Oscar Niemeyer and the color - Docomomo Brasil

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Oscar Niemeyer and the color

BORDA, Luis; BAUER, Susanne. Oscar Niemeyer

and the color. Revista Docomomo Brasil, Rio de Ja-

neiro, n. 2, p. 42-48, dec. 2018

submission date: 10/10/2017

acceptance date: 02/07/2018

Oscar Niemeyer e a cor

Oscar Niemeyer y el color

Luis Eduardo dos Santos BORDA PhD in Arts, [email protected]

Susanne BAUERPhd in Architecture, [email protected]

AbstractThis article seeks to understand the chromatic options of Oscar Niemeyer throughout his extensive career. The methodology consists of analyzing the chroma-tism of his works and comparing it to the chromatic options of other modern architects and artists. The results are commented on the analysis of selected works. Since white tonality is very much present in his production, the analysis first approaches his work from a certain fascination of modern architects with white. He also hypothesized that his option for white also derives from references linked to the particular strand of abstract sculpture. He notes, however, that it is only after the 1950s that Niemeyer makes a de-liberate choice for white. Before that, its architecture is polychromic. The article analyzes the references of this initial polychromy of its production, Niemeyer’s approach to Brutalism from the 60s and also the chromatic unfolding of its architecture from the 90s. It concludes with the observation that, despite the singularity and the strong authorial character of his production, his chromatic references can be found in certain paths of Art and Architecture of the twentieth century.Keywords: Oscar Niemeyer; Color; Modern Architecture.

ResumoEste artigo busca compreender as opções cromá-ticas de Oscar Niemeyer ao longo de sua exten-sa carreira. A metodologia consiste em analisar o cromatismo de suas obras e compará-lo às opções cromáticas de outros arquitetos e artistas modernos. Os resultados são comentados a partir da análise de algumas obras selecionadas. Uma vez que a to-nalidade branca é muitíssimo presente em sua pro-dução, a análise primeiramente aborda a sua obra a partir de certo fascínio dos arquitetos modernos pelo branco. Aventa também a hipótese de que sua opção pelo branco deriva, ademais, de referências ligadas à determinada vertente da escultura abstra-ta. Constata, contudo, que é só a partir dos anos 50

que Niemeyer faz uma deliberada opção pelo bran-co. Antes disso, sua arquitetura é policrômica. O ar-tigo analisa as referências dessa policromia inicial de sua produção, a aproximação de Niemeyer ao Brutalismo a partir dos anos 60 e, também, os des-dobramentos cromáticos de sua arquitetura a partir dos anos 90. Conclui com a observação de que, não obstante a singularidade e o forte caráter autoral de sua produção, suas referências cromáticas podem ser encontradas em determinados trajetos da Arte e da Arquitetura do século XX. Palavras-chave: Oscar Niemeyer; Cor; Arquitetu-ra Moderna.

Resumen Este artículo busca comprender las opciones cromá-ticas de Oscar Niemeyer a lo largo de su extensa carrera. La metodología consiste en analizar el cro-matismo de sus obras y compararlo con las opciones cromáticas de otros arquitectos y artistas modernos. Los resultados se comentan a partir del análisis de algunas obras seleccionadas. Una vez que la totali-dad blanca es muchísimo presente en su producción, el análisis primero aborda su obra desde cierta fas-cinación de los arquitectos modernos por el blanco. Plantease como hipótesis que su opción por el blanco también está relacionada a determinada verterte da la escultura abstracta. Se constata, sin embargo, que es sólo desde los años 50 que Niemeyer hace una deliberada opción por el blanco. El articulo analiza las referencias de esa policromía inicial de su pro-ducción, la aproximación de Niemeyer al Brutalismo en los años 60 así como los despliegues cromáticos de su arquitectura en los años 90. Concluye con la observación de que, sin embargo, la singularidad y el fuerte carácter “de autor” de su producción, sus referencias cromáticas se pueden encontrar en de-terminados trayectos del arte y de la arquitectura del siglo XX.Palabras-clave: Oscar Niemeyer; el color; arqui-tectura moderna.

Introduction

Transformed into a sign of modernity, whiteness marked the unadorned buildings of Adolf Loos

and the modernist houses of Gregory Warchavchik. Whiteness was present in the famous residences that Le Corbusier built in the 1920s and was essential, as he intended, to perceive them as “volumes in light.” The analysis of Oscar Niemeyer’s work reveals the same adherence to this long tradition and to the fas-cination with white that characterized much of mod-ern architecture. It is however, a fascination that, in Niemeyer’s case, became remarkable only from the mid-1950s onwards.

Examining Oscar Niemeyer’s choice of color throughout his long career, it is visible that, at the beginning of his career, white was not the dominant

PAPERSOscar Niemeyer and the color | Luís Eduardo dos Santos Borda e Susanne Bauer

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color. Until the mid-1950s, Niemeyer had produced a light, permeable architecture which took its color-ation not only from the textures and natural tones of the materials but also from the blue and white tiles that often coated certain surfaces. The color of his architecture in that period was reinforced also by the artistic panels that frequently integrated his build-ings. It is from the 1950s that Niemeyer began to implement compositions in which white became the dominant color. In this period, the whiteness came to be associated with dense, compact volumes and was synonymous of a strong sculptural character, which continued throughout most of his subsequent work. However, at the same time, this did not prevent Nie-meyer from also exploring the natural tone of the concrete and therefore, in a certain sense, the Bru-talist aesthetic.

Niemeyer’s latter investigations into color began around the 1990s. Without abandoning white as a color and the strong authorial character that charac-terized his architecture until then, the architect started to dynamize some of his compositions with strong hues of colors, tones that began to appear on certain surfaces.

Based on the analysis of selected works, this arti-cle will attempt to understand Niemeyer’s choice of color throughout his long career. It will also seek to understand what relation exists between Niemey-er’s choice of color and the modern fascination with whiteness. This will require contextualizing his work in relation to modern architecture and also in rela-tion to the Brazilian cultural context. This paper will discuss the hypothesis that the modern fascination with white alone, is not enough to explain the color choices of the architect. It will try to show that na-tionalist concern, interest in Brutalist aesthetics and Niemeyer’s reference to modern sculpture were also decisive in his choice of color.

The modern fascination with whiteness

Ever since the beginning of Modernity people have looked for not only a definition but a short hand ex-pression for Modernity. Philosophers, historians and critics tent to employ terms like ‘rational’, ‘utilitarian’, ‘functional’, ‘secular’, etc. to describe Modernity. In recent decades these have been supplemented by more specific terms like ‘hygienic’, ‘clear’, ‘clean’, ‘minimal’ or ‘efficient’. In all this, the colour white seems to be both the product and the expression of self-conscious Modernity. Perhaps in some sense this was always the case… In the late 18th century the term ‘light’ and ‘white’ became interchangeable. Whatever its history might be, one thing is certain: the question of the apparent superiority of white has become one which holds a general fascination.

In architectural discourse the color white has been in the center of many discourses as well as used to

promote an instant expression of Modernity. Within the debate about the color white, modern architec-ture has been given an especially prominent position. Of course this narrative appears in variations but it informs a mass of writings, especially writings on the nature of Modernity. Early modernist architecture as it appeared in the beginning of the 20th century seemed to be attached to the color white. Oscar Nie-meyer likewise adhered to this ‘white architectural image’ and, although he had used many colors in his extensive career, he is most recognized precisely for his later white modernist buildings.

The argument about whiteness overlaps with the ar-gument about ornament; the prohibition of ornament is usually put in context with the abolition of applied color. A modern building should stand undressed in a mode of literal honesty as Adolf Loos already de-clared that ‘Ornament and Crime’. Loos’ is held to have denounced traditional ornamentation opening the way for a radical simplification of architecture starting with its external surfaces. The baton is then thought to have passed to a generation of the 1920s whose architects are credited with designing build-ings with simple exteriors which is emphasized by and organized around the fact that the buildings are white. At the early 20th Century, the common opinion was that ornament - like color - should be swept away by a revolutionary inauguration of transparency. The sign for this transparency was the whiteness. Mod-ern architects therefore treated bright colors as orna-ment, and as a way of dressing. The pure architecture consisted of the naked wall which was just’ dressed with a white coat of paint. (WIGLEY,1995).

As all objects have a color, coloring and indeed the eradication of color at a building are both architec-tural decisions. The prejudice and objection against colour can be partly explained by its uncontrollable nature and on the other side human’s urge for con-trol and order, especially in the early 20th century The eradication of color was thought to resist fast-paced fashion moves and therefore be regarded as timeless. What emerged from the debates about re-sisting a fashionable look and to create something timeless, was, at the end, the stripping down of the clothing of the building to the bare minimum, the essential, naked ‘look’ of the building. Ironically this was best shown through a white surface.

Yet, the polemic of the white walls is precisely about a decision to coat the wall with a color. The devel-opment of the industrial production of paints meant that there was soon a wide choice of whites to choose from. In deciding upon a color the increasing ration-alization of paint production meant that it was pos-sible to produce color charts. But color was not only regarded as out-of-fashion about also as superficial, primitive and therefore uncertain.


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“Color is made out to be the property of some ‘foreign’ body – usually the feminine, the oriental, the primitive, the infantile, the vulgar, the queer or the pathological… color is regarded to the realm of the superficial, the supplemen-tary, the inessential or the cosmetic. In one, color is re-garded as alien and therefore dangerous; in the other, it is perceived merely as a secondary quality of experience, and thus unworthy of serious consideration.” (BATCHE-LOR, 2000, p: 22).

The decision of whether to color and — if so, what color — or the decision not to color is part of this whole design argument.

In the public imagination Modernism in architecture matches that image of buildings that are white, have a functional layout and most frequently a flat roof. This becomes the canonical image of Modernism in architecture and is linked to a language of function-alism and utility in the beginning of the 20th century and becomes imbedded in the promise of the good life and regarded as certain sign of taste and style in the second half of the 20th century. The public sense then was that a white building with a flat roof and plain walls was not only a modernist building but also corresponds to the overall demands of Moder-nity — and thus a good life — itself.

The whiteness of modern architecture, also in the work of one of the first modern architects, Le Cor-busier’s, has since been an influential element in ar-chitecture. For Le Corbusier architecture was closely linked to engineer’s aesthetic and had to consist of ‘mass,’ ‘surface’ and ‘plan’. The engineers work, straight-forward, without any ornament was what af-fected him most. Although it had been Adolf Loss who had first been linked to a pure architecture through his elimination of all ornamentation, in 1908 it is Le Corbusier who is most notable for a purist architec-ture. He was impressed by industrialization at the beginning of the 20th century. Among architects and artists, who had learned to decorate their work, they felt utterly confused by the sudden cry for elementa-ry goods and the appreciation and need for engi-neers aesthetic which soon took over in creating and inventing the ‘new’ architecture. This architecture, plain, pure and simple was best expressed by a sin-gle coat of white paint, to rid itself from the past or-namentation, possibly superficial color choices and evading fleeting fashion trends. This coat of white was used by modern architects throughout and over time gained or lost in its emphasis of their respective works.

Niemeyer, color and the national demand

Several critical studies have pointed out that Le Cor-busier’s production has always been an important reference for Oscar Niemeyer. (QUEIROZ, 2007; VALLE, 2000; BRUAND, 1991). Like his Brazilian col-leagues, the young Niemeyer had read Corbusier’s views on architecture as a “sacred catechism,” and had seen in his ideas a parameter for the develop-ment of architecture and urbanism in Brazil. Corbus-

ier’s series of rationalist residences, his asymmetri-cal, white, rectangular volumes, the understanding of this architecture as “volumes in light,” the allusion of these forms to the Mediterranean tradition, or even its “purist” character, were an important aes-thetic reference for the young Oscar Niemeyer.

Le Corbusier, who came to Brazil in 1936, however, would no longer be primarily attached to the color white; he would rather be sensitive to local traditions, which included vernacular polychromy. Abandoning purism and the white form, Le Corbusier was then using materials and vernacular techniques. Like modern sculpture, he was exploring the original tex-tures and colors of the construction materials, which in architecture were predominantly wood, stone and concrete. (CURTIS, 1987).

It was with these ideas in mind that Le Corbusier coordinated his first projects in Brazil, one of which was the Ministry of Education and Public Health (Rio de Janeiro, 1936). He recommended, for example, that certain granite was used in the paneling of the windows and doors at the building of Ministry. (BRU-AND, 1991).

Corbusier’s suggestions on the inclusion of vernac-ular charcteristics met the strong nationalist demand of this period. The idea was to produce an art that, while being modern, maintained strong ties to the local culture. The result was not only a spatial and technically modern architecture, but also a produc-tion that expressed aspects of national culture. It is in this sense, for example, that Portinari’s tile panel on the ground floor was made. It is a reference not only to the local landscape (a sign of Brazilianness) but also to the Portuguese tradition of tiles. It is in this sense, likewise, that the use of a local stone in the lining of the columns, or the tone of the native woods that line walls and define internal partitions are visi-ble.1 (Fig. 1 and 2).

Figure 1 | Pilotis do Palácio Gustavo Capanema (antigo Ministério de Educação e Saúde Pública), Rio de Janeiro. Source: Foto de Leonardo Finotti (publicação autorizada pelo autor).


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From the chromatic point of view, the result is an architectural ensemble which, implying a modern volumetric composition and principles of rationalistic design, presented a rich range of colors. Such poly-chromy was attained by the blue and white of the tile panels, by the blue sunshades of the north facade, by the granite tone of the pilotis, by the natural hue of the wood (cabinets and cladding of some internal spaces), and by the artistic works that were included in the architectural composition.

Niemeyer, who was greatly influenced by this en-counter and experience with Le Corbusier, sub-sequently produced an architecture that until the mid-1950s explored the textures and colors of the building materials and which, according to region-alist principles and Corbusier’s recommendations, included the blue and white of the Portuguese and Brazilian traditions.

The works of Pampulha, which were designed only six years after the proposal for the Ministry of Education and Public Health, are perhaps one of the best exam-ples of this first phase of Niemeyer’s architecture. This phase could be regarded as the polychromatic one.

In the Capela de São Francisco de Assis (Belo Hori-zonte, 1942), for example, the rich colors derive from the blue sunshades of the façade, the blue and white tiles that externally cover the arched roofs, the tone of the stone that clad both the arches and the inclined marquise, the tone of the wood that lines the interior of the nave, the color of the stones that make up the internal and external floors, the splendid por-celain tiles of Portinari, and, finally, the delicate col-oring of the artistic panels and paintings that com-plete the architectural composition. (Fig. 3 and 4).

The same compositional guideline, with its rich color-ing, can be seen in the other buildings of Pampulha: the Casa do Baile, the Yacht Club and the Casino.

By the end of his long career, Niemeyer continued to explore the material qualities of the constructive elements. From the 1950s onwards, the main char-

Figure 2 | Interior do Palacio Capanema (antigo MESP). Source: Foto de Leonardo Finotti (publicação autorizada pelo autor).

acteristics of his work were the progressive abandon-ment of the blue-white tiles and the emergence of two developmental paths for his architecture.2 One of them was the explorations into volumetric com-positions, which incidentally became a kind of fea-ture of the architecture of Oscar Niemeyer. The other characteristic was a certain approach to Brutalism, something that marked the aesthetics of many of his buildings until the end of his career.

Niemeyer, white volumes and references to modern sculpture

If until the mid-1950s Niemeyer maintained the poly-chromy that characterized the works of Pampulha, he then undertook investigations into different ways of developing his architecture through white volumes, characterized by their strong sculptural reference. This will introduce the monochromatic phase of his work. The hypothesis of this paper is that, rather than modern architecture, these forms make certain refer-ences to the expression of modern sculpture.

The Palácio do Congresso Nacional (Brasilia, 1957), with its white and clean domes, is perhaps one of the best and best-known examples of the use of vol-

Figure 3 | Niemeyer, O. – Capela de São Francisco de Assis. Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, 1942. Fachada Principal. Source: Foto de Leonardo Finotti (publicação autorizada pelo autor).

Figure 4 | Niemeyer, O. – Capela de São Francisco de Assis. Interior da nave. Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, 1942. Source: Foto de Leonardo Finotti (publicação autorizada pelo autor).


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umes with a certain sculptural character and of this new phase in which, at least in respect to external surfaces, the architect abandons the polychromy that characterized his previous oeuvre.3 White appears not only in the domes, whose concrete is colored, but also in the marble that lines the ramp, the gable of the towers and the external floors.

Another example is the project for Companhia En-ergética de São Paulo (1979, not built), a composi-tion of sculptural character and, like the other build-ings he began to produce, is defined by formally concise volumes. The two dense and white volumes, a tripartite tower and a sinuous pavement make up the whole project, which is also able to articulate all the elements of this composition. Colors are restrict-ed to the white of the volumes and to the black of the glazing.

The Panteão à Liberdade e à Democracia (Brasília, 1985) is also an example of these white composi-tions that characterized the entire oeuvre of Oscar Niemeyer from the 1950s onwards. The white ap-pearance, which is obtained through the outer coat-ing in marble, reinforces the strong image of the building and gives unity to the different forms of the architectural set.

One of his latest works, Conjunto Cultural da Repú-blica (Brasilia, 2006) is the last example selected among Oscar Niemeyer’s numerous of white com-positions. The whole is constituted by the dome of the Museum, with its impressive and graceful exter-nal ramp, and by the Library building, a rectangu-lar and minimalist block. The white tint of the dome also appears in the library building, contrasting with graphite brise-soleil. The Whiteness is also present in the minimalist and elegant interior of the Museum.

White volumes, which characterized not only the Corbusierian residences of the 1920s but also much of the rest of modern architecture, must surely have been an important reference for Oscar Niemeyer. However, this is not justification enough to clarify the architect’s choice for white. The strong sculptural character that his architecture assumes from this pe-riod refers to a certain tradition of modern sculpture, which, not by chance, is white. We are referring here specifically to the work of sculptors such as Constan-tin Brancusi and Hans Arp, two key figures of mod-ern sculpture.

In the case of Constantin Brancusi, it is a work that, although it has certain ties with the traditional sculp-tural treatment, implies a high degree of abstraction. Without ever abandoning the idea of representation, Brancusi simplifies the image of the represented ob-ject. Maiastra is a good example of this procedure. Carried out in several versions, it involves reducing the motif (a bird) to its essential features.

Another important aspect of Brancusi’s oeuvre is the fact that, despite the abstract treatment, he uses tra-ditional techniques of sculpture; it includes the thin-ning of the marble, one of the most elegant material of the sculptural tradition. It is with this material, inci-dentally, that he produces dense white volumes. The hypothesis is that those volumes are an important reference to the stripped, compact, dense, and not by chance, white forms produced by Niemeyer. Mod-ern architecture, until then, did not produce forms of such a sculptural character. The fact that Niemey-er, whenever possible, covered his forms with white marble reinforces this hypothesis, as shown in the case of the Panteão à Liberdade e à Democracia.

Hans Arp is yet another name that, linked to this aspect of sculpture, also produced dense and white volumes. He explored sinuous plans, which, as well as his volumes, informed the architecture of Oscar Niemeyer.

Equal to Brancusi, Hans Arp also produces dense and white volumes; however, he later the abstracts and no longer holds on to the idea of representation. Far from trying to emulate the things of nature, he seeks only to evoke the sinuosity of the natural ele-ments. At other times, Arp takes geometry as inspira-tion and distances himself completely from the forms of nature. Equal to Hans Arp, Niemeyer explored sinuous and geometric forms; for example, the curvi-linear and white form of the auditorium of the Bolsa do Trabalho (Bobigny, Paris, 1972) or the triangular form of the Ibirapuera Auditorium. They are forms of strong sculptural character, little explored in the architecture until then and which attests a reference to Hans Arp’s modern sculpture.

Another interesting aspect of Hans Arp is the fact that he repeatedly used plaster as a material. In this re-spect, Niemeyer has more in common with Brancusi as the volumes of concrete, then painted white, are more similar to plaster than to marble.4

Oscar Niemeyer, the expression of concrete and the saturated colors of his last phase

While investigating his white compositions, Niemeyer developed some projects where the materiality was the raw expression of concrete. He sought to inves-tigate plastic possibilities that brought some of his projects closer to what came to be known as the Bru-talist aesthetics. This was based more specifically on Le Corbusier’s designs (Unités d’Habitation, 1947, Convent of La Tourette, 1956, etc.). Unlike the Eng-lish Brutalism, Niemeyer used concrete more as an expressive possibility than a means to visualize the constructive system or the structural logic.

The project for the Ceplan (Center for Planning of the University of Brasilia, 1960), the University of Brasilia (1960), the Institute of Theology (Brasília, 1960), the


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Ministry of Justice (Brasília, 1968) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Brasília, 1962) are examples of these formal surveys of Niemeyer. They occurred concur-rently incorporated into a white compositions with other colors which was a new and expressive way Niemeyer introduced in his designs. In many cases, they were associated with bold colors, something that could also be seen in Le Corbusier.

The latest color experimentation of Oscar Niemey-er was the introduction of strong colors within in his white forms. The idea was to dynamize the compo-sitions with saturated colors or lend them certain meanings associated with the program. Most of the time, Niemeyer was restricted to red, but some pro-jects pointed to a greater diversity of color choices. These plastic investigations, beginning in the late 1980s, include Expressionist Monuments.

Among the monuments are the sculpture Mão (Me-morial of Latin America, São Paulo, 1989) and the Monument to Getúlio Vargas (Rio de Janeiro, 1992, not built). They are primarily white structures but in-clude a bright red color which alludes to the Latin American suffering and the blood spilled as well as the heroism of certain historical figures.

Among those projects, two stand out in which Nie-meyer used several bright colors. These are the pro-posal for the Fiat Factories (Turin, 1990, not built) and the Museum of Man and the Universe (Brasília, 1994). At the Fiat Factories, Niemeyer proposed a cover made up of hundreds of small inclined pyr-amids of slightly varying size and painted in the shades of yellow, red, blue and green. In the Muse-um of Man and the Universe, Niemeyer paints in var-ied and saturated tones the five domes that integrate the structure of the building.

The use of more than one color composition, how-ever, is quite rare in Niemeyer’s work. In most cases, he restricts himself one additional color to the white-ness, usually used on some plane or surface of the building. Examples are the Teatro Popular (Niterói, 1997), the Goiânia Cultural Center, the Ibirapuera Theater (São Paulo, 2005), among others.

Conclusion

Through analyzing Oscar Niemeyer’s choices of color throughout his extensive career is an interesting way to understand his work, his aesthetic references and conceptual issues involved in his work. Analyzing his work leads in that way to an understanding of his reference to Le Corbusier’s Purism, his approach to modern abstract sculpture, his attempts to investigate formal possibilities posed by the constructive side of Brutalism, and also to his concern, at the beginning of his career, to incorporate nationalistic characteris-tics of the Brazilian environment.

In conclusion, Oscar Niemeyer’s oeuvre followed the developments of some 20th century cultural and aes-thetic currents, both on a national and international level. Whiteness, appearing throughout his architec-tural work in different instances and intentions, was not only linked to the modern fascination of white and the expressions of the modern abstract sculpture, but also gave a strong sense of unity to his work and urban compositions.

NOTES

1 “Brazilian expressions” are also deliberately sought after by the sculptures that complete the architectural compo-sition, such as the Monument to the Brazilian Man, Porti-nari’s paintings depicting workers from all corners of the country, or the native landscape of Burle Marx.

2 It is possible that both the abandonment of the blue and white patterns and the emphasis of white volumes result from the decrease of nationalistic demand; something that would have freed the architect up for new sculptural and color explorations.

3 The novelty now is that the diversity of tones and textures happen only inside the buildings. The National Congress building itself is a good example of this. If the exterior is white (white domes and surfaces in marble), the interior shows a polychrome space that is due to the tone of the carpets, wood coverings, blue/white tiles and other ele-ments that make up the ambiance.

4 Another interesting connection to Hans Arp is the use of flat surfaces as an important resource for the creation of forms. Unlike Piet Mondrian, where such surfaces emerged as rectangles or colored squares, in Hans Arp they appear in the form of sinuous cut-outs explored in low-reliefs in the 1930s. Such plans, which had already appeared in Syn-thetic Cubism and the work of various artists (Henri Matisse, among others) appear in the flat and sinuous roof of the Casa das Canoas (Rio de Janeiro, 1954) and in the Casa do Baile (Pampulha, 1942), among many other works. Max Bill, who called such “free-form” plans, had already mentioned the reference to modern art in Niemeyer’s work (D’AQUINO, 1953).

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