107

the states have heen grouped into two sot.-Novth Gerniany and

South Germany, divided to some extent l>y the nver Mam

North Geri.umv contain, twenty states under the guidance and

control of Prussia. South Germany contains six under the nonu-

nal Hupremacv of T.avaria. Austria .ince this tnne has had no

share in the affairs of Germany; and I'rusKia is clearly ambitiuus

to iiion..poUze the entire management of the Confederation.

MODERN GERMAN CHRONOLOGY.

••

#••

•••

•••

••#

•••

• ••

• t*

• t*

•••

• ••

• ••

Protestant Rfcfornjaiion le^jins,

Koi^'H of Chailo:* V.,

Coiiffssion <>( Augslmrf;, ...

Council of Trout,

Treaty of Tussan,

Tliivty Years' War,

Tattle of Frague,

Uattlc of Lutzeii,

Peace of Westplialia,

Kobloski saves Vienna from tli« Turks,

Pragmatic Sanction (Oharlen VI.).

War «)ftlie Austrian Succession, ...

Seven Years' War,

r>attle of Uossbaeh •;•

Austria tnado an hereditary Kmpuc (Francis II.).

lUttle of Austerlitz, ... -^ "'.

e*\.Vh\,.oAncient (Jer.r,au Kmpirc disHolvod; ConfeJeration of the Rhine

Con^res'^of Vicuna; Germanic ConfoJeration, ... ••

Six Weeks' War exp.Is Austria, giving Tmssia the ascendency,

...

...

...

...

...

...

fiirnie

AD.1517

1519-56

i5r.o

15 t 5-03

1552

1G18-43

1020

1032

le-is

1C83

1724

. 1740-5

. 1750-03

1757

1804

1S05

.1, 1800

1815

1806

PRUSSIA (1625-lTOl).

The -crm of the mi-htv Kin-dom of Prussia, wliieli took its

name f.^m the l]ori:ssi, a'lierce Sclavonic trlLc, was the Duchy

of Urandenhur-. Uetween 15'25 and 1G40, the latter -eing the

a.to of the accession to power of Frederic AVilllaiu, the Great

3-:iector, this state, lying between Sweden and Poland, and to

some extent overshadowed hv their superior gTcatness, was yet

gaining stren-th and widening its hounds.,.,,,, ,

Frederc WilUam the Great (1C40-SS) found his hlectorato

wasted, disordered, and impoverished in the extrenic, hy tl.c ex-

1 •. |.t

f»'

'*1 L!

:i '

r:

198 IITSTORY OF mUSSIA.

actions of Wallcnstcin during tlic Tliirty Years' War. After

reducing alniscs and restoring order, lie turned to his iieighhours.

From Poland lie obtained an acknowlcdgcvnent of his title as

Hereditary Duke of Prussia, that province heing as yet in sub-

jection to the Electorate of Brandenburg. This \vas confirmed

by the 'Ireaty of Wehlau, concluded with Poland in 1G57.

Oliver Cruiuwell was so conscious of the services rendered by

the Great Elector to the Protestant cause that he sent letters of

congratulation aiUv coniplinieut to Prussia.

In 1G72 Frederic William formed an alliance with Holland

against France. In 1G75 Louis XIV. induced those old foes oi

yy-^Hia—the Swedes—to invade Pomerania, in order to malce

reprisals on the Elector. But the invasion called forth Frederic's

highest powers. A secret and sudden march brought him, with

only 5U00 men, face to face with a host of Swedes, numbering

11,000, whom he defeated at FelirhclUn (1075). Four years

later, he carried his army in sledges over the frozen Frischc Ilaff,

and, attacking the Swedes in their winter-camp, expelled them

iVom the land (1679).

His devotion to the Protestant cause made his dominions the

grand refuge of those Huguenots, wlio were exiled by the revoca-

tion of the^Edict of Nantes. He also protected the Waldenses.

Frederic III. (1688-1701) was the last Elector of ]5randen-

burg. He aided William III. of England in his contest with

Louis XIV., and the Emperor in a struggle with the Turks.

When the War of the Spanish Succession began, he l)argained

with the Emperor to supply certain aid to the Austrian cause on

condition of obtaining the crown of Prussia. This was consented

to; and in 1701 Elector Frederic III. became King Frederic I.

rent which he commemorated by the institutionof Prussia,—an e\

of an order called " The Black Eagle.

I

PRUSSIA A KmGDOM (1701 to the Present Time).

Frederic I. (1701-13) enjoyed for twelve years a crown, to

purchase which he had engaged to give assistance to Austria in

tliciu

jiifTonY OP ruussiA. 109

Vr war., an.l always to vote for Austria in tl.e Pi.t. 1 .« l.u^

tut of 1.0 rvo">;^« -as rcdocnea by \n. se.u ,„s soVUch, vl o

^;:;;n Lrds'

t Blenl.ei,n and other groat fields. Ho d.ed ur

"rlederic William I. (1 713-40) was a stern eeonouust and hater

,„ u Ly. The Prussian avn,y owes to l.iur the u,st,..a.on of it

1 n" e drill ; and he surrounded himself ^v:th a hody-gua d

, ,w,>on; he spared no expense-stopped at no n.eans- o

s ™c A war uith Sweden (1715) was one of the most nn-

ant lH.hlie events of his veigu. His natural savageness of

eu P V ^- tod itself upon his sou. who hated eordially the father

A et that father/by drilling and diseiplin ug a n,agn, ce,

I was nvenarin- the means of making Prussia one of the

rSl^iliTro^ers in Europo,-a reputation she at present

^XlSTn^Cmr^), -nan.ed ihe Grea. was twenty-eight

years of age when he sueeeeded his father. He was so, -

ireated in early life hy liis father, tliat with (he aid o Katt

Ld others he tded to e.seape to England. To ng taken, he was

i,„p,.isoned at Custrin, and poor Katt was heheaded-a fa

which, they say, .vouhl havo helallen the prinee a so, hut for th.

entreaties of the Austrian ambassador. He Uved in retirement,

ehiefly at Uheinsberg, until his father's death. \ oltairo was ono

of liis chief correspondents.

lie was scarcely settled on the throne, when the n"P>-otocte^ con-

dition of INIaria Theresa led him into the Silcsian AA ar (1 /-10-i-).

A second war took place (1744-5). The third and greatest is

known as tlie Seyen Years' War, of whicli a sketeli has been

already given. Out ol' fourteen battles he won vn,c, hglitnig

against the combined strength of Austria, tlio German Empire,

llussia, France, and Sweden. /After he had set tlie doniestio affairs of his realm in order, he

turned his attention to Poland, then as always rent with internal

dissensions, and therefore all the more liable to fall a victim to

foreio-n greed. Forming an alliance witli Russia, ho took a sh.aro

in the Fird ParilCwn of Vuland (1772), by which he gained tho

^IT

'

' t

m. \\

, i

200 HISTORY OF PRUSSIA.

greater part of PolLsli Pnissia. It is said that this scheme was

first formed by Frederic I. in 1710.

The Emperor, pleased with the results of this wholesale rob-

bery, called in diplomatic pliraso " partitioniu.r," cast his eye on

Bavaria as a likely spot for a repetition of the process. But

Frederic stepped in, and by the Treaty of Teschen saved Bavaria.

It became necessary, however, for Frederic afterwards, in order

to secure that land from the Emperor's schemes, to imite the

German princes in a lengno called tlie Fnrslenhuml. Frederic

the Great died in 1780, aged seventy-live. Thomas Carlyle has

^vritten his History, selecting him as a hero for the characteristic

reason " that he managed mt to be a liar and a charlatan xis the

rest of his century was."

Frederic William II. (1786-97) was a decided failure as a

successor of his great imcle. A foolish war with Holland—

a

couple of treaties with Austria—lleichenbach, 1790—Pilluitz,

1794—carry us on to his share in the Second and Third Partitions

of Poland, by which Prussia gained large accessions of territory.

His war with the Republic of France was closed by the Treaty

of Basle.

Frederic William III. (1797-1840) had a long eventful reign.

At first he sided with France, intending to add some of the smaller

German states to his dominions. And in this he was partially

successful, for the Treaty of Luneville gave him Hildeshelm,

Paderborn, and part of Munster. He joined the Armed Neu-

trality, which however was lirohen up by the murder gf tlie Czar

Paul. By negotiation with France, Hanover was made over to

Prussia, which led to a war witli England. But Napoleon heaped

so many insults upon Prussia that there was a loud cry f(jr war,

which began in 180G. Witliin a month Jena was fought and

Berlin entered by the French. Prussia then got aid from Kussia;

but this merely delayed the catastrophe. The battles of Eyhiu

and Friedland sealed the fate of Frederic's kingdom : Napoleon

entered Konigsberg—the ancient capital—and by the Treaty of

Tilsit the victor consented to give back to the defeated monarch

part of his confiucrcd kingdom. This was a terrible blow to

H ii'

HISTORY OF PRUSSIA. 201

Prussia. Out of portions of the conqucrctl territory Napoleon

formed tlio Kingdom of Westphalia, and the Grand-Duchy of

WiU-suw.

Tor five years Prussia continued in suhjection to Napoleon,

and furnished a body of troops for the Russian campaign : but in

the heat of conflict during tiic retreat the Prussian General Yorck

niatle a truce with the Russian leader to whom he was opposed.

In 1813 Frederic William issued a proclamation of war against

Franco, announcing the resolve of Prussia to obtain cither

hiaiourablc peace or glorious destruction. Ho had previously

made an alliance with Alexander of Russia. In this war tho

name of Marshal Blucher becomes prominent. So unbending

was tho courage of this now veteran soldier, that his King couhl

fmd no better emblem to conunemoratc his deeds than an iron

cross, with which he was acconlingly decorated. Tliough Napo-

leon gained some successes at Lutzcn and Bautzen, tho Allies,

among whom Blucher and his Prussians were foremost,

defeated him in a scries of battles, which cuhuinated at 1813

Lcipslc, 1813. The great semicircle of veterans, which A.D.

Napoleon drew round this city on the north to cover it

from the approach of tho foe, was crushed, bent, and broken in

three days of incessant fighting. It was Blucher who urged tho

Allies to push on to Paris, which he would have sacked with no

remorse, had not milder counsels prevailed.

By the Congress of Vienna Prussia received part of Saxony,

the Grand-Duchy of Posen, a large tract of Germany along the

Rhine, and tho province of Swedish Pomerania.

Blucher, the Prussian Marshal, was Wellington's ally in the

three days' Belgian campaign. The veteran of seventy-three,

fi-hting at ten in the evening at Ligny, had his horse shot, and

was trampled under tho hoofs of charging cuirassiers, so that a

report of his death f.piead, nmch to the delight of Napoleon.

Nevertheless he led his Prussians from Wavro to Waterloo on the

j;lorious 18 til of June, and aided to complete the final defeat of

Napoleon. Bluclier died in 1819.

Devoted to peace, Frederic William spent the rest of his reign in

J)

M

202 HISTORY OF rnrssiA.

ur;l

h '

!'

•hK

'

. 1.: h i

endeavouring to repair tlie ravages Prussia had imdcrgonc during

tlie desolating wars described. In 1815 lie had made a promise

to give a representative constitution to l»is whole kingdom ; hut

this ho never pcrfonned, although the people of Cobleutz and

other places remonstrated with liini on the subject. He meant

to do it, lie said, when tlie right time came. lie greatly advanced

both German commerce and the influence of Prussia by the insti-

tution of that commercial lengae among the States, known as the

ZoVvercin, lie died in 1840.

Frederic William IV. (1840-61), a pupil of Niel)uhr, suc-

ceeded his father. When a revolutionary movement arose during

the troubles of 1848 at Berlin, lie delighted the people by pro-

posing a union of all German princes and peoples, with himself

for guide ; and, though this was not carried out, lie calmed the

tumults by appointing a popular ministry. Like Ids father, he

objected to conferring a representative constitution on Prussia

:

" No piece of paper," said ho, at a meeting of the United

Diet for the first time, " shall come between me and my people."

And, though he was led to make certain needed changes, he

alwavs tried to evade anvtliing which would clash with his own

despotic desires. He died in 18G1.

William I., the present King of Prussia, succeeded his brother

in 18C1. The Banish War of 18G4, already described, and the Six

Weeks' War of 18G6, have been the principal incidents of his reign.

In June 18G6 Prussia and Italy declared war against Austria.

For a time Austria had tolerable fortune. The Italians were

defeated at Custozza by the Archduke Albert. But the Prus-

sians, armed with the needle-gun—a breech-loading rifle of new

construction— invaded Bohemia under the command of their

King, and inflicted a signal defeat upon the Austrians, under

Marshal Bencdek at Sadowa, near Konigsgriitz. Austria was

ohliged to sue for peace, which was concluded at Prague in

August.

The Princess Koyal of England, eldest daughter of Queen

Victoria, is the wife of the Crown Prince, or heir to the Prussian

(?pown. having been married to liim in 1858,

HISTORY OF PRrSSIA. 203

sue-

• ••

••t

• ••

•••

• ••

• ••

•••

rrvUS?IAN CIIRONOLOQY.

Pnchy of Prussia ymxcl to tlie E!ooton;ta of Br.-inaeuburg,

lV)liiiul acl;«o\vlt,vk'o.s the iinlei-ciuknce of Prussia, ...

Tattle of Fchrl)fUin,

I'lussia m.ielo a kingdom umlcr Frederic I.,

lleitrn of Frederic the (lr'):it,

Silesia acquired l>y Prussia,

Seven Years' War,

Peace of Ilubertshurjr,

Defeat at Jena—P.onai'artc iu Berlin,

Treaty of Tilsit, ...

Battle of Leijisic, ...

Waterloo, ... •••

llevolutionary movement at Berlin,

\Var with Denmark,

War with Austria (NccJle-gun),

ii^

•t

•t*

•«•

••t

•••

•••

•••

•••

•••

•••

••t

•ft

••t

•••

•••

•••

•••

••t

••t

•••

•••

•••

•••

••t

••t

•••

A. p.

Ion

1075

1701

17iO-St}

17J2

170:)

ISOO

1S07

IS 13

1S15

ISIS

, 18C4

, 18G0

AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.

As WO liavc seen, Austria became an Empire in 180C. The

House of llapsl)urg liad licUl sway over Hungary since 1527,

nlthougli the free bold spirit of the nation, which liad made it

invaluable as a bulwark to tlcfend Kurope against the encroach-

ments of the Turks, rel)cllea against the despotic rule of the

Austrian dukes. Until 1711 Ilimgary was much troubled with

Turkish wars and civil commotions; but after that date she

enjoyed comparative repose, until kindled by the revolutions of

1848. ^ , ,

AVhen the news of t!' cuccessful revolution in France reached

Hungary, the people cried out for greater concessions than they

had been aU-eady asking. Hungary and Transylvania were made

one kingdom; and other changes followed, which roused the

anger of Croatia. The Croats invaded Hungary—it is thought,

with the secret good-will of the Emperor, who desired to play

off the rival races against each other, weakening both. But

Count Lemberg, a royal commissioner, was murdered at Testh,

which broke off all terms between Austria and Hungary. The

Magyars appointed a Committee of Defence, with Kossuth as ita

1;

! 1

i 1

11,

,1 .

f:% /. i

''''\

'

•«

i

1 '., i

i

« •

. A,

204 AUSTUIA AXI> IIUXGAUT.

WV'

president. War Legun, Gorgei actiiii^ as general of one part of

tlic patriotic army ; wliilc I5em, a Pule, CMjuiniandecl in North

Transylvania. Both there and on tlie Thelss victory crowned tha

arms of Hungary ; but discord among the leaders of the patriotic

movement proved fatal to the cause. In 1849 Kossuth caused

tlie independence of Hungary to be proclaimed; a measure which

displeased the Hungarian ofilcors, and excited Kussia to join in

alliance with Austria—for in Poland Kussia had also a Hungary to

be kept down. Gorgei' refused to lay down the command of tho

army; and Kossuth, unable or unwilling to remove him, gave

up his position and fled to Turkey. Upon this Gorgei surren-

dered his army ; but many of the soldiers escaped to Turkey,

where, through the interference of Britain and France, tliey were

allowed to remain. A cruel round of executions succeeded; tho

land was placed under military rule ; and only of late lias tho

Austrian rigour begun to relax.

BIODERN HUNGARIAN CHRONOLOGY.

Albert of Austria succeeds to the crown of Hungary,

Piittle of Mohacs : Turks victorious,

Duke of Lorraine relieves liuila from the Turks,

Hungary faithful to Miiria Theresa,

Protestants allowed to build churclies in Hungary, ...

Hungarian Revolution under Kossuth, ... ...

]?attle of Teroeswar, ... ... ...

Emperor of Austria crowned King of Hungary,

• ••

A.D.

143715-26

1GS6

1740

1784

1848

1849

18G7

SWITZERLAND (1481 to the Present Time).

In 1513 tho admission of AppcnzcU completed tho Thirteen

Cantons that formed the Swiss Confederation. A war with tho

Emperor Maximilian had previously taken place, resulting in his

defeat (1-499).

Switzerland took a prominent share in tho Ecformation. At

Einsiedlen, Ulrich Zwingle, excited, like Luther in Germany, by

the sale of indulgences, preached against those who sold thom,

refusing the monk Samson admission into tho Abbey Church.

HISTORY OF SWITZKULAND. 205

A.O.

1437

15*J6

1GS6

1740

1784

1848

1849

18C7

At Zurich ho iiKule a yet buUcr ^^tana. Tlicro, in the 1 own

Hall lie dcfcn.lea the aoctrincs of the llcfornuitiou agamst lal.cr

>vith'.such effect that the Canton soon formally cuihraccHl Tro-

tcstantlsni (1.52:3). Bern, Basle, Schafihauscn fullowca, ^vith

parts of Glanis ami Appcnzcll.

In 1529 Zwiii!-;lc met Luther ami Melancthon at Marburg';

and thoy signed fourteen articles of faith, differing only ahout

the Eucharist.^ » , , x r

'J1ie interference of Zurich with the territory of the Abbot of

St. Gall afforded the Konian Catliolic Cantons an opportunity of

declarini? war against those which had embraced tlie Ketbrmcd

doctrine^s. The Five Cantons by Lake Lucerne sent out eight

thousand men, who met the Zurichers, under Zwinglo, at the

village of Cappcl. Passing through a wood, the Catholics came

upon the rear of their enemies ; and in the struggle Zwmgle fell

mortally wounded. A soldier, when he refused to confess or

pravto the Virgin, ran him through: and his body was after-

wards burned and scattered to the wind (1531). The Synod of

Bern afterwards published the Helvetic Confession of Faith.

As the residence of John Calvin, the Reformer, who was of

French birth, Geneva became a centre of the Keformation. From

it spread the Puritan feelings, which so strongly impressed tho

Church of Scotland, and caused secessions of the gravest kind

from the Anglican Church. Calvin died in 1564.

In 1533 Geneva established its independence of Savoy; whoso

dukes, however, did not acknowledge this until 1603. The

Peace of Westphalia acknowledged the independence of the entire

Helvetic Republic., r^ ., v

In 1053, and again in 1712, tho Protestant and Catholic

Cantons engaged in war; but the Treaty of Aaran (1713) put an

end to such destructive dissensions. Meanwhile Switzerland

received an accession of great importance to her manufactures and

industrial arts in tho Huguenots, whom persecution had driven

from France.

In 1798 tho French armies overran Switzerland; hut were

expelled from the central cantons in the following year by Austria

s'

I ; ! I ,*

1 I

200 IIISTOUV OF SWl'i7.i:ilI.AND.

M

aiul Hussla. After tlio Peace of Liinevlllo, Fii.st C>iisul Tlonaparto

proposed hkAdo/MeJialion (1802), which constitutea Switzer-

land a Confeaeratioii of uineteen cantons, under Frcneli protection.

Valais, Geneva, and Neuchatel were then annexed to France.

When Napoleon's star waned, Switzerland permitted the Allies

to approach France through her territories ; and, when the Con-

gress of Vienna sat, the affairs of this moi.ntain-land were placed

upon the old footing, as they had been before Bonaparte's inter-

ference. The Confederation then contained twenty-two cantons.

The questions of " Universal Suffrage," and *' Education Inde-

pendent of Clergy/' luvve caused much excitement during tho

present century.

Out of the latter .nrosc a clamour from Aargau and other can-

tons for the expulsion from Switzerland of the Jesuits, who

directed education in many places. In order to secure this

object bodies of armed men, called Free Corps, invaded Lucerne,

one of the Catholic Cantons; and this movement roused tho Seven

Catholic Cantons to form the Sondcrlund, a league of defence.

In Geneva a revolution took place, giving the power to the anti-

Catholic party, by whose means the Diet decreed that the Somhr-

hund was illegal, and that the Jesuits should bo expelled. Then

began a war (1847). Two victories of the Federal troops—at

Frcyburg and Lucerne—obliged the Catholic Cantons to submit,

whereupon the Jesuits were expelled from Switzerland.

In 1848 was formed a New Constitution, vesting tho supremo

power in a Federal Assembly of two Chambers, whose place of

meeting was fixed at Bern.

MODERN SWISS CIIUONOLOOY.

Protestantism of Zwingle adopted at Zurich,

Charles of Savoy tries ia vain to take Geneva,

Treaty of Westphalia declares Helvetia independent.

Peace of 13aden closes a civil war, ...

Treaty of Aarau, ... ... ••• ••• •••

French form Helvetian Eepublic, ...

Act of Mediation, ... ••• ••• •••

Congress of Vienna makes Switzerland independent,

Sond^rbund War, «» «, «. •

AD.•a* ... 1523

... • «. 1C02

... • •• 164S

... ..• 1656

•.* ..• 1712

»• ... 1798

... ••• 1802

••• •t> 1815

Mf •M 1847

HISTORY OF SrAIN. "M

SOUTHERN COUNTRIES.

AD.1523

1C02

164S

1656

1712

1798

1802

1815

1847

SPAIN (1492 to the Present Time).

The marriage of Fcrainand of Aragoii and Isabella of Castile baa

been already noticed. It laid a solid foundation for the nioii-

archy of Spain.

When Isabella died in 1504, her successor in Castile wan the

Archduke riiilip of Austria, who had married her daughter

Joanna; but this prince died in 1500.^ ^

The most prominent and celebrated man in Spain at this tnnc

was Cardinal Ximenes, whom the Spaniards call Cisneros. By

an austere life, and a princely expenditure of his revenues as

Archbishop of Toledo, he acciuired a great reputation, which his

deeds as a statesman did not belie. On the death of Philip he

became Regent of Castile, and contrived to repress a nobility

noted for turbulence.

Charles I. (1510-1550).—When the son of Philip and Joanna,

best known in history as the Kmperor Charles V., became King

of Spain by the death of Ferdinand, Ximenes assumed the rcnis

of government until the King should arrive. He silenced tho

grandees, who objected to his Regency, by showing them a train

of cannon from his windows in I\Iadrid. He also conquered

Navarre: and such services Charles, who lingered long mFlanders, repaid by an ungrateful dismissal of this faithful

minister, even when the old man was worn with mortal suiicring

As the reign of Charles belongs rather to the Empire of Ger-

many than to Spain, and has been already sketched under that

head, we may pass on to tl of his son.

PMlip II. (155G-98).—This monarch began his reign when

Spain stood prominent as one of the great powers of the earth—

a land whose enterprise had added the New World, with all its

untold treasures of gold and silver, to the old European kingdom.

He ruled Spain, the Netherlands, the SiciUes, and Milan. Before

t

lift!•'

; t

t

.\riPI

rt!OS II!SrOUY OF srAix.

he couso.l lo rcM-n, tlic si»louaour of l.I« realm had been irre-

covcral.ly tavnlshca, aiul its strcn^tli ^^itally injiirea.

Wlion rhillp ceased, l.y tho aeatli of I^Iary lils ulfe, to have

anv liol.l upon Kn-land, he devotea hhnsclf henceforth to Spam,

loavin- tlic Nctlicrlan.Is to rulers, of uhoso tender lueveies wo

have already learned the extent.. .

His pitiless cruelty directed all the machinery of the Inquisi-

tion a-ainst those ^vhom he called heretics: and the uuto-^hi-ja

hhr/ed red in the land. One of the monuments of his reigu is

the palace of the K^corlal near ^ladrld, huilt as a token of gniti-

tude to St. Lawrence for the victory of St. Qucntin (see page 158).

In compliment to the saint the huihling took the form of a grid-

iron. He thenceforth made Madrid the capital of Spam instead

of Toledo. A war with the Moors, ending (1571) in the extirpation

or banishment of most of those that survived, was one of his re-

ligious undertakings. lie also succeeded in subduing Portugal

(1580), which continued for sixty years to be a Spanish possession.

His career of ambition and conquest was checked in 1588 by

tho defeat of the Armada, " that great fleet invincible" which he

sent to reduce England to submission. That he had some

1588 philosophic composure in his character may be judged

AD bv his words on receiving the tidings of tlie blow: "I

sent my fleet to fight with the English, but not witli

the elements.",, ^ -, > n ^ -e

A dark story belongs to the reign of Philip. By his fii;st wife,

Mary of Portugal, he had a son, Don Carlos, who displayed a

rash and violent temper. This young man was suddenly arrested

on a charge of aiming at the life of the King his father;and in

a few months he died mysteriously in prison (1568)—poisoned,

some say, by his father's command.

Philip died in 1598, aged seventy-two, after having seen all

his schemes of aggrandizement end in utter f\iilure.

Philip III. (1598-1621) was an indolent prince, who sub-

mitted to the rule of a favourite attendant, afterwards raised to

be Duke of Lerma. During his reign a truce was concluded

with the Dutch Republic (1609) which virtually acknowledged

,. i

Ill; lOKY 01 J^l'MN*. 209

"I

all

the iiuk'pciulenco of the rcvoUoil provinces, l^ut Ji more serious

tiling for Spain 'vas tlic expulsion of tlie Muurs (IGlO).^ Uu.ler

charge of liypocrisy in their alleged conversion, and of intrigues

^vith their iViiMuls in Africa for the recjiKjuest of Spain, tlic^pro-

vince of A^aleiieia ^vas stripped of a population, ^vho had bright-

ened its gardens with delicious fruits and flowers, and had scut

forth from their looms textures of the richest silk. It was liko

the old fashion of bleeding a sick man; professing to l»c a cure,

it really cxhaiisled the patient's strenglh, in many cases fatally.

riiilip III. died of fever in 1G21.

Philip IV. (1G21-1GG5) was controlled in his government for

a long time by a favourite called Caspar Guzman, Count-Duko

of OUcarez. This nobleman, whose great aim was to aggrandize

the House of Austria, found himself matched with two minis-

ters, Buckingham in lOngland, and llichclieu in Franco, the

devoted foe of the Hapsburgs. But the schemes of Olivarez

came to nothing but despair. The rebellious in Catalonia and

Portugal, the latter of which secured its independence under tho

Duke of Braganza (1C40), cost him his post as min.-ater; he was

succeeded by Haro.

The Peace of Westphalia (lG-i8) secured independence to the

Dutch Republic by a hv^t and formal recognition. Before this

end was gained the ships of Holland had more than once proved

a match for those of the country whence the invincible Armada

had sailed. ,

The relations between Spain and England were inten-uptcd in

1G25, on account of the marriage between Prince Charles (Charles

I.) and the Infanta having been broken off.

The episode of Masaniello belongs to the history of Italy, but

may be related here; for Naples was then under Spanish dominion.

The Spanish viceroy, Duke D'Arcos, having laid a tax on fruit

and vegetables in Nai)les, the people, headed by a young

fisherman, Tommaso Aniello (contracted into Masaniello), rose mrevolt. The spark which kindled the liame was the flinging of a

bunch of figs in the face of a magistrate. The revolt was sue-

In his fisher-drcss Aniello sat with a drawn sword dis-ccssifuL

(I^7)

r J

W. il

U

i»,'

210 lllirOIlY OF Sl'AIN.

pciising justice. Ills power over the mob was woiulorful: tlio

lifting of his linger was suflicicnt to rouse them to fury or reduoo

them to statue-lilvc silence. ]}ut liis mind gave way; his spcechod

began to provoke latigliter ; and, as he reposed in one of the con-

vent cells alter an exciting harangue, soldiers camo in and shot

him (1047).

Philip IV. made frantic efforts to recover Portugal; but in

vain. Grief at his failures is said to have hastened his death

(1G05).

During his reign there was a protracted war with France,

which produced no result to Spain but loss and disgrace. The

struggle was closed by the Tmdy of the Pyrenees (1659). As a

seal of this compact the daughter of the Spanish King, Maria

Theresa, was given in marriage to Louis XIV. of France. Upon

this union hinged important results.

Charles II. (1GG5-1700) was involved in several wars with

Louis XIV., 'svhosc over-reaching ambition troubled all his

neighbours. For some years the Queen-mother acted as llegent,

her opinions being contrijllod by a priest named Neidhard. This

Btate of affairs resulted in misery to the country; and the feeling

grew so strong that the favourite was banished.

All the treaties of this ago saw Spain stripped of teiTiiory,

France being an especial gainer by the Treaties of Aix-la-Chapcllo

and Nimegueu. The plan of Louis XIV., during all his reign, was

to secure the succession of Spain to the Bourbons. He accord-

ingly induced L.c Spnnish King before his death to settle the

crinvn upon I'ailip vi Anjou. Before this, France, England, and

Holland had Mgned a Partition Treaty, which proposed to give

Spain, America, and the Netherlands to the Electoral Prince of

Bavaria; Naples and Sicily to the Dauphin; and Milan to the

Archduke Charles (1G98). The death of the Electoral Princo

left a Bourbon and but one Ilapsburg to contest the crown.

Philip V. (1700-174G) was appointed King of Spain by tho

last will of Charles IL, and was supported in his claim by all

the power of his grandfather Louis XIV. of France.

From 170-2 to 1713 the War vj the Spanish Succc$si<m raged

IITSTOUY OF Sl'AIN. 211

il: tlio

l'0(lllC«

)cechon

le con-

d Khot

but in

death

Franco,

. TheAs a

,Alalia

Upon

•s with

all hiij

Llcgcnt,

. This

feeling

nTliory,

Jl'.apcUo

ign, was

accord-

ttlo tlic

md, and

. to givo

rince of

I to tho

I Princo

rn.

1 by tho

n by all

on raged

in couse-iuenco of this claim. Spain was for tho Bourbon; Kng-

laud declared against liini. A part of tho war affected tho

Spanish peninsula. At Yigo (1702) Sir George llooke destroyed

a Spanish licet. In 1701 the same ofdccr carried the Buck of

Gibraltar by stonn. But ^bjrdaunt, I'^arl of Peterborough, was

the most prominent actor on the Spanish stage ol this struggle.

He succeeded (170')) in stnrmiiig the ramparts of Barcelona, long

ivgarde.l as impregnable; and in the following year occupied

Madrid as a centre of military o[)erations. ]3ut tlion he was

so disgusted with the slowness of the Archduke, that he resigned

Ids command, leaving the ]Cnglish armies under tho incompetent

Lord Galway. Tho battle of Almanza, a town in 3Iurcia, and

the fall of Lerida before tho vietorious Berwick decided tho issuo

of the war in Spain against the IIapsl)urg candidate. The preten-

sions of the Bourbon were ratified by the Treaty of Utrecht (1718).

When Pliilip's first wife died, he placed his confidence in a

favourite of hers, wdio sent an Italian priest, Alberoni, to nrgo-

tiate for l^lizabeth Farneso, daughter of the Prince of Parma,

as a second wife for tho King. The first acts of Elizabeth, when

the marriage was accomplished, was to dismiss this favourite, and

to make Alberoni Prime Minister. Dissatisfied with the Treaty

of Utrecht, this intriguing Italian set himself to kindle a war,

wliich might overturn its arrangements and give back to^ Spain

some of lier lost territories. But these schemes alarmed Europe.

Tho Qfiadriiple AUiaiicr, including England, Franco, Austria,

and Holland, was formed against Spain; Sir George Byng de-

feated a Spanish fleet off Passaro ; and tho King, influenced by

tho Duke of Parma, consented to the dismissing of Alberoni,

which saved Europe I'rom war (1719).

In 172-4 Philip resigned his crown to his son Louis; but, that

prince having died of small-pox, he was forced from his seclusion

in the convent of Ildcfonso to take the helm of state again.

The twenty-two years of his second reign (17 24-1 740) wero

uneventful. IIo managed to secure possessions in Italy for hid

two sons by Elizabeth Farnese,~Naples for Don Carlos, Parma

for riiiliD. riiilio Y- died in 174G.

ill

ti

i

n

m. M

ann laccnza

o|.}21 lllSTUllY OF J^l'AlN.

r'f'

lit

During the rci-n ol Ferdinand VI. (174()-59) was concliuled llie

rcticc of Aix-la-OhapcUo. His successor, Charles III. (17o9-88),

^vas forced by tlic treaty among the Bourbons, called tlie Family

Compact, to begin a war with England. The great siege of

Gibraltar belongs to his reign. It began Li 17/9. For three

years the Spaniards rained cannon-balls upon the Rock; but all

in vain for within Eliott directed the defence, and from without

aid came with the fleet of Lord Howe, which relieved tlie garri-

son (1782). '

., T. 1 f 1

Charles IV. (1788-1808) warred at first with France; but he

afterwards concluded a peace with that country, in conjunction

with n-hich he turned his arms against England. The na;^d vic-

tory of St. Vincent, in which Jervis commanded the English

fleet and Nelson distinguished himself greatly, was gained m

1797. In the same year the British took Trinidad, second m

size of onr West Indian possessions.

The Peace of Amiens confirmed this conquest; and for a time

there was peace between Great Britain and Spain. ]5ut in 1804

some interference on the part of tlie former with Spanish treasure-

ships kindled the flames again. Tlie Spaniards and their French

allies were totally defeated at sea off tlic sand-hill of Trafalgar

(1805). •

V . i 1

The counsels of Cliarles IV. were for soire years directed by

Godoy who formed a league with France fin- the partition of

Fortugal. The scheme was, that a French army marching

through Spain, and acting in conjunction with a Spanish foi'ce,

was to seize the coveted country. Go^loy was to be made rrn.ce

of Algarve for his services.

It happened that tlic rrlnce of Asturias, eldest sun of Cliarles

IV belli- dissatisfied witli Goduy's a.bninistration, addressed

Napoleon'bv letter, reciuesting tlie French Emperor to albnd

Bomc protection against the favourlt(?^s tyranny. Godoy con-

struing this into a plot against both the life and crown of Cliarles,

caused the Frince to be arrested. But the people declared for

Ferdinand; Napoleon took possession of some fortresses m Spam;

and the Court were seriously contemplating a flight to I^Iexico.

'

it

IIISTOIIY OF SrAlN. 213

force,

wlicn the soMlors revolted at Aranjiicz: Godoy was sent to

prison, and Charles abdicated in favour of his son (1808).

Ferdinand VII. (1808-33) found himself in trouble at once.

His father, recalling bis abdication, appealed to Napoleon as

umpire; who nothing loath, for the situation favoured his own

Rchemes regarding Spain, invited father and son to a conferenco

at Bayomie. There Ferdinand was ibrce.l to restore the royal

power, which Charles at once made over to Napoleon. Tliey

were I'oth l-'ept in honourable custody in France.

Then began the war of the Spanish Patriots (1808). Cxoade.l

to rage by the sight of Joseph Bonaparte seated on the throne

of Spdn, the people rose under Castanos, who soon obliged a large

French army muler Dnpont to surrender at Baylen. The heroic

defence of Saragossa, which was held against the French by Palafox

for nine weeks, was a great achievement of the war. But Bona-

parte's arrival on the scene turned the tide of events. The

Spaniards were beaten at Tudela; and the conqueror entered

INIadrid. A second siege of Saragossa resulted in the sickness of

Palafox and the downfal of the stronghold, of whose people

54,000 are said to have perished.

The events of the Peninsular War, already referred to in pre-

vious chapters, may now be briefly sketched. It arose from a

desire on the part of Britain to afford succour to Portugal when

threatened by Napoleon ; and British aid was afterwards given to

the cause of the Spanish patriots. It consisted of six campaigns

(1808-13). ; ^,. , ,

1808.—Landing at Mondego Bay in Portugal, Sir Artliur

Wellesloy with a British force defeated the French at Boliea and

Vimiero He ^.as then displaced by Sir Hew Dalrymple,

Governor of Gibraltar, who concluded the foolish Convention oj

(JIntra, permitting the French to leave Portugal with their

Ijao-'^age (/.c, their plunder).

Sh-' John ^loore then advanced into Spain from Coimbra; but

the news of Napoleon's march with four armies to entrap and

crush him, forced him to a retreat of misery and loss.

1809.—Chased by Soult, he stood at bay by Corunna, I cod to

'^!i

1^< i;

^*i ri

h vl

214 II I.STORY OF SrAIX.

t

\i

fi-lit by the non-arrival of the ships that were to carry his men

to a place of safety. The British victory, won at Coruuna, v.'as

saddened by the death of Moore (1809).

Welkslcy, reinstated in his command, signalized a year thus

nobly begun by Eeizing Oporto, driving Soult out of Portugal,

and inflicting a terrible defeat upon Victor at Talavera.

1810.—In the spring of this year the French, having reduced

the frontier-fortresses of Cuidad Eodrigo and Almeida, invaded

Portugal under the conduct of Massena. AVellington defeated

them at Busaco, and then retired to the lines of Torres Vcdras,

bi hind which he spent the winter. ^

1811.—The retreat of the French from Portugal was couuter-

bahuiced by the loss of Badajos, which now surrendered to Soult.

But tlirce victories crowned the British arms—one won by

Graham at Barrosa, and the others won by Wellington at Fuentos

d'Onoro and Albuera. Two attempts of the English tv retake

Badajos failed.

1812.—The earnest desire of Wellington now realized itself.

At the cost of much brave blood lie made himself master of

Cuidad Rodrigo and Badajos, and wivli these as a base of

operations he invaded Spain. At Salamanca ho defeated Mar-

mont, and entering Madrid held it for a tnne.

1813.—When he gained the supreme command of the Spanish

arnues, Wellington made such a disposition of his troops as drove

the French northward. He followed and defeated them at

Vitoria, in the crowning and decisive battle of the war.

In 1814, having driven the French over the Pyrenecf?, the

victor defeated them in the battles of Orthez and Toulouse. Tho

latter was an unnecessary fight, for Napoleon had abdicated some

days earlier. The conclusion of peace in 1814 restored Ferdinand

VII. to his throne; but, claiming the power of a despot, he placed

himself in opposition to the Cortes, which he ultimately dissolved,

abolishing the liberty of the press, and re-establishing the Inciui-

Bition.

In 1820 a revolution broke out near Cadiz, directed by two

Colonels—Quiroga and Xliego. Tho Free Constitution of 1812

HISTORY OF SPAIN. 215

was

was vcvivcd, and sworn to by Ferdinand. But his heart was fixed

on despotism, and ho found a worthy assistant in Louis XVUl.,

who sent liis nephew, the Duke of Angoulemc, into Spain with a

largo army to overturn the Constitution and ddiver Ferdinand

from his honda-o. The French troops occupied Madrid; and

near Cadiz, which thoy besieged, Ferdinand made an arrange-

ment, by which ho was permitted to return to the capital.

Quiro-a fled to Enghind, but Riego was executed.

Ferai:.ana VII. died in 1833.

Isabcia II.. who succeeded her father, is at present Queen of

Spain. .,.•!*•Since the Salic Law, though not a part of the original consti-

tution of Spain, had been introduced by the Bourbons and con-

firmed by the Cortes of 1812, a claimant for the throne, in oppo-

tiition to Isabella, appeared in the person of Don Carlos, her

uncle who, as Ferdinand's brother, had always regarded himself

the heir, until the edict annulling the Salic Law was published.

A war, lastin- four years (1836-iO), arose between .the

Carlist and Clnlstino factions. The priests, the peasantry, and

especially the Basque provinces, supported Carlos. The struggle

was conducted with great ferocity. Cabrera, the most prominent

of the Carlist generals, avenged the murder of his mother by

causin- the wives of thirty Christino officers to bo killed. Ilav-

in- taken Valencia, lie filled it with slaughter. The scale of war

w^s turned, when a British Legion under General Evans camo

to the ai<l of the young Queea. Don Carlos, hopeless of success,

fled to France; and in 1813 Isabella, declared of age, assumed

the sceptre for herself.

Spain has not been happy under her rule, as several revolution-

ary movements have testified.

!;

Hi

'fi'

fcl

MODERN SPANISH onRONOLOOY.

Ferdinand of AraRon marries Isabella of Castile, ...

Cliavlcs I. King, afterwards Emperor (Charles V.) ot Germany,

Spanish Armada defeated,

B'lpulsiou of the Moors (Philip III.). ••• '•• "•

A.O.

«•• 1469

..* 1516

... 15S3

«w 1010

216 niSTOnY OF rOllTUGAL.

PIiiM^£

ii;

••t «••

••• •••

• t* • *•

• •• •tl

A.D.

••• •M 1610

••• • •• 1659

••• • •• 1702-13

••• • •• 1704

••• ••• 1707

••• «fc» 1713

••• • •• 1779-82

••• • •• 17I>7

*•• • •• 1S05

«•• ••* 1S03

•#• <••—

tt* #•• 1803-13

••• • tt 1813

•• • •• 1S20

• I* • •t 183G-10

Portaf;al regains independence,

Peace of the Pyrenees,

"War of tie Spanish Succession,

Capture of Gibraltar,

Sattle of Almanza,

Treaty of Utrecht,

Great siege of Gibraltar,

Battle of St. Vincent,

Battle of Trafalgar,

Joseph Bonaparte made King,

Defence of Saragossa,

Peninsular War, ...

Buttle of Vitoria,

Revolution of Riego,

Carlist War,

PORTUGAL (1498 to the Present Time).

Under Manuel tlie Great (1495-1521) maritime cliscovery

went on bo rapidly and successfully that Portugal rose to .o

one o£ the most considerahle of European States Vasco do

Gama, roundin- the Cape of Good Hope, made good his landmg

in India (1498). A lucky storm drove Cabral to the coast o

Brazil ; ^vhile Ceylon and IMalahar were explored and colonized

by other enterprising Portuguese sailors., ti •

John III. (1521-57) was the next King of Portugal. Purmg

hi3 veisn the Inquisition was introduced, being intended at first

to repress the Jews ; but after they were driven from the land,

the terrible engine was retained for other uses, ihis monarch

also permitted the Jesuits to find a home in Portugal, and gave

his grandson, Sebastian, into the care of these monks to be

educated. _ ...^,

Sebastian III. (1557-TS) grew up wholly under Jesmtical

influences; a youth whose bvain teemed with crusadmg fancies

and ideas of chivalrous warfare. Ilis great desire was to suMue

Africa; and accordingly, in 1574, he undertook an expedition

against the Moors, wdiich resulted in nothing However, a dis-

pute regarding the succession to the crown of Morocco aftorded

himan^other opportunity. With a force of 15,000 men he

crossed the .ea to Arsila (1578), and in a short time met the

HISTORY OF PORTUaAL. 21'

A.1>.

1610

1659

1702-13

1704

1707

1713

1779-82

171>7

1S05

1S03

1803-13

1S13

1S20

183(J-10

scoverv

c to 1)0

asco (le

landing

coast of

olonized

During

1 at first

he land,

luonarcli

md gavo

:s to l>c

fcsuitical

y fancies

suIkIuo

q-)cdition

er, a dis-

afforded

men, ho

wet tho

Moors ill battle at Alcazar, wlicro ho was defeated. Sebastian,

his Moorish ally, and his Moorish foe, all perished, cither in or

after the battle. For many a day tho Portuguese could not

believe that their prince was gone. They fondly hoped that he

was still lingering in captivity among the Moors; and several

impostors, claiming his name, played upon this feeling.

After Cardinal Henry, an uncle of Sebastian, who had been

appointed llcgent during the absence of tluit monarch, had held

power as Henry I. for two years (157S-80), Philip II. of Spain,

who is thought to have cncouragcil tho Moorish expedition in

the hoi>e of creating a vacancy in the Portuguese succession,

seized Portugal, which he made a dependency of Spain (1580).

Then began a miserable period of sixty years' subjection,

affording in its gloom and suffering a strong contrast to the

golden ago of Portugal under 3Ianuel, only a century before.

The Spanish yoke galled sorely ; tho country was unmercifully

taxed ; extortion and ill-treatment were tho lot of the

people. But this came to an end in 1G40, when a re* 1640

volution set Portugal free, placing on the throne John a.d.

IV., Duke of Draganza,

John IV. (1040-1050) was not acknowledged King by the

Popo. He waged war with Spain and Holland. Tlic former

was angry at the loss of Portugal ; the latter found in Portugal

too powerful a rival in her colonial seas. The Dutch secured a

footing in Ceylon ; but were in 1054 expelled from 35razil. From

this reign dates an alliance which has long existed between

Britain and Portugal, and which produced many important

results; such, for example, as the Peninsular War.

Alphonso VI. (1050-07) was much controlled by the Jesuits.

The war with Spain continued; but victory was declaring

plainly for Portugal. In the second year of Peter's regency—ho

succeeded his deposed brother— Spain finally acknowledged Por-

tuguese independence (1008).

Peter II. (Regency, 1007-83 : Reign, 1083-1700) arranged

a treaty with Holland, by which tho conquests of the Dutch in

the Kast Indies were secured to them. The discovery of rich

jv|.

»t

•4^

HA I

,;(;

I'

M

» ttm I iifi 1 UA-^*^-

21

S

lII?TOnY OF rOUTUC.ATi.

Il ', « t

l-^^f!

gold mines in Bra/il croatea

Portugal, but in otlior laud

of trade to this

tatrc

consi

anxious

lerablo interest, not only in

to participato in the profits

Eldorado. In 1703 Britain ohtaiued the advan-

d the Por-

l»ad beenof a treaty with Portugal ; and this alliance

unicc

causcc

tu°uose to Nvithdraw tl.o M ami countcnanco tl.cy 1..'_

pSly giving to PLilip of Aujou in the Si.a.usl. Succcss.ou

^\o Ions veign of John V. (lTOG-50) was vroduotivo of few

eve, U of conscponcc. A eolom-San Sacramcuto, ou theW-e a riata-thonoh assigno.! to Tortugal by move fan on

trcatl especially the Peace of Utvcclit, caused disputes m U

S ; ; The buLliug of tl,e u.onastery at Mafia and the estab-

itCnt of the Acad^uy of Ilisto-y belong '»/^^ ^^n wewhose devotion to the Pope and obed.enc to the cte y

rewarded with the title " JiVx FMmwms, died in l.&O.

Joseph I. (1750-77) sinK. into insignificanee m ustory b.

side his minister, Don Carvalho, afterwards Marquis of Pombal.

vh m tTe revival of Portugal among the nations of Europe is

usUy -ribed. This statesman, who came to power owing to a

Cv vhieh the Queen of John V., an Austrian pvincess took to

Kf improved manufacture, agriculture, and learning, ami

,1 he Brazilians to cultivate coffee, sugar, cotton, nee

and iml "0. He made many enemies among the nobles, ^vhoso

rl ty he repressed with an unsparing hand; and m curbing

tiie , owcv of L Inquisition and banishing the Jesmts lie d.s-

vcdt pitiless resolution. His contest with this power «

der fonued the central event of the reign. With unwearied

Su t y they had been pushing their emiss.arics everywh e

almi^at the control of States and the direction of households^

V uteswith the Pope.

IIIPTOllY OF ronTUOAL. 210

lyin

rofits

Ivan-

Por-

"becn

Qssion

.{ few

ic lUo

n ono

5 with

cstab-

Jolin,

Y wero

)ry bc-

ombal,

irope is

ng to a

took to

ig, and

a, rice,

J

whoso

curbing

he dis-

)owcrful

iwearied

•ywhere,

iseholds.

^nfessors

iipt was

LS rage of

[lity and

Order of

i2 ill dis-

The great earthquake of Lisbon, killing 00,000 persons and

laying the city in ruins, occurred in 1755. The taste of Tombal

directed the rebuilding of the city.

Maria Francisca Isabel (1777-89), daughter of Joseph I.,

deposed Pombal,—an event which gladdened the nobles and

clergy, for it removed the wholesome curb which had checked

their ill deeds. The gloom of affairs was deepened by the

insanity of the Queen, in whose room the Prince of Brazil, her

eldest son, was nominated Regent (1789).

The secret compact for the partition of Portugal, entered into

between France and Spain, has been already referred to in sketch-

ing the Peninsular War. In 1807, ^Marshal Juuot, tlie general

of'^Napoleon, who had declared that the reign of tlie House of

Bragan^ia had come to an end, because Portugal would not con-

fiscate the British goods in the country, crossed the frontier.

The royal family of Portugal sailed away to Brazil, where they

fixed their Court at Kio Janeiro, leaving Lisbon to the French.

What befel the French in the ensuing five years has been

already related.

Upon the death of Maria in 1810, her son, who had been

PiCgent with full powers since 1799, became King, with the

title of John VL ; but he continued to reside in Brazil.^

In 1820 the fire of revolution, kindled in Spain, inflamed

Portugal also. Beginning at Oporto, the movement spread,

without bloodshed, however, or riot, until a Provisional Govern-

ment was established, and the Cortes of 1821, under the Arch-

bishop of Braga, proclaimed the liberty of the press and the sove-

reignty of the people. This recalled John from Brazil, where

he had been for nearly fourtcxiu years. Not until he promised that

he would observe the new constitution was he allowed to land.

There was, however, an attempt on the part of Don Miguel,

the King's second son, to restore despotism. John, who was not

permitted to see any of the foreign ambassadors, was obliged to

seek refuge on board of an English ship then lying in the Tagus.

He then deprived Don Miguel of his command, and "gave huu

leave to travel,"

^jl, 'i 1

J!»

M

i

*i

m '

r

I I

Hv

220 IIISTUllV OF POr.TUr.ATi..

'I

i

«

^1

li

vri

in ^

slf

:-i

Jolm VI. cM ill 1*20. IIo iKul in the previous year aeknow-

ledted hU eldest son, Don I'cdro, as Emperor of Br."...!; and

ttat monarch preferring a transatlantic throne, nominated h«

Jatir Dona' Maria da Gloria (1820-53), sovereign of Por-

tu":i Tl"s prinees,, now only nine years old, ^vas sent over to

Spe; butVvin.^io the intrigues of Don Migue,her une e

SoLmed the title o£ King, she was carried to England as a

^'ton^S™ tli'Sic up anns in the eanse of his daughter,-a«

enterpr s in .hieU England afforded him coriial assistanee^

Shorn the Azores (1832), his troops sei.ed Oporto, whero

'f figneUtes besieged him in vain. Lishon -n af .wa^

yieldedrand then the young Qneen came from Kng and to esun o

her throne. The subjugation of Don M^nel, achieved hy the

reduction of Santarem, resulted in the Convention of Evoi.i,S eVoHod the ns'urper (1834). In the same year Dona

Maria, declared of ago, assmncd her full royalt y.

On her death in 1853, Pedro V.. her son, hecme King- Hb

promise of usefulness being cut short by a premature death m

1801, Ilia brother, Louis I., ascended the throne.

pOKTCaUESE CURONOLOOT.

Voyajjc of Vasco do Qama, ...

The iJvazils diseovcreil l*y Cabral, ..

Battle of Alcaiar,

Portugal ft province of Spain,

Jolm of Bragaiua made King,

Dutch expelled from lirazil,

Independence acknowledged by Spun,

l-'artliriuake at Lislon,

Jesuits expelled from Portngal, ...

Portuguese Court emigrate to liriizil,

Viraiero—Couvcntion of Cintra, ...

Landing of Wellesley,

Battle of Busaco, ...

devolution at Oporto,

Jtetnrn of the Court,

Brazil declared independent, _"

Contest between Miguel and Maria

• ••

• ••

• ••

• • •

• ••

•••

• ••

«!•

• ••

• •fl

• ••

• ••

• I*

• ••

• ••

A.D.

... 1407

... moo

... ir.78

15S0-1G40

... ICiO

... lont

... KiOS

i7r»o

1807

ISOS

. ISOO

1810

. 18-20

18-21

. 1825

. l8'2S-34

•••

• ••

IlISTOnY OF ITALY.

know-

l; and

cd liis

{ For-

ever to

uncle,

ml as a

cr,—an

istancc.

,where

erwards

resume

by the

Evora,

ir Dona

H^'

His

death in

A.D.

.. 1407

,.. moo,.. ir»78

15S0-1G40

... mo

... lO^it

IT'u)

i7r»9

1807

1S03

. ISOO

1810

. i8-:o

18-21

IS'25

. 1S23-34

• ••

••

ITALY (1500 to tlic Ficscat Time).

The history of Modern Italy is a most conipllcalcil nanativo.

In order to preserve as much cloarucss as possible in tlio f.ill.nv-

ing sketches, the history of Nortlicrn Italy— including Milan,

Genoa, Sardinia, Venice, and Tuscany—is taken liist. Then

follow the Tapal Territories, and the Two Sicilies or the King-

dom of Naples.

MILAN.

"We left the French masters of Milan after the death of Ludo-

vico Sforza. The defeat of Francis i. of France, at Pavia, left

the Duchy in the power of the Emperor Charles V., under whom

Francis Sforza held it.

Andrea Doria, who may he called the Admiral of Charles V.,

for he commanded the fleets of that monarch against the Turks

and the pirates of the Barl^ary shore, distinguished himself hy

his patriotic deliverance of liis native Genoa from the French who

had seized it. Appearing with liis ships before the city, he

expelled the intruders (1528), and, under the protection of the

Emperor, erected Genoa into an independent aristocratic

republic, of which he became one of the Censi^rs. The plot of

Fieschi (1547) troubled his old age, which he devoted to Genoa;

he died in 1560, aged ninety-four.

Before that time Milan had passed into the possession of

Philip 11. of Spain, under the dominion of which government it

continued until 1700.

Tlie Fanicse nimily—a noble Roman race—had now become

prominent in Italy, owing to the election of Cardinal Alexander

Farnesc to the Papal chair, under tlic title of Paul III. (1534).

This Pope conferred Parma and Piacenza, over which Milan

exercised a claim, upon his natural son, Peter ; but that dissolute

man was murdered by conspirators two years later (1547). His

grandson, Alexander Farnesc, revived the fame of the family by

his military genius, which he displayed in the Spanish Nether-

tv

\

i

IKI!-

\'

k»

i.

!( }

|,vi:^ii-<

(!'

I'!..

222 IllSTOnY OF ITALY.

|i

iV'

,|M

land, fighting for Spain .ngninst tl,o Pnn, of 0.»ns«. ^^

«

recosnizo in liim tl,o DuUo of ramia, who was prerard to t.iKB

a Bliaro in the triumph of tl.o Spanish Arn.n.k, by launchmg »a

Kcmy into Kngland across tl.o Strait of Dover.

In 1713 the Treaty of Utrecht made over M.Ian and Mantim

to Austria, winch afterwards ac^nircd Parma and r.accnz.i.

This caused a revival of enterprise in Lon.bardy, winch had

declined under the Spanish rule. It was, however, nr he rc.gn

of Maria Theresa that the progress was most marked. Until

the Bhock of the Napoleonic wars, Austria contmuod to rule tl.o

thriving' province; hut the amtitious Corsican grasped it, witu

vleti; and mad^ a so-called Kingdom of Italy by rmitnrg them

But 1814 saw Austria again nristress of M.Ian, Mantua, and

^ITim the people of Lombardy, aided hy their Sardnrian

neighbours, rose in revolt against the rule of Austria. A few

eigL kindled the rising ; for the Milanese, be.ng resolved .to

use tobacco in order to i..j..re the Anstna,. reven,.e, felt th r-

selves i..snlted when the soldiers of the Austrian S;"»;°" «"';;'^^

them in the streets. The war was at first favou.able t,. the cue

of Lon.bardy, which was nltin.ately a.n.exed to Sardinia, ..»

under Charles Albert. But the vigour ot Radctzlcy, a.id espee ly

the battle of Custo.=-.a, between tho Mii.cio and the Adige tu, d

the scale so completely that a Sardinian force was obliged to capi-

tulatc at Milan. * * • r,,,.i

In 1859 hostilities broke out onoo mo.-o between Austria m.cl

Sardinia. When the troops of the En.pe.or, hy cr««..ng the

Tieino, committed an overt act of war aga.rst Sardinia c

Empeorot the Freeh, Napoleon III., came to the aid of tic

Laded state. Landing at Ge.ioa, he repulsed the Ans v..n

MontebeUo, Palestro, Magenta, and Solterino, and by the 1 c o

of Villafranca forced Austria to code Lombardy to him. He

orthwith made it over to Sardinia ..ceiving as the gnerdon

hi3 aid tho territories of Nice and Savoy, lying close to the

Frcncli frontier. , . , -,.^^« ^f

Genoa gradually declined, like Venice, alter the vojage of

iS^itsf

m^TOUY OF IT.VtY.

to take

ung ail

Mantua

laccnza,

cli hii(\

ic reign

Until

rule tlio

it, vith

ig tliem.

Lua, and

lartlinian

A few

}d not to

It tlicm-

1 smoked

the caiiso

Ilia, til oil

especially

;e, turned

d to capi-

istria nnd

)ssing tlio

Llinia, tlio

i\id of tlic

istvians at

the Peace

hini. Hoguerdon of

:)se to tho

voyage of

Vasco (Ic Gama luid opened a channel for the trade of tho Indies,

which did not draw \vealth to McditciTancan ports. Ilcr con-

fctant struggles with the Turks had early stripped lier of all her

possessions on the Levant and the Black Sea. In 17G9 she niado

over to France Corsica, tho last fragment of the external domi-

nion lier galleys had won in tho Middle Ages. A French garri-

son within the city under Massena stood a terrihlc siege in 1799

hy a comhineil army of Austrian^ and English; and when it

afterwards fell into the hands of Bonaparte, he annexed the stato

to France. It was however united to Sardinia hy the Congress

of Vienna (1815).

Savoy and Sardinia.—-The Kingdom of Sardinia grew out of

the Duchy of Savoy. The transition took place in 1720, when

Victor-Amadous II. wore the ducal coronet (1075-1730). This

most distinguislied ruler took an active share in the wars of the

Louis XIV. period, siding, whenever ho could follow his own

inclinations, with the Allies, who withstood the amhitious

encroachments of the French. The Treaty of Utrecht gave him

Sicily, and ho afterwards adiuircd the island of Sardinia with

tlie title of King.

Tho successor of Victor-Amadous, Charles Emanuel IIT., in

conjunction with the French, tried to wrest the Duchy of :\Iilau

from Austria ; but in spite of his victory at Guastalla he did not

succeed in doing so. This monarch, taking part with Maria

Tlieresa in her distress, fought bravely against the French and

Spaniards. At the Col do I'Assiotte the Piedmontesc defended

their intrenched camp with such telling effect that the French

did not invade their valleys for many a year again (1747).

The storms of the French Revolution affected Sardinia, which

fell into tho hands of the French, Savoy becoming tlic depart-

ment of Mont-Blanc for a time. In 1799 the King (Cliai-lcs

Emanuel IV.) was obliged to take refuge in the island of Sar-

dinia; but the Court returned to Turin in 1814.

In 1821 Charles Albert of Carignano was made rvogcnt by a

revolution ; but the King, Charles Felix, secured the ascendency

owinf? to aid from Austria. After wandering and fighting in

4\S;

ir; i

1

k,

224 nisTOUY Ol- ITAl.V.

i »

Sraiu ana .lseul,ci-o, Cliavles Albert bcea.uc^ lv„,^ i}^-'^-^)'

He raiscl tl.c Italian banner against tl,c Anstrums in ISIS,

..,m1,

a, ,ve have seen, at fl,-.t with sonn. ««,,.«. ]!«t the .urrcndcr

of >IiK™«-as a serious bh.u-. And yet n,..re aec,«ive .vas he

battle of Novara (1849), «hich in the lolh-wng year cause,! the

King to abdieate in favour of his son, Vietor l.n.anuel, the pre-

sent Kinc: of Italy.^ ^^ r ^•<

Juder this dashing soldier Sardinia bccnine the ally of Iraneo

and England d.uing the Crin,eau War, in whieh her soldiers

Lught . ith much courage and success, especially at the Tchernaya.

Then cauie eventful days, ,vhieh ehauged the l.ttle K.ugdonr

of Sardinia into the Kingdom of Italy.

Joseph Garibaldi, " the hero o! the red slurt, issumg ..om

the vockv islet of Caprera, where ho had spent some nne .n

rctire,ne,".t, lauded in May 1800 at Marsala iu S,e,ly proelamung

himself Dictator f..r Victor Kmauuel. ^^'-^^"^.'''•j;:^^

capital o! Sicily, and defeating the troops ol the King of Napl s

I ^Mcteo, he then invaded the mainland, forcing Keggio to

capitulate. The King of Naples took refuge in the maritime

fortress of Gaeta, while (iaribaldi entered the capital, and nonu-

liated a provisional govcrmnent.

The troops of Sardinia soon invaded the Papal States, whose

armies thev defeated, and whoso seaport ot An«,na they forced

to capitulat'e. Other victories followed. Victor Emanuel enter. 1

Naples, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies became a depend-

ency Sardinia, or rather a part of the newly organized King-

dom ot Italv. By vote or revolution all the other States, except

the Tapal territories and the Austrian province of \enetia, were

amalgamated into an Italian K"V?'1"'';^ -'•'-''';'f;):^;

Turin where the first Parliament met m IsOl. l>ut iloienco

, r shi e been chosen as a fitter capital of Italy The evacuation

orVenctia by Austria, and the withdrawal of Ereucli roops from

Home are noteworthy points in the recent history of I^ y-

Venice.-During the decline of Venetian commerce and powoi

,

consenuent upon the discovery of the sea-route to India am ho

Kast, tliat state was cugagacred in a great 'OO*

ft. M

•>*^

HISTORY Of ITALV. rtO/J

AvllOSC

liulcdl Kuropo, at a critical period v'i lior history, owed nnicli to

the ships of Venice even during tlic time of tliat romantic repuh-

lic's decay. During tlie sixtecntli century the Ottomans took

possession of the Morea and Cyprus, although their navy sustained

an almost fatal hh^w in 1571, when Don John of Austria defeated

them at Lepanto.

During the century that followed t1io Teacc of West[)halia

(1(118-1740) Venice engaged in three distinct wars with Turkey.

The first war (1045-GO) resulted in the concjucst of Candia hy

tlic Ottomans: the second (1083-99) closed with the Peace

of Carlowitz, and left Venice again mistress of the Movca : the

tliiid (1715-18) cost her that peninsula, which the Treaty of Tas-

sarowitz ohliged her to give up in return for sonic border-towns

in Dalmatia. The close of the eighteenth century saw Venice

in the iron grasp of that Corsicau despot, who made wild havoc

among the ancient States of Kurope. After the hrilliant cam-

paign of Ptivoli and Mantua (1797), Napoleon, who had penetrated

to within eight days' march of Vienna, turned and threw hhnsclf

upon Venice, whose forces had been threatening his rear. Dire

was the revenge he wreaked, carrying off the bronze horses of

San Marco, and reducing the golden-decked Bucentaur to tlio

condition of a bare dismantled hull ; in a word, humbling Venice

to the very dust. Nor was this all. The Treaty of Campo

Formio (1797) decreed that the ancient A'enctian territory should

bo partitioned. Austria got the districts lying within the sweep

of the Adigc, including the capital. The western portions were

added to the Cisal[)inc Ilepublic, which was forme<l chiefly of

the Milanese and Mantuan possessions. And to France went the

j;^],ips—glory of the ancient sea-port—the Ionian Islands, and

certain parts of Albania. How Napoleon, in his frenzy of ambi-

tion, cut and carved upon tlie political geography of Italy may

be judged from the facts that the Cisalpine l\e]niblic was changed

in 1802 into the Italian Ilepublic, which in 1805 became a King-

dom of Italy. The Genoese territories, previously called the

Ligurian Republic, were made then a part of France.

But the Congress of Vienna undid all this arrangement, which

(187) 15

!1I

ill>!'

hi

I .

51

220 UISTOKV OF ITALY.

I:

'}

'

lost its cohc^ior. wl.en the strong' grasp of IJonapavtc Rrcu- wealc

Von ,"^ co.abination witl. tl,c VaUclinc, Mantua ana Jhlan

;"creet.,! into tl,o Kingdon> ol' Lon.Uudy and Ven.oo undev

the sway of Austria.. -, , t i i,r ^, m^.O

It has been already seen that Austria h.st Lonihardy n l^o

and in 1867 she evaeuated Venetia, wliieh now ionus a pait of

the Kingdom of Italy.

Wo l.avo already glanced at tho period of Florentine IniUiance

under the Medici. It was interrupted l,y » '-- •'Ef"-';^

the hec/umingof the sixteenth century, when MaclnavelU- vhose

nle has hocc.n,e a by-word for stealthy and f--'-;^-!™

-pnlled the threads of Florentine politics, and visited the touits

of France and Germany as cnroy and diplomatist.

The Florentine llein.hlic merged in the Grand-Duchy o 1 n-

eany in 1537, when Co.mo I. was elected to the due station,

nfw" dese nded troin a hranch of the great house o JleiUu^

t was owing in a great measure to the powerful P>otoot ..

Charles V., Emperor of Germany, that this prince owed li

U m m-c a d position. He drew the chains of despotism igh

;.ound FlorencJ, the poi^oneup and the

^^f^"^'^"^^;;^^:;,„i,asters of his arbitrary vengeance. in of - -

f;'

power and application he had a eonsiderable share. A h i to c

lerritories of Florence and Pisa, the hitter ot which l.id h n

eoncpiered, he added Siena, which was given 1'"";; 'V^^j,

.

Philip II. of Spain, the dominions ot the Tuscan Giand-Pnch)

^^

W::;!d^lhe tragic story of two of Cosmo's so,._^.pted

dramatically by Allieri. The current runionr was t lat Jol

Cardinal had been slain by his brother Garcia, -l>om Co no.

c

father then struck dead in the fury of lus wrath :the motliei of tl

u

vouiig men died a short time afterwards. The suspicions proxi-

mi^;°of the death, may have given rise to the story. Cosnn, s

polfey with regard to Tuscany was very successful m preventing

tit State from becoming a prey to the foreign donnnation and

HISTORY OF ITALY. 227

v weak.

iMilaii,

3 under

n 1851),

1'-lilt of

irilUaiico

avcliy at

—whose

intrigue

le Courts

' of Tiis-

[station.

: Medici,

tcction of

owed liis

ism tiglit

often tlic

nistrativc

icn to tlie

had 1.)ecn

a fief I'Y

nd-l)uchy

s adapted

, John the

Cosmo the

ther of the

LOUS proxi-

Cosmo's

preventing

nation and

intestine trouhh\s which have been in modern times tlie banc of

Italy. He refused at first to accept Siena as a fief from Diilip

JI., on tlie plea that he was an independent Sovereign, and would

oe vassal to no man : and he refused also to become master of

Corsica, offered to him by the insurgents of 1504, because he

foresaw that the rocky island would be a perilous and turbulent

possession.

Passing by Francis I. (1575-87), who was rather an East

Indian merchant than a Sovereign ; and Ferdinand I. (1587-1G08),

Avho also made money by merchandise and improved Leghorn

vastly, wo reach the reign of Cosmo II. (1008-1021), during

which riorenco derived lustre from the astronomical discoveries of

Galileo, whose surname was Galilei. This distinguished native

of Pisa incurred the anger of the Jesuits by joining in the poli-

tical movement Avhich caused their expulsion from Padua. They

accordingly set the terrible machinery of the Iiifjuisition in force

against him, and after some preliminary attacks, the discoverer

was summoned to Eome, where, an old man of seventy, he ap-

peared before the assembled priests at the Convent of Minerva.

There, for declaring that the sun is the centre of its system, and

that the Earth moves, not only round this centi'al sun, but also

with a diurnal motion on its own axis, he was committed to

prison, and obliged to recite at intervals the seven penitential

psalms. As he rose from his knees, after having signed an

abjuration of his errurs—a step which alone could have saved him

from worse penalties—he is said to have whispered in a friendly

car, ''E jmr se qhuovc" (It moves, nevertheless). Galileo died iii

1042, aged seventy-six.

After a period of al)out a century, during which iho degenerate

Medici were swayed by monks and Jesuits, and the decline of

Tuscany was continuous, the State received a new lease of

Existence by being transferred, after the death in 17o7 of John

Gasto, last of the Medici, to i.iincis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine.

This prince is well known in history as the husband of the

celebrated iMaria Theresa. But the State of Tnscany. after lio

became lhnp(M-(M' (17 ! ">), f^nnd Iho disadvantage of being ruled

> . i

II

'• il

m! 4

f*

(if:

223 nisioiiY OF rt.aV.

intorofts of an E-nplrc. It was therctoro avranseal.at «-hcu 1,0

aSorircl'^-tJ should .cceivo tl,o Kn-ri-, -l..lc 1>- --0".!

inlio'rltca the Gvand-Ducliv of Tuscany.

T i ton °v,^ Leopold l. (1TG5-90), to .horn Tuscany owes a

dcU deer uvatltuao. While he improved the huv«, abohsl e,

lonoles,a,ul drained n.avshes, he devoted un.sell to a task

To"raie/dt than any of these-the puvi.ieatiou o he .nonas-

levies and the restrahit of the r.ower of the Popo witlun usuu

H e uef coaaiutov in this work, which of course drew thunl -

hoUs of angry flan.e fron, the Vatiean, wasEicci. h.shoi. of s-

ti, °^^.o eert-'-ly deserves an hononvahlo nan.e anu.ng ItaUun

"wr'Leorold. as had happened wUh his faH.er was called

to « e mperld throne (1790), his second-"-f

^^^'"^f ^^;

nceeeded hin, in Tuscany. While he ruled, f'-""- ^' '^^^^

footsteps of his talher, the hand of IJonapavte was aid on Ita

:Ui?oGrand Duhe, finding French troops ^ "S^- ;^^''-;;-|

was forced to retire ^^^Tr^^^-Z^'J^:^^^Napoleon's ascendency (li90-lbH) )u^can\ ume

*lnn one change. In 1801 the con.iueror ere.ted it into the

Sr. ./ i.-<n"-'«, over which he placed Charts Loius he^^^^^^

. !• t^ ^l^ T^rm lio united it to tnc ritiiLu

tivv Prince of Pavuia. in A^U5 na luun^ti, -^ ..,

Sive in three departments- .-».. O-"'^^--', ™^ J ;;

'~And rm.ally, in 1809, he restored it to the form of a Cand J)uU y

under the slvay of his sister IClixa. This work was of cnu.e .

undone hv the Congress of Vieima, hy wh.el, lerdmand 111. was

11 1 ; r ,-,ml Puchv ]'.v a fnrlher aiiaugcment of thorecalled to US biantl-i-'uuiy. j>j

Tn,.,,,.;.,

Comress Maria Louisa of Spain, who had heel, ruling Kbuiuv

as iCt for her infant sou, reecivcd the little Duchy of Lueea,

Tvliich in 1S47 reverted to Tuscany.

nni. the long peace that succeeded Waterloo, Tuscany nndov

her G™nd-Dukes"eijoycd a progressive prosperity, that made it

ne of the happiest States in Italy. This was v-le 7 shake

1848-tlio year of revolutionary eartl.cpiako«-;vl>eu the G an

p,,!.-,. was expelled and a rioreiitino Uepuhlie formed. Lut the

I1I5T0UY OP ITALY. 229

hen lio

secoiul

owes ft

olislietl

a task

inoiias-

USCiUlV.

lumdoi"-

: of ris-

Italiau

s callod

nd HI.,

tllO AVISO

n Italy;

years o(

nt more

into tlic

^, licrccU-

3 Frencli

ilcrranco.

id-Puchy

course all

. 111. was

int of tlio

o; Ktniria

of Lucca,

any under

it made it

shaken in

he Grand-

But the

I

Austrian soldiers stepped in to restore the former fitatc of things;

which, liowever, did not last long. For, in the year succeeding the

campaign of ^lagenta and Solferino, another revolution expelled

the Grand Puke, and made Tuscany a part of the newly-estab-

lished Kingdom of Italy. By a recent arrangement Florence,

hoth as being more central than Turin and richer in liistorical

memories, has been Keh'ctcd as the now capital of Italy.

There are three names, which float conspicuously upon the

surface of Italian history during the present generation, and of

which a few words must therefore be .^^aid. These are Cavour,

Garibaldi, and Mazzini.

Count Cavour, born in 1810 at Turin, was educated for a

soldier, but settled down to a ftirmer's life afterwards. He felt

a great admiration for the English Constitution; and, both by

his work as a journalist and by his speeches in the Chamber of

Deputies, he advised a close alliance with England in opposition

to the Democratic party. He was Prime Minister of Sardinia

fi'om 1852 to 1859, but resigned his office after the Peace of

Villafranca. Made Premier again in 18G0, he was cut off prema-

turely by death in 1861, just after Italy had been made a kingdom.

Joseph Garibaldi, l)orn at Nice in 1807, has had a most event-

ful and wandering life. After making some voyages as a sailor,

he engaged in plots with Mazzini against Charles Albert of

Sardniia. Escaping from the perilous consequences of these, ho

carried his sword to South America, where he fought against

Brazil on behalf of Bio Grande. On his return to Euro])C he

aided in defending Bome against the French (1848). Another

turn of Fortune's wheel—and ho appears as a soap-boiler and

candle-maker in America; then is transformed to a farmer in the

rocky islet of Caprera.

In the campaign of Magenta he headed a band of volunteers

called the Alpine Hunters. Ilis campaign of 1860 has been

described : that over, and Italy a kingdom, he retired to Caprera.

But in 1862, haunted by a desire to plant the flag of Italy on the

Castle of St. Angelo at Bome, because the intervention of the

Papal territories cut the new Italian kingdom in two, Garibaldi

^i-\

•

.-L i 1

^^h\

'"; 1i; > '

'*f

i 1 y

l?^.(

i-.N. «

V/

r, ''

¥%ii \\

:l*. ii

'A-' I'

2ao lII?TnilV or TTM-Y.

excUctl a vising ut Sicily, and crossing' into Calultria, came into

hostile collision with llie royal troops at Aspronionte, where a

bullet wounded liini in the ankle.

The tedious suffering consecpicnt on this injury comhined with

other causes to keep him quiet for a time; l)ut in 1867 an

insurrectionary movement in the Papal States, from which the

French j-arrison liad been recently withdrawn, excited him to

action, and lie now lies in prison for appearing in arms against

the royal Italian tioops.

Mazzini, born at Genoa in 1809, was actively engaged as a

journalist in Italy, until his arrest on a false charge of lieing a

Carlonaro—that is, a member of a certain secret society—drove

liim into exile, wdiich he spent in France, Switzerland, and

London, always writing and intriguing and hoping for a Ilepublic

in Italy. In 1849 he went to Rome, wdierc as one of the Tri-

timvirs he defended the city against Oudinot, whoso success

(Irovc him again into exile.

PAPAL STATES.

The document, upon which rested the first establishment of the

temporal power of the Popes, as sovereigns independent of the

Emperors of Germany, consisted of letters patent issued in 1 278

by lludolf of Ilapsburg to Pope Nicholas III. (Cardinal Orsini).

These defined tiie Papal territories as extending from Rudicofani

to Ccprano, and from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, includ-

ing the Duchy of Spoleto, the March of Ancona, and the llomagna.

But the last named was not annexed until the days of the warlike

Julius II (1513).

Leo X. (1513-21) was a polished and learned member of the

great family jMedici. His pontificate of eight years was noted for

the beginning of the lleformation under Luther, already described

in the history of Germany. But his age was memorable for the

literary and artistic brilliance that shone in both Rome and

Florence. These were the days of Michael Augclo and Raffaello

—of Ariosto and Machiavelli.

Under Pope Glement VILj who was the ally of Francis I. of

I

TITSTOUY OF ITALY.

10 into

here a

'd with

B67 an

icli tlio

liim to

against

}(1 as a

l)oing a

—drove

lid, and

icpuLlic

;lio Tri-

success

at of til

t of tlio

in 1278

Orsini).

idicofani

,includ-

omagna.

) wailiko

3r of tho

noted for

Icscribcd

e for tlio

ome and

Raffaello

ncis I. of

France, Pvoine was Siiekcd by the troops of the Constable Bourbon

(1527), who was shot in scaling the wall.

Paul III. has been already named as one of the Farncse fixmily.

He assembled tho last of the General Councils at Trent in 154G,

and he was dead long before it closed its sittings in 15G3. The

order of Jesuits, a most active and enterprising brotherhood,

was founded during this pontificate. The founder was Ignatius

Loyola, a native of Spanish liiscay, who, lying on a bed of pain

—his legs having been injured by a cannon-shot at the defence of

Pampeluna against the French—conceived tho idm of establishing

a fraternity of monks. At Moiitscrvat in 1522 ho hung liis

sword on the altar, and kept vigil, previous to entering on a lifo

of spiritual warfare; and in 1534, with I'eter Faber and Francis

Xavi3r, he took the oaths in the chapel of Montinartre. In 1540

and 1543 the Pope gladly caught at a novelty, v/hich would

infuse new vigour ami enthusiasm into a system already much

weakened by the assaults of the Protestant Reformers ; and by

bulls the Order of the Jesuits received a formal sanction from St.

Peter's chair. Fre long the members of the order were pushing

themselves and the doctrines of tho lloman Catholic Church even

into such remote regions of the world as Japan and Para-

guay.

Gregory XIII. (1572-85), influenced by tho Cardinal of Lor-

raine, held public rejoicings at Home for the massacre of St.

Bartholomew. Ho enjoys in history a more attractive renown as

the reformer of the calendar, which by following the Julian cal-

culation was much astray. By appointing every fourth year a

leap-year, which is to be omitted once in the century, he reduced

the error of time to the smallest possible amount. This—called

the New Style—has been adopted in all the countries of Europe

except llussia,

Tho territory of Homo was increased by the additions of

Ferrara, annexed in 1597 ; Urbino, purchased by Urban VIII. in

1681 ; and Castro, added in 1050.

There arose in France a religious sect called Jansenists, from

the name of their founder Jansen, once a Professor of Divinity at

f' 'i

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232 HISTORY OF ITALY.

Louviua. This body set themselves in opposition to the Jesuits,

and were condemned by the Popes of th'^ :.^>tcr hr.lf of tlie seven-

teenth and the beginning of the cigh.. centuries. But it

was Clement XI. (1700-21) who liurle.. a fatal thunderbolt,

called the Bull Um'jcnitus (1713), which condemned certain pro-

positions of a book written by a Jansenist, Quesnel. Tlio

followers of Jansen, a small community at Port Koyal, were

ultimately crushed by the weight of an opposition which imm-

bered the chuiuent Bossuet in its ranks ; but they had many

sympathizers in the Parliament of Paris.

By Clement XIV., whose pontificate lasted only five years

(1769-74), a bull was issued for the abolition of the Order of the

Jesuits (1773). The Pontiff died in the following year, but the sus-

picions of poison, excited by his sudden death, were not confirmed.

Pius VI. (1774-99) witnessed the bursting of the storms

which shook Europe, and Italy not least, in the days of the

French Revolution and the campaigns of Bonaparte. Tlie antag-

onisra between this Pontiff and the Tuscan Ricci, who held

Jansenist opinions, has been already noticed. Among other

U'orks of peace, Pius VI. drained a large portion of the Pontine

marshes.

So keenly did this Pope feel the evil deeds of the Revolution-

ists in France that he issued a Bull of Excommunication. When

Napoleon invaded Italy, he took possession of four districts, known

as the Legations, iiamelv, Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli,

which he annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. But worse was

vet to come. In 1797 a number of Roman re^ iiblicans, among

whom was Duphot, a French officer, when hot with wine after

dinner, went through the streets with the tricolor flag. When

the Papal soldiers came to disperse the crowd, they lied into the

house of the French ambassador, and Duphot was shot. A

French army under Bcrthier then entered Rome and expelled

Pius VI. from the Vatican (1798). The Pontiff, now eighty

years of age, would not abdicate his temporal sovereignty.

Broudit to France, he died at Valence in 1799.

Pius VII. (1800-21) at first found Napoleon easy and pleasant

IIIJiTOHY Ol' ITALY. 233

csuits,

KGven-

But it

erl)olt,

111 pro-

Tho

, W'OA'O

I imm-

, many

3 years

• of the

LllG siis-

fivnicd.

storms

of tho

> antag-

10 liehl

r other

Pontine

olution-

Wheu

,Ivnowii

d Forli,

»rse was

,among

ne after

Wheninto tho

lot. Aexpelled

v eighty

creignty.

pleasant

to deal with ; and a Concordat, or religious treaty, was signed

between France and Home in 1801. Three years later, Bonaparte

used his power over the Pope to secure the presence of the Pontiff

at Paris, when Pius crowned him in the Catliedral of Notre-Dame.

iJut in the following year the Pope refused to perform the same

ceremony at Milan.

Then began vai'ious troubles betwcju the Emperor of Franco

and the Pope. French soldiers took Ancona and Civita Vecchia.

Peremptory orders came from France, demanding that the sub-

jects of all countries at war with Napoleon should be expelled

from Home. And in 1808 matters came to a crisis by tho

seizure of Ancona, Urbino, and other provinces, which were

joined to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy.

In 1809 Napoleon issued a decree annexing the RomanStates to France ; and the Pope, who published vain bulls of ex-

communication, was obliged to take his Breviary, ascend liis car-

riage, and leave Home. He was detained at Grenoble, Savona, and

afterwards at Fontainebleau. In the last place Napoleon visited

him to extort a new Concordat (1813), and in their talking often

forgot himself so far as to speak roughly and sternly to the re-

presentative of St. Peter. In 1814 the Pope was reinstated liy

the Allies, liis territories being restored. He took an early

opporturity to restore the Order of the Jesuits.

In 184G Pio Nono (Pius IX.) was elected Pope. Ho showed

a great desire to be liberal, and reformed the State exceedingly;

but the revolutionary mania of 1848 inflamed the Roman populace

with a desire for a rei)ublican form of government. His minister

Count Rossi was murdered at the doer of the Chamber of Depu-ties; and he remained a prisoner, until he nuinaged to escape

from the Quirinal in the disguise of a footman, and repaired to

(laeta, where he lived under the protection of Naples.

In 1849 Marshal Oudinot with a French army, aided by the

King of Naples, assailed Rome, which fell before the besiegers

(July 3), and was garrisoned by French troops. The Pope re-

turned to tho Vatican in 1850.

As already indicated, the French garrison has been recently

5 nr 1",

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Ill

^vitlKll•a^va {rem Rome; an insurrecllonavy movement is afoot;

and it is not imrrol.al.le that the coming generation may sec an

cn<l of tlie Pope's temporal sovereignty.

KINGDOM OF NAPLES, OR TIIK TWO SICILIES.

(1700 to the Present Time.)

Tlie War of the Spanisli Succession, ending with the Peace of

Utrecht, caused Naples to pass into the hands of Austria and

Sicilv into the power of Savoy. In 1720 Austria negotiated an

exch'ange of Sardinia for Sicily, and thus became possessor of

hoth Naples and Sicily.. ,r • c. • * . i

But in 1T35 Don Carlos, son of Pl.ilip V. u Spain, ^ncstocl

Nrples from tl.o Austrians, and was forniaUy apro.»t«l I^ng «'

tl,c Two Sicilies, on coiKlUion that tliat realm sliouU not again

1,0 unitca to tlio monarcliy of Spain. Thus began tlio line ct

Bourbon monarclis in Southern Italy. _

During the Napoleonic wars Ferainana IV., son of Carlo

Borbone?..s Don Carlos was ealled, was twiec loroc.1 by a Fi^enel,

army to take refuge in Sieily. After the second of these

occasions Joseph Bonaparte was raised by his brother to the

throne of Naples; but, when he was called to a ng ler throne in

Spain, his place was supplied by Joachim JIurat, "k lean sahrcur,

who assumed the dignity in 1808. This dashing soldier aeco.n-

panied his imperial brother-in-law into Kussia where he com-

nianded the cavalry; but a qu.arrel between the Kmperor anc

the King embittered the disasters of the retreat. JIurat jmnod

Napoleon in his final struggle at Leipsic, but then deserted to the

Allies. However, .alarmed by the delay which the Congress of

Vienna seemed to use with regard to Naples, tins impetuous

monarch took arms again for Napoleon. An Austrian army de-

feated him near Toleutino (1815); and in the following year

after the return of Ferdinand to the throne of N ap cs, a wild descent

from Corsica upon the Calabrian shore ended m the ruin of

Murat's hopes and the extinction of his life. Arrested at Fm-o,

he was condemned .ind shot by his Neapolitan captors.

A decree of 1816 declared Ferdinand IV. King of the UniteU

: (

ifoot

;

;eo an

!ace of

a, and

ted an

ssor of

rrested

Cing of

: again

line of

[ Carlo

French

f tlicse

to the

U'ono in

ibreur,

• accom-

lie com-

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2d to the

ngrcss of

iipetuons

[irmy de-

iig year,

d descent

! ruin of

at Pizzo,

le United

HISTORY OF ITALY. 255

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. A secret society, called Curlonari,liad for sonic time hecn striking its roots deep and wide throughNaples. One source of dissatisfaction was an exorbitant land-ta'x.The smouldering fire burst into a mutiny of cavalry, which grewinto a revolution of the Carbonari (1820). They demanded aconstitution like the Cortes of Spain, which was established: anda rising at Palermo—the Sicilians demanded a separate parlia-ment—was fiuclled. But after a conference at Laybach, to whichFerdinand was summoned, an Austrian army entered Naples andrestored the old despotism. Feidinand IV. of Naples and I ofthe Two Sicilies, died in 18l>5.

'

Ferdinand II., nicknamed Kinrj Bomlcf, from Ids icndency toresort to the convincing arguments of artillery in dealing with anobstinate city, became King in 1830. The Sicilians still criedfor a repeal of the union; but their desires took the shape ofpanic in 1837, when an alarming outbreak of cholera desolatedthe island. Crying out that the wells were poisoned by theNeapolitan govermnent, the ignorant and frenzied mobs rose andplundered the palaces, flinging physicians and their families intothe sea. Suppressed by military force, and the execution of theringleaders, the revolt ended with the complete aboUtion ofSicilian independence, the island being declared merely a pro-vince of Naples.

In^ 1848 revolutions broke out in both Naples and Sicily.Hessina and Palermo were the centres of revolt in the island,'

where a parliament, voting the deposal of the Bourbons, preparedto establish a monarchy. ]5ut at Naples the King had let loosethe lazzaronl upon the revolutionists and had secured quiet. Howas therefore free to think of Sicily ; and accordingly Filangierientered the island, which lie subdued city after city, untilPalermo fell, and despotic rule, accompanied by relentless crueltywas restored.

*

The tyranny of Bomba after this excited indignation in everypart of Europe, where freedom was cherished. But lie held tohis doctrine that " liberty was fatal to the Bourbons," and setbefore him the Hapsburgs as a model to be imitated.

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236 HISTORY OP ITALY.

f u

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•••

How Garibaiai, iu the campaign of 1800, drove tlic Bourl>on

from Naple., has been told ah-ea.ly. The fortress of Gaeta, where

Kin- Ferdinand and his wife held ont for five months (Sept.

18G0 to Feb. 1801), was their last stronghohl of defence.

Naples and Sicily were tlicn added to tho new Kingdom of

Italy. ^^„MODEIIN ITALIAN CIIIIONOLOGY.

Naples find Sicily provinces of Spain,

Sack of Rome by Constable Kourbon,

Doria makes Genoa independent,

Jesuits acknowledged by the Pope,

Cosmo I. made Grand Duke of Tuscany,

Pope Gregory XIII. corrects the Calendar, ...

Revolt of'^Masaniello at Naples,

Kingdom of Sardinia founded,

Milan vested in the House of Austria,

Sicilies given up by Spain, ... » •••

Italian Republic under Bonaparte as President,

Bonaparte crowned King of Italy, ...

Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples,

Murat King of Naples,

Papal Territories annexed to France,

French evacuate Italy,

]\luratshot,

Austrians restore despotism in Naples,

Siege of Rome by Ondinot, ...

Campaign of MagcuUi,

Garibaldi lands at Palermo,

Nc-.v Kingdom of Italy formed,

1504-1700

... 1527

... 1528

... I.'') 13

... 15G9

... lt)o^

... 1G17

... 1720

... 1713

... 175U

... 18U2

... 1805

... 180G

... 1808

... isoa

... ISli

... 1815

... 1S21

... lS-19

... 1S5D

... 1800

... ISGl

TURKEY (1453 to the Present TiineV

Mohammed XL (1451-81), tlic conqueror of Constantinople

'and the founder of the Turkish dominion in Europe, was a wiso

'nud active prince. His military activity was incessant. lie

reduced Servia and Trebizond, became mastei- for a time of the

Peloponnesus, and alarmed the potentates of Central Europe by

his assaults upon the countries lying round the Danube bu

cspeciallvbyhis conquest of Otranto in Italy, achieved by Ahmed

Keduk in 1479. He ruled with stern cruelty at home, but

established ?nany seats of leavnlnGf.

iiisToiiY ot? T(;i:TcnY. 237

A.D.

4-1700

, 1527

, ir.2s

. 1513

. 15G9

. 15S2

. 1017

. 1720

,. 1713

,. 1759

.. 1802

.. 1S05

.. 180G

.. 1808

.. 1809

.. ISli

.. 1815

,.. 1821

... 18-19

... 1S59

... 1S(U>

... ISGl

After the rcigii of IJaJazet II., ^vllO was truubloil witli civil

trars, led by Lis lu-otlier and liis mi\, and wlio Ic^st Otranto,

Selim I. (1512-20) bccanie Sultan. After cleariu-^ away byexecution a number of the near relatives, who mii^-ht contest tho

throne, he commenced a career of Asiatic and African conquest,

whicli added to liis dominions portions of Persia and Armenia,

along with Syria and K<;ypt. Having overthrown the hast Caliph

of Cairo (lolT), lie returned in triumph to Constantinoidc with

1000 camels laden with Kgvptian treasures. A noteworthy fact

is his formation of a Turkish navy, whicli for many generations

contested the dominion of the Levant and the Ionian Sea with

tlic galleys of Venice. An orerdosc of opium caused Selim's death.

Tlien began the reign of Solyman the Great (1520-CG), whowas imdoubtedly the most celebrated of the Ottoman monarclis.

When scarcely seated on the throne, he reduced the great Danu-bian fortress of ]>elgrado, and the island of Ilhodes, in defence of

which the Knights of St. John fought with a valour all in vain

(1521). His next exploit was the subjugation of Hungary,where, in the battle of Mohacz, Louis, King of the country, wasslain (152G). The conqueror strode on to Vienna, his brain

burning no doubt with visions of a European sovereignty; but

the Western Powers put forth their strength to stay his career,

and he besieged the Austrian capital in vain for four .seasons

(1529-38).

A successful struggle with the Shah of Persia, and a second

war in Hungary (1511), excited by Ferdinand's seizure of the Hun-garian crown on the death of Zapoyla, the vassal of Solyman, fdled

the central years of the reign. Tlie latter contest ended in victory

for the Sultan, to whom the Austrian ceded the Hungarian ter-

ritory round Buda, and promised to pay tribute for the rest.

During this reign the Turkish navy became most formidable.

There were fleets on the Mediterranean, sweeping its .shores to

Gibraltar, and on the Asiatic Seas, contending with the Portu-guese beyond the gate of Babclmandeb. Elated by a victory

over the .ships of Spain and Italy at Jerba, Solyman resolved to

attempt the reduction of Malta, whose fortified rock was now

t"':

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238 HISTORY OP TURKKY.

o..0UPic,l hy 0,0 Kuiglits of St. Julm, to w ,om tl.c iMnporot

ClKulcs V. Lad given tl.o hhnA after theu- csimki.,,. Iron.

Rlioiles; but tl,o expedition failed after a riego of hvo mouths

^^sS'>"'»'> lik» »" °"" J'^''"-"''^^ ^" '^'"",'" "''^ "°° "

n'^'i"'';

ness could not resist the Wast of tUo battlc-trtunpct. lie .l,cd

i„ his tent in Hungary, wl.ilc engaged in the s.^'o of a tovn^

Under his reign the Ottou.an rule extended h'om t >e Bauuho to

the Ti-ris, fron. the Falls of Dnieper to the I'alls of Ni e.

Uuler Sclin> II. Yen.en, Cyprus, and Tunis wore added to Iho

Turkish Ihnpiro; hut an ahnost fatal hlow was rceoive; hy

Tnrkey, when her fleet under Ali Moc.ziu was all but anuihdaled

at Lcpanto by Don John of Austria (1571). _Si'ns of growing iniportanee, however, were vis.b o at this

,i„ °in the°relati;ns of Turkey towards the rest of hurope

Though war was still raging with Austria, the n.os^ iornudablo

obstacle to Turkish eneroaelnneuts in the heart of ^^o^'J^^connnereial treaty was eoneludod between Turkey and England

in the reign of Murad III. (1571-00.)

Ahmed I. (1003-17) was no mateh for the European Kud.

II who defeated the Turks in many battles, and relieved Austu.i

from the ignoble burden of a tribute f...r Hungary, exacted by the

strong hand of Solyman..^t i ^t i TV ,ho T„,l^-

During the supremacy of Osman 11. and Murad IV the Jam.

..vies tc^,k the upper baud in Turkey, whieli they long man -

"l Osmau was strangled by them-, and they proelain.ed

bu afterwards deposed, his tmele Mustapha. Bagdad was ta en

by the Persians in the reign of Hnrad, but was eeded by l.eaty

"'Sammed IV. (1C4S-87) had a long and troubled reign

After many losses in Oaudia and elsewhere, after -^^^S^^defeats from the Venetians by sea, the adnunistratiou of Koii

restored Turkey to some strength and prosperity. Can luv was

re- alen in 1G09. I'odolia was wrested from the Poles, who werc

mouaeod under the very .alls of Lemberg. And a gleam of

.uccess-brigl.ter than any of these-slioue on the rurk.J. aims.

f.!

iperor

from

lontlia

wcak-

(licil

town.

ul»c to

to tlio

liiliitcd

at tlili^

Kuropc.

uidablo

c, yet a

ilnglaiid

Iludolf

Austria

il by tlie

ic Jauls-

cj main-

)claiinLHl,

as taken

jy treaty

ed reign,

no- severe

Koprili

mdia ^vas

svlio were

gleam of

:isli arms,

IIIiJTOKY OF TURKKY. 239

when in 1082 Kara Mustaplia, Serasker of tlie Turkish army,

led his forces into Hungary, and encamped under tlie

-walls of Vienna. The fate of tlie city seemed to bo 1683sealed, and the Crescent for a time outshone the Cross. a.d.

]5ut an army, in which Jolm Sobieski led the Polish

legion, came to the rescue; jMustajflia was completely routed

and chased into Hungary, which in three years was swept clean

of the turbaned hosts. This was oiily a beginning of reverses.

The Venetians forced the Turks to evacuate Greece : and a re-

volt of Janissaries—^^ ho played in modern Turkey the rule of

the Pnctorians in ancient Home—dethroned the Sultan.

Turkey even now appeared to be breaking up into that sickness,

which seems to deepen every century. The luxurious debauchery

of some Sultans—th<' turbulent insolence of the Janissaries—the

loss of some frontier provinces, and the difficulty of maintaining her

ground in Europe in the face of enemies like Austria, Eussin, and

Venice—combined to increase the troubles of her national exist-

ence. While Mustapha II. (1095-1703) was Sultan, Peter the

(Ircat concluded an alliance with Austria to curb and repress

the Turks. Azov was taken : Prince EuG^enc inflicted a siirnal

defeat upon the Turks at Zcntlia by the Theiss (1097); and the

Peace of CarJowitz dismembered the Turkish Emnire, o-ivino: the

districts between the Danube and the Theiss to Austria, the

Morea to Venice, Podolia to Poland, and Azov to Pussia.

Ahmed III. (1703-80) was the host of Charles XII. of Sweden,

when that monarch camo, a beaten refugee, to seek safety in

Turkey after the disasters of Pultowa. The Sultan declared war

against Piussia on behalf of his impracticable guest.

Peter the Great, neglecting a lesson he might easily have

learned from his own successful tactics against Charles XII.,

crossed the Prutli into Moldavia, and suffered hiiusclf to bo

cooped up in a position with no outlet. After three days' fight-

ing, the cause of the Russians seemed hopeless, when the Czarina

Catherine bought off the Grand-Vizier by collecting all the

plate and jewels in the camp, and sciidiiig them to him with a

letter.

U j' t

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240 HISTORY OF TURKEY.

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In 1714 tlic Morca was taken from ilio Venetians by Turkey

in a single campaign ; and the possession of tliis peninsula Ava3

confirmed by tlic Treaty of Fassaroivkz (1718), by wliicli great

concessions of territory in Wallachia and Scrvia ^verc made to

Austria.. . . i i

In the reign of Ahmed III. the art of printmg was introduced

into Turkey.

During the reign of Mahmud I. (1730-54) there was unsuc-

cessful war in Persia; and the game of "give and trkc " was

continued between Turkey and Austria, the latter of whom, by

the Peace of Belgrade (1730), ceded that fortress, with the pro-

vinces of Servia and Wallachia.

Tlie growing strength of Kussia, and the proximity of that

gigantic territory to Turkey now made it the most formidable

foe of the Ottomans. Peter's dream of making the Black Sea a

Russian lake involved the conquest of Turkey; and the succes-

sors of that great C/ar ma.lc many attempts to realize that por-

tion of his plan of conquest.

A six years' war between Puissia and Turkey began m 1<(>^.

On the part of the Russians, Ilumanzow overran the Crimea; and

in 1770 a Russian fleet, sailing roimd from Cronstadt, destroyed

the Turkish ileet in the Bay of Chesme—a name to be ranked

with Lepanto and Navarino among the disasters of the Ottoman

'''The war continued under Ahmed IV.; but it was not milil

Kamenski penetrated to the passes of the F.alkhan that Turkey

sought peace. ^J1ie treaty, signed at Kucluik-Kainarji (ln4\

n-ave important possessions and privileges to Russia, among which

tvere the fortresses of Azov, Kertch, and Yenikale-all the country

between the Bog and the Dnieper-the free navigation of the

Black Sea, and a right of passage through the Bosporus and

DardancUes-and the protectorship of all the Greek churclies m

the Turkish Empire. A vain attempt to recover the Crimea

from Russia was made in 1787.

Selim III. (1789-1807).—A second war with Catherine oi

Kussia broke out in 1787. Austria was in alliance with Russia

liTSTOKt OF I'TJliKf.Y. -11

17(W.

10, as-against tlic Turks, rotcmkiu, tlic favourite of Catli.-ri,,., ...

sunic.I tlic cliiof coiiiinand, in wliidi ]ie c:ij<.v(>a tlic aid c.f' Su-warow. At the Lattle of Kiuburn (1787) tl^c last-named generalordered liis infantry to fling away their knapsacks and ''char-owith the bayonet

;and, when the Cossacks fled before the strongly

posted Turks, he turned them to victory with the taunting woitls," Fly, cowards, and leave me to the mercy of the Turks " Acomplete defeat of the Turks at Fokshanv took place in 1789The siege of Ismail was left to Suwarow. Promising his soldiersthe plunder of the town, and ordering no (piarter to be giventhe general gave the signal before daylight by crowing like a cock'and the stormers advanced. Twice the liussians shrankfrom the cannonade, but returned to the attack. The 1790slaughtered, after the assailants succeeded in scaling the a.d.walls, literally lay in heaps along the streets. Suwarow 's

despatch ran thus :" The fort is taken

; and I am in it." Thisextraordinary general, who was wont to summarize the whole artot war m three Avords, " Advance and strike," won the affer-tionot the soldiers by bearing their hardships—sleeping on strawunder a sheepskin, and eati-g black bread. He cultivated a roughaddress, and gave his ord; •: in blunt laconisms.

This war was concluded by a peace made at Szistowa withAustrna, and the Treaty of Jassy with Kussia (1792).

In, 1798, France being then at peace with Turkey, Bonapartesuddenly invaded Egypt. The iMamclukes withstood Ids marchto Cairo; but their brilliant cavalry charges could make noimpression on the French s.piarcs, and they were scat-tered in the battle of the Pyramids. Nelson destroved 1798tlie French fleet at the Nile ; and the declaration of war a.d.against France by the Sultan excited an insurrection atCairo.^ This Napoleon disposed of with his usual pitiless deter-mination, blowing open with camion the doors of the GreatMosque, where the insm-gents had taken refuge, and staining it«pavements with the blood of massacre. Then marching into Pales-tine he besieged Jada, where a great massacre of prisoners tookplace among the sand-liills. But at Acre, the key of Svriu and the

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^i1 IIISTOUY OF TUllKKT.

East, ]k.napartc ^vas rcpollea l>y tlic united efforts of tlic rurlcs

under Diezzar Pacl.a and some English ships under bir Sidney

Smith. After fifty-four days he raised the siege and went to

K..ypt; and, as he marched, one of his marshals wrote: ilio

^vi;ole country is on fire behind us." Homestead and harvest

alike blackened in his destroying path.

]^:ngland retook Egypt from the French under Menou by ho

battle of Alexandria, which cost her a brave general, Sir llalpli

Abercromby. And, when Cairo capitulated, the province was

made over to Turkey once more.

]3y a compact with Russia, Turkey now acquired the protector-

«hip of the Ionian Islands, newly formed into a republic. Irench

influence grew strong at the Porte, so much so that llussia and

l^higland combined (1806) in a hostile movement against luvkey.

Admiral Duckworth, forcing his way through the Stnuts,

threatened a bombardment of Constantinople, but was obliged to

hasten back to a more open sea. Selim lad been reforming the

army and other portions of the State; but the defeat of the

Turkish arms on the Danube, which the populace ascnbed to

these changes, excited a revolt of the Janissaries, by wliom he

was dethroned. ... n . ^ *

The reign of Mahmud II. (1808-39) was fruitful m great

events. A devoted vizier, Mustapha IJairaktar, saved the Sul-

tan's power by blowing up himself and a number of the revolted

Janissaries. But at first every province of the Empire seemed

suddenly smitten with the desire of revolt. Most formidable of

the insurgents were Ali Pacha of Janina,who revolted inEpirus;

and Mehemet Ali, who in Egypt aimed at securing herediary

power. The Peace of Bucharest (1812) was a necessity, for troubles

were thickening. How the Greeks won their independeiicc will

be narrated in a separate section. Tlie battle of Navarino

(1827) humbled Turkish pride, and secured the independence

of Glreece •

The destruction of the Janissaries was one of the most im-

povtant achievements of Sultan Mahmud II. The origin of this

famous military body, fmt organized by Amurath, has bceu

i-. :

{

r''

'^^

HiSTuKV OF Ti:i:Ki;v

ic TurlvS

r Sidney

went to

r. "The[ harvest

u by tho

ir Ralph

ince was

protector-

. Ficnch

ussia and

t Turkey.

J Straits,

:)l)H,y;ccl to

rniing tlio

'at of the

scribed to

whom ho

I in great

I the Snl-

]C revolted

ire Bcemcd

midable of

in Epirus

;

hereditary

for troubles

iidencc will

i Navarino

dependence

most im-

igin of this

ij has been

already noticed. They soon learned to a1)U,so tliclr power. I'v

rising in revolt, they could turn tho scilo of tlic Empire ;" could

demand the head of an uii popular Vizier, and (L'poso or murderan unpopular »Sultan." Tlic attempt to restore tlieir old disci-

jdine cost Seliiu his life. ]>ut Mahmud waited for a fit-

ting time. "NVheu lie was ready, they nmtiuicd, only to 1826find themselves ringed round with .shotted cannon. Tho A.n.

Atmeidan flowed with the blood of 20,000 Janissaries

;

and the name disappeared from tlio list of existing *corp.s. It

was a terrible but necessary blow.

In 1S2S war began between li ussia and Turkey. Two cam-paigns, in tho second of which Adrianople and Erzeroum fell, led

to the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), by wliich Ilussia acfpiircd

Kars near the Caucasus, and secured an independent administration

for Moldavia and Wallachia.

The rebellion of Mehemeb All, Pacha of Egyi)t, ao-aiust tho

Porte originated in the desire of this ambitious prince to bopossessor of Syria, which he accordingly invaded. His son,

Ibrahim Pacha, had advanced in 1882 wltli a victorious army to

Kutayah, little more than one hundred miles from Constantinople.

]3ut the interference of Ilussia averted the danger that menacedthe Turkish capital. A renewal of the war, after Syria had been

ceded to Mehcmet, took place in I8o0, a short time before the

death of Mahmud II. The Turkish army was defeated byIbrahim and Nezib—the Turkish fleet under tho CapudauPacha had deserted to tho l^'gyptian side—and nothing seemed

surer than the overthrow of Constantinople itself, when again

intervention turned tho scale. An allied fleet, Austro-Endish,

cannonaded several of the Syrian ports. Acre amongst them ; and

the rebellious pachas were compelled to make terms, resigning

Syria on condition that the Pachalic of Egypt should be madehereditary in their family.

During these events Abdul-Medjid (ISSO-Gl) becamo Sultan.

His Vizier, an eminent statesman, named lleschid IVhn, who,

by residing as a diplonnUist in Western Europe, had accpilred

wider notions of government than those prevailing in Turkey,

I i

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244 ItlSTORY I'J TURKEY.

M- ,

IM

framed 1 system of refovm calle,! the Tmnimat, wlncl. was puV

1839 -d) tl.o control oi tl.c cruel and despotic .ac .as ,vho had

IV hitherto honght their posts by auetion, and (2)_tho reUe ot

the Christian suhjeets of the Forte from eertam pemdt e,

„nl -rlev noes This doemnent kindled a flame of rppos.foi

,l.f"tho old Tmkish Conservatives, .ho regarded the measure

amo.v. the out 1ji,„,e„i„„ of the State; and the

as aimed directi) aL,.uiKM- mu ^r,^n,r r^.n-vlnd out

-^r2t-si2:rj:str^thi.;theSsh Christians belonged, after a tin>o de.uanded the pvo-

e tmi of the Holy Haees at Jerusalem, -'-l "-I'- J^^^

davia and Wallachia, the Da.mb.an l>"ne,pl,U^^ m o du to

£e:;Laidto;r... The^^^^^^^^

been already'--'<^^^^,^ '«j"^

, ,„ ,„ the ,3.„ube. >vhero

St o*"ev tinted by the British officers Butler and

Na my T massacre of Sinop., .hero a Knssian squadron

ft.:mtbastopol destroyed a few Turkish frigates and slew two

thousand men, excited n.uch anger througlumt Kuropo In the

irtiltions that preceded the war, the Car xN.eholas referred to

aS mnler the'metaphor of '; a sick man," whose possessions

1-iv readv for spoliation and pavtit ion.

Vpon the death of Abdul-Medjid in 1801 his brother, Abdul-

Aziz, who now holds the throne, became Kultau oi lurke)

.

W .

MODEllN TURKISH CIIUONOLOOY.

Constantinople taken by the Turks,

Conquest of Greece,

Turks gain a footing at Otranto,

Solyman the Great takes Belgrade

Battle of Mohacz, «'

Turks repulsed iit Vienna, ...

13att!c of Lepaiito, ...

^^url'S npquire Bacdad. ••• ••• *"

Turks defeated at Vienna ly John Sobieski,

• •t

t*«

SIS

A, P.

]453

1458

1180

1520

1526

1529

1571

30.39

16S3

A, P.

• t 3453

t« 1458

• • 1180

»•• 1520

•• 1526

§•• 1529

• •• 1571

• tt]*-.39

«! lGb3

!

HISTORY OP GREECE.

Peace of CarlowitZ; ... ...

Peace of Passarowitz,

Turkish fleet burned at Chesrae,

Ismail stprmcd by Suwarow,JIattle of the Pyramids (Egypt),

AH Pacha of Janina revolts,

War of Greek Independence,

Siege of I\Ii,ssolonghi,

Destruction of the Janissaries,

Pattle of Navarino, ...

llussiaus at Adrianople, ...

First ^var with Mehemet Ali,

Publication of Tunzimat,

Second war with Jyiehemet All,

War with llussia (Crimean W;i:),

Defence of Silhtria,

•••

• ••

• ••

• ••

• ••

• tt

• •t

• ••

245A.D.

... 169»

... 1713

... 1770

... 1790

... 179S

... 1820

1821-30

1820-G

... 1820

... 1827

... 1829

... 1832

... 1839

1839-40

1853-6

... 1854

GREECE (1820 to the Present Time).

The rebellion of Ali Pacha in 1820 gave the Greeks an oppor-tunity of doing what tliey had long hecn desirous to try—rising

in revolt against their Turkish masters and oppressors. ThisAlbanian chief, who liad seized the pachalic of Janina, and whoruled all Epirus, with pai'ts of Albania, Thessaly, and WesternGreece, became so formidable to the Poilc that a muster of theprovinces was made and the usurper was deprived of Janina andliis freedom (1822). Ilis head was then cut off.

The sparks of Greek patriotism had already begun to grow to

flame. In Moldavia Ypsilanti made a movement for freedom,which was drowned in blood.

I3ut the Greeks met at Kpidam-us, when Mavrocordato wasproclaimed president. One of his ])est helpers was Marco Boz-zaris, a Suliotc chief, who commanded a remnant of that braverace, which had escaped from the butcheries of Ali Pacha.There are two sites in modern Greece, round which the chief

interest of this war of independence centres—Missolonghi andNavarino.

The former was defended at first by Bozzaris, who held outuntil the Turks had raised the siege. On the approach of another

t i

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240HISTORY OF GUKKCE.

!l: !

i 1

Leo ,. ..m.. c..t to -'j^-j:j-;;:s: -s:s

greatest hero of the -r-tl- I^onulus o ,aun

^^^^^^^^^^^^

T!,o place was badly fo.tifiea, and is i. 1

, ^^

cannon to oppose tl.e O^^'^'V' I™™ A pi it, an.l

Resehld l>ael,a opened Lis ^''^^ ^^, ^^^ ^^^^ I u a^e of tUo

.ally after f^ Y^lTco^In ottd: the city by sea,

defenders. A 1 uikisli ilect «'™>"- ™.

^j,, g^Uan tl.en

was beaten by the Gveek slaps nnd Mmul, •i

_^^^^^

gave the chief eonnnand to ILnd, n.^^^^^^^ :^^,^ the

r. new anny vonnd the^^-^^'^^Tno t ,o "ht of snvrcndev.

hearts of the garrison, yet they had '^^ «- ""^'^^,.,,,.,„,

Ibrahinr rained shot npon the l'-^-f-t,Il educed the

an in vain, until ^^ -f-^ ;!j" .l;;; rats and eats, they

Egyptian force veady to ^^^^^ ^^^ ,,,,,,ere made

the heroes died; some escaped, hut the ^ic.

prisoners.,i , ^r Vurm^o- and m particular,

This event roused the syn>pathy of

f"2•Tnn.^ formed a

England, Uussia, and F.ance, '"'^"^; .;:iif"^;^^r„ppeav^

loaguc to aid Gveeee in the'"-f

»» .J^Lely in

of the Egyptians on the scene had^^^^'^^^^.^ ^ \, „,,„y

favour of the TurUs, who, m sp.tc of a b avo e^ y^^^.^

of Karaishald, ^^^f^^Z^^^ ^^^^^^-^'^'juncture, however, the AlUc ahead)

^^^^^^^ ^^

ttack

Lortal

s tlio

IMis-

Lord

bvlns

\ tlio

t poor

"Nvlieii

it, and

of tlie

by sea,

m tilon

.0 drew

cd tlic

L-render.

n-eaches

.ced tlio

its, tliey

Ai liost.

3y issued

le wliolo

ndved of

}re mado

lavtlcidar,

formed a

ppcarancc

plctcly in

the army

At this

[—Russia,

Franco hy

s of power,

IITPTOnV or GnEKCE. 247

Sir Edward Codrington, in command of a British squadron, in

conjunction with ships from France and llussia, took upIds position outside tlio liarLour of Navarino, in which 1827the united Turkish and J^^gyptiau fleets lay. Ills plan A.D.

was merely passive; hut a Turkish vessel fired on aboat, which di-ew a volley of musketry back in reply. A cannon-

ball then struck the ship of the French admiral, and out blazed

the fight in full fuiy. In a few hours the wrecks of the Turkishand Egyptian ships strewed the harbour. This battle, whichtijok place on the 20th October 1827, obliged tho Turks to

evacuate the Morca.

After the victory of Navarino, Count Capo d'Istria, a native

of Corfu, was formally installed as President of Greece.

In 1829 the Conference of London proclaimed the independoncoof Greece ; but it was not acknowledged by the Sultan, until

tlic advance of the Russians to Adrianoplo so menaced the capital

of Turkey that a treaty, embodying this condition, was agreedto by the Porte (1829).

The next task of the intervening States was to find a fittimr

raler for this troublesome little corner of the Continent. Capod'Istria had distinct leanings towards Russia, which did not please

the Avestern statesmen. Tlie throne was accordingly offered to

Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who afterwards became Kingof tho Belgians ; but he, induced by letters from Capo d'Istria,

and by his own misgivings as to his popularity and comfort amonga nation so fickle and deceitful as the modern Greeks, resigned

the honour after holdlKg it for a month or two.

Otho L (1832-02), a prince of Bavaria, then accepted the

vacant crown. He ibund a land pinched with poverty, torn bycivil dissension, infested by brigands—a sad contrast to the glo-

rious Greece of ancient days. Tho presence of German troops

and Bavarian officials was a sore grievance with the Greeks, whoforced the King to send them away. One ministry succeeded

another, Russian intrigues adding to the native complications.

In 1836 Otho took to wife a princess of Oldenburg, who displayed

a warlike spirit, that led her husband into trouble. In 1854 her

M

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248 HISTORY OF POLAND.

iLM ;

i1, Hi

^

1ji'

t^j

1

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BunDort of the insurgents, ^vlio raised ^vnr in the a.ljacent pro-

Zes of aW^^^ ^-^Sl^t\he soiaievs of England and France to

^hcns for the purpose of binding King Otho do.n to a pronuse

'"tuiated inl8G2,.hen a^^h^-^-^^^^^^TZtr

appointed. And in the foUowing year rnnce A dha.a of Penma h

Mother of the Trincess of Wales, ^vas elected lang under the

title of Goorgc I., King of the Ilcllones.

MODKIIN GRKKK ClIRON'OLOGY.

Revolt of Yijsilanti,

Death of Bozzaris,

Siege of Missolougiii,

Battle of Navarino,

Treaty of London,

Klcctionof OtlioT.,

Electiouof Koi'i;.: I.,

A.D.

1821

1823

lS2:>-6

1827

1823

183J

1833

POLAND (1370 to ttc Present Timo).

The ancient Polish .Ivnasty of Pinst, ,vhicl> ha.I its cnpUal Hyst

„t Oncson «n,l then at Cvacou-, euad in 1370, a. 1k.s Voou saul,

>vlth the ileatU ot Casiniir the Great, who acfiuirod Calic.a.

in,o niavrlago of the beautiful Queen Iledvige, claughter o

j.onis of Ilun^arv, ^vith Jagello, Duho of I.ithuau,a, muted tha

,,rov;nee to Pohu.d (1382), audbcgau a ^b-n_-ty,« uchoon mued

„>til the death ot Sigismuud Augustus .n 1 ..->. Under the

;Xn of JageUo the power of tl,o Teutonic Kmghts ,va. crushed

,t tl battle of Gunwald by the allied avnue. ot l'ol.™d an,l

Uhuania. While Casiudr III. wa. King, the T-="y;/;' -",

iu 1402 united the Prussian provinces w.tl. Poland; and Dan/,..iJ

was soon acquired as a seat of commerce

Sigismund (1506-48) came into collision with ti.e Russians,

whom ho defeated, although they managed to v^''-"

f"'''»';;•

which they had taken. In conjuucfon w,th us""j-'f

1^"";;,._., .!.„ 1.: 1,-.,,, (,. r.vderand rule liy curbing the tut-

he reducedI the kingdom to order and ride by

b pro-

ncc to

•onjise

lit was

miark,

er tlio

A.1>.

1821

1823

1825-6

1827

1829

1832

lSu3

Ital first

'cu said,

ia.

"liter of

itcd tliat

ontimicd

lulor tlio

! cnislu'il

land and

3f Tliorn

d Pauzig

Russians,

5Uiolensk,

}r Bonar,

• tho tur-

lIISTOUy OF POLAND. 240

bulence of the nobles, \vlio impeded both the anthe Ian or gene-

ral levy and the imposition of necessary taxes.

Owing to his Queen, Bona, a beautiful but dissolute daughter

of tho Milan Sforzas, tho Court of Poland, by the introduction

of refinement and courtesy from Italy and Spain, became one of

the most brilliant of the period in Europe.

Under Sigismuud the doctrines of the licformation began to

spread in Poland. He died in 1548.

Sigismund Augustus (15 lS-72) received the voluntary submis-

sion of Livonia, anxious to save itself from absorption by

Kussia. In his reign also occurred tho Union of Poland 1569and Lithuania, cemented at the Diet of Lublin (15G9). A.D.

Tho Reformation took a yet firmer hold of the higher

classes of Poland during this reign ; although the King did not

openly declare in favour of the Protestant doctrines.

When Henry of Vulois, a French prince, who, after holding for

a few months the throne to which ho had been elected, escaped

in disguise to France, and Stephen Bathory, a self-made Hungarian

Bohlier, had reigned in succession, Sigismund IIL (1586-1632),

the son of the Swedish King, was elected to the throne. It maybo noted in passing that this system of electing Kings proved

ultimately most injurious to Poland, for it kept the embers of

civil war always alive am ng the discontented and disappointed

factions.

Sigismund III. was completely under Jesuit control, a cir-

cumstance which excited great dissatisfaction throughout Poland.

In a great war which he undertook against Russia, he at first

succeeded so brilliantly that his troops, .issisted by the Swedes,

entered IMoscow, and extorted a treaty by which Vladislav, his

son, was made Czar of J^Ioscow. But the renewal of the war ended

in advantage to tho Russians. Vladislav was foiled in a siege of

the Russian capital.

Under Vladislav, when ho ascended the throne, Poland enjoyed

a long peace, until trouble arose from a revolt of the Cossacks of

the Ukraine. The war with these semi-savages continued imder

John Casimir (1648-68).

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250 HISTORY OF POLAND.

illi

The reign of tliis pi nice was imfovtunato, in fiplto of his {^ood

reputation" as a soldier. He was rasii cnoiigli to dispute tho

tlironc of Sweden with Cliailes Gustavus, in couscqucnco of

which a Swedish army overran PoLaud, taking hotli Cracow and

Warsaw, and driving the King into Silesia. The land lay haro

and desolate ; and yet it had a hold upon Polish liearts, wln.h

roused thcni to a great effort for its liberation. But they were

at first inclined to make Charles Gustavus King, nntd his taunt

«' that a conqueror needed none to elect hhn monarchy

1660 Btirred them into a war to curb his pride. John Casimir

A.D. was restored ; and in IGGO the Peace of OUva was con-

cluded. By this treaty Esthonia and Livonia were

transferred from Poland to Sweden, and the independence of Prussia

was confirmed. A disastrous war with llussia, ending in the loss

of Smolensk and the Ukraine, filled the remainder of Casimir s

reio'u, which closed in 1GG8 by his abdication.

The election of Michael Wisniowitski to the throne by the

minor nobility then took place. Ho was forced by the same

power that compelled him to the throne to pass a law forbiddmg

the voluntary abdication of Polish Kings.. ^.^-i

Then came the reign of the great soldier John Sobieski (1G<4-

OG) The son of the Castellan of Cracow, this eminent man served

in the mou8<^lletam:s of Louis XIV. for a time, but soon returned

to his native land to use his sword against the insurgent Cossacks

in John Casimir's reign. As Grand Hetman he led an army ot

'>0 000 against a Tartar force of five times the size, and by the

destruction of the hostile hordes saved Poland. In a war with

the Turks he reduced the hitherto impregnable fortress of Kotzim.

The result of such fame was that, when the Diet met to elect

a successor to Michael, the cry arose, " Let a Polo reign over

Poland," and John IIP was accordingly proclaimed.

His first duty was to redeem the regalia, then in pawn with

the Jews; his next, to raise an army and face the Turks.

Surrounded in Lcmberg by a great force of Ottomans, he took

advantage of a snow

with decisive success.

-storm, and charged the blinded besiegers

And in 1G76, intrenched on the banks

HISTORY OF POLAND. 251

! good

to tho

iico of

)W and

.y liaro

wliich

y were

s taunt

[larcli

"

]asinur

[IS con-

a were

Prussia

tlie loss

isimir's

by tlic

10 same

blddini^

(1G74-

n served

•cturncd

jossaeks

army of

1 by tbo

var witli

Kotzim,

i to elect

igu over

iwii with

>.

, lie took

besiegers

he banks

of tbo Dniester, with a tremendous Turkish host in front, led

by a pacha of Damascus, who was surnaincd the Devil,

from his ferocity, he kept up a twenty days' cannonade, 1676and then with liis handful of men charged the couplo of A.D,

hundred thousand tnrl)ans, who fled, shrieking with

terror at the appearance of the " Wizard »Sobieski/' This pro-

duced peace.

At home dissension was eating away the j^trength of Poland. Adangerous weapon—the power of pronouncing a veto upon the sit-

tings of the Assembly—lay in the hands of the nobles, wlio did not

hesitate to use it when the deliberations went against their views.

All movements of reform were met by tbis engine of anarchy.

IIow Sobieski saved Europe, when the Turks lay round Vienna

under Kara Musla[)ha, has been already narrated (1083).

The death of Sobioski, who strove in vain to stem the tide of

faction and turbulence among the Polish nobles, took place in

1G96. lie looked sadly towards the future of his country, whoso

battles he had gained from time to time, but whom he was power-

less to save.

Augustus II. (1G07-1704) was Elector of Saxony previous to

liis promotion to the Ptdish throne. Forming a close alliance

with Peter the Great of Kussia, he entered into projects of war

with Swedcni. Invading Livonia, he formed the siege of Riga

—

a proceeding which called into brilliant action the military genius

of Charles XII. of Sweden. The Polish cause grew worse and

worse, until a battle near Clissow completed its overthrow. Tliis

failure roused such opposition that a faction raised Stanislaus

Leczinski to the throne of Poland (1704).

Stanislaus enjoyed this position— if any enjoyment there

vas—until ihc battle of Pultowa, overthrowing Charles, recalled

Augustus to the throne again. Upon the death of Augustus II.,

Stanislaus made a second attempt to hold the Polish throne. He

was besieged in Danzig by a Russo-Saxon force; and, when hope

failed, he lied from the seaport in disguise. His own skilful pen

gives a narration of his romantic and perilous escape.

Stanislaus had a firm friend in France, for iiis daughter Maria

U'

H '• '<

fi

«il

1 •

ii

M I

«

i

!

mi

I

252 HISTORY OF rOIiAND.

was liiarricil to Louis XV. Accordin.cjly, upon tlio. conclusion of

the Treaty of Vienna, 1735, lie was presented v/itli the Pucliy

of Lorraine, whither lie retired to live a blameless life of devotion

to his subjects, and (piiet literary occupation.

During the feeble rei.ij^n of Augustus III. P(dand was com-

pletely under Russian influences. He was succeeded by Stanis-

laus Augustus (1704-93), the last King of Toland.

Known as Poniatowski before his accession, this handsome and

accomplished man was raised to the throne by the influence of a

powerful family named the C/artoryskis, who were strongly

supported by llussia in their schemes. These eidightcned re-

formers, who were actuated by patriotic motives, aimed at abolish-

ing, and succeeded in greatly limiting, the aristocratic privilege

of' dissolving the Diet by the vdo of a member. l>ut Russia,

Kceing these reforms tending to the strength of Poland, threw

her weight into the other scale.

In 17G8, a patriotic bishop named Krasinski formed a con-

federation at Bar. a town of Podolia, lor the purpose of

1768 securing Poland against the foreign influences, which had

A.D. been coiling round her for many years back. But it was

too late. The troops of llussia easily defeated the raw-

levies of the patriotic league. And when Turkey, coming to tl>.(>

rescue of an ancient foe, through dread of a more terrible present

and future enemy, was defeated, Poland was torn asunder by her

three strong neighbours, who carried off each a large tract of ter-

ritory.

This act of oppression, known in history as the First Partition

of Poland, made over to Austria Galicia and Lodomiria— to

Prussia all Polish Prussia and the territory of tlic Netze—

1772 to llussia the districts between the Dwina, Dnieper, and

A.D. Drutsch. The Polish King was left with only the shadow

of'

is power—the real authority being exercised by a

Russian envoy resident at Warsaw. A new Constitution was

forced upon the land; but this became distasteful to Prussia, who

promised to assist the Poles in framing a better, ^vhicli was pro-

mulgated in 1791. It abolished the veto, and declared the

M

III

hision of

Duchy

devotion

^'as coiii-

{ Stanis-

somc and

DRCO of a

strongly

tencd re-

t aLolish-

privilcgo

t Eussia,

[id, threw

h1 a con-

)urposc of

vhich liad

]ut it was

1 the raw

ing to tlio

le present

ler by her

act of tcr-

Partition

miria— to

[C Netzc—iepcr, and

lie shadow

cised by a

:ution was

iissia, who'i was pro-

idarcd the

IITSTORY OF POLAND. O53

throne of Poland hereditary in the Saxoii lino. Ihit thellussians stirred \\\) a confederacy against tliis system. It metat Targowitza. Secretly joined by both the King and theI'russians, Kussia then ])rf)ceeded to a Soccnd Partition (170;})which gave her 4000 additional square miles, and made Prussia[M.ssessor of the important ITanseatic towns of Danzig andTliorn.Then arose in the person of Thaddeiis Kosciiiszko one of those

})atriotic souls, which shine out like sudden stars when the nightof history grows darkest.

'Jlie jn-csence of insolent Pvussian troops in Poland, ospeci dlyafter the Second Partition, excited a wide-spread discontent,which easily fanned itself into the flame of rebellion. The fittest

leader that could be found for the national party was Kosciuszkowho liad learned in the battle-fields of America to use his swordand his brain.

Putting himself at the head of a hastily-raised force, many ofwhom liad no better weapon than a scythe tied on apole, the hero made Cracow a centre of operations. His 1794first important collision with the llussians at lladavkc a.d.resulted in a decided victory, although the enemy werestronger in number. Enconragcd by this success, the people ofWarsaw expelled their Russian masters; and for two months,lying in an intrenched camp before the capital, Kosciuszko kc[)tat bay a liost of Pvussians and Prussians. Then Suwarow camedown like a vulture on the swoop, leading an overwhelming macsagainst the doomed city. Kosciuszko, nothing daunted, met himwith a sniall force at Macziewice, about fifty miles from Warsaw.The odds were too tremendou.\ After a struggle of the fiercest,

the gallant Poles gave way, and their leader, bleeding and cap-tive, cried, " This is the end of Poland." The suburb of Praga,commemorated by Campbell in his stirring verses, was thenstormed by Suwarow, and the Polish capital surrendered.

Kosciuszko, after being taken as a prisoner to St. Petersburg,was released, and for many years wandered in America, Franco,and Switzerland. In the last he died (1817) from the effects ofa fall from his horse.

;l.i:i

1

1

: \\t

•'

251lIISTOr.Y OF rOLAND.

'i I

t. Si.

In 1,90^^^^'"^^'^^Z^l^^^^u^, patriot blooa, going to

1795 tl,o sanre thvco sroilevs «» ^'f°? ^ ^^ ^^^^^

.„ Russia Austria, ami Prussia. iHo ivni„, o

'"•E;.-ski, .vas pernuttcd to live on a pension at bt.

Petersburg._ f p^_,,.,„j i-ovivcd more

During the Napoleonic W.US the u_^^^^^ ^,,^

tl.an oneo. Tl.ese grew bnglit, -' «=" "« ^'

; Tilsit cloude,l

l-iussians at Jena and elscwbere-, ^- '« '^ ^w s formed into

tl,e sky of Poland once more ^oWJ ;"'^<,„,atution and a

tlie Dueliy of AVarsaw,^^^^^^ ,„„acd in 1800

Frencli code of laws, ilns^vas uu.u

'TlieCongressotViennanrrangedtl.eaf,uoa and.

^^^^

.eeeivedtboDuebyoi-Posena^^^^^^^^^^^^

Austria i«eeivedeertamteu.to es Uae^^^^^^^^_^ .^^^

and tlie rest was erected mto tlio Kingdom

^^^S^mises of liberty .d ^e^P- ^Po.^.^»«T'-""f;eli~ "bfir^r t;?;:;nny peeped out

sliape of per^"'-^^^. -^ j,,, ,ff„i,, of education.

1,1 many wajs, but '^^l^'^''^

^^^ Czartoryski, bad been

In 1803 an eminent Pole, Tiineo Aaa^^

„,ade Curator of the University "

J^^j"=

g^,,,,, „f themiosteraspiritofnationaUtya^^^

^^^^^^ ,^ ,.,

were eharged with sedition, bcin pi^

aespotism of tlie

^-^^^f^f^^^^^^^^ -"^^ *»

a, viceroy of Poland. Jhe systcni oi.

^^^^

speech and writing, .as put f-'-'V; ;;"",,,, ;, I their

-'tary school joined he ulo^s

^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

the two effected a union with the ioii.n i

1830A.D.

Ki't ^ t\

ItlSTOliY OF POLAND. 255

)f llGl

ng to

hours,

iiisluiis

at St.

d moro

cd the

Clouded

ed into

R and a

in 1809

rnissla

Varsaw;

epiihlic;

iidev the

tionallty

take the

ppcd out

had hccn

strove to

c of them

I hy the

vho acted

regard to

ny of the

for their

miversity.

:from tlic

cd ^vith a

the udli-

orsity, and

riic Belve-

dere Pahu'C at Warsaw, witli all it.s girdling niuat.^, could

scarcely protect Constantino, who owed his5 escape to some

friendly soldiers. After a while the whole Polish army de-

clared in favour of the insurgents, and Constantino was per

mitted to withdraw his troops and guns from Poland. Adan'

Czartoryski was made President of the Nati^^nal Government.

]>ut the Ptussian army poured in ; Prussia, though not actively

hostile, watched the frontier, and would permit no supplies

of any kind to enter the country. The hattles of Growchow,

and, yet more signal, Ostrolenka, resulted in favour of llussia;

(1831); amnmnition and hope were h('lh well-nigh exhausted by

the end of the campaign; and at length Warsaw opened her

gates once more to the despot.

If Poland had suffered tens of injuries hefore the Eevolution,

she suffered hundreds after it. Everything was done to crush

the national spirit, which had caused the insurrection; and this

imliappy land, whose destiny of misery somewhat recalls Italy to

the mind, felt that there w^as indeed an iron hand under the

velvet glove, with which Paissia had at first begun to mould her

disorixanized aflairs. Wilna and Warsaw lost their universities;

the libraries and museums were carried away to Russia; and

many of Poland's most eminent and active spirits found a homo

in foreign lauds. Amongst them was Czartoryski, who went to

reside in Paris.

The little republic of Cracow, which had been left independent

only because the spoilers could not decide which of them should

possess it, became in 1846 a focus of insurrection, which, how-

ever, was speedily trampled out. Cracow was then annexed to

the Austrian Empire.

There was a collision in 1802 between Poland and Russia.

Led by Langiewicz, the insurgents were beaten near Gagoscie,

after which the chiefs of the patriotic party crossed the Vistula,

and surrendered to Austria,

J;} •»

1i

A

r

250 niSTORt OF RtJSSlA.

MODERN rOLlSlI CIIUONOLOGY

i1*1 i

i 1

Union of Lvibiin,

Peace of Oliva, ...

r»attle of tlic Dniester,

J-.lm Subieski, ...

IMussacre of Protcstixnts at Thorn,

Confederation of Par,

pivfet Partition of Poland,

Second Partition of Poland,

Pevolution nnder Kosciuszko,

Defence of Warsaw,

Tliird and final Partition,

llevolution under Czartoryski,

J^attles of Growchow and Ostrolcnka,

Made a part of Russian Empire, ...

A.l>.

•t« '• •• at* • t* l.WJ

• •• •• aaa aat IGtJO

••t • t« • a* %*• 1676

«•• • a* aat lC7i-00

• •• • •• aat tat 17'24

•• «*t %•• tat 176S

• •• aaa aaa 1772

• tl • •• • •* aaa 17^3

•t • •• • •* aaa 1704

• •f • •• ata • at 1704

ttt •• • •* taa 1705

• •a •• aaa aaa lSOO-31

• •• • «• aaa

aaa

aat

at*

1831

is;j2

RUSSIA {14G2 to ths Present Time).

The omaiiciration of Russia froiu the M<x^uls, aiul the nMiiula-

tion of the llussiau monarchy as one of the powers of Kun.i.c,

nnist be ascribed to Ivan III. (14G2-1505), who conauered Nov-

./orod. The ^rasp of his strong hand drew together the numer-

ous petty state, into whieli the great plain was parcc led out.

The reign of Ivan IV. (1583-84) was remarkable for the

n.any seeds of future prosperity sown during its hipso of fifty

vcars The introduction of printing-thc cstabhshment of a

n-ade'between Enghmd and ArchangeWthe reform of the htws--

tl,e institution of a corps of archers called the Slrehl.es, notable

as the first germ of the llussian army-were among the events

of the reign. Personally, Ivan the Terrible, as tins cuef wa.

callea, was a savage of brutal ferocity, who struck Ins eldest son

dead with a blow of his own hand; but the terror lie excited had

a wholesome inflnence on the country.^ -n wi roo^

With Feeder (Theodore) died the royal line of Kuric (ioJo;.

It had existed for 73G years, and nimd)ered 50 sovereigns.

After fifteen years of confusion, during which two impostors

a monk and a schoolmaster, personated Pemetrius, the murdered

brother of Teedor ; and Vladislav of Poland, who sought tlio

ki'

IGOO

1676

G71-0G

17'24

176S

1772

17^3

1704

1794

17U5

lSDO-31

1831

is;i2

ni.^ToitY OF l.U:?.sIA. '257

throne liiiuRcU, j^oMCtrntcd to ^loscou', tlio nnnniinous ' oicc of

Kussia called Michael Romanoff to tlio lioad of alTairs.

Durin^sf tliis reign (1G13-45) Russia ciijoycfl a stvciigtli-,i;ivini^

rest, which IMichacl secured by wise concessions to Sweden and

Poland. lie was forced to restore serfdom; hut, hy concluding

commercial treaties, ho advanced the prosperity of Kussia.

The reigns of MichaeV.s two Kuccessors— Alexis, who was

troubled by a revolt of the Don Cossacks, and Feodor, under

whom occurred 'the first war with Turkey— earry on the narra-

tive to the time of Peter the Great (1089-1725), to whom, be-

vend questioVi, Russia owed her sudden rise from semi-obscurity

to commanding influence.

Ivan and Peter, two sons of Alexis, were crowned jointly,

under the regency of Sophia, sister of the former, who, having

the Strelitzna on her r*'1o, aimed at absolute command. ])ut a

revolution in favour of Peter overthrew her scliemes, and made

him sole Czar (1689). lie was then only seventeen.

Eeign of Peter the Great.—When Peter found himself master

of Russia, he began to make his army what it ought to bo.

Assisted by Le Fort, a native of Geneva, who had been his tutor.

ho dressed and drilled a couple of regiments in the l^uropeau

fashion, and, when the engine he had been improving and strength-

ening was ready, he tried it with great success against Azov,

which he took from the Turks (1G9G). In this a flotilla, built

TTi)on the Don, and noted as being the rough nucleus of the

Russian navy, aided him much.

Plis visit to Western l^hiropo is well known. For about two

years ho resided in Holland and Fngland, devoting himself to the

study of ship-buIMing and certain branches of engineeiing; and in

order to gaiti a true insight into the nature of the work ho de-

sired to understand, he hired himself as a common carpenter, and

went through all the details of the mechanical lalu»ur. A revolt

of the Strelitz Gluards recalled him from this tour, and he at once

saw tlie necessity of abolishing a corps which might come to be

as troublesome as the Janissaries were for centuries at Con-

stantinople.

km IT

1

1

y\

ill M

1"

ir1

1

It «

H

M

!« i-1

m

n

'fa.

i!

I

258 iiisTonv or Russia.

The introaucUon o£ European fashions and life among Ins sub-

loots also engage! liis attention upon his return liomc.

The leading cvcut. of liis reign arc connected ^v.tli Sweden,

with whose Iving, Charles XIT, he engaged in fierce conflict foi-

nine years. The great temptation that allured Peter into the

Swedish war was the desire to improve his sea-coast.

At first Charles was victorious. The battle of A«rm af-

forded proof to Peter that there ^vas yet a weak-

1700 iicss in his newly-organized army. But, as ho philo-

A.D. Fophically said, " Those Swedes will soon teach us to

heal them." . .

A\'Iulc Clmvlos was engaged in Lis Polish M'ar, Peter occupuMl

Ingvia a.ul Cuvelia. Signs of aUvanccmeut in nvts ami coinlurt

,vcvo visible cvevy«l.ero in Russia. A new cap.tal-bt. Fctevs-

,„„—v.as fonn,led in 1703; tl.o University ot Moscow wn

cst:i.llsl,ea ; and tl>o souml of tl.e ininting-preBS became freciucnt

in tl,e laud. All tl,e wliilo, too, Peter was gathernig strength lor

another struggle witu Charles of Sweden; and at last all wa.

'"iharles invaded Kussia-a fatal step (1707). As he .narchcd

„n, loading his men deeper and deeper into the deadly wilderness

,vl ieh Peter had prepared for his reception, every step was a new

.eal of death. When he was sufficiently far, and lus men were

reduced by frost and famine to a crew ot spectres, attcmp in,

the siege of PnUowa, Peter surrounded them witli a

1709 fresh annv ot 70,000 men. Tiie result in sp.to of des-

11 pevato vaiour on the part ot the Swedes, was a total

rout. Charles fled to Turhoy.

The Sn-edish King must have derived a pleasant consolation,

two years later, from the disgrace which fell on the llnssum arms

l,y the Prnth, when Peter and his army were saved from an ove -

whelmin- mass ot Turl;s, who had snrronndcd them, only ly ho

ollhe Carina Cathirine, wdio bought off the vi.ier with her

jewels. Tliis disaster cost Kussia also Peter's first con<luest, A;.ov,

which was restored by treaty to the Turhs.„ , ,• j ,

,

After another torn- of Europe, Peter found himself obliged to

1II?T0RY OP RUSSIA. i>59

is siib-

wcilen,

llct foi*

ito tlio

rvct af-

wcnk-

I pliilo-

1.1 us to

)ccupicil

coiiifovt

Pcters-

;ow wai^

frctpietit

mgtli fur

all was

ir.iu'clicil

lldciTiOSS,

•as a new

;ncn were

^tempting

1 with a

to of tles-

is a total

)nsolatioii,

ssiaii arms

n an ovor-

iily by tho

ir with hci'

lest, Azov,

oblijjed to

try and condemn his son Alexis on a chargo of conspiracy. Thoyonng man died in i>rison ; hut it is uncertain whether hy fair or

foul means.

Tlie death of Charles XII. at Frcdericshahl caused tho Swcdisli

war to lose its cnerj^^y ; and in 1721 was concluded the Peace oj

K./stwh, by which Hussia became possessed of Livonia, Esthouia,

Tngria, and part of Carella. Soon afterwards Peter assumed tho

title of Emperor. His last expedition was to Persia, where he gained

Romo territory along tho Caspian Sea. IIo died of fever in

1725.

Peter's widow ruled for two years as Catherine I. She hadbeen originally a peasant girl of Livonia, and her first husbandwas a sergeant of dragoons. Prince Menzikoff, the favourite

minister of Peter, who had also risen from the lowest station,

maintained complete ascendency during this short reign. UnderPeter K. (1727-30) Menzikoff was sent to Siberia, and the Dol-

goraki family rose to supremo influence in tho State. They in

their turn fell under Anna (1730-40), during whose reign tho

Persian conquests of Peter tho Great were abandoned.

A revolution now placed on the Pussian throne Elizaheth, tho

daughter of Peter tho Great and Catherine (1740-62). Durini,'

lier reign we find Pussia for the first time assuming distinct pro-

minence as a great military power in Europe. As the result of

a war with her ancient foe Sweden, she acquired the greater por-

tion of Finland (1743). But her share in the Seven Years' liar,

as the ally of Austria, won greater glory on a more conspicuous

field. Though bloodily defeated in 1758 at Zorndorff, tiic Pus-

sian soldiers, engaging with tho troops of Frederic the Groat,

gained two signal victories at Gross Jar/ersdorff and Kunersdorff,

and shared in the occupation of Berlin (17G0). Elizabeth died

bi'lure the conclusion of peace.

The dethronement and imprisonment of Peter III., after a rcigii

of six months, during which this prince made peace with Prussia,

led to the accession of his wife Catherine II. (17G2-9G), an ex-

tremely profligate woman, who was not ill-pleased to hear that

her husband had been strangled in his cell.

i f

I'

\ i

:

^' I

It

It

%{)in:TiUv (>;• nrf:«tA.

'^!

.m

m'

1 I ^..'.,v^'• lif>v fovoi'^n policy

ll..r domestic policy -.s «t.n, bv.l «>' >J ^^^^^

l.,.i„co Potemkin, a-"'f

'".1 n Ci fov I ti.no l.er favourito,

Turkey, ^vlud. gave»>:^

'»f^.^^/^t Kainarji, scouvod Iho

-nuH content,

7f'"S.;;;*;

;„\^,^-„K r„lc, ana gave llussia a

inucpcnaonco °f ' .^^^''^^^g^ ,^, r,,,;„>s took a tuvtUcr

lioUl upon tlic black oca. au x •

'::!; rid added the Crimea to *o.r »- Envpu.^ .^

i second'^^^^^.ZJ^^X -icfoated t„o

lieutenants, pvommcnt an«"°;^™ ., ^^^ elsewhere, that

pllTlTmotTsO ) ;;. "I'd his n,othcr Catherine. ITis

the various departmontsot tl.o

^^^- ,,i,„ ,,„i

At first he engaged-;;;\;*^ ,"""„,,, and t;iled coat.

,„wluehPaul,inutat.u u^ ^^^^^^^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^j

soldiery, was recalled *» '=°'™", / ,.,,•„.,.. :,, Italy (1799),

Austrians and Russians he '»"ef

''

'^^^ „ ^^nlL han-

.vhere anrong other v:etor,cs ^— ^;,X"rland he was les,

"^^''trtroS;:r^.Shard"^ the assistance of Kor-

Xtl 'r hreaicned hy Masscna, ho found lumself too

T'

;-^-

IIISTOIIV OF nussiA. 2Cl

policy

iiUey.

nenta\

s, wlio

inflicts

.rcil l)y

1 other

ar wltli

rolaiitl.

rod llio

ilussla a

further

and h\^

ited tho

that

whichre,

>y

) promiso

nnics rc-

i^lUngs ill

,who had

lilcd coati^

le Hussiaii

d force of

y (1709),

issian ban-

e was less

;e of Kor-

litnself too

late, ftnd was hemmed in hy a French army in the valley of tho

Keuss. However, hy leading his men in single file over tho

momitains hy a chaiuols-path, he escaped this peril. The Em-peror, fickle in all he did, recalled the veteran, who reached St.

Petersburg only to die (1800). The combined fleets of Puissla

ftud Turkey hail meanwhile taken the Ionian Islands.

Napoleon, wi.o read character fpilckly, gained the good opinion

of Paul, after tho battle of Marengo, by sending back all the

Piussian prisoners in France, with a supply of new clothing and

muskets. A speedy result of this was the seizure of all English

ships in Piussian harbours; and the conclusion of the Convention

of the North with Sweden and Denmark, by which these nations,

forming an Armed Neutrality, resolved to resist the searching of

their veoscls by Britain. Tho secret of Napoleon's desire to be

on friendly terms with Russia lay in the fact " that Ptussia held

the keys of India." A secret expedition to India, by way of the

Caspian Sea and Persia, was actually planned, when two events

broke the alliance between Piussia and France. One was the

dissolution of the Northern Convention by the bombardniimt of

Copenhagen (1801), and the other was the death of Paul. Ontho night of the 24th March a number of officers appeared in his

apartments, and insisted on his signing a deed of abdication on the

ground of mental incapacity. He violently refused ; and in tho

struggle that followed was strangled.

Alexander I. (1801-25) maintained a peace with France

nntil liis indignation was roused by the murder of tho Duke

D'Enghien and Napoleon's elevation to an imperial throne. Hejoined Austria, and had a share in the disasters of Austerlitz, at

which field ho was present in person. After Prussia liad been

Immbled at Jena, Napoleon pressed on to meet tho armies of

Kussia under Bennigsen, whom he defeated at Eylait and Fried-

land. The Treaty of Tilsit, concluded between Napoleon and

the Czar on a raft in the middle of the Niemcn, added Russia to

the adherents of the French Empei .'. The common ground,

upon which thoso lately rival potentates agreed to forget their

uifferenccs, was " hatred of Engla)id,"

^ U

m1

1

riv!(:

2G2 ITTSTOUY OF RTTSSTA.

;' <

In accordance ^vitU this treaty Kussiiv niaelc war on Sweden m1808, wliich ended in the complete conquest of Finland.

^

ATuikisli war went on intermittently for six years (1806-12);

l.ut ceased for a time durin- the existence of friendly relations

between France and Ilussla. 13ut it was not natural that thes«

friendly relations should continue. Russia was obliged to accede

to the "Continental .System" of Napoleon, which exercised so

Mi-hting an influence on her commei-ce, owing to the stoppage of

alfconnection with Kngland, that a cry of discontent arose. Tho

seizure of Oldenburg by Napoleon, against which Alexander pro-

tested, liastened the cri.sis, and war broke out in 1812.

Napoleon in Eussia.—Assembling a force of French, Germans,

Poles, Italians, and Prussians, amounting in all to nearly 500,0()()

men, Bonaparte crossed the Niemen into Kussia (June 2oth,

1812). Ere ho left AVilna, his head-quarters in Lithuania, a

foretaste of terrors to come displayed itself; for disease already

laid its grasp upon the invading force. The llussians fell back

;

Napoleon followed, sensible that to advance was liis oniy hope ol

keeping so enormous a mass of men together. As it was, 100,000

vere lost by sickness or desertion during his marcli through

Lithuania. At Smolensk there was n, battle (Aug. 16) ;but tho

llussians evacuated the city. A more terrible, conflict occun-ed

at Borodino (Sept. 7). Although the Russians lel't the invaders

masters of the field, so great was Napoleon's loss that he might

well regard it as a victory of most doubtful gain. A week later,

the French entered the open gates of Moscow, and marchoa

through silent streets, with only here and there the figure of somo

prowling thief. A fire, which br. ,ke out in the coach-builders

street, excited little attentiun, after it had been extinguished.

Napoleon took up his quariiers in the ancient Kremlin. But

that night the red dare was seen again, bursting forth in many

places, and the wii-a caused t^a flames to spread with such fury that

even the French Emperor in the Kremlin incurred some danger. It

was currently stated that this conflagration was purposely kindled

by the Russians, who wished to burn the invaders out of Moscow.

But Rostojjchin, the $'oyernur of Moscow, flatly denied this,

1

nr?TOUY OF Rl'.«.SIA. 263

Btating tliat tlio fire was dno to tlic drunken French soldiery, and

also to such iuhcabitants as preferred hurning their houses to Ict-

tuig them fall hito the hands of the iuvaih'rs.

The French, UfuiLle to oLtalii fuod, lived for weeks ii2)on salt

liorse. On the lOtli Octol.)er, the weather heinLj deceit-

fully line, the retreat hegan. Harassed l.>y clouds of 1812Cossacks under the Iletniau Platoff, the iuvadln,!^ army, a.d.

now reduced to 120,000, struggleil homewards : hut howfew were to sec that homo ! Then earlier ihau usual (Nov. G)

the Kussiau winter descended witli .sleet and ice. By the timo

the army reached the Beresina, over wliich they had to fight

their way, only 12,000 remained. At Smorgoni, Napoleon,

h'aving tho army to Murat, hurried forward in a bledge; and

issued a bulletin, telling Kuropo of tlio cumpleto destruction of

his army. AVlicu the spring tliaw came, more than 800,000 dead

bodies were collected and buried along tho track of that dreadful

march.

Alexander of Kussia, joining in tho coalition against Napoleon,

was present at the battles of Dresden and Leipsie, and was ono

of the Allied Sovereigns who entered Paris in triumph. Accom-

panied by tlie King of I'russia, ho visited England, and was

greeted with enthusiasm. After Waterloo ho formed a leaguo

with Prussia and Austria, to which was given as a nanm Tli<i

Ilohj AUiance, its object being tho preservation of peace and tho

suppression of revolutions on Christian principles

!

During the remaining years of his reign, Alexander madevarious tours through the different portions of his vast Empire.

On one of these journeys he was seized 'with fever at Taganrog,

where he died (1825). There were whispers of poison : but tho

rumour seems to have been groundless; although it has been

cpigrammaticjilly said " that assassination is the natural death of

a Piussian Czar."

Nicholas I. (1825-55) succeeded his brother. Sketches have

been already given, in tho pi-oper places, of the revolution of

1830 in Poland, and the successful campaigns ill Turkey, which

resulted in the Treaty of Adrianople.

'\ti

ii

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t. ::r

f

» I

S J!

?.fi

'ii

i, !

< I

201 HlrtTuUV OF KUS^^IA.

The velatiDiis l^otwpcr. Uussla and areat r>rltalu were impovilled

in 1838, ulien a Pcrsiaii army, oHiceivd by llvLssians, advanced

against Ilc^-at, ilie position of wlii'li in the iiorth-western an-lo

of Afglianistan causes it to be r-M^-avded as one of tlie keys of

India! But the attack fa'ded. The suspi.-ion, that Russia looCs

%vit]i a covetous eve upon India, caused swnie people to trace tlio

beginnings nf the In^liau Mutiny to the inti'Ii^ues of llussiaii

emissaries. . .

The interferonee of Russia, ^vhen she j^avc anl to Austrui m

crushin- the llun-ariau rising of 1848, has been aheady indi-

cated. In 1S4'J G<-.r-ei surren.h^'cd at Vihi.gos near Groswardem

to the Russians, uho had dready won several battles.

The dispute which led to the Russian War, as it is called m

Britain, concerned tlio Holy riaces at Jerusalem. The inonk.^

of the Greek and Latin Churches contended about the templo

and the sepulchre ; and the Turks, who were masters in the city,

made arrangements for repair which pleased neither side. Men-

yikoff went to Constantinople to demand redress of the Greelc

'Church grievances ; and, when none that Russia would accept as

satisfactory was offered, he declared that the Czar would sei/e .i

«' material guarantee." Russian troops then entered ^\allacl^a

(.Julvtind, 1^53).

'IIM no ccmcessions on the part of Turkey would have satisHed

Russia was evident from a secret proposal ma.le by Isichohts to

Great Britain to eliect a partition of the Turkish hmpu'c, of

which the British lion's share was to bo Kgypt.

The chief events of tiic Jhissian }Var (1853-5G) have been

already alluded to. During its progress the death ot Nichoks

(1855) raised to the throne his son Alexander IL Althou ;h the

title of Czar has been used more than once in the preceding-

pa.. es to distinguish the Sovereign of this great Empire, it may

be'noted that the fuller title, since the days of Peter the Great,

has been " Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias.'

In 18G1, the Czar Alexander issued a decree for the total abo-

lition of serfage within two years.^^The number of slaves thus

emancipated was twenty-three miliioiis.

?rille(i

anced

anglo

t'V8 of

. looks

Lce tlio

lussiaii

tr'ui ill

y iudi-

,'ardeiu

Hod ill

monki*

tcmplo

lie city,

Mcii-

j Greek

:,'cept as

i sei/o A

ullauliia

Hatisfiecl

liolas to

iplio, of

ivo been

Nicholas

o\i 'h the

)rccccling'

B, it mayle Great,

otal al)0-

ives thus

IIISTOUY OF KUSSIA. 2C.1

An indirect connection has recently arisen between Britain ami

Russia by the nmrriago ot* the Princess Dagmar, sister of the

Princess of Wales, to the Ciiarowitch or eldest son of tho Emperor.

»IODi:UN nUSSIAN CIIKONOLOOr.

Line of Ruric eml.s, ...

House of llDiuanolf from ...

Keigii of P' tor the (iicat, ...

Uattle (it'^ u-va, ... ...

Dattlo of Pulto ,;l,

Teacc of Nystult,

Crimea Itccomes a Kussian <loiiiiiiioii,

Suwarow' caniiiiu;:;n in Italy,

Tlie Anned Neutrality, ...

Mnnler of (Jzur Paul,

Ivittle of Austerlitz, ... ...

Treaty of Tilsit, ...

Kapolfon's I'lis.sian Caniiiaif,'n,

War u itli Turkey, ... ...

War witii Poland, ..• ...

The llussiau War (Crimean),

Aiiolitiou of Sorfago, ...

.1*

...

...

A.O.

1593

1G13

1089-17-25

1700

170i)

1721

1754

17^*9

1800

1801

IhO-)

1S07

1S12

1S-J8

1830

... lS53-5()

... 18U1-G3

ASIA IX iVrODKRN TDIES.

Go- ml Features.—The history of Asia durin.2^ the last four

centuries— /. , siucc Va >» do Gania made his cchihrated vovago

round the Cape iu 140S, o[)cmn.[r an occan-})ath to I ^ia and iho

East—lias been a conimcii'ary upi>i! that ancient ])ropiiocy which

declares " that Japhet shall dwell in iho tents of Shcui." In tl;o

^vork of eoh'uizatiun and ccucpiest the l^riti.-^h have taken tho

lead. The historical interest centres in four countries—L.dia,

Persia, China, and Japan.

HISTORY OF INDIA (1525-1858).

Baber, a descendant of Tinuir, inva(' 1 India from the north

early in the sixtt>ent1i century, and found ^ in tho basin of the

Ganges a Mogul Empire, of which ho made Delhi the capital

(1525).

Iii

lfi<

m

i ! I

r

2G0 HISTORY OF IN'PTA.

1^^

%

Vli: h

^ V

iif

!

Ifh i I

Akbar (ir.5G-lC05) was the wisest of the native moimrdia

ll.ut vuled iii Iliiulostan. The first luilf of Lis lei.^n was given

to coiKiuest, l>y whicli lie exteuacd Lis sway iVoiu tLc Ilnu oo-

• Koosli to the Dcccan, from the BniLuuipootm to CaiulaLar. l>u

Lis peaceful works entitled Liiii to a greater fame. lie caused

men of learning, in wLose society Le deligLted, to translate niany

works from Sanscrit into Persian, wLich was tlie language of Lis

Court He relieved tlie Hindoos from obnoxious taxation, and

spared no efforts to imm-ove law, trade, and travel. TLe various

provinces of tlio Mogul Kiupire were governed Ly meroys, called

The i-ci-n of Aurunszebe (1C58-1T07) ^va3 tlic sunset of

l«ul.aiic splon.lour in India. OLtaininpr tl.o llivono l,y tl,c nm.aci-

of Lis three hiotliers, and the iniprisunniont of his aged lather

Rhah-Jelian, this tyrant forgot the heuefioence of Akl.ar towards

ll,e Hindoos, whom he taxed with severity. II.s grasp ol the

seeptrc ^vas so firm, that for many years ot the re.gn the d.seon-

tented spirits cowered and were at peaee. Bnt synipton.s of

deeay heeame visible in the I'hnpire. The Mah-aUa., a tr,bo

from the mountains between Canara and Gnzerat, n.a.ntamed.^

.-uerilla war under their chief Sevagi ; and the liypov's m Centra

India (lung off tlieir allegiance, disgusted at the imposition of

taxes and the wanton destruction of Hindoo temples Suspicion,

terror ot assassins, and remorse fur many crimes darkened the

declining years of this despot. '

. ^ ,

After his death (1707) the Empire became a prey to intest.no

convulsions. The Mahrattas came in 1735 to Delhi gates, and

extorted a heavy tribute from the Great Mogu .Four years

later xXadir Shah ot Persia occupied Delhi, and stripped the

Kmperor of treasures in jewels and coin to the amount ot many

millions, besides depriving him of all his provinces to the west of

the Indus. And all round the degraded centre of the i^alm

rebellious viceroys-the Nizam ot the Dcccan, the Nabob of ho

Carnatic, the Subahdar of Bengal, Ac-dedared themselves m-

dependent."

<• x i i-„v,'/^

Then it was, amid tlie conflicting fragments of a great Lar.aiic

Kl

ITTSTORY OF TNDTA. 2G7

111arc! 13

i o;ivou

[iiuloo-

. But

caused

many

e of Lis

on, and

various

J, called

msct of

muvder

1 fatlicr

towartls

p of tho

! discon-

ioms of

a tribe

itained a

I Central

isitlon of

uspieion,

2ned tlie

intestine

ates, and

:)ur years

pped tlio

of many

LO west of

:lie realm

ob of the

iselves in-

t barbaric

Empire, liastoning fast to dissolution, that tlio Europeans found

the opportunity of securing a firm footing upon Indian soil.

The Portuguese were naturally tlie first to establish their

factories in India, at Cloa, Bombay, and other jdaces. ThaDutch followed, and exitelled the earlier comers from Cevlon.

Lancaster, an English captain, sailed from Plymouth to India mIGOl ;

and some of his countrymen established factories at Surat

(1G12), having obtained a charter under the title of the East

India Company.

The European competitors for empire in India were ultimately

Britain and France. The hitter founded a station at Pondicherry,

where an enterprising gcn'ernor named Duploix began to dream of

expelling the Britons, and securing the whole of the golden

peninsula for Prance.

In refusing to restore Madras, an English settlement, whichhad been reduced in 174G by Labourdonnais, the governor of (ho

IMauritius, this man made Ids first ambitious move. A dis])uted

succession brought him soon into mure violent collision with tho

]']iiglish. The rivals were Chunda Sahib, supported by tho

Prencli, and Mohammed Ali, supported by the Britisli : and tho

position they contended for was that of Xabob of the Carnatic.

Supporting in addition the claims of 3Iirzapha Jung to be Viceroy

of the Deccan, Dui^eix received from that grateful usur})er tiio

control of the whole Coromandel coast (1750). The question of

British or French supremacy in India came thus to turn on tho

relief of Trichinopoly, where Ali was besieged by the French.

A young English clerk named Olive headed an expedition against

Arcot, which he took, and where ho endured a siego of fifty days

Buccessfully (1751). Next year the siego of Trichinopoly wasraised, and Chunda was put to death. Dupleix went to France

fi baffled man ; and tho French hopes of conquest in I dia were

extinguished. We know what dreams of Indian conquest floated

in the mind of Bonaparte ; but they were dissipated by his

failures in Egypt, and other reverses.

Clive signalized himself further by the conquest of Bengal.

The cruelty of Sujah Dowlah, who hihumunly confined 146

I-;

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111

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.:i

1,1

:

2C8 lIISTOilY or INDIA.

Eno-lish prisoners in the Black Hole at Calcutta, causing tKe

deaUi of nearly all tlio nuniLor, led to tlie battle^ of Plassey

(1757), ^vllich secured for Britain the Empire of India.

In 17GG Lord Clivo, \vlio liad been raisc^d to the peerage for

his splendid services, extorted from the Mogul tlio right of

collecting the revenues in Bengal, Orissa, and Bahur—a conces-

bion which made Britain mistresii of the Ganges up to Patna.

Warren Hastinss, appointed the first Governor-General of

India in 1773, held that high po.Vition till 1785. He met v/ith

much opposition from certain of his councillors, especially from

Philip Francis; and a Brahman named Nuncomar, afterwards

han--"ed for forgery, brought many accusations against him. There

were two circumstances on which the trial of Warren Hastings,

after his return home, chiefly hinged. One was his treatment of

the Rajah of Benares, whom ho arrested and ill-treated because

he would not pay a large addition to the usnal tribute ;the other

was his treatment of the Begmns (princesses) of Oade, who were

starved into surrendering their wealth.

A war with Hyder Ali of Mysore, during the latter years of

Hastings' rule, was at first disastrous. Enraged because the

English did not aid him in the Mahratta war, he invaded the

Oamatic (i780), where ho obliged Colonel Baillie to surrender,

find made himself master of Arcot. But Sir Eyre Coote defeated

himnear Cuddalore ; anddeath soon cut short his career. But heleft

a fierce soldier behind him in the person of his son Ti,)poo Saib,

one of tlie most determined foes the ]Miglish have had in India.

While Lord Cornwallis, tlic successor of Warren Hastings, ruled

English India, a war with Tippoo took place (1790-2). It ended

in tlic cession of half Mysore. But Tippoo was stirred to action

a few years later by French intrigues, and again the English in-

vaded the plateau of Mysore. General Baird led an army

1799 to Seringapatam on the Cauvery; after a hot siege

A.D. the city fell, and with it fell Mysore. Tippoo was found

among the dead; and the prize of the taken city was

committed to the charge of Colonel Arthur Wellcsley, aftcrwarda

the great Duke of Wellington.

ii:?7n::v ov ixdia..>/^-

3

Plassey

•ago for

ifrlit of

(.'ouces-

itiui.

noral of

let v/itli

11y from

tcrwards

. There

lasting^,

tmcut of

because

lie other

v'ho were

years of

aiisc the

adetl the

urrender,

; defeated

Jutheleft

poo Saib,

1 India.

ngs, ruled

It ended

to action

nglish in-

il an army

hot siege

was found

L city was

iftcrwarda

A \vnr wilii a pova-rfiil native prince, Sein'il;), gave Vu'llcsloy

now oppoi-tunltics of training and displaying liis great military

genius. At Assaye (1S03) he defeated a vast Lost of ^Nhdirattas;

and at Argaom, the llajah of Berar. And meauAvhile GeneralLake took Delhi and Agra on the Jumna. At Furruckabad andlihurtpore tiie British were also victorious.

Tlie conrpicst of Ceylon, begun in 170C by taking the sea-

coast regions from the Dutch, was completed by the subjugationof the natives in 1815.

The first Burmese War broke out in 1823. Sir Arciiibald

Campbell took Rangoon, and stormed a succession of stockades

n[) tlie river to Yandaboo, when a peace was made, giving Aracauand Tenasserim to Britain.

A disputed succession led in 1839 to tiio Afghan War.Assisting Sliah Soojah against the intrigues of Dost Mohammed,an English army entered Candahar, and Idew open tho gates c»f

Giiuznce Avith gunpowder. Mohammed fled from Cabul, of Avhieh

tlie conquerors took possession. But trouble arose. The British

were beleaguered in Cabul, and Sir "William Macnaughtan, the

British Envoy, trusting rashly to the honour of an Asiatic, metAkb.ir, tho son of Dost Mohammed, in conference and was shot.

A British force, marching through the snowy passes to Jelelabad,

was almost anniliilated. Britain then put forth lier strength.

Forcing the Kliyber Pass, General Pollock reached Jelelabad;

and tile war was ended uy tlie occupation of Cabul (1842).

Sir Charles Napier was tlie contjueror of Sinde, whoso Amcm^or native princes, displayed such signs of hostility to the British

that war was declared against them. As a result of llie victories

of jllcaiipp and I)/ihha the territory was annexed in 1843.

But the Seiklis of tho Punjaub were foes more difficult to

subdue. Originally a religious sect formed in the reign of Baberby Naniik, they were moulded into a race of formidable soldiers

by llunjeet Singh. Their passage of the Sutlej into Britisli

India was an overt act of war (February, 1845). At Moodhcaand Ferozc!<huhur the Seikhs wore defeated

; but the decisive

fields of this first war were AUwal and Sobraon. The presence

li

r

' II

.;•* *

270 IITSTORY OF INDIA.

I n

I! :;:

of European ofllcors in tlic Soikli army added much to tlio dllli-

culties of the struggle; for the artillery and the fortilicatious of

these Punjaub ^varriors were on that aceount so admirable as \i\

be almost equal to anything the British could bring against tlu'iii.

The annexation of the triangular territory between the Sutlej and

tiic Beas resulted from this struggle.

In 1848 a second Seikh War began. It arose in the shape of

rebellion at Mooltan, which was garrisoned by the insurgents

under Moolraj. But the city yielded in January 1849 to a strong

]3ritisli force. The advance of Lord Gough brought matters to

a crisis. The battle of Ch'dUanicaIJa was indecisive ; but a con-

flict on the plain of Goojerat, where a band of Afghan cavalry

aided the Seikhs, resulted in a complete victory for Britain

(February 21st, 1849). The Punjaub was then formally pro-

claimed a British possession.

A second Burmese "War (IS 52) arose from the insolence of tho

Governor of Rangoon and his superior tlic King of Ava. After

vain demands for apology and conrpensation to the merchant

captains who had been ill-treated, our war-steamers bombarded

Martaban. Tiie defences of llangoon were afterwards stormed;

but it was not until Frame, high up the river, fell before British

prowess, and resisted all the efforts of the Orientals to retake it,

that the King saw the need of submission. Tliis war made Pegu

a British possession.

Oude was annexed to British India in 1850. In the following

year Vac Indian Mutiny broke out.

For years a restless feeling of discontent had been growing

among the ^Mohammedan Seprn/s, as common native soldiers arc

called in India; and an absurd prophecy, that in exactly a century

after the battle of Plasscy (1757) the English rule was to ceaso

in India, easily gained credence anmng tho natives. It is thought

that emissaries from lUissia, of Avhose andiitious designs on India

Homething has been already said, aided in fomenting this dis-

content and stirring up the smouldering embers of rebellion. At

last, however, the crisis came, the innnediate occasion of outbreak

being so simple as to border on the ridiculous, The new

lu

lie ilirii-

itioiis of

bio as t(\

st tlll'lll.

itlei and

slinpe of

surgcnts

a fstroii;^

atters to

it a coii-

i cavalry

Britain

illy pro-

cc of iTio

,. After

iiovcliant

nibarded

stormed;

e Britisli

retake it,

ide Pegu

following

growing

diers arc

a century

s to ceaso

i thought

on India

this dis-

llion. Atoutbreak

The uyw

mSTORY OF INDIA. 271

cartridges issued to the troops, being greased in order to allowthem to pass more smoothly into the barrel, excited the religiousItars of the Sepoys, who pretended to find in this a device tocause hem to abjure their i^uth ; for it was necessary to put tl

n^i t """' ^"' 'i'"'^' '1'"^'"^^ ^ 'lestroying flame.liie Mutiny broke out at Meerut on the 10th of May 1857when some Sepoys bro'.-3 open the prison in which their com!nules were confined for refusing to bite the obnoxious cartridges.Ihc rebels then shut themselves in Delhi; but happily the

powder-magazine had been previously blown up. On the 4th of

'Zl'l ^TT"'"'^'^'"' '' ^''''-' ^^^^^^' ^^'l^i^l^ ^^11 on the

--utn ot feeptember.

Lucknow tl„3 capital of On.lc, ,va. another conlro of tl.oMn,s,,le. Sl.nt ,v,„,i„ the Ecsidonoy, .l,e British hcM out

11- Chief Co,nm,s,s,„„er, Sir Ilenvy Lawrence, ,va« killed by ashell. Then scareity ot food and the horrihie odour of dceayin.^.lead eaused the '.esieged to suffer severely. During all th«summer months, from June to Septen,l,er/the peopb in th^lu. deucy hoped against hope, until at last their joyful eyes .sawl.c troops of General Ilareloek apprnaehing. He relieved the

ciu ly. The heart-broken sufferers had entered the third monthof tins new siege, when Sir Colin Campbell fought his way totheir second and final relief (ITtli Nov. 1857)

"

Cawnpore on the Ganges was the scene of 'a terrible massacreof Lritons, perpetrated by Nana Sahib, a ferocious MahraUaclueitain.

The honour of trampling the Mutiny out is due to the gallantScoltis^i soldier who exchanged his more celebrated name otColiii Cainpbell for the title ot Lord Clyde. Aidc.l bv Sir Iln.rhlu.se who marched across the peninsula, faking jhansi andOwahor, Sir Colin drew a fatal lino roun,l the mutineers, and oon-tnicting Its limits caught them in the toils. The fall of Ba,-cilU(May 7th, 1858; was the last important operation of the war

e t

i\

t.!I

i|

''I'll 1

1

i»^.'

•

1

insTouY OF t>i:rwSiA.

Tli(3 year iS.jswas uotaMc for a tiiost import.wt dianp^c in the

^^^ovcrnniout of India. By tlio passing of the Iiidla ]>ill tlic

Oouipaiiy, wliicli had directed tlio a flairs of tlio great peninsula

of the Kast since ICOO, and had gra.hially found its fcw^ fac-

tories grow into an Empire vaster than tlie ishand, to whicli it

was a mere appendage, ceased to exist. Tlie government of

India was transferred to the Queen, wlio transacts tlio business

of the great colony by means of a Special Secretary of State.

PERSIA.

In 1502 the Tartar rule in Persia, which had been established

by the conquests of Tamerlane, gave way to the Sufi dynasty,

founded by a Turkoman named Ismael Shah.

The most distinguished of the Sufi line was Abbas the Grecat

(1585-1628). Persia, previously to his accession, had suffered

much from the assaults of the Usbek Turks, who had overrun somo

of the provinces—especially Khorassan. By a severe defeat

near Herat, in 1597, the power of tliesc marauders was nmch

crippled. To a keen desire of forming alliances against Turkey

vnth Western Europe, may be ascribed the hospitality which

Abbas displayed towards the Shirloys, English knights wlio

visited Persia. On the whole his nvars were successful, the last

battle of consequence in his reign being a defeat of Turks and

Tartars between Sultanieh and Tebriz (1G18).

Abbas looked with jealous eyes on the Portuguese settlement

.it Ormuz, an island in the entrance of the Persian Gulf. Vv'ith

tlie aid of ships from the English East India Conqiany Ureduced the place; but his allies derived no commercial benelits

from their interference, as they had hoped to do. Ispahan was

made the l\>rsian ca])ital during the reign of Abbas.

The Suh dynasty terminated in 173G, when Nadir

1736 Shah, the soti of a maker of sheepskin coats, but who

A.D. proudly styled himself " the son of the sword," de-

throned Tamasp, the last of the line, and assumed the

sovereignty.

1

c in tho

Bill tl.o

cninsula

few fac-

wliicli it

iiiicnt of

business

tutc.

nisTor.Y op rr;n?iA.

[alillslicd

dynasty,

he Great

suffered

run some

•c defeat

'as much

: Turkey

ty which

jhts wlio

,the hist

'urks and

etthniient

If. Vvltll

iipany he

d Ix'neiits

ahan wu>i

len Nadir

,but who

rord," dc-

sumed tlic

I hn-Tf"'" "" """""''"= ^''''""^' "•'"" ''-' <'l'

Ami, ,,hcn the Emperor of DcH.i persisted iu .sl.oUcnV' 11,:

'•'.t cityol the C.re.t M„;;ul, from ,vl,!,.), I,e ..mTiod off ^^u ;„.

ii-lv fuuVuu. fi, f *i?'^°^^^''^»''^"-S imd .some of them accon-

I'-.-J}, liiKlini,- that tlieii- names were in -i ll.t nf ,.,... • r••'"ticiiMled the Sluih by enteringV " .If ^^^^^'^-^-'I'^^:'",

him (1747).^-'iuimg m.^ tent and murderh.Lr

AfeortI.e ,lon.l. of Xa,!lr u <;,„o of .mnrel.y ens„e,I, .Inrl,,.

d!;:'o?l!r;;::;:;r,;:-'''->-''™' -•'«• i-no.,;Il«/v..' ., ,1! .

•,

";""" "''"'"'<^ ^"'f' tl'" title of

sio, •.

?"' "T'"''""'

"'''^'' '^'"' S'«-v into p;«o..Mon. J. nKey « anotlier European State ^yhkh Im beenon^.ffe,l .Innng tl,!. century, in war. ,vitl, l-ersi,..

Herat, on the bor.ler.s of Khorassan an,l Afghanistan Ir., lon-^

s, (18.„-oS)of en months, -hning «ln-eU the Shah o.ertea•• I I. s »trenga. ,u van,. The galhn.t Uefenee of the pla.e wa'

^

]!nt in 1855 Persia again interfercl v;ith a .lisiMito,! .ueee^ion... Herat, „p„r, .hh.h Britain, fully alive to the i, po t o'l^.«--.. I^oy to India on the north-west, doelared wa, TI ebomhardment of Jinshire, and defeats at lO.oshal, and ^vlea

'..ont of the indepen*lenee of the stronghold of Khorassan

H:

'5

*i!

hi

ras?;

18

fij

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271

U'

, ;

,1

i.

I!

'1

m

lIlr;T(>:iV ol' (.'IIIXA.

cm HA.

Dnrin;; C:\q proc;!--:?--. of { lie many 1 op'cnclary dynnstlo.^, of wliich

tlie liistury of C]iiii;i is full Juriii;,^ tlie centuries before Clirisf,

(•lily «.'ne ni'inovjiMe luiiiK) iippears. It is tliat of Kotig-foo-tsp,

\vliieli luis Ircn Lai'nizcd into GoriiLicius. Tl-.is ])]iilaiitliropi(j

veforuier, I'oru in the l:inp:tloiu of Loo, ro^o to be jirliiie-iiiinistGr,

I'Ut v.-as l-;;!;i.;1i((l, owln-' to tlio jealousy of iMM.^'libouring sovo-

rei';ns, to {]:i\ h\:y;'\in\i of Cliin, v/liero lio ended liis days in

P",.-(>riy (anoiit -ITo hj\) His writings, of whicli there aro niiio

LoiiAS, fo'.-'.a tlie sacred lileradii-o of China.

Tlie fhrt nioiKireh of the Tciil dyna-,ty, nnitin.o: all tlu) petty

states north i^i th.o Kian^j: lliver \un\o\- Ids govcrmnont, caused

all the reeords of the past, iiududing the hooks of Confucius, to hcj

I'urned (i^ IT r-.e.^: and to him was also due the huildini; of tlio

Ctp-at Y\';i:l Oil the n-'vih t<> l:<v]\ out tlic Tartars.

Under the T:.:! dyna;>ly, China ae^piired si/.e, Ktrcngtli, ami

spleii'lour C-'*T i'.''.-l:--0 \.v.)', and the fame of the nation ex-

tended oven to ]:..:;i'.', wh(«n."o one of tho Antonines sent presents

oi ivury to tin.; rc-i;;-nin.;.;' Ihiiperor. A new dissolution

of the Ivii.pire was fallowed hy a new union, when in

fiS.") f,.r tin? first tiiiii! Xorlh and South Vv'cre joined under

(•nvi sef'tre, tlie ca.pital hein;' (iAi'd at, Ilonan.

It is l.(.li;-vel Ihat s./Jie Nestnrir.n Christians reaeltod Chinii

nl'ont 040 : there is n l-v.cnd statin;;- that foreigners with fair liair

iirrivi-d in tie- la.n-h wl.ilo ;i nn)nunient, graven with a cross and

a sunmia.y cf the Ciirisliau law, has heeu discovered.

Tjio Tartar i:.v;-i-rs formed the great trouMe of the Chino^o

l/.nperors in the :u!.hlIo Ages. It happened that, whenever they

called in exi-rnal aid to repress their incursions, the allies turneil

the hired sv.-'.rd npoTi their cniph.yers. This was especially lluJ

case in the thirteenth century, wdieu the Kmperor of China,

desirous to fdiahe off the yolco of the Kin Tartars, called in tlie

aid of Zenghis-Khan and his Moguls. The Kin were

^^^^ f;uh>lued; hut t;o were the Cliincse. In 1279 Kublai

\^ '^j \j

A.I>.

A.I).

V'l:i:i-.:.ll eunqdoted the con-piesL of China oy reducing the

:'i

^ I

nrsT«v:v oy c.'jJNA.

of wliich

c Clirist,

ii^-foo-tsp,

uitliropiu

iniiilstor,

!ng fiovo-

il;ivs ill

iiro nino

.]i(3 petty

it, cnnsed

lus, to bci

v^ oi' tlio

i;,4lj, ami

cition ex-

l present

H

is^olutioii

,wlu'ii III

ictl under

0(.l Ciu'iiii

1 fair lialr

ci'u.>,s ami

levei* tliey

ios tunii'il

'c'uilly tluj

of Clilnn,

ed ill tlio

Kin wcro

9 Kublai

ucing tlio

i.-..r (..>( s;. an.l those i,i turn -ivo way to tlio Han^cVnJartars, who scizcl the throne in ]<;i4.Xiantc.oo

:^.:iS;i;;;:/;;:;r:.;;;r^^III I'^^.'JO a (lisi)uto jibout onlinn wIiicTi ihr^ r^i

-

""I ^ maivli upon Xai.ldn furce.l th.. TM /j,' y^' *''"-"»

('omniissionor at r-int(^7i v..r„-. i . •'

-»<n, tlio

-V was ,.,,..,,., e,. .,„, ,.,,,., ,,, ,,„ ,,.„„„,, ,;„/,:;:,•'

v.ai, wl.ul, was s]„,„t a!„l ,kvl.iv,. l„r „ I.i,„v ,,k .1,-,. '- T.

onj- ,vlK.n .t ,a,l loc„ an-a,,,.! that a Ih^t.-sU K„v«y ,^'

'

—^llouM bo adika to our possossioiis.

JAPAU.Omv vny .canty k.owl.l.o „f Japn,,, wl,!..], ],,, ,„,„ ,;uUi.h a cmtry ..^en more calously .soalc.l aoaiust K„,„,„..,n".f"».on t.,au China, ,v,le> f.KU tl,e aav^.tu.-ous t!:::"' f

il ?

.1

U

270 IIISTOTIV OF JArAN'.

M'/i

1

Marco Polo, tlio Venetian, who in 1275, in conjunction ^vith liia

Irother visited China and asccvtaiue.l the existence of Japan.^

From tlio year 1188 tlio f;upremc power has hecn iliviile-l

between a temporal ruler called Tycoon and an ecclesiastical

chief styled Dairi.

'J'lic Portngueso and the Putcli wero the first European

nations that attempted a trade witli these islands; hut the former,

hoth merchants and missionaries, were expelled in 10'>7, and the

trade was narrowed to the latter, who with many jeahms restric-

tions were permitted to have a factory on an island communicating

hy a seated bridge with the fort of Nagasaki.

In"l863, a squadron of British, French, and American ships

attacked Kagosima, in conseciuence of outrages on I'lilish .subjects,

and on the Frencli and British Hags. The result has been the

opening up of Japan to Western commerce. In 18G8 the oilico

of Tycoon, or temporal emperor, was abolished; and the Mikado,

formerly the spiritual emperor, became sole ruler.

•••

JIODEllN A«rATIO CUUONOLOC.Y.

Sufi (lynaf^ty in Tcrpia, ... ...^

... «.»

r,al)ev fouiia.s the Mo;.'nI Empire in Imlin, ...

Shah Abbas rules in rersiii,

First English factory at Suvat,

Japan closed to all Europeans except tin- D-it. li,

Chinese throne seized by the lluntc-hoo Tuiturs,

Death of Aurungzebe (India),

Nadir Shah rules Persia, ...

Clive tahcs Arcot (hidia),

Battle of riassej',

French Empire in India overthrown,

,Sie;,'e of Seringa patani and fail of >^';vro,

Haltle of Assaye (Indi;i),

Ceylon annexed,

Afghan War, ... •• *«•

First Cliiu'^sc War, (ITong-K<»ti- gnlned),

Seikh Wars (Punjaub conquered;, ...

Second Chinese War,

The Indian Mutiny, ...

India made a Cruwu Golonj:, ...

Hevolution in Japan,

...

... ...

...

••«

A.n.

1502

1525

iri8WC231013

1637

1644

1707

1736-47

1751

1757

1701

i7ity

1803

1S15

,. 1839-42

1839-42

1846-49

... 185G-5S

... 18;T

... 18i>8

1868

•••

•••

•••

•••

• ••

• ••

• ••

• t*

• ••

• *•

•t

k\\ 4 4

^v^tll Ilia

ipan.

I tliviileil

Icsiastical

Kuropra!!

former,

, and the

IS rcstrio-

imlcatiiig

can slilps

1 subjeets,

been tho

tlie oil ICO

\i Mikuflo,

A.n.

... 1502

1525

1D8WC231013

... 1637

... 1644

... 1707

... 1736-47

1751

... 1757

1701

i7ity

1803

... 1S15

... 1839-42

... 1S39-42

... 1846-49

... 185G-5S

... 18;T

... 18i>8

1868

IIISTOUY or TIIK rxiTi:T> FTATEf. 277

KOnTII AMERICA.Discovery and Colonization.—On tho 12tli of Octo^cr 149^

Christopher Columbus, a sailor of Genoa, having staited fromlulus in Andalusia with threo Spanish ships, o.,antod for tho.^xpedUion by Isabella of Castile, caught sight of Sau Salvador,yno of tho iKdiania Islands. Fivo years latev am) SebastianCabot,a\enetian, sailln- from Uristol in Kngland, discoveredLabrador and Newfoundland. These voyages rank with that ofAaseo ilc Gama in importance: for Jiey opened to Europeancniquest and commerce a New World iu tho West- as heby doubling the Cape of Good Hope, found an ocean-path toIndia .ind tho Last. Iu 1517 Cordova discovered the penin-s.du of Yucatan. Jacques Cartier. of St. Malo iu France, sailedup the lliver St. Lawrence, which he entered on the day in 1535consecrated to that saint

; but it was not until 1G08 that Cham-plain established a French colony on the site of Quebec.

^

Tlie countries of North America, iu the order of their historicilnnportance, are the United States; tho Dominion of Canada;Mexico; the West Indian Islands, and the Kepublics of Central

THE UNITED STATES.

Foundation of States.—Between 1585 and 1732 thirteenT>!itish colonies, which formed tlio original Thirteen States of thoUnion, wore founded along the North American shore. A listof them is subjoined :

—

1. North Carolina was first colonized iu 1585 by settlers sent<wit by Sir Walter Raleigh

; but it was not permanently occupieduntil 1G50, and did not receive its name, given iu honour ofCharles IL, until after the Restoration.

2. V'ir<jmia, so called iu honour of Queen Elizabeth, who dis-dained to marry, received its white population iu l(i07.

^?u A number of English Puritans, sailing from Delft in the

^lai/Jlowct'^ landed at a port wliich they named rivn]outh, and

'U

'.

ii'

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».«^'

I

2TS Jll./rOIlY 01- -lUV. UNITED STATUS

tiiu.-; louiu

colonists are c

Aea In 1020, tl.c Siut. of Jfn.sachu.ll^. Thc.o Hi.t

iiUoil ill America the rihjnm Falhers.

4. Tlio ilrst settlcuicntof iVe.. JLnni>sJure datii^ from 102'

itardeil its advaiicomeut fur uuiuylut cuutcst=i ^Yi^l the luaians re

^"r*!^.. -7, .0 called from tho ^vIfe of Clu^les I., ^vas col.v

,

nl^cd b 10^^ i>y Lovd^ IJaltlnunc, who selected U as an asyluu.

fnr i\(MNfH'utcd Ivoinaii Catholics.

nnmcl llogor WiUiau.s, .k, i.u.uved ,ov.,ocut.ou 1.. nuuuf.uu,,-

ih(> doctrine of unlimited toleration., , .,

::^ «,lo„y on Iho vivc. aUcvoxa by aud nau..! aft.

"o"\"rT.,, co!,-.nl.oa in tnvn l,v Bane, S.vclo, a.d

r.ft;i;';Ls.l under Briti.U vulo in IGOl. It wa. altcnvanU

l.arcliasod by a Quaker company.i- i, .„.,,„« from

10. Xte?,.«.-«r.! l.ud a Mniilar hktovy. It took it. uanic

'"n.^!;:;;; CVnwL. originated in tko foundation of Cl.ark.ton

'";.f Z,,„„..;?,«.,V,, ac-inired W Cl.avl.s IT. fr..n

^^ff,^.val.d to WUlan. I>™n in 10^1. This .n.n.ent .Jnakev J

•

: land f.on. tl.o In.r.an, and n.adc "^«..l^'t.'^-;-

^^^'^^''''^'. r 1 ;„ lT--'/> hv Geneva! Oulethorpo, as

oil 'i^ vUna fur dt-l.tors and vell.i^ioio refu-'ec.-^.

"'-;: X lud i.ngli.U.-Wl.en tl.e existence o tkc .veat - -

Mis:i.;.pi,i wa. diseovercl, tU. lu'eneU hastened to Uuld at lu

mill

iii?TonY or tht: rxrrnD ifiATi:.-. CVJ

lU'iUtli tlic cit\ y Orleans!, as llie iiuelcu.s of a 'n-vltory

vhicli was cillod Lnnistttut/, Tlii^ jlississi^ijii Si'luMiic, j-rojccti'il

liy Julm Law, drew v.ucli aU('ti(i')u to i1m3 [>la(H' ; 1 iit ;i!lv.r lli.'.

collap.s .f tliat L;;'oaL iiii[)osluro llio ri\'iu;li crown vcsniiicl tlii;

land, >vliich had been assigned to llio cuiui'any. The ]iilti.-,li

Colonies, lying between two sets of Froncli possessions, vepve-

Fented by Louisiana and Canada, needed to bo aieit, uetive, and

Belf-reliant ; for tl French treaclierously allied tlieniselvos witli

the Lidians, wlion. iliey cncourai^vd to as^udl llio outlying ]]riti^li

settlers with tomahawk and .seal^/mgdcnlfo. The claim, most

distasteful to Ih'itain, \vas tli. advanced by the rreni.h, when

they sought to lino the Ohio and the Mississippi wiih iV'rtresses,

connecting their colonies and enclosing the 3]ritish wi'h a curve,

out of ^vhich harm "svas sure to is.^ue. This led to a Cn,,,ucd

War between Franco and Ih-itain. A volunteer arnnmient,

manned by New England fishermen, wilh the aid of an Ihiglisli

fleet, took Louisburg in Cape IJreton Island (171')). Tlio expe-

ditions of 1755 against the French forts were Ivss successful.

Cenerul Braddock was defeated at Fort Duqucsno and afterward:?

killed; but the Ilritish successes in Canada, afterwards to bo

described, destroyed the French Fm|>!ro in America.

War of Independence.—Li 17(*)5, during tho reign of

George III., tho Ministry of Lord Greuvlllo imposed a Sl^nnp

Tax on American documents; and, though this v/as afterwards

repealed, iho right to tax tho American colonies was insisted on

l)y I]ritain. Tho colonists maintained their right to lie exempted,

iccause thev liad no rei)resentativcs in tlio ]>riii.-h Pa.rliament.

When Lord North tried to imposo a tax on tea, somo citizens

of Boston boarded tho vessels and emptied tho chests of

tea into tho harbour; a piece of audacity which tho 1773

British Guvt'iumcut punished by clo,')ing tho port of a.d.

Boston.

Tills daring defiance on tho part of Massachusetts was con-

fn-med by a Congress of all tho States, except Georgia, which

met at Philadelphia (177-1) and addressed a Ikdaration of Fii'i/h/s

to the King.

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Phoiographic

SciencesCorpOKiiion

23 WEST M.AIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

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„j,f) n;?roi!Y of the united states.

'

The ^var l-mko out in 1775 ut Lexington. So.no BritkTi

- t,.t t,.. vi-y .^ w.U^^.^-^^ ^^,^„

"'''C:tl'oc toc^ tl,o con,ma,ul ot the Amevican orce.

ai;eu ioitj-tlutc, louiv^ ,„j ,i,.iil The wictclicd stato of

wliicli he pvoccodea to"'^'"'''•"/'f

,''".„ ,„",„ or gunpowder

„aaU. ,nay he judgca IVom the f-'"''^;^l^^ «! . P

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then ou hand .onld not have'^''^f

""'' V^

„„,,„ ui.nselt

Ho Wochadcd llowo"'«.°ffY;"ii™:ic English goncl

n:,irtxs:;rXeateaton.i.....ne

1776 trBriLh'had fovced W..shington to evacuate New

C,eno.UIo.ed.e;tedthoA».^^^^^^

"7^; 1 ^"""K,: t t S the British avu>s latov i«

Philadolphia. hat <"*"'*'''''

nnrchcd from C.inada to the

,l,e year, when Buvgoyne, who had "»'^ '«y„,., ,,.,,,

Hudson in the hope of henjg ^'^^^^^Z^2^(0^. 1«.

r-uvrounded at Saratoga, .and eompelled to Buucuat ^

^' ''^-.

, ,. „..,s f .fd to the discipline of Howe's army,

Tlie ensmng wnitc w..s ...

I to i I

, ,,;^ „„i .,t

?'^';.r^1

':t ::i : tinuio:. . wasiUon «.«*'"

rValLvFoge The operations of 1778 wcvo con.pa.a-

Mavvmg .at \ alloy loigu„,„„„,,„„i Vl.ila.lelphn,, and

U„ly -;'7-.';: \.JJ';i ,ui,u Wa.Uin,tou d.cw a Uue ot

cuutuuiucuU.

r'

nialOBY OF TUB UKRED STATES. 'iSl

111

;

In ITTft tlio ,ivim-l]i:a events of tlie ^vav ^^'m^ tlivoo;u ISviiisli

„,ovemcut ou Vhaiuia; tlio cartuvo l.y CluUuu, Howes succos-

B„r, of two rtronshoM. on the Ilucbon; and an uusucee.sful

attonii* on Cliarlestou l.y the Auicvicans, wlio Imd legua m «'«

l.vovious year to receive aid from Franco.. ^ ... , „„„,

Sir Henry Clinton toolc Cluuloston in 1780. A Bnti.li officer,

Major Andrt,, Imving been arpointed to conduct a secret negotm-

.:,.» with Arnold, a traitor in tl.e An.erican can.p, was arrested,

and, liy Washington's orders, was liiingcd as a spy.

Tlie eighth campaign (1781) brought the war to an end. Its

most in.p"rt"nt event was the surrenckr of Lord Corn-

vallis at Yorktowa. Tliis general marched into Vir- 17 »1

cinia ; hut was hemmed in by a sudden movement A.D.

of Washington and his French allies. No aid came to

relieve Co.nw..lIis, who n.ade one wild attempt to sme the horses

„f the French cavalry, and on its failure found that he had no

hoiie but in surrender. _ -o.. ..

The war was formally terminated in 1.83, when Bntam

acknowledged the indcpoudence o( the Thirteen States.

Constitution—The task of framing a Constitution then dc-

volved upon the Congress of the infant BepuUic. AssemUmg

nt I'hilaaelphia in 1787, the delegates constituted two Chambers

_„ Hou.e o/i,V;,m«.(«(ac, elected by the people m proportion

,0 the amount of population in a State ; and a Senate. A Pr^i-

,k«l, whoso office lasted for four years but might bo rcneved as

to act as head of affairs. Taxation was to rest with the legis-

lature. Khode Island and North Carolina were t'-'-V';• "'^^

;

i„,, this constitution ; but when they found the rest o t SWes

resolved to carry out its provisions, they yielded m 1 .)0

(:ie Washington was unanimously chosen the first rresident

of tlic Kcpublic., 1 . 1 r

George Washington (1789-97) entered upon his duties as

President with the same methodical system as had cluaracten.ed

hiiwhen in command of the army. His first duty was to o -

Il:o the various de„artn,en.s of the State and make hnusel

tlugl.ly -'l-iutcd v,ilU all the details ol their wuUmgi his

'

t

]•!

!:

\u

2S2 mSTOUY OF THE UNITED STATES.

! 11

next, to secure tlio position of the States as a power among tlie

nations of tlie world. TUo establislaaeut of a national bank and

the clevdopmcut of a nnlitia hy«teui were auK,i>g the fir.t Acts

of Conncss. These thingn were not iloue quite p.acelully;

tor

there were ulreaay two great factions in tho stato-the Benio-

crats, hcaclecl by JcUcv.sou ; and the Federahst party muler

lluuiilton. lu 1793 Washington wa. reCdectea to tho PresKlcney.

Tho party .strug^•le.s still conthiueel to wax in bitterness; not-

^vithstau.rIn- which an Act was passed (1703), proch^uuing neutral-

ity in tlic ailairs of Kuvopo. And in tho following year, in spite

of tho elTorts of the Democrats, a commercial treaty with Great

Britain was ratlliod and sl^'ued. Washington met tlK3 c amour o.

his opponents firmly, declined to produce tho papers of negotia-

tion, and showed so bold a front that his assailants ceased or .^sition.

Tlio redevalist faction succeeded in securing tho l^resideney

for one of tnemselves, John Adams (1797-1801), who had been

Ueador iu tho preparation of tho DccJarathn of InJq>enJence,

and had acted as Vice-President during Washington s adininistra.

tion. After an uneventful tenure of oiticc, he was beaten at the

next election by^ ^ r xi

Thomas Jefferson (1801-9), a determined opponent of the

Federalists, and a man already celebrated as tho author ot the

Declaration of 1770. Tho principal event of his administration

was tho acauisition l.y purchase from Franco of an immense tmct

of country calle.l Louisiana, but really including not^ only^ that

Ptate T>ut all tho territory between the Mississippi ami

1803 the Ilockv Momitains. The importance of this ac^pusi-

A n. tion rested on tho command which it gave tho Ameri-

cans of tho trallio upon the greatest water-road m then-

country In bS05 Jefferson received tho honour of reelection.^

James Madison (1809-17) was President twice. During his

administration a second war with England ai^^o There had

always been an anti-KngUsh party, which m 1/94, but for the

strong hand of Washington, would have begun war instead of

,,iaking a treaty. Under Madison, who wu. a Democrat, thw

Jio^ilo fccliu!,' ripened into war.

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 2S3

When Napoloon issued Lis Berlin Penccs, aiul Britain retuli-

ated by her Orders in Council, America t(^(>k uiubni.u'o at tlio lat-

ter; but Britain insisted on her rl-lit to soardi Auicricau vessels

for British swinon. A collision between the Lc"i>iwl, an 3;'"^^ij^»

ship of war, and tho Chtsaj^eale, an American frig;ito (1807),

brought matters to tho vergo of a rui)turo, but it was not luitil

1812 t]>at war was ailually dcchired. Before that event

Ameriea, in ohcdieiico to Boiiai.aite's MHau Decree, ro- 1812

fused to permit the liriti.^h to search their vessels, and A.D.

fchut their ports against the British ilag. An encounter

between the iVinerlcau ship Pfc^ildud and the Kuglish bloop LMc

Jklt hastened the crisis.

Second War with Britain.—A month after tho declaration of

>var (1812) tho American General Hull, with a force of 2500

men, crossed the Detroit frontier into Canada; but soon fell back

on the Detroit fortress, where the brave General Brock forced

bini to surrender. Tho Americans nnidc another invasion at

Qucenston, on the Niagara River, but they were repulsed. Brock,

however, was shot in the act of leading a charge.

'J^lic war went on vigorously by sea. Commodore Bodgcvs,

looking out for our sugar-ships from the Wesl Indies, met tho

KnglisTi frigate Jkhldcra, which fought tho huge Preddent and

iindly escaped. lu another naval duel the British ship Guerrlerc,

tliough crazv and deficient in annnunltlon, maintained a tlu'co

lujurs' figlit witli the U. S. frigate Cou^'ilnlloii, not striking her

flag until she became a useless wreck. With a similar result, tho

Jura fought the Covd'!>ili<>n.

In the following year (1818) tho Americans renewed their

attempts in Canada, collecting boats upon Lakes Krie and

Ontario. Tliey took York and obtained a fo^jtlng in Dearborn;

but were afterwards repulsed both at Niagara and Detroit. Tlio

Commander-in-chief in Canada, Sir George Provost, was un-

bai)plly a most incompetent num, whose blunders were so glarin;,'

that it is a nmrvel the American successes were not greater.

The well-known encounter between the Knglish frigate Shunnon

and the A.uieri;uii Iriijato CkaajjeaU took place off Boston (Juuo

¥'

|u

Ill

I

Hi'

(I

I

\

284 HISTORY OP THE TJNITKD STATES.

1st, 1813): it lasted only a ciuarter of an hour, and ended in

victory for tlic Biitiisli.,,r i . . t 4

In 1814 the British troops, penetrating to Waslunprton, burned

the public huiUVings in that city; hut at New Orleans the

Au.cvicuns guinea the upper hand next Chvistma. ior they re-

pulsed every assault of the KngUsh troops. The Ireaty of

Ghent (1814) closed the war.,. o, - o-x 1

Under the Presidency of James Monroe (181i-2i)), wlio was

twice elected to that dignity, the most hupovtant event lu tho

history of the States was the cession of Florida lu 1821. ihis

old colony of Spain was taken possession of in that year by

General Jackson.

After John Quincy Adams (1825-29) - the dcuiocratic

Andrew Jackson (1829>3T)^Van Buren (1837-41)-and Tyler

(1841-45), ha, I held tho presidential chair in succession, its occu-

pancy devolved upon James Knos Polk (1845-49).

Mexican War.—A spirit of revolt from 3Iexico, long fcrment-

ino. among the inhabitants of Texas, burst into open war lu ISSo;

arid the Tcxans, with aid from the States, defeated Santa Auna,

the Mexican general, at Jacinto. To obtain his release from

captivity, Santa Anna signed a document acknowledging the in-

dependence of Texas. But not until 1845 was the State adnutted

into the Union. This kindled a war with Mexico During tho

summer of 1846 California was conquered; in 184< \ era tru/.

surrendered; and in tho same year au American army entered

the city of Mexico. The war, thus Inmight to au end, vesidted

iu the cession to the United States of California, Utah, ^and New

Mexico (1848). The Orcjon Treaty, concluded with Great

Britain, had previously added some territory on that river o the

States, which now claimed two great ocean sca-bords, cnclusin-

an enormous tract of rich unoccupied land.^

The interest of United States history derives a tragic tmgo

from the events of the recent war.

Recent American Civil War.-A hostile feeling between the

Northern and the Southern States of the Union was fostered into

actual war by several causes, of which the gicutcst was their dis-

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HISTORY OP THE fSITKO STATES. 2S5

Bjn-comcnt of opinion npon tl:o «;'.:('stl«ni of nc-vo hlavory. TIi«

j.Tiinters of tho South rcgardca it as a necessary coutlition of ilicir

existence, while the niauufucturcrs and commercial men of Uio

North cried loudly for its abolition.

The appointment of Abraham Lincoln as President hurried on

the crisis. Not a single Soutlievn State had voied for him.

South Carolina took the iiutiutlvo hy seceding from the Union

on the 20th of December 18G0 ; and before the end of the succee.l-

\u>^ February, the following States ha<l joined the ranks of

StWion :—3Hssissippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and

Texas. Tileeting at Montgomery, they declared their indepcnd-

du'c (February 9, 1861) under the name of the Confederate States,

and arpointed a rival President in the person of Jefferson Davis.

Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina afterwards

Beceded from the Union.

The first shot in the desolating civil war that ensued—m whicli

the Northern troops, called Federals, were opposed to ll.o

Southern, called Confederates-was ih-ed at Fort Sumpter m

Charleston harbour. The Federal Government sent

some ships to relievo this fortress; but General Beau- April 1^.

regard, anticipating their arrival, opened a fire, which 1861

forced the garrison to surrender.

The Confederate Government soon afterwards removed llio

scat of their power from Montgomery to Richmond in Virgimu,

which was henceforth their capital.

On the -ilst of July 18G1, the armies came into collision in

their first battle on the banks of a stream called Bull's Run, ab-mt

twenty miles s<nitb-west of Washington. At first the Fedrval

troops were successful; but the arrival of reinforcements, which

tired from the woods on their fiank, caused then) to retreat, i ho

panic spread; and the whole Federal force, officers and men, lied

in a huddled mass towards Centrevillc.

Some months hit.'r, an expedition under General Sherman re-

duccd the forts of Port Koyal in South Carolina, taking forty

pieces of cannon.

A notice of the Trent affair, which endangered the ncutruiity

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280 IIISTOUY or THE UKITKD PTATK?.

that Great Britain lui<l proclniincd lior intention to maintain, lias

Leon alvoiuly ^qvcn. It ended peacefully.

Second Campaign, 18G2.—A series of Irlllinnt succcsf^cs crowned

tlic roderal arms dining tlm llrst half of tliir? year. Tlieir generals

captured the island of Koanokc, on tlic coast of Xortli Carolina

;

Fort Ilenrv at the iuiictlon of tlio Oliio and llio Tennessee; Fort

Donnelson on Cunil'erland River; and Island No. 10 on tno

Misslsslp|)i. But their greatest exploit was the takiii.i^ of Nc'.7

Orleans (April *21-t]i). In spite of forts, giui-hoats, and a barrier

of booms and clial.ns across tho river, the Federal fleet forced its

way up to tho city, whicls, deprived of its defences, surrendered.

A notable feat nro of this struggle wa^ tho introduction into

naval warfare of iron-clad turret-ships of enormous strength.

Darting out of Norfolk, tho Mo.rrimnc^ or Vin/niia as tho

Confederates had renamed her, after .sheathing her sides in plates

c:f ra'hvay iron, sank or otherwise destroyed several woo.leii

ships of aFcdoral squadron. On the next day Qliurh 8) a Federal

iron-clad, the jlLmitor, engaged the Merrimac off the mouth of tho

James lliver ; but the duel was indecisive.

The Federals had now gathered the great army of tho Pototnac

imder General INrClellan, for the imrpose of crushing the rebelliuu

tit once.

Moving his men from tho Potomae to tho peninsula between

the York an<l the James rivers, 3rClellan ascended the fornnir,

and tried to a]iproacli Kichmond, upon which the Confederates

fell back. But the Confederates had noble generals, such as Leo

and *' Stonewall" Jackson, by whoso Fkill the great Federal plan

was utterly baftled. Stuart, with the Confederate cavalry, made a

{successful dasli on the Federal camp; and there was soon no

comse for the army of 31'Clellan but retreat. Fortvmately their

fillips wore at hand in the James Kiver to carry theni to Ac<iuia

Creek on the Potomae.

Pope, a Federal general, fought with General Lee at Cedar

Mountain near the Kapi<lan; but his retreat towards Washington

was harassed by Jackson and Stuart. During its progress a

eecond buttle of Bull's Kun, disastrous to tliC Federals, was fought.

HISTORY OP TUB UNITED STATW. 12^7

Aft(^r a (Ira^vn l)attle at Ajilictaiu in ^Taryluinl l>ctwcon Leo

mul M'Clellan, 1. 1 former rccntsscMl the rotuuiac. M'CIcllun was

soon afterwards Miporseilcd Ity IJunvsMo.

On the 23rd of Fo]>toml)er Abraliatn Lincoln issnotl a pro-

cliuuation, proposing tlie abolition of slavery in all tlio rein.'! Stat»N.

Third Campaign, 1863.—On the Ut of January 1S0:J this

threat was put in execution.

Two attacks of Federal iron-rlads upon Cliarlcston were

haffled l>y the extraordinary strength of the defences; aiid in

August Fort Sunipter was again unsuccessfully lotuharded.

But one of the most striking cirounistances of the cainpnign

was the siege and surrender of Vicksburg on the Mississippi to tlie

I'ederals. Forcing liis way up the great river in April, Com-

juodoro Farragut opened lire on the place^ which was afterwards

llockadcd hy Grant. After forty-eight days of defence, durinj;

wdiich the iidiahitants were reduced to feed on mules and dogs,

the stronghold siu'rendercd.

Li May a Federal army, strongly intrenched at Cliancellorsville,

in a country of dense wood, was outflanked by *' Stonewall"

Jackson, who attacked it in the rear, while tlio cannon of Leo

thundered in front. Night alone savo.l the Federal force from

annihilation. The Confedcralo victory was saddened by the

death of General Jacks<->n, who was struck down by the random

bullets of his own nicn (3Iay 2).

In June Lee crossed the Potomac into JTaryland, thus invadin.g

the tcM'ritovv of the North, where Uimsual levies were making.

Led bv Meade, the Federals met the invading force at Gettychurs

in Pennsylvania: and on the Srd of July fought so fiercely that

the Confederates, after suffering great loss, retreated and reei-o^-sed

the Potomac.

]>y the surrender of a Confederate force that guarded Cumber-

land Gap, the Federals made their way into Teimessee, where,

however, they were signally defeated at Chickaniaug.i (Sept. 20)

by the Confederate General Bragg. Later in the year (Nov. 25)

Grant, with Slierman under his command, worsted the Confede-

rates at Chattanooga,

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2S.^ ni'Tonv OF riiv. cxiTri) states.

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rcurlli Car.:rc-i*cn,l'jCl.-ThIs cauii.ul-ii lUa not open lill

April. Gcnovai Grant led a irreat army towards Richmond, near

wliich was fou-ht, at Cl.anc(aiorsvnio and elsewheie, a Rcvics of

most (lespcrato battles, in wliicli the Fodcrals wove worsted. Nor

liad t]»ey more success when, transferrin.:^ liis army to tlie

southern l>ank of the Jmucs llivcr, Giant directed au atlaek

ai]jainst Pctershuri*., r i i

'

Oil tlie 10th of June a Federal ship, the Krano^;c, derended

%vith iron chains han-in- over the huhvaihs, cn^^aged wilh^ tlic

noted Confederate cruiser Ahdmna, ahont uiuc miles from Cher-

bourL'', and in an hour the latter was? siid^in^f.

A^Confederatc plundering raid in July brought the war within

actual sight «->f the citizens of Washington.

From Virginia, where the Federals were twice ropulsod at

Petershurg, the scene of war shifted to Georgia and Tennessee.

Atalanta, the capital of Georgia, was fiercely contended fi.r;but

at length (Sept. .^») it was evacuated by the C<.'n federates, after

General Sherman had cut off their means of supply.

In the Shenandoah Valley the Federals under Sheridan de-

f,.atcd the Confederates under Karly at Winchester, and also at

Fisher Hill.^ ,

One of the holdest and most strildng moyemcnts of the war

was a march by General Sherman from Atalanta to Savannah, a

distance of ninety-thrcc miles, which he accomplished in twenty-

three days. Unable to maintain his position in Atalanta, for

Hood had cut off his line of supplies, he resolved to push for the

Bca; and accordlnglv pretended au attack on I^lacon to draw off

the Confederates. On his arrival at Savannah, he l.esi(>g.!d the

city which yielded (Dec. 21). A bombardment of Fort Fisher

at tiie entrance of Wilmington Harbour by the Federals was at.

first unsuccessful.

Fifth Campaign, 1865.—After a month's rest at Savannah,

Sherman set out upon a northward expedition. Trees were

felled and bridges burned, to obstruct his way; but his pioneers

Biirmounted all difficulties. He entered Columbia, to tind the

streets piled with burning cotton, tufts of which were blowing

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lIlSTOUY 01? TUB tNltEb STATES. mlike snow in tlio high wind. The city was nearly all buniud by

the fires lit by deiiartlng Confederates.

Sherman pursued liis victorious march, liy Fayettevillo aiul

Goldsboro*, toward;* llichinond, cutting olf the inland lines of

couminnication lield by the Confederates ou the sea-bord.

Meanwhile Fort Fisher had fallen (January 15) before tho

assaults of Federal Admiral Porter ; an event which led to tho

speedy evacuation of Wihnington by the Confederates.

During the night of the ITtli February tlie Confederates evac-

uated Charleston, leaving 200 cannon beliind.

The end now came rapidly on. After a severe final struggle

at Petersburg between the Confederates under Lee, and

the Federals underG rant, the former evacuated Richmond, April 3,

thus virtually acknowledging themselves defeated, in tho 1865long and bloody contest. Six days later, Lee and his a.d.

army surrendered to Grant.

Then occurred one of those strange sad acts oi blind revenge,

too many of which stain the pages of history.

While sitting with his wife in his private box at Ford's

Tlieatre in "Washington, Abraham Lincoln was shot through tho

head by a man, who came in at the unguarded door. The as-

sassin, an actor named Wilkes IJooth, sprang on the stage with

the cry, " Sic sevijjcr t>/raiuu's/' and escaped. But ho was pursued;

surrounded in a barn at Bowling Green in Carolina County,

Virginia; and shot, while tho building was burning. His ac-

complices were afterwards hanged.

On the night of Lincoln's murder a savage attempt was made

on the life of Mr. Secretary Seward, who was lying in bed with

a broken arm.

When Sherman at Goldsboro' heard of the Federal success at

Iiichmond, he turned to pursue General Johnston, who occupied

a position covering Kaleigh. The Confederate army soon made

an unconditional surrender; and on the 10th of May Jefferson

Davis, President of the South, was made prisoner by a body of

horse at Irwinsville in Georgia. He was released on bail in 1867,

and was finally pardoned in 1809.

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230 HISTORY OP BMTlSn AMEItlCA.

llio great result ui this Llocly war was tlio complete abolition

of Negro Slavery in America. Andrew Johnson, tlio next Presi-

dent, in lii. iMcssagc, as tlie annual statement to Congress is

culled, endeavoiirecl, instead of establislnng military government

in the seceded l)ut now conquered States, to bind them to tho

Union by conciliation. General Ulysses Grant became 1 a'sideut

in 18G9. In the following year an Amendment of the Constitu-

tion was adopted by the States, establishing the absolute equality

of all men born or naturalized within the Union. General Grant

was reelected President iu 1873. '

.. i

A most important event in tho histories of both America and

Europe was the successful completion of tho Atlantic

July.• Telegraph Cable, between Valcntia in Ireland and Trinity

1866 Hay in Newfoundland. In September, by a series |.f

A.D. gigantic grappling operations tho broken cable of lb(..)

was recovered, and, being spliced, was laid down most

successfully.

BPJTISH AMEHICA.

The British possessions in North America include Canada,

Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, Prince ICdward's Island and

Cape Breton, Newfoundland, the Hudson's Bay Territory, and

British Columbia with Vancouver's Island.

Newfoundland, discovered in 1497 by the Cabot^ was ccdo-

nizcd in 1583 by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a daring Kl./abethan

explorer, who lost his life in a storm. As Avalou it wa^ fiHe^l ^vith

lloman Catholic emigrants under tho auspices of^ Sii' George

Calvert. The French threatened it in Queen Anne a reign;but

it was secured to Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht.

Nova Scotia, fust known as part of the French settlement of

Acadie, also became a British possession by the provisions of the

Treaty of Utrecht. New Brunswick was a part of this colony

until after the close of the American War.

Prince EdivanVs hJand and Cape Breton fell into the hands

of the British, when a volunteer force from Boston sailed to tha

kttcr and attacked the city of Louisburg successfully.

HISTORY OF BRITISH AMERICA. 201

Canada is the most important of our North American aopcn-

dencics. Its liistory dates from the voyage of Jacques Cartier, who

Bailed lip the St. Lawrence in 15:j5. A Froncli fur-trudhi^

Htation soon sprang np at tho month of the Sagnenay. An

enterprising naval officer named Champlain then assumed tlio

position of governor; and iho cohjiiy was truiihled long with

contests between the French and their neighbours, whether

lro(iuois Indians or New Fiiigland settk'rs.

The spirit of the IJritish, always at this period ready on tlic least

provocation to kindle into hostility against the French, took lire

at the proceedings of Marquis DuquesRC, who built a chain of forts

along the Ohio in onler to join the French colonies on the St.

Lawrence to those at the mouth of the ^Mississippi. The attacks of

the British upon this line were at first unsucccssftd; but after 1753

a brilliant change occurred. General Wolfe, planting cannon on

Point Levi, and landing his troops on Orleans Island, began tho

giegc of Quebec. After nearly two months of useless assault, a path

was discovered, leading up the precipice onwdiich the Plain

of Abraham lies; and British soldiers, having climbed by

night to this position above the city, fought a battle next

day, in which Montcalm and tlie French were defeated. This

victory gave Canada to Britain.

During tho American War of Independence the insurgents

attacked Canada (1775). Montgomery, leading an army from

Lake Champlain, occupied Montreal; and then, being reinforced

by Arnold, assailed Quebec. But the besiegers retreated after

four months of blockade.

Li 1701 a Constitutional Act was passed, dividing the two

Canadas. The troubles that have arisen in the colony have been

mainly owing to the discontent of the semi-Fi'cnch population,

gome of whom not even the Act of Qwslcc (1774), appointing tho

French laws as the basis of all property transactions, could

satisfy.

In 1837-S there was rebellion iu CanaJa. Its beginning at

Montreal under Papinenu was soon crushed. Mackenzie mUpper Canada vainly tried to seize Toronto; but was defeated

1759A.D.

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20:: IIISTOIIY OV MKXIOO.

by Colonel IM'Nab. A second outbreak under l.)r, Nelson wan

quelled by Sir John Colborne.

In 1840 the Canadas ^vere reunited uiulcr a single constitu-

tion; and a valuable treaty between the States and Britain—th',;

lleciprocity Treaty of 1854—opened the navigation of the St.

Lawrence and its canals to the States, while it secured for

Canada the free use of Lake Michigan for commerce.

In 1860 all tlie British Colonies in North America, except

Newfoundland and Prince E.lward Island, Nvore combined in llu"

Dominion of Canada, with Ottawa as capital. A Fenian raid oil

Canada in the same year was an utter failure.

MEXICO.

Mexico, which derived its name ium\ .l/t-.r//^/, the Aztec god

of war, rose under that ancient American tribe to considerable

splendour. The Aztecs built cities whose ruins still strike with

awe the traveller who penetrates the forests that overgrow tlunn :

they had tlieir orators and poets, as well as their architects and

sculptors.

Cordova was the discoverer of Mexico; but Cortez was its con-

queror. Landing on the shore of the Gulf (1518) he founded, near

the site of Vera Cruz, the town of ViUarica ;and, before he pro-

ceeded into the heart of the country, he broke his ships up, in order

that his companions might have no hope but in vigorous fighting.

Montezuma, the emperor of the Aztecs, admitted the Spaniards to

his capital—a kindness which Cortez repaid by detaining him iii

forcible custody, until he should acknowledge himself a vassal of

Spahi. In a riot Montezuma was afterwards slain, and a victory

over the Aztecs at Otumha. coupled with a successful siege of

Mexico (1521), completed the reduction of the country.

Mexico continued to be a Spanish possession for three cen-

turies (1520-1820). Numerous Spaniards emigrated thither;

and their descendants, Creoles, born in Mexico, felt bitterly to-

wards the mother-land, when it became the policy to exclude

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IIIJiTOrvY OF MEXICO. 291

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from (lie ofilccs of Stnto, iiiciudin,^' commissions in tlic army, any

but ncativo Spanianls. The hosiility, however, of the McsHzoh^

liiiir-l)loods between Spanish and Indian, kept the Crcoh^s from

Very decidcil action.

Svhen the Peninsidar War began to tronblo Spain, Mexico

fitlt the stirrings of desire for iudcpendcnce. In 1810 Hidahjo^

jiarisli priest of Dobnes, lieaded a rebellion of Mestizos cgainst

llio Government, until ho was taken prisoner and shot. Morehs^

another cura, was more successful, for he succeeded in establishing;

ft Junta or Central Government (1813); however, he met with

the same fate. The Viceroy crushed the various chiefs who

si.rang up, and, ere the restoration of tranquillity, caused to perish

Xavicr 3Iina, a Spanish guerilla, who had come to restore the

cause of insurrection.

Taking advantage of the troubles of 1820 in Spain, Iturbide

proposed a plan by which Mexico was to have a resident sove-

reign, either the King of Spain or his brother. This the Vice.oy

accepted conditionally, upon tho reception of the royal assent;

and Iturbide took possession of the capital. He then proclaimed

himself Emperor, with the title of Augustus I. (1822); but, after

quarrelling with tho Congress and the army, he abdicated and

sought safety in Europe. Venturing to return in 1824, he was

arrested at Padilla, and shot.

The army, now in the ascendant, riodelled tho government into

the form of a Federal Republic, after the fasliion of the govern-

ment of the United States. Then began a period of ceaseless

intrigue and revolution among various military generals, who

struggled for the supreme power. General Santa Anna, the

most prominent of these, was continually in the extremes of

success and adversity— one month sitting in the presidential

chair, ai-med \\ itli almost despotic power—the next a refugee and

exile, lie liappenod to be President in 1846, when General

'J'aylor invaded Mexico with the United States army, and though

with superior forces, retired before the invader, after a two days'

battle; thus permitting the loss of much Mexican territory.

In 1862 the French Emperor, resolving to interfere in the

294 HISTORY OF MEXICO.

offairs of Mexico, sent General Foiey tliitlier witli an army. The

city of Puchla^ ^vith some ilifticulty, fell Letore the invaders

(May IS, 18G3); ami Juarez then evacuatetl Mexico, which was

occupied by the French.

Mexico, with the title of Kmporor, was then offered to tho

Arclulukc 31axiniillan, a hrother of the Knipernr of Austria

;

and ho accepted tlio dignity in ISCi. A sad tragedy put

an end to his troubled reign. Driven from his throne l)y an

insurrectionary movement of tho Kepublican party, headed by

Juarez, tlio Emperor Maximilian, with two of his devoted

generals, was made captive, and shot at Qucretaro on tho 19th

of June, 18G7.

NORTH AMERICAN CIIRONOLOOy.

Colamlius discovers the West Indies, ... »•

Oabot tllscovers the maijil-inJ of America,

Cordova discovers Mexico, *..

Jlexico conquered by Carter, ... ..t

Cartler explores the St. Lawrence, ...

North Carolina colonized, ... ... ... .

Jamaica taken by Britain,

Georiria colonized, coiiiuletltif; the Thirlecn States,

Volunteers from IJoston take Louisburg, ... ••• .

Conquest of Canada, ... ... ... ...

Ficqe of Ilavannali by tliC JBritiah,

Stamp Act issued, ... ... ... ...

Tea-viot at Boston, ... ... ...

Outbreak of American War,

Declaration of Independence, <•. ... ... .

Acknowledged by Great Britain, ... ... .

Constitution of United States formed, ...

Negro Empire established in Ilayti, ... ...

Second War between United States ami Britain ...

Mexico shakes off the Spanish yoke, ... ... >

('entral America sliakos off the Spanish yoke, ...

War of Mexico with United States, ... ... <

Civil War in United States, ..i

French expedition to Jlexico, ...

Maximilian of Austria made Emperor of Mexico,

Atlantic Cable successfully laid, ... ... •••

Federal Union of British provinces, ... ...

llaximiliuD shot at Qucretaro^ ... ... ...

• ••

A.I>.

1492

1497

1517

1621

1535

1585

1655

1732

1745

1769

1762

1765

1773

1775

1776

1783

1789

1801

1812-14

1820

1823

1846-8

1861-5

1862

1864

1866

1866

1867

HISTORY OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 295

A.n.

1492

1497

1517

1521

1535

1585

1655

1732

1745

1769

1762

1765

1773

1775

177G

1783

1789

1801

812-14

1820

1823

1846-8

1861-5

1862

1864

1866

1866

1867

\

CE17TEAL AMERICA.

Wliilc the Rpanianls lieM an empire in America, tlic greater

part of the istlinius formed tlic Kitigdom cf Guatemala—a region

^vherc, deep in tlio tangled tropical forest, were massive mined

Aztec cities, displaying wonderful skill in artldtocture and mc-

dianics. After the revolution of 1821 tliis v.as attached for a

time to the Mexican Kingdom of Itmhide ; hut Ids fall left it

free. Then (1823) the four States of Guatemala, Honduras,

Nicaragua, and San Salvador formed a federal union under tho

name United Stales of 0-ntral America. Tho union did not

cohere long ; and tho various States Lccamo independent repuh-

lics—Costa Rica forming a fifth.

A district called Honduras, on the eastern edge of Yucatan,

helongs to Britain. Columbus discovered it in 1502 ; hut tho

British occupied it, and after much delay on the part of Spain,

it was ceded by treaty in 17G3. The story of the Darien colony,

mentioned in the reign of William III., belongs to the history

of Central America as well as to that of England.

The ^Fosqnito Kingdom is an independent Indian State under

British protection. A proposal to join the Atlantic and Pacifio

Oceans by a route passing up the San Juan River and through

Lake Nicaragua, led to a settlement, chiefly American, at tho

mouth of the river under the name of Greytown. It was bom-

barded by an American ship in 1854.

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THE WEST INjDIES.

Discovery.—^Tho first part of America scon by Columbus in

1492 was the low green shore of Guanahani, or San Salvador,,

one of tho Bahamas. Most of the islands were afterwards dis-

covered and explored by him; in consequence of which tho

Spaniards came to possess and to claim exclusive right to tho

islands of this archipelago. They colonized all the larger islands,

but left tho smaller ones to be occupied by pirates called Buc-

caneers, from whom the colonies suffered much.

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290 IIISTOUY OF TIIK WKST INDIES.

Cuba, tlic largest of tho West Indian group, still belongs to

Spain, though the United States have cast a covetous eye upon

it more than once. Its position gives it a marked control over

the trade in those regions.

When AVilliani Pitt was minister, he proposed to strike at

Spain through her colonies, especially Ilavannali and Manilla;

and Pitt's successors were forced to carry out the scheme. This

led to an expedition against Havannah (17G2). A strong force

under Lord Albemarle and Admiral Pococke attacked Port Moro,

vhich was considered impregnal )lo. After a fierce struggle with

the bayonet the place was carried, the British flag being borno

in triumph over the body of the governor, who died in the breach.

The city yielded a fortnight later (August 13, 1762). Some

time afterwards Manilla was captured by Colonel Draper; but

both of these conquests were restored by Britain to Spain in tho

treaty of 1763.

Puerto Rico, also a Spanish island, was attacked unsuccessfully

by Sir Francis Drake ; and later, in 1791 and 1799, by British

forces under Sir Ralph Abercromby and Sir Henry Har\'ey.

Jamaica, the chief British possession of the "West Indian group,

was colonized in 1509 by the Spaniards, who turned its fertilo

Boil to account by raising cotton and sugar, by means first of

Indian and then of Negro labour. It was taken by Britain in 1G55.

Cromwell, anxious to strike a blow at Spain through Hispaniola,

c^espatched Admiral Penn and General Venables to the West

Indies at the head of a fleet and anny. They failed in the direct

object of their voyage, but achieved the conquest of Jamaica; for

which, instead of thanks, they got imprisonment.

The island was kept in agitation by the Maroons, a race of

half-bloods, who inhabited the mountains of tho centre; the Buc-

caneers, who swept the adjacent seas; and the Negroes, whoroso

periodically in revolt against their taskmasters. While the battle

of Abolition was proceeding in England, a fever of agitation per-

vaded Jamaica ; but in 1834 the slaves were transformed into

apprentices, who were bound to serve their former owners for a

term of years.

niSTOUV OP THE WEST INDIES. 207

Ilecoiitly (18G5) a Negro insurrection convulsed Jamaica. Onllic 7tli of October at Morant Bay the blacks rose ami killed

many persons before means could bo taken to protect those in

I'ositions of danger. It liappcned that Eyre, an intrepid Austra-

lian explorer, was then governor of the island ; and without

wasting time, he dealt stern measures of retribution, which hail

the efi'ect of crushing tliis incipient rebellion. William Gor-

don, a coloured member of Assembly, was arrested on a charge

ci' secretly fomenting the insurrection, and after a military trial

ho was executed. Paul Bogle, the leader of the nmrderous blacks,

was hanged. A cry against Eyre for undue severity, especially

in the former case, arose in England ; but public opinion has been

much divided upon this question.

The second in size of our West Indian islands is Trinidad, whichhad been occupied by Spaniards previous to Raleigh's visit in

1595. The Dons held it until 1797, when Admiral Harvey andGeneral Abcrcromhy took it for Great Britain.

Hayti, or Hispaniola, was colonized, as its second name indi-

cates, by Spaniards, after its discovery by Columbus. In 1697the French, who had made friends with the Buccaneers of Tor-

tuga, wrested from Spain the western and more fertile part of

the island.

The agitations of the French Revolution extended even to this

distant island. Rising under Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negroes,

who could not reconcile the opinions of their French masters,

proclaiming liberty and equality to all, with the practice andmaintenance of negro slavery, proclaimetl (1794) the emancipation

of all slaves. This chieftain, born at j.'rcda on the island, hadpassed through various subordinate positions, such as cattle-keeper

and coachman, before he came to be an overseer of slaves,—the

position in which the Revolution found him. Ho protested

earnestly against the massacres, with which the rising had been

accompanied. Taking advantage of the struggle between Franco

and Spain for the possession of this most fertile of the Antilles,

the negro chief threw his power into the scale with the former,

and having released Laveaux from arrest, was made a General of

; 1

1:1

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203 HISTORY OP THE WEST INDIES.

Division. In tliis position he conqnorctl a largo part of the island

for Franco, aiul orgauizcJ a wellHlrillcd ncgvo army. He aftcM--

^vards attained the position of Commander-in-chief—an oftico in

wliich lie was placed in hostile collision ^vith General iledonviile,

the French Commissioner. Ultimately, when ]>onapartc a -sinned

supreme power in France, Toussaint imitated the cxamplo in

llayti (1801). Napoleon sent an expedition against him; and

alter a tnue, owing to the defection of his quasi friends, lie pro-

j)osed to inalvO terms. Treacherously arrested hy the French,

thifs greatest of the negroes was carried over the Atlantic to a

prison near Kesancon, where lie died after ten months' captivity

(1803).

Dcssalinos and Christopho in snccofssion assimied the crown,

hut perished, the latter by his own hand ; and after many troubled

years, the island became an independent Republic in 1822, with

lioyer as President. In 18 14 changes occurred, which led to tho

establishment of the negro Empire of Hayti in tho western part

of the island, and in tho east tho Republic of St. Domingo, con-

sisting chiefly of mulattoes.

The principal remaining European powers that hold islands of

the West Indian grou]> arc France, which acquired Guadahupe and

Jifartinique finally in 1814, though both islands had been more than

once in possession of Britain ; tho Dutch, wdio hold St. Eustace,

Curaroa, and other islands; and Sweden, which possesses St.

Bartholomew. Denmark has very recently sold St. Thomas and

St. John to the United States.

1'

SOUTH AMERICA.

Tlie conquest of South America for Spain was achieved- in

1533 by Francisco Fizarro, who rose from tho position of a

swine-herd. Taking advantage of a dispute between two brothers

for tho throne of Peru, he invaded that country, diizzled with

visions of gold and jewels. Atahualpa, then Inca of Peru, was

seized by tho invader, who afterwards took Qnzco and founded

niFTorr or forrn America. 299

liiina. rizarro was slain in lull by couspirators, who burst in

upon him (huin^of his siesta.

With the exception of Brazil, of which Portiis^al took posses-

sion after its discovery, all of South America worth owning be-

longed to Spain for nearly three eouturies. l>ut in the opening

of the present century these j,''<)lden possessions, on which tho

hold of Spain had been gradually growing feebler, asserted their

independence, and forniefl themselves into Republics. Nino

States represent this broken ICmpiro of Spain.

1. Chili, tho strongest and most flourishing territory in South

America, was conrpiered for Spain by two successors of Pi/^arro,

named Almagro and Vahlivia, of whom the latter founded San-

tiago. In ISIO a breach took place with Spain; but it was not

initil the Chilian victories of Chacabuco and Maypu had been

gained that independence was secured. In spite of political con-

flicts, the prosperity of Chili has steadily increased. The jealousy

of Spain towards her old possession has been displayed frec[uently;

and recently (18GG) in the bombardment of Valparaiso.

2. Peru, after Pizarro's conquest, was made the 'chief scat of

the Spanish Transatlantic Empire. The capital, Lima, rose to

Buch splendour as to be styled " The City of the Kings." Occa-

fjionally a flash of tho old Peruvian spirit blazed out, as in 1780,

wlien there was an attempt to take La Paz by siege. During

the war of independence in Peru, Chili remained tolerably tranquil,

owing to the strength of the Spanish rule there ; but in 1820

San Martin came from Chili with an invading army and secured

tho position of Protector of Peru (1821)—a position, however,

which he retained for only a short time.

The most remarkable man in the history of the struggle which

shook off tho Spanish yoke in South America, was Simon Bolivar,

born at Caraccas in 1783. What he achieved in Columbia will

nftcrwards bo described. At the request of San Martin he entered

Peru, and took possession of Lima (1822). Appointed Dictator,

he led a Columbian and Peruvian army against the Spaniards,

who were defeated at Junin, and more signally at Ayacuclio(1824).

lie then resigned the Dictatorship. Tho Code or Constitution

I "

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m . soo IlISTOKY OF POUTII AMERICA.

i

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in

liamoLl by Bolivar was accepted, but afterwards rcjooted by Pcrti,

wliidi in 1827 cstablisliod a Federal Kepublic after the model of

l!ic United States. Contimial revoUitions have formed tlio hito

history of Peru ; for transition is always a time of trouble.

3. Bolivia, the southern province of Peru, was formed in 1825

into a separate republic under IJolivar, wlujse name was given lo

llic country. But the IJolivians rejected the Code of Bolivar very

soon ; and, like Peru, have lived a life of storm since.

4. Venezuela owed its prosperity, though a Spanish colony,

rather to the efforts of the Dutch in Curacoa, who promoted tho

cultivation of cacao. The war of lil)cration, springing from tho

troubles of Spain during the Peninsular struggle, began in 1811,

when the Spanish flag was cut down, tho tricolor hoisted, and

a patriot army under Miranda, with 15olivar as one of his colonek,

took the field. The insurgents were at first successful ; but tho

earthquakes of 1812 so appalled the superstitious people that tho

royalists got the ascendency once more. Bolivar, aiding in tho

arrest of Miranda, accused him of intriguing with Britain ; after

which lie was delivered to the Spaniards, and died in a European

dungeon.

In conjunction with Ribas, Bolivar raised a new army, which

victoriously occupied Caraccas (1813). The chief then assumed

the titles of Dictator and Liberator. So hopeless was tho cause

of Spain at this crisis that it was proposed to arm even the negro

slaves ; and a " war of death " began, the royalists murdering pris-

oners by scores—acts of cruelty which Bolivar was weak enough

to retaliate by shooting eight hundred Spaniards in La Guayra

and Caraccas. The defeat of La Puerta (1814) cast a cloud over

the fortunes of the patriots ; and for two years Bolivar lived as an

exile in Jamaica and Ilayti. But the struggle was renewed. Tlio

Liberator entered Bogota ; and in the decisive battle of Carabobo

defeated the Spanish General La Torre. The fall of Puerto

Cabello, the strongest fortress of Venezuela, completed the expul-

sion of the Spaniards (1823).

6, 6. New Granada and Ecuador (the ancient Kingdom of

Quito) achieved their independence by the Kunie war. By the

lltSTOnV 01' SOUTH AMKniCA. £01

*

«

Convention of Cucuta in 1821 tlie States in the novtli of Soiitli

America formed themselves into the llepuhlic of Colombia, Hutin 1831 there was an amicable separation, uhicli dissolved tho

union into the three States, Venezuela, Ecuador, and NewGranada.

7, 8, 9. Argentine Confederation ; Paraguay ; Uruguay. Thollivcr Plato (La Plata) was explored in 1530 by Sebastian Cabot,

who, being then in the service of Spain, ascended to the site of

Asuncion on the Paraguay, which was afterwards founded by3Icndoza. The Spaniard Garay founded the city of Buenos Ayrcsin 1580; and these colonies were attached at first to the Vice-

royalty of Peru. To this distant place the enterprising Jesuits

penetrated, and they formed out of the converted Guaranis, whodwelt on the Parana, a thriving settlement. But in 1768 tho

Jesuits were expelled.

Rising in revolt against Spain, like the other Strtos of South

America, the Argentine Provinces threw off the yoke in 1810;but the desire of Buenos Ayres to obtain an ascendency over tho

other States led to much discord among them. United in 1826,

they dissolved their union in the following year; and then a war"with Brazil complicated their troubles.

In 1835 Rosas became Captain-general of the Confederacy, and

under his iron hand anarchy was crushed for a time. But his

efforts to secure for Buenos Ayres the sole right to the naviga-

tion of the River Plate excited the anger of Paraguay and Uru-

guay, which applied for help to Brazil. Great Britain and

France, whose merchants had a strong interest in this land of

hides and cattle, offered to mediate in the quarrel; but Rosas re-

jected the proposal. An Anglo-French fleet then (1845) forced

its way up the Parana, destroying the batteries of Rosas, and

convoying some merchant ships which ha ' '^een prevented from

ascending. At San Lorenzo, on the return voyage, Rosas opened

a lieavy fire on the fleet; but a rocket-brigade soon silenced

his guns.

After England and France had withdrawn fiom the blockade,

Brazil resumed the war; and in 1851, on tlic plains of Moron,

? 1

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802 IIISTOUY OF SOUXII AMEIIICA.

tlio amy of Kosas was finally acfoatcd. Tlic clilcf cscapcil in

disguise as a peasant, antl soon sailod for England.

Urquiza then rose, to the head of tlic Confederation, 1)ut in-

Burrcction and anarchy have prevailed in the State since.

Paraguay sprang from the Missions of the Jesuits, who foundeil

n settlement, which they jealously guarded from all intrusion,

Icing armed by a royal order from Spain forhidding Spaniard;^

to visit the district without permission. This State, after the

breach with Spain, refused to submit to the dominion of Buenos

Ayres, and became independent under a lawyer named Dr.

Francia, who was Dictator for twenty-six years (181-4-40).

Lopez, the successor of Francia, adopting a more liberal policy,

Bhowctl a desire to open Paraguay to the inlluences of foreign

commerce.

Uruguay, or Banda Oriental, was a subject of contention be-

tween Brazil and Buenos Ayrcs until 1828, when, by the media-

tion of England, the Seven Missions were ceded to Brazil, while

the southern part was erected into a separate republic.

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BRAZIL.*

Discovered in 1500 by Cabral, a Portuguese sailor, Brazil

was afterwards explored by Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine in

tho service of Portugal. Thus it was that a comparatively

unknown explorer, who had tho good fortune to publish a

description of this region with a map, came to enjoy the honour

of having a continent, discovered by Columbus, called after him.

When a trade in dye-wood sprang up, and tho French be-

f,'an to send ships for this article, King John III. of Portugal

planted a settlement by granting largo tracts of the Brazilian

coast to some of his richest nobles. In 1540 Bahia was founded

as a centre of the colony. Resenting an attempt made by sonio

expatriated Huguenots to establish themselves in the bay of llio

Janeiro, tho Portuguese then founded tho city which forms tho

capital at present. A vigorous attempt was made also by tho

Dutch, wlio possesr,cd themselves of all Brazil north oi the San

t !

:

niSTOUY or £OL-riI AMKRICA. C03

Francisco, fixing their "btiso of operations at rcrnambuco; lut

tlicy too were expellcil (l(j54).

Tlic IJraJillians groaned under two grievances of tlieir govern*

ment hy Portugal ; one was tlio jealous policy of forbiddin,;^

foreign commerce, which discontented the merchants; the other,

tl»o honours and gifts showered upon new emigrants from Tortu*

gal, to the exclusion of the descendants of old settlers.

When, in 1808, Napoleon declared war with Portugal, the royal

family of Braganza quietly took ship at Lishon, and sailed awa/

heyond his reach to Brazil. This visit was most benellcial to thu

American possessions, where printing and free commerce took

late root. The Portuguese King, when Napoleon fell, assumed tho

.'idditional title of King of ]jrazil, and lingered in that seductive

land until, in 1820, the disturl)ed state of Portugal recalled him

to Europe. Before cmharking he proclaimed his son Pedro Regent

of Brazil; hut the dread of being again placed under Portugal in

a subordinate and crippled condition, led the Brazilians to de-

clare their independence under Pedro as Emperor (1822). Except

at Bahia, there was no bloodshed; for the Portuguese garrison*

of ^laranhao and Para were glad to sail away to Europe. In

1825 Portugal acknowledged the independence of Brazil.

Wlicn John VI. died in 182G, the Brazilians feared lest hi^

Bou might prefer the cro^vn of Portugal to that of Brazil. But

he sent his daughter Donna Maria to ascend the throne of

Portugal, while he remained in South America. The war witli

Buenos Ayres, ending in 1828, has been already noticed. A dis-

pute with the Chamber, resulting in a popular riot, whieli tho

soldiers refused to quell, led to the abdication of Pedro in 1831.

Pedro XL, who attained his majority in 1841 at the unusually

early period of lifteen, w\as Emperor during tho struggle with

lloiias, of which some account has been given.

GUIANA.

Guianca, discovered in the sixteenth century by Vincent Pinzon,

was colonized in turn by the Dutch, the French, and the English,

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sot ItTSTOUY or FOITII AMKUICA.

who fitill divide its territory ainonic tliejn. The Dutch (1590)

occupied tlio hnvor basin of the Demcrara ; tlio French took

Cayenne; wliilo the English planted at ]>crl)icc and SurinaiJi

colonics, >vliicli they afterwards, in the chiys of diaries II.,

yielded to the Dutch. But during the American, and yet moro

decidedly during the Napoleonic wars, Britain retaliated on tho

Dutch for siding against her by seizing these, with other colonics.

In 1831 Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara were united into

British Guiana. The chief troubles connected with these colo-

nies have arisen from negro insurrections.

SOUTH AMEKICAN CIIUONOLOGY.

Cabral discovers r>rnzil, ... «• ••• ••• •••

Cabot explores La Plati, ... ... ••. ••• •••

Pizarro conquers Pern, ... ••• ••• ••• •••

Dutch expelled from Pernambuco, ... ... ...

Jesuits in Paraguay, ... ... ... .•• •••

pjirth of Simon Bolivar, ... ... ... ... •••

Chili, Venezuela, and the Argentine Provinces throw off the Spanish

yoke, ... ••. ••• ••• ••• •••

British Guiana finally ncqnircd,

Convention of Cucuta—forms Colombian Republic, ...

Brazil made an Empire, ... ... ... .••

Independence of Venezuela secured by the fall of Puerto Cabello,

Battle of Ayacucho secures imlependence of Peru, ... ...'

War between Brazil and Buenos Ayrcs,

Rosas Dictator of Buenos Ayres, ... ... ... ...

Britain and France at war with Buenos Ayrcs,

An.

... 1 .'>']0

lC90-17t;3

KSJ

... 1810-11

ISU18-Jl

1S22

1S23

... 1826-23

... 18:55-'>1

... 1815-43

AUSTRALASIA.

In 1G08 the crew of a Dutch yacht caught sight (»f Capo

York in Australia, but saw it vanish without having the least

idea that a vast continent, as the huge island may be called, was

attached to this projecting point. The coast was gradually

traced, especially by the English Captain Cook. TJie name New

Holland, given by its Dutch discoverers, was superseded after

1814 by the present appellation, Australia.

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ItlJJ'roUY OP ACSTUAMA'. 305

The history of tlio isLind consists ciitiroly of the Rcttloment of

the vnriotis British colonics, now nunihoriiig five.

1. In 178& a convict settlement was planted at "Botany Bayon Port Jackson. This was the nncleus of New South WaloH.

Undei' governors liko Macquarie and Bourko, the colony, chielly

devoted to pastnring sheep, prospcriMl well. A new vein of in-

dustry and wealth was opened in 1851, when Ilargraves dis-

covered gold at Bathurst.

2. In 1S20 was founded West Australia, or Swan lliver, a

coh:)ny which has never thriven well.

3. South Australia dates from 18o4. No sign of activity was,

liowever, numifest until the discovery of copper in 1842. For a

time this caused tin influx of emigrants; who, however, were soon

turned aside hy the news of gold at Bathurst.

4. First colonized in 1835, Victoria, or Australia Felix, grew

rich in wool and .sheep, until a desire for coh)nial indopendenca

arose. This was achieved in 1851 hy separation from New South

Wales. The sudden growth of Melbourne, its capital, has been

a wonder of modern life. Where in 1835 a party of squatters

pitched a few tents among the gum-trees, in 1801 stood a city of

108,00'^ iTdiabltants. This sudden change was largely due to the

discovery of gold at Ballarat and Bendigo.

6. In 1859 Queensland was separated from the northern part

of Now South Wales.

TASMANIA.

Tlic island once called Van Dieman's Land, but now Tas-

mania, was discovered in 1G42 by a Butch sailor named

Tasman. A convict colony was planted there in 1803, but

it was not separated from New South Wales until 1825. Its

prosperity as a great pastoral region may be ascribed to

Colonel Arthur, who acted as govciiior for twelve years

(1821-30).

«'

(188) 20

m

S06 IIISTOIIY OF NKW ZEALAND.

NEW ZEALAND.

Every one knows tlio prophetic sentence, penned by jNIncaiilny

ill one of his Essays, which dccLives tliat tlio time may conio

" wlicn a traveller from the great Empire of New Zealand sh dl

rl;;nd on a broken arch of London Bridge and sketcli the ruins

of St. I'auls." The probability of New Zealand ever becoming

the nucleus of a great empire is based upon the possession bythis antipodean group of many characteristic features which have

combined to make Britain great—mineral wealth, a temperato

climate, insuLar form, and occupation by the Anglo-Saxon race.

In New Zealand the missionary was followed by the merchant.

J>ut it was not until 1S39 that the colony was recognized. There

have since been several wars with a cunning tribe of much mili-

tary skill and daring, called the Jllaoris. These wars aroso

from disputes regarding the title to purchased lands, for one chief

cannot sell in certain cases without the consent of the oth(>r

loaders of his tribe. A recent war arose (1SG3) out of tho

^Vaitara purchase, afterwards abandoned. "William King was tho

loading chief of the natives, who in their stockaded forts or jkjA.j

defied our troojis for a time. Our loss was especially severe in

officers, for the Maori marksmen fired from rifle-pits with deadly

aim. Though the natives were defeated by Cameron at Taurauga

(18G4), the war did not come to an end till 18GG, when Sfr

George Grey, the Governor, concluded a treaty of peace with tho

Maoris. But a kind of smouldering war is chronic in the colony.

AUSTRALASIAN CIIRONOLOaY.

r)IscovGry of Australia,

])l.scovcry of Tasmania and New Zc;ilaml, ...

(.'oast explored by Captain Cook, ...

Convict settlement at JJotany Bay,

A'ictoria first colonized,

Now Zealand recognized as a colony,

Discovery of gold at Eathurst,

Victoria separated from New South Wales, ...

llecent Maori wars in New Zealand,

A, p.

]7S3

1S35

183'J

1851

1S51

1800-00

hi

A. p.

1770

1783

1S35

183'J

1851

1851

SGO-OU

UISTOIIY OF AFIIICA.

AFRICA.

:07

Willi llio exception of Egypt, tlic Barloary States, and tlio

Capo of Good Hope, Africa can scarcely be said to liavc any lils-

t(jiy beyond tlio record of scattered settlements on the coast

and advcntnrous explorations into tlie interior by following llio

conrso of the great rivers—Nile, Niger, and Zambesi.

Egypt in 1382 was rnled by a Circassian slave, who fonnded ;i

Mamelnkc dynasty that lasted nntil 1517. The country then

foil before an invasion of the Turks under Sellm I., who, without

destroyinr, the entire inlluence of the Mamelukes, made Egypt a

tributary republic. The government of the Porte was often re-

sisted by these turbulent warriors ; but the Ottoman sway

remained undisturbed until 1798, when Napoleon invaded Egypt.

How the Englisli fleets and armies crippled bis powers there has

been already told. In 1811 Meliemet Ali crushed the Mame-

lukes by one cruel and sudden blow, having invited the principal

oflicers to a feast in the citadel of Cairo. By introducing Eu-

ropean arts and industry into Egypt Mchemet Ali improved \m

Pachalic greatly ;and by his conquests he so greatly extended Jiis

l)0wer as to excite the jealousy of the Turkish Sultan MahmudIT. War accordingly arose between Turkey and Egypt (1832),

-in wliicli Mehcmet's son Ibrahim Pacha defeated the Turkish

armies and menaced Constantinople. The strife was closed by

the intervention of the I'mropean powers. A later war had tho

same result (1840); and, by the treaty which followed tho

bombardment of Acre by an Anglo-Austrian fleet, INIehemct

was stripped of his Asiatio domini-nis, but the government of

J'igypt in subordination to Turkey was made hereditary in his

family.

The Barbary States, with the exception of Algiers, owe a

nominal obedience to the Sultan of Turkey; but over Morocco,

which has been governed by the dynasty of the Sherifs sinco

l')!!, the Porto has never claimed any sovereignty. Morocco

and Southern Spain were at one period of history closely linked

PI

m lIISTOnY OF AFRICA.

. tiiiif ii

together, especially when Yiiscf of tlio dynasty of tlio Almcra-vides established a dominiou at both Cordova and Morocco.

Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli acquired an unenviable notorietyfor piracy. The brothers Baibarossa, in the days of tlie EmperorCharles V., acting as admirals of the Turkish flag, swept the3Iediterrancan with their galleys and ravaged the coasts of Italyand Spain. The Emperor in conjunction with Admiral Doriaassaulted Tunis in 1534, and drove Barl)arossa II. thence. I3ufc

the corsair took to the sea, and continued his career of devasta-tion.

Tunis received a sliaip lesson in 1055 from Adtniral Blake,who battered Porto Farina and Goletta to pieces ; bnt the piracieswere not abandoned until ISIG, when Lord Exmouth threatenedto bombard the town.

Algiers was the principal piratc-ncst for several centuries.Seized in 151G by Ilorush—the elder Barbarossa—it passedunder the power of his brother, who, sulmiitting to the OttomanPorte, was made Ptcgcnt, and provided with a body of Janissaries.The failure of Charles V. in 1541 in an attack upon Algiers,owing to a terrible storm that scattered his fleet, gave this .seat

of pirates extraordinary powers of iucroasliig their mischief.Following the example of English Blake, tha various strongcommercial States of Europe wrested foi-cibly from the Algei^ines a promise—never well kept—of abstaining from piracy.But Italy was the chief sufferer among the weaker States. Atlast so crying did the evil of Christian slavery become that theCongress of Vienna resolved to put it down. Lord Exmouth,accordingly, taking advantage of an insult offered to the British(lag at Bona, bombarded Algiers (181G), and set free more thana thousand white slaves. In 1827 the Bey of Algiers struck tlie

French Consul in the face with his fan : a burst of temper wliieli

cost him his office ; for an expedition crossed (he IMediterrancan,and reduced the territory to the condition of a French colony(1830). Since then the French have engaged in several wars withthe Arabs, both for the purpose of securing the colony aud oftraiuiuL,^ their armies to face an enemy,

i^

mSTORT OP AFRICA. 300

l^

Tripoli was held for twenty-one years (1530-51) by the

Knights of St. John, who after their expulsion from Rhodeswere placed in Malta by the Emperor Charles V. But the

Turkish corsairs having taken it, it became a hot-bed of piracy. AMoor named Hamet Caramanli seized the Pachalic in 1713, andhis family kept it until 1832, when the former practice of send-

ing a pacha from Stamboul was resumed.

CAPE OF 6000 HOPE.

Diaz, a Portuguese sailor, was beaten back by storms from the

Cape of Good Hope in 1487 : in consequence of which he namedit the Cape of Storms. Vasco de Gama succeeded in doubling

the extremity of Africa in 1497. In 1G20 a band of English-

men took formal possession of the shore, which derived great

value from its position half-way to India. But in 1G52 tho

Dutch laid the foundations of Cape Town, and held tho colony,

amid ceaseless native wars, until 1795. It then fell before

an assault by the English; was restored; and was retaken

finally for Britain in 1806 by Sir David Baird and Sir HomoTopham.

What the Maoris are to the English in New Zealand, the

Kaffirs have proved to our colonists at the Cape. Always ready

to break into war, when in action they fight with a vigour and

tenacity that render them no despicable foes. Tlic most serious

of these outbreaks occurred in 1851. Sir Harry Smith directed

the operations against the Kaffirs; and tho war did not close until

1853.

• (

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Discovery and Colonization.—^Tho Mediterranean const of

Africa was well known to tho ancients. The Carthaginians and

Romans probably traced the western coast as far as Scnegambia,

and knew something of the interior and the southern outskirts of

the Sahara.

The modern discoveries of the African coast began with Frinco

810

Henry of Portuf

IIISIOIIY OV AFttlOA.

a younger son of Jolm I., who sent out ships

that reached Cape liojador (1415). From Capo Blanco to Capo

Verde—thenco to the Azores—the progress of discovery ad-

vanced before Ileury's death, which took place in 1463.^

Tho

Guinea coast was next traced ; Fernando Po discovered the island

hearing his name ; Diego Cam entered tho Congo or Zaire River,

and sailed southward to Capo Crosi (1484). The voyages, of

Diaz and De Gama have been adverted to.

The French, having formed an African Company, began to

plant settlements on the coast of the continent, which was already

studded with Portugueso colonics, vigorously engaged in prose-

cuting a trade, among other articles, in negro slaves for the Ame-

rican plantations. Tho Dutch, Danes, and English followed the

example. To the last-named nation is chiefly due the honour of

penetrating the heart of this sealed continent and making known

its inner mysteries to the world.

Explorcation.—The Paver Niger attracted Mungo Park, Den-

ham, and Clappcvton. Kichard Lander, a servant of the latter,

discovered the mouth of the great stream. Druce traced a tribu-

tary of the Nile to its source in the highlands of Abyssinia ;but

more recently Spcke, Grunt, and Daker have ascertained that tho

main stream flows from two largo lalvcs, which have been named

the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza. Livingstone, as-

cending the Zambesi, has discovered on it the greatest waterfall

in tlie world, and has dispelled the idea that Southern Africa is a

desert region. After spending two years in Fngland, he returned

to Africa in 1S58, and continued his explorations in Central Africa

till i864. He started on a third expedition in 1805, in which

he is still engaged (1873). As a great cotton-field, inner Africa

may yet come to have an important history. The influences of

civilization have penetrated it last of all the continents, owing to

its lack of inlets or gulls. Tho cast of Africa is still cursed by a

nefarious slave trade, which efforts are now being made to

destroy.

lirr-is

h h

HISTORY OF AFRICA. 811

MODERN AFRICAN CIIRONOLOaY.

Tracing of coast under Prince Henry,

Voyage of I?:irU»olorae\v Diaz,

Voyage of Vasco do Garaa,

KniftUts of St. Jolm iu Tripoli, ...

Charles V. defeated at Algiers,

Sherif dynasty in Morocco bcRius,

Jouruevs of Mun;;o Paik, ...

Cape of Good Hope tiiken by tlie British,

Suppression of Mamelukes in Egypt,

Lord Exmouth bombards Algiers, ...

The Landers discover the Niger mouth,

Algiers made a Freucli colony,^

..•

Livingotone explores the Zambesi,

Speke discovers the Victoria Nyauza,

Baker dLscovtrs the Albert Nyauza,

• ••

•••

• ••

• ••

• ••

•••

• ••

• t«

• ••

••ft

• ••

A.l».

... 1415-63

... 1487

... 149T

... 1580-51

... 1541

... 1544

1795-1805

... 1806

... 1811

... 1816

... 18U0

1S30

... 185G

... 18.^.3

^ 18e2

CHRONOLOGY OF RECENT EVENTS.

The Ionian Islands annexed to Greece,^

Feven Weeks' War (I'russia and Austria),

Abyssinian Wav, ••• •••

r>,.opn TsaViolla of Spain dethroned, .- -

Suez Canal opened for traftic, ••• -

The Irish Church disestablished and disendowed ......

A French Atlantic Cable laid between lire.t and St. P^enc.

Kn<^lish Klementary Education Act,

Tii'c Irish Land Act, ... -. •;•

France declared \Var against Prussia .Tub),

{Surrender of Napoleon III. at Sedan (^ept.),

French Kepublic proclaimed, ,..

Amadeo of Italy elected King of Spam. ...

^"--^'i-,°^^^::^^v^::;!:":;::m:rof Alsace a;;d Lorrai..

^•::;^i::;fo?p;u!;^^;:::5ain>aiKin^r.c.Ge^^^^^^

aniununist Insurrection in Paris (.bii^ to May),.^^

...

The Mont Cenis Tunnel opened foi traU..

Kome made the Capital of the Kingdom of Italy, ......

{Scottish Elementary Education Act,

The 13allot Act (to expire lu 18bO),_

(Jeneva award on the Alabama Claims, ...

Death of Napoleon III. i"/^""^^^^^^^^^^^ „ ^{'...^y,, n^oclaimed,

Abdicatiou of King Amadeo ot Spam, a iv.puuuc i

1864

IStSG

(May),

18t)i)

18(39

18(30

1SG9

1^70

1870

1870

1870

1^70

1S71

1S71

1S71

1S71

1871

1871

1871

1872

1872

1872

1873

1S73

r

t <

1

1

J

I

'I-t\

XVVrtk

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