On the History of Refining Mercury in Tibetan Medicine

asian medicine 8 (2013) 75–105

brill.com/asme

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2014 | doi 10.1163/15734218-12341290

On the History of Re!"ning Mercury in Tibetan Medicine

Olaf CzajaUniversity of Leipzig, Germany

[email protected]

Abstract

In this brief study, the origin and spread of the alchemical process of refining mercury in Tibetan medicine will be explored. Beginning with early sources from the eighth to the twelfth centuries, it will be argued that Orgyenpa Rinchenpel (O rgyan pa Rin chen dpal) caused a turning-point in the processing of mercury in Tibet by introducing a complex alchemical process previously unknown. This knowledge, including the manu-facturing of new pills containing mercury, soon spread through Tibet and was incorpo-rated into the medical expertise of local schools such as the Drangti school (Brang ti). Later it was most prominently practised by Nyamnyi Dorjé (Mnyam nyid rdo rje) in southern Tibet. This particular tradition was upheld by Chökyi Drakpa (Chos kyi grags pa) of the Drigung school, who taught it to his gifted student Könchok Dropen Wangpo (Dkon mchog ’gro phan dbang po). During the seventeenth century, two main transmis-sion lines for refining mercury emerged, one associated with the Gelukpa school (Dge lugs pa) in Central Tibet and one with the Kagyüpa school (Bka’ brgyud pa) and the Rimé movement (Ris med) in eastern Tibet. Both will be discussed in detail, highlight-ing important proponents and major events in their development. Finally, the situation in the twentieth century will be briefly explained.

Keywords

Tibetan medicine – Tibetan medical history – mercury detoxification – ‘jewel’ or ‘precious pills’ (rin chen ril bu)

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Early Sources and the Gyüshi (Rgyud bzhi)

In early Tibetan sources dating to the eighth century, such as The King of the Moon (Zla ba’i rgyal po) and The Yellow Covered Book of Biji (Bi ji po ti kha ser), ‘mercury’ (dngul chu) is only briefly mentioned, usually as an ingredient in combination with ‘sulphur’ (mu zi) and some other materia medica, but no processing of any kind is given.1 The first time one encounters a brief descrip-tion of mercury processing in written works is a few centuries later. Besides the famous Gyüshi, one can also read about mercury in the Royal Treasury (Rgyal po’i dkor mdzod), which was at least in part authored by Drakpa Gyeltsen (Grags pa rgyal mtshan, 1147–1216),2 a famous religious leader of the Sakya (Sa skya) order. It can be assumed that the monastery of Sakya probably had a thriving medical school in its precincts.3 There, non-detoxified mercury is mentioned as part of a certain drug for curing the throat afflicted by black bumps or pus-tules (’brum nag). Another drug containing mercury together with sulphur and other ingredients is administered to dry up pus in the upper body. One also finds a brief detoxification method of mercury.4 According to this method, one should combine mercury with salvia mixed with salt. This should eliminate the ‘tarnish’ (g.ya’). One can also use sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides; Tib. star bu) instead of salt.5

In the treatise The Small Tantra: The Essence of Ambrosia (Rgyud chung bdud rtsi snying po), written by Yutok Yönten Gönpo (G.yu thog Yon tan mgon po, twelfth century), who is also the author of the Gyüshi, the production of mer-cury pills of two types that basically cure hot and cold disorders respectively is explained in the chapter on pills.6 It is a process in nine steps that comprises the removal of the tarnish, removal of poison, and so on. The Gyüshi pres-ents the same method.7 The pill of the first type manufactured in this way is labelled Rinchen Tsajor (Rin chen tsha sbyor), which can literally be translated

1 Zla ba’i rgyal po 178/20, 251/9; Bi ji po ti kha ser 443/5.2 The Royal Treasury resembles a compilation. Perhaps the compiler was Sakya Paṇḍita Künga

Gyeltsen (Sa skya Paṇḍita Kun dga’ rgyal mtshan, 1182–1251). Cf. Czaja 2007, p. 367, n. 74.3 Important members of the Khon family (’Khon) that headed the Sakya school studied medi-

cine, such as Künga Nyingpo (Kun dga’ snying po, 1092–1158), his sons Drakpa Gyeltsen and Pelchen Öpo (Dpal chen ’od po, 1150–1203), and the son of Pelchen Öpo, Sakya Paṇḍita Künga Gyeltsen. It is likely that they were not the only individuals with a medical training in the monastery of Sakya.

4 Rgyal po dkor mdzod 174/2, 174/7, 178/1.5 Ibid.6 Rgyud chung 790/6.7 Rgyud bzhi 588/2. For a free rendering, see Men-Tsee-Khang (transl.) 2011a, pp. 125ff.

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as ‘Precious Hot Compound’. Similarly, the pill of the second type is called Rinchen Drangjor (Rin chen grang sbyor) or ‘Precious Cold Compound’. The processing is quite brief. It is more complex than what is explained in the Royal Treasury, but much less complicated when compared to the sophisticated pro-cess that is applied today to detoxify mercury. One often finds the opinion that somehow the method described by Yutok Yönten Gönpo is the origin of this complex process, but this is clearly not true.8 The foundations of this process are the works of Orgyenpa Rinchenpel (O rgyan pa Rin chen dpal, 1230–1309).

Orgyenpa Rinchenpel (1230–1309) and the Early Spread of his Teachings

The ‘great Tibetan yogi, thaumaturge, scholar, alchemist, and traveler’, as van der Kuijp put it, had an adventurous and colourful life.9 His entire biography cannot be explored in this article. Only his contribution to Tibetan medicine, particularly the refining of mercury, will be emphasised.10 On one of his jour-neys, he travelled to Oḍḍiyāna, a mythical place that in this context is prob-ably identical with the Swat valley. Starting in about 1253, his entire travel itinerary began in Tibet, from where he went to Jalandhar, in the present day northwest Indian state of Punjab, and then to other regions in India, to the Indus, to the Swat valley, to Mount Ilam, and to Kashmir through the Hazara district.11 He also came to Dhumatala, probably the ancient site of Butkara near modern Mingaora in today’s Pakistan, where he received the esoteric teaching Approach and Accomplishment of the Three Vajras (Rdo rje gsum gyi bsnyen sgrub) from the deity Vajrayoginī. This revealed teaching and some oth-ers are usually viewed in connection to the knowledge he acquired on the pro-cessing of mercury, but the respective sources lack a full account.12 Notably, in the biographies on Orgyenpa Rinchenpel one searches in vain for teachers or a description of exactly how he obtained this new and precious skill.13 A portion of the works he translated and composed still exists, and some were even included in the canonical collection of the Tengyur (Bstan ’gyur).14 The

8 See, for instance, Men-Tsee-Khang (ed.) 2011b, p. 5.9 Van der Kuijp 2004, p. 299.10 For a discussion of his life and his travels, see van der Kuijp 2004, Li 2011, and Vitali 2012.11 For a full discussion of his itinerary, see Tucci 1971.12 See, for instance, Phan bde’i gter mdzod 190/3.13 Cf., for instance, Grub chen u rgyan pa’i rnam thar.14 For a full list of his works, see Li 2011.

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most important in this regard is the Treatise on Processing Mercury (Dngul chu grub pa’i bstan bcos) that is said to have been written by Mahāsiddha Vyālipa, a person that in Tibetan writing also figures in the codified descriptive list of the Eighty-four Mahāsiddhas as ‘The Courtesan’s Alchemist’.15 Vyālipa is credited with inventing the process of refining mercury, and the treatise translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan formed the root text for this alchemical technology. In addition, Orgyenpa Rinchenpel composed a treatise consisting of notes on the Treatise on Processing Mercury. It is not fully known exactly how this brand-new and revolutionary knowledge spread. It is said that he taught it to one of his most prominent pupils, the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé (Rang byung rdo rje, 1284–1339), but clear and explicit evidence that the Karmapa obtained this knowledge from Orgyenpa is missing in the historiographical sources.16 Rangjung Dorjé, an accomplished master and outstanding scholar, had also learnt medicine by studying sources such as the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā and other related works. Moreover, he wrote the Treatise on Medicine: An Ocean of Medical Terms (Sman gyi bstan bcos sman ming rgya mtsho), which deals with a variety of topics, such as the five elements, the seasons, the three ‘faults’ or nyepa (nyes pa), anatomy, medical properties and diseases, materia medica, and others. He also briefly discusses mercury, the ‘eight metals’ (lcags brgyad), and the ‘eight elements’ (khams brgyad) that ‘bind’ mercury.17 One might take this as a hint that he was indeed initiated into the refinement of mercury.

Tsangtö Darma Gönpo (Gtsang stod Dar ma mgon po, fl. thirteenth century CE) was an important doctor of the Cherjé medical school (Cher rje), who was familiar with the Gyüshi but was mainly trained in his family tradition, which was based on the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā. He used medicines, such as the ‘Powerful Pill’ (Dbang po ril bu), which contained mercury that was ‘tamed’ by sulphur.18 According to him, these pills were based on an oral tradition that originally came from India and was handed down by such famous doctors and scholars as Vāgbhaṭa, Candranandana, Rinchen Zangpo (Rin chen bzang po, 958–1055), and Zhangtönzhik (Zhang ston zhig).19 In other words, he maintains that this particular medicine is based on the medical knowledge that is associ-ated with the famous ayurvedic treatise Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā that formed the core of the medical expertise of his tradition. However, it is interesting to

15 See, for instance, Templeman (ed. and transl.) 1983, pp. 75f., and Dowman (ed. and transl.) 1985, pp. 379ff. See also Simioli, this isue.

16 On the opinion that Rinchenpel taught mercury processing to Rangjung Dorjé, see, for instance, Sönam Bakdrö 2006, p. 32.

17 Sman ming rgya mtsho 200/13.18 Gtsang stod zin thig yang thig 599/1–602/13, 600/18.19 Ibid., 602/24.



note that he also manufactured and administered a variety of compounded medicines, which contained mercury as the main ingredient, that came from a different tradition. These medicines are labelled ‘Mercury-3’ (Dngul chu’i sum sbyor), ‘Mercury-6’ (Dngul chu’i drug sbyor), ‘Mercury-9’ (Dngul chu’i dgu sbyor), ‘Mercury-Double-9’ (Dngul chu dgu gnyis sbyor ba), and ‘Mercury-13’ (Dngul chu bcu tshan gsum gyi sbyor ba), the number indicating the total number of ingredients. He also mentions ‘Mangjor-18’ (Mang sbyor bco brg-yad), which translates as ‘Accumulation Pill with 18 Ingredients’. Mangjor-18 originated, he writes, from the prophecy of both the ḍākinī Sukhasiddhi and Ugyenpa, the latter referring to Rinchenpel himself.20 He gives a detailed description of how to compound these medicines, which collectively are also called ‘black medicine’ (sman nag), but without giving details on the proce-dure to purify the mercury needed. One can assume that he had knowledge of it, also because of his brief remark that one should use mercury that is without poison and free of tarnish.21

It seems that the alchemical technology brought back by Orgyenpa Rinchenpel also spread to other places in Tibet where medicine was practised, such as in Sakya where the Drangti medical school was flourishing. Said to have its roots in imperial times, it was still alive around the sixteenth century. Their main teachings, The Measure of Gold (Gser bre) and The Big Measure of Gold (Gser bre chen mo), which were probably both compiled by Penden Gyeltsen (Dpal ldan rgyal mtshan), flourished during the thirteenth to fourteenth cen-turies. The Measure of Silver (Dngul bre), probably authored by Dorjé Pelzang (Rdo rje dpal bzang), flourished during the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries. These important works were partly based on the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā but also included many teachings that had been handed down for centuries within their family. Within these compilations one finds texts related to mer-cury processing in various length and detail, such as an untitled treatise on the purification and detoxification of mercury, a treatise on refining mercury with the preparation of ‘Black Pills’ (Rin chen sman nag) based on Orgyenpa’s teachings, and methods of detoxification according to the system of Nagārjuna and of Abhayākara but also a form to ‘tame’ mercury with mantras, which was brought by the Bengali scholar Vanaratna (1384–1468) on one of his travels to Tibet.22 While medicines containing mercury were not numerous, several were produced and administered to cure various diseases; for instance, a disease characterised by ‘swellings in the throat’ (gag lhog), poisoning, a certain type

20 Ibid., 603/1–605/24.21 Ibid., 603/7.22 Gser bre chen mo 143/1–157/15, 176/16–178/10, 170/14–172/6, 178/11–181/4, Dngul bre 219/4–

221/3, 114/13–115/5.

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of a ‘water swelling’ disease (dmu chu), trickling semen, a kind of epidemic disease often said to be ‘smallpox’ (’brum nad), lice, itching, and sweating.23 Beside Black Pills, Powerful Pills were also used for treating patients.24

At Drongtsé (’Brong rtse) in Myangtö (Myang stod, present-day Gyantse district of Tsang), the fourteenth-century author and compiler of the Beubum (Be’u bum) or Pithy Volume of Many Instructions, Drongtsé Lhasé Rinchen Gyatso (’Brong rtse Lha sras Rin chen rgya mtsho), covered virtually all impor-tant subjects for a practising doctor in this work. He was familiar with teachings of the Drangti school, but also many other influences can be recognised in his work. Based on Orgyenpa’s writings, he paid special attention to refining mer-cury, of which he gives a lengthy and detailed description in his Pithy Volume of Many Instructions together with instructions of producing ashes based on metals and the manufacturing of pills, such as the Black Pills.25 It is obvious that pills based on refined mercury represented an important and indispens-able remedy at the time. Medicines containing mercury appear 68 times in his treatise. His description of the processing techniques was also highly valued in later times.

Nyamnyi Dorjé (1439–75) and his Successors

The efforts shown by Rinchen Gyatso helped tremendously to preserve the knowledge of refining mercury, and his work became very important for later medical writings on mercury. This particular field of Tibetan medicine saw another major contribution in the fifteenth century by none less than Nyamnyi Dorjé, the celebrated founder of the Zur (zur) medical school. The main work that he left behind after his premature death was the Ten Millions of Instructions: Relics (Man ngag bye ba ring bsrel), which is a mine of exter-nal and internal treatment methods and numerous medicines. It also contains different treatises on the practice of detoxifying mercury and descriptions of compounded drugs containing refined mercury. Some of these became stan-dard works on this subject. Regarding the detoxification, one may refer to his treatises The Practice of the Great Refining of Mercury: The Secret Treasury of the Heart (Dngul chu btso bkru chen mo’i lag len snying gi gsang mdzod), The

23 Gser bre chen mo 165/16–167/10, 332/17–333/11, Gser bre 65/5–19, 66/22–67/10, Dngul bre 97/8–16, 117/3–118/19, 141/2–13, 289/12–290/4.

24 Dngul bre 109/2–9, 279/4–13.25 ’Brong rtse be’u bum 300/4–368/6.



Treatise on Processing Mercury (Dngul chu grub pa’i bstan bcos),26 and the text Cultivating Mercury (Dngul chu g.yung ’dul).27 Nyamnyi Dorjé mentions many medicines containing mercury, including special pills, such as the Black Pills, the Precious Hot Compound or the Powerful Pills. The latter were partly based on instructions originally given by the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé.28 These pills and their manufacturing methods are explained in detail in other treatises written by the same author such as The Illumination of the Hidden Meaning of the Minor, Medium and Major Black Pills: Jewels of Immortality (Ril nag che ’bring chung gsum gyi gsang don gsal byed ’chi med nor bu) and the Notes on the Precious Cold Compound (Rin chen tsha sbyor gyi zin bris).29 Despite these numerous works, it is not known from whom Nyamnyi Dorjé acquired this knowledge. His biography mentions only that he taught it but is silent on the person(s) who originally taught it to him.30 But it is evident that his pupils and their disciples transmitted this tradition in the southeastern part of Tibet. One of his disciples is Kyempa Tsewang (Skyem pa Tshe dbang, born 1514), who not only wrote a detailed commentary on the Gyüshi, but also clinically oriented works such as the Hundreds of Longevity Empowerments (Tshe dbang brgya rtsa). In this treatise, one finds details on the manufac-turing of the ‘Major Black Pill’ (Ril nag chen mo), including the refinement of mercury.31

Another prominent physician, who learnt and practised mercury detoxi-fication, was Chökyi Drakpa (Chos kyi grags pa, 1595–1659), the twenty-third throne holder of the Drigung Kagyüpa school (’Bri gung Bka’ brgyud pa). He was not just a scholar and prolific writer in numerous fields, but also a trained doctor. He composed many medical treatises of which only a part has survived. He studied the process of refining mercury and preparing jewel pills inten-sively under Könchok Gyeltsen (Kong sman Dkon mchog rgyal mtshan), a doc-tor from Kongpo (Kong po). This newly acquired knowledge can be found in a number of short works from Chökyi Drakpa’s pen on ‘Black Pills alias Precious Cold Compound’.32 In his autobiographical reminiscences, he notes that he

26 This treatise was edited by Zhönnu Gyatso (Gzhon nu rgya mtsho) from Ngaritö (Mnga’ ris stod).

27 Bye ba ring bsrel 141/13–144/5, 650/9–674/13, 534/16–535/19.28 Ibid., 260/7–261/9, 261/9–263/3, 263/4–264/8, 608/12–609/16.29 Ibid., 233/15–243/2, 144/6–146/16. The former work has been translated by Yonten Gyatso

1991.30 Mnyam nyid rdo rje rnam thar 103/16.31 Tshe dbang brgya rtsa 11/1–14/24.32 Introduction to the History of Precious Cold Compound (alias) Black Pills (Rin chen grang

sbyor ril nag gi sngon byung gleng gzhi),’Bri gung gso rig gces bsdus 63/1–65/6; Notes on the

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taught the practice of refining mercury and the preparation of the jewel pills known as ‘Precious Cold Compound’ to more than ten doctors in Drigung in 1657.33

One of the most important students of Chökyi Drakpa was Könchok Dropen Wangpo (Dkon mchog ’gro phan dbang po), alias Tsewang Tenpa (Tshe dbang brtan pa, born 1631). He left a brief but illuminating treatise titled Notes on the Practice of the Great Refinement of Mercury: The Full Illumination of the Hidden Meaning (Dngul chu btso bkru chen mo’i lag len zin bris sbas don kun gsal) on the refinement of mercury that was written by him during the puri-fication of about a 100 ounces of mercury conducted under the guidance of his guru Chökyi Drakpa, possibly referring to the above-mentioned event in 1657.34 The main textual sources that he used for his notes were the Treatise on Processing Mercury by Vyālipa, translated by Orgyenpa Rinchenpel, the Instructions on the Three Cycles on Mercury by Orgyenpa Rinchenpel, the Pithy Volume of Many Instructions by Drongtsé Lhasé Rinchen Gyatso, and the Ten Millions of Instructions: Relics by Nyamnyi Dorjé. It is an impressive document of mercury practices of the mid-seventeenth century. At that time, the Drigung Kagyüpa had a medical school of their own that was located at their main seat

Big Black Jewel Pills. A Collation of Everything: A Feast for the Wise (Rin chen ril nag chen mo’i zin bris brtan g.yo’i bcud bsdus mkhas pa dga’ byed), ibid., 66/1–74/18; Testing the Authentic Precious Cold Compound (alias) Black Pills: A Rosary of Pearls (Grang sbyor ril nag grangs nges brtag pa mu tig ’phreng ba), ibid., 75/1–76/13; A Supplement to the Precious Cold Compound (alias) Jewel Black Pills: An Instruction of Plants (Grang sbyor rin chen ril nag gi kha skong ldum bu’i man ngag), ibid., 77/1–78/11; The Indication of the Precious Cold Compound (alias) Black Pills: A Summer Drum (i.e Thunder) of Unceasing Joy (Grang sbyor ril nag gi phan yon mos ldan dga’ ba’i dbyar rnga), ibid., 79/1–81/12; An Auxiliary Teaching to the Jewel Pills: A Method to Eliminate Compounded Poison (Rin chen ril bu’i cha lag sbyar dug gso thabs), ibid., 82/1–89/20; A Minor Auxiliary Teaching to the Precious Cold Compound: A Method to Eliminate Compounded Poison (Rin chen grang sbyor ril bu’i cha lag phran bu’i sbyar dug gso thabs), ibid., 90/1–91/17; Notes on the Minor and Medium Formula of the Black Pills: Averting Death (Ril nag chung ’bring gi zin bris ’chi ba bshol ’debs), ibid., 92/1–93/16; Quintessential Notes on the Tünjé Black Pills: A Vase of Ambrosia (’Thun byed ril nag gi zin bris yang bcud bdud rtsi’i bum pa), ibid., 94/1–95/20; Clarification of the Hidden Meaning of the Minor, Medium, and Major Formula of the Black Pills: A Jewel of the Sky (Ril nag che ’bring chung ngu’i sbas don gsal byed nam mkha’i nor bu), ibid., 96/1–98/7; Notes on the Administration of Jewel Pills: The Excellent Teaching of Zurkharwa (Rin chen ril bu gtong tshul gyi zin bris zur mkhar ba’i khyad chos), ibid., 117/1–120/14.

33 Chos kyi grags pa rang rnam 293/2.34 Sbas don kun gsal. Another work written by him, a manuscript on the different methods

of ‘taming’ (’dul ba) mercury, is preserved at the library of the Mentsikhang in Lhasa. See Börang kyongjong mentsikhang (ed.) 2006, p. 21.



in Drigung. They possessed a strong expertise on precious pills.35 This knowl-edge was also transmitted to pupils, usually with a Kagyüpa school affiliation, in eastern Tibet. This proved to be of crucial importance for the future, since it was in this very region where this specialised knowledge flourished and was preserved.

Transmission in the Gelukpa School in Central Tibet

Perhaps slightly unexpected was the transmission of this knowledge on mer-cury to the Gelukpa school, which will be outlined in the following paragraphs before turning to the Kagyüpa school in the final section of the paper. In the official autobiography of the Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lozang Gyatso (Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho, 1617–82), which ends with the year of his demise, one can read a detailed account on processing mercury on a major scale in an entry starting on the seventeenth of the fifth Tibetan month in 1678.36 The account was later summarised and slightly changed by Desi Sangyé Gyatso (Sde srid Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho, 1653–1705) for his well-known Medical History (Khog ’bugs), written in 1703.37 It is reported that the processing was conducted by the famous physician Darmo Menrampa Lozang Chödrak (Dar mo Sman rams pa Blo bzang chos grags, 1638–1710), together with many assistants, at the Lubug Lingka Grove (Klu sbug gling ka) near the Chakpori hill (Lcags po ri).38 Lozang Chödrak had studied the process of purifying mercury under one of the doctors who had been trained by Drigungpa Chökyi Drakpa.

35 Besides the works of Chökyi Drakpa and his pupil Könchok Dropen Wangpo, one may point to the Notes on Precious Hot Compound: A Bestower of Happiness to the Chong Disease (Rin chen tsha sbyor gyi zin bris gcong nad bde bster) and to the An Oral Instruction on the Method of Grinding Jewel Pills (Rin chen ril bu ’thag thabs kyi zhal gdams), each written by an anonymous author. See ’Bri gung gso rig gces bsdus 99/1–100/12, 102/1–18.

36 Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho rnam thar III 153/18.37 Gso rig sman gyi khog ’bugs 369/11. Cf. Desi Sangyé Gyatso 2010, pp. 326f. Note that the

translation prepared by Gavin Kilty contains several errors.38 Lubug Lingka is located to the southwest of the main city of Lhasa on a plain between the

Chakpori hill and the Jokhang temple. Perhaps there was a building in the seventeenth century that was used for medical education. In the biographical sketch of Lozang Chödrak, it is mentioned that he first stayed at Lubug Lingka grove and later at the medical college Sorik Dropenling (Gso rig ’gro phan gling) in the western Ganden Podrang Palace in Drepung (’Bras spungs dga’ ldan pho brang nub ma). See Jampa Trinlé 2000, p. 314.

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The high importance given to the jewel pills is evident from the brief descrip-tions of their healing potential stated in these sources. Accordingly, these pills can eliminate all kinds of poisoning, subdue diseases caused by demons, lengthen life, and strengthen the body. Wearing them as an amulet on the body protects from hail, thunderbolts, and weapons, as well as from the eight types of spirits. It is even stated that it can seal the gates to the lower realms of rebirth. It is evident that these ascribed qualities contributed to them being perceived of as one of the most extraordinary remedies that Tibetan medicine had to offer.

Many rare and precious substances had to be gathered as ingredients for the manufacturing of these precious pills, such as various jewels and crystals. The Fifth Dalai Lama obtained some of these as gifts when he travelled to China in 1652.39 Moreover, there were also the jewels from Töhor (Stod hor) of Dorjé Rabtenma (Rdo rje rab brtan ma), who is said to be the wife of Qubilai.40 Other rare ingredients used were a variety of jewels and crystals that were presented by a prince,41 a number of relics of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Shravakas, and holy teachers, preeminently an ‘increasing bone’ relic of Buddha Shakyamuni, relics of holy men of India, Nepal, and Tibet, a handful of golden myrobalan, a right-spiralling conch, milk from a white lioness, whiskers taken from a live tigress, and precious substances from the realm of gods, water-spirits, and men; more-over, a kind of precious stone called puk (spug), as well as amber, pearls, and corals.42 In general, the acquisition of all necessary ingredients, including the

39 The autobiography states that he obtained such rare ingredients when he travelled to the capital of the Chinese emperor; see Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho rnam thar III 155/11. In the Medical History, it is mentioned that he travelled to the capital of Tangkün (Tvang kun); see Gso rig sman gyi khog ’bugs 370/6. The term ‘Tvang kun’, usually spelled ‘(s)Tong k(h)un’, is to be understood as ‘eastern capital’. For a discussion of this term, see Van Schaik and Galambos 2012, pp. 170ff. The translation offered by Gavin Kilty that ‘. . . he visited the country of Tangkün people . . .’ is incorrect; see Desi Sangyé Gyatso 2010, p. 327.

40 In this context, the term ‘Upper Mongolia’ (stod hor) probably refers to the Ilkhanate, the region ruled by Hülegü (c. 1218–65).

41 The text reads cung wang. This could be amended to cing wang or jun wang. The first is the Tibetan spelling for the Chinese rank of a qinwang (㿚⦻), the latter of a junwang (䜑⦻). Theobald 2010 explains that the sons of an emperor were made qinwang ‘princes’ and the sons of princes became junwang ‘commandery princes’ during the Ming dynasty. These titles were also in use during the Qing dynasty and were frequently granted to Mongol and Tibetan nobles. Often, qinwang is translated as ‘prince of the first rank’ and junwang as ‘prince of the second rank’. Accordingly, the translation by Kilty, ‘Emperor Chung Wang also brought offerings’, is incorrect. See Desi Sangyé Gyatso 2010, p. 327.

42 The whiskers of a tiger are, for instance, an ingredient of the precious pill called ‘Precious Black Pill’ (Rin chen ril nag) and (Precious) Powerful Pill. See Bye ba ring bsrel 237/11, 263/9 and Yonten Gyatso 1991, p. 43.



rare substances, was a very expensive and strenuous undertaking. As pointed out in the autobiography of the Fifth Dalai Lama and the Medical History by Desi Sangyé Gyatso, others, such as the kings of Gyantse (Rgyal rtse), allegedly failed in this because they had to rely on the water in which precious stones had been soaked rather than using the precious stones themselves. Furthermore, it is said that they had to use a not-yet-rotten liver of a girl born in a tiger year, who suddenly and intentionally had been killed by members of the aristocratic house of Yartö (Yar stod).43

Furthermore, the autobiography of the Fifth Dalai Lama states that there was a disruption of the tradition of the practice of purifying mercury at that time. The different religious schools of the Karma Kagyüpa (Karma Bka’ brgyud pa) and the Drigungpa, and the noble house of Yargyeb (Yar rgyab) only knew the minor and medium formulations of precious pills but not the major formulations. This allegation is, however, not repeated by Sangyé Gyatso in his Medical History. Presumably, he was quite aware that this state-ment was simply incorrect, since the extant writings of the Drigung school show that they also had the knowledge of producing the major mercury for-mulation that included the maximum number of ingredients. Moreover, it also would have looked very awkward if one maintained that the Drigung did not have the expertise, since it were these very Drigung from whom Darmo Menrampa received his newly-acquired skill of producing mercury formu-lations. Surely, one has to see this controversy as part of the power struggle between the Gelukpa and Kagyüpa schools that ended with a victory of the former and their continuous subsequent rule in Central Tibet up until the mid-twentieth century.

This struggle was intense and included all atrocities that can be expected from a prolonged and fierce warfare that bore features of a civil war. For exam-ple, in 1622, the Drigung throneholder was abducted by Thümed Mongols, the allies of the Gelukpa school, and brought to Mongolia. As a military response, the Tsang Desi (Gtsang Sde srid), the mighty aristocratic ruler allied with the Drigung, occupied the Lhasa valley, which led to the sudden flight of the Fifth Dalai Lama, who was kept in Eyül (E yul; G.ye yul) in southern Central Tibet (Lhoka). This location had been carefully chosen as it would, in the case of an emergency and if attacked by the troops of the Tsang Desi, allow him to retreat to eastern Tibet and Mongolia. In the following decades, in 1641 and 1642, this struggle was decided by a successful siege of the Shigatse fortress, the

43 The ingredient of a fresh liver of an 11 year-old girl who died suddenly and was born in a tiger year is needed for the Precious Black Pill. It can be substituted with the liver of a newly-gelded hog. See Bye ba ring bsrel 236/20 and Yonten Gyatso 1991, p. 43.

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stronghold of the Tsang Desi. This is just a brief glimpse of the political back-ground surrounding this controversy.44

This struggle was also fought in the field of medicine. The Gelukpa had no significant medical school of their own until then. It was therefore a major objective to establish a Gelukpa medical tradition that could compete with the Kagyüpa medical traditions. This was of significance for individuals and for the community adhering to the Gelukpa. As briefly mentioned above, jewel pills are thought to have the potential to eliminate any poisoning, a not unimport-ant promise since poisoning and ‘black magic’ were a persistent part of politi-cal rivalry in Tibet. It offered a potent amulet for the community that could even influence the realms in which the bearer could be reborn. It is therefore not surprising that the Gelukpa authorities were keen to acquire the medical expertise required to manufacture such high-end and much sought-after prod-ucts as jewel pills.

The polemical account of how they succeded in achieving this, and the alleged incompetence of all others except the Gelukpa, is echoed today in the ways in which the Men-Tsee-Khang in Dharamsala45 presents its successful mercury purification in the October/December 2011 issue of its newsletter.46 Giving a brief historical outline, it is stated that ‘In the 16[th] century under the direction of the Fifth Dalai Lama, Darmo Menrampa Lobsang Chodrak revived this system and [it] was practised during Desi Sange Gyatso[’s] period as well.’47 However, as we have seen, it was not a revival because there already existed a vivid tradition with the full knowledge of purifying mercury and the exper-tise on all kinds of formulations, minor, medium, and major. On this occasion in 1678, specific precious pills were manufactured, such as the Precious Cold Compound, Precious Hot Compound, ‘Tarima Pills’ (Rta ri ma), and ‘Powerful Pills Eliminating Poison’ (Dug ’joms dbang ril). It is known that Darmo Menrampa Lozang Chödrak took notes on the purification of mercury and on specific medicines, but the date of exactly when he did this still has to be estab-lished. Manuscripts containing these notes are still extant but unpublished.48 The long title of the Lhasa manuscript suggests that it is rather an anthology of short works dealing with several texts, namely: ‘Precious Cold Compound’, ‘Precious Tarima Pills’, ‘Powerful Pills called Stupas of Crystal’ (Dbang ril shel

44 For a full discussion including references, see Czaja 2013, pp. 317f.45 The Men-Tsee-Khang or Tibetan Medical and Astro Institute in Dharamsala was

established in 1961 in Indian exile.46 Men-Tsee-Khang (ed.) 2011b, pp. 4–6.47 Ibid., p. 5. Accidentals enclosed in square brackets are editorial.48 Börang kyongjong mentsikhang (ed.) 2006, p. 131. The manuscript is also preserved in the

private library of T. Y. Tashigang. See Aschoff and Tashigang 2004, p. 34.



gyi mchod rten), ‘Powerful Pills Eliminating Poison’ alias ‘Accumulation Pills called More Excellent than Others’ (Dug ’joms dbang po’i ril bu bsdus pa’am mang sbyor gzhan las khyad du ’phags pa), an instruction on how to administer precious pills, as well as a concise consecration ceremony, and notes on pro-cessing mercury on a major scale.49

One of Lozang Chödrak’s pupils, Menrampa Lodrö Chömpel (Sman rams pa Blo gros chos ’phel), took the treatise of his teacher as well as other texts—for example those written by Tömen Zhönnu (Stod sman Gzhon nu), Nyamnyi Dorjé, and Könchok Dropen Wangpo—as the base for his own composition on this subject.50 Likewise, still unpublished works preserved in the library of the Mentsikhang in Lhasa document that Darmo Menrampa Lozang Chödrak sys-tematically studied and propagated methods of refining mercury and produc-ing jewel pills. These six works cover specific formulas such as the Powerful Pills Eliminating Poison and the Precious Tarima Pills, but also a general exposition on jewel pills, as well as the aspiration prayer during the preparation of jewel pills, the consecration ceremony, and the way jewel pills should be adminis-tered.51 One of them, the work on Powerful Pills Eliminating Poison, was even written at the Lubug Lingka Grove, the same locality where the refinement of mercury took place on a major scale during the last decades of the seventeenth century. These publication efforts were continued by a disciple of Desi Sangyé Gyatso named Tserik Dzinpa Ngakwang Pelzang (Tshe rig ’dzin pa Ngag dbang dpal bzang) who, according to Sönam Bakdrö, composed several treatises that deal with refining mercury and producing jewel pills.52

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Dzungar Mongols occupied Central Tibet. One can assume that this invasion also interrupted the work of the Chakpori medical college. The college activities were revived after the return of the Seventh Dalai Lama to Lhasa in 1720. However, subsequent events led to a civil war that finally ended with the establishment of the rule of Pholhané Sönam Topgyé (Pho lha nas Bsod nams stobs rgyas, 1689–1747), which brought a stable and prosperous period in Tibetan history.

49 Rin chen grang sbyor gyi gsal byed ’chi med bdud rtsi’i nying khu dang rin chen rta ri ma / dbang ril shel gyi mchod rten / dug ’joms dbang po’i ril bu bsdus pa’am / mang sbyor gzhan las khyad du ’phags pa / rin chen ril bu gtong tshul dang rab gnas mdor bsdus / dngul chu btso bkru chen mo’i zin bris gsal ba’i me long bcas. Börang kyongjong mentsikhang (ed.) 2006, p. 131.

50 Ibid., p. 43.51 Ibid., pp. 43, 130–4.52 Sönam Bakdrö 2006, pp. 46f. Probably he is identical with Tserik Dzinpa Ngakwang

Sangye Pelzang (Tshe rig ’dzin pa Ngag dbang sangs rgyas dpal bzang). On the latter, see Jampa Trinlé 2000, pp. 336ff.

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It seems that Pholhané Sönam Topgyé also supported medicine. Tsangmen Yeshé Zangpo (Gtsang sman Ye shes bzang po, 1707–84?), a prominent figure in the dissemination and promotion of medicine in the eighteenth century, briefly mentions a large event of processing mercury in his treatise on refining mercury. He writes that during the rule of Pholhané about 500 doctors from the Central Tibetan provinces Ü (Dbus) and Tsang (Gtsang) were summoned to Lhasa to purify mercury for about two months. They prepared some specific jewel pills and based on them further pills, such as the ‘Precious Cold Compound with Additional Ingredients’ (Rin chen grang sbyor kha tshar).53 This group of physicians was headed by Yeshé Zangpo’s own teacher, also named Yeshé, who was a pupil of the so-called Nyemo Tsédenpa (Snye mo Tshad ldan pa). The lat-ter is said to have received the only orally transmitted expertise on the treatise of processing mercury, the Treatise on Processing Mercury (Dngul chu grub pa’i bstan bcos), contained in the personal manuscript copy of the Gyüshi in pos-session of Zurkharwa Nyamnyi Dorjé. Moreover, Yeshé Zangpo states that this Nyemo Tsédenpa based his expertise on the practice of Karmapa Rangjung Dorjé. During the reign of the Fifth Dalai Lama, he refined mercury, prepared the ‘Precious Cold Compound with the small, medium, and major [number of ingredients]’ (Rin chen grang sbyor che ’bring chung), as well as precious pills that cured and prevented poisoning.54 He handed down this knowledge to his pupil Yeshé, who later became the teacher of Yeshé Zangpo. Yeshé left notes on this subject, which were later used by Yeshé Zangpo for his short undated treatise. Trained at Chakpori medical college, Yeshé Zangpo was later active in eastern Tibet.

In the meantime, in Central Tibet in 1754, the Seventh Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso (Bskal bzang rgya mtsho, 1708–57) had plans for the manufacturing of jewel pills, such as the ‘Precious Hot Compound and the Precious Cold Compound’ (Rin chen ril bu tsha grang) at Chakpori college and gave orders for making preparations. But even though they successfully procured all rare ingredients needed, such as diamonds, the major refinement of mercury did not take place; it was probably prevented by the premature death of the Dalai Lama.55

However, the plan was not fully abandoned for ever. It is reported that dur-ing the reign of the Eighth Dalai Lama, Jampel Gyatso (’Jam dpal rgya mtsho,

53 Dngul chu dmar khrid 268/4.54 In this context, Rinchen Drangjor, the ‘Precious Cold Compound’ can be regarded as

identical with the ‘Black Pills’; see Dngul chu dmar khrid 276/20. 55 Bskal bzang rgya mtsho rnam thar 880/2, Phan bde’i gter mdzod 166/3.



1758–1804), a total of 400 ounces of mercury were refined.56 It is explicitly stated in his biography that this should be seen in the tradition initiated by the Fifth Dalai Lama. The preparation began in 1780 with the search of ingredients necessary for producing the following jewel pills: Precious Cold Compound, Precious Hot Compound, Tarima, Powerful Pills called Stupas of Crystal, ‘Powerful Pills eliminating Poison’ (Dug ’joms dbang ril), and ‘Accumulation Pills eliminating Poison’ (Dug ’joms mang sbyor).

Then, in 1783, the Eighth Dalai Lama gave orders to Tri Nominhan (Khri No min han), and probably the Ganden Tripa Ngakwang Tsültrim (Dga’ ldan khri pa Ngag dbang tshul khrims, 1721–91), to supervise this event on the religious and administrative side. Given that the Eighth Dalai Lama was only 25 years old at that time, it could be the case that this was the original idea of one of his senior teachers, perhaps Tri Nominhan’s. This very expensive and politically as well as religiously prestigious action would align the still-young Dalai Lama with the Great Fifth, the most important of his previous incarnations. The actual pro-cedure was carried out at Lhalu garden (Lha klu dga’ tshal) behind the Potala palace by the Dalai Lama’s personal physician Lamenpa Jamyang Zhenpen (Bla sman pa ’Jam dbyangs gzhan phan), alias Lamen Khenpo Lozang Zhenpen Wangpo (Bla sman Mkhan po Blo bzang gzhan phan dbang po), together with the medical doctor Menrampa Lozang Mangtö (Sman rams pa Blo bzang mang thos), Amchi Kelzang Könchok (Am chi Bskal bzang dkon mchog), Dratsang Jampa Chöden (Grva tshang Byams pa chos ldan), Kelzang Jampa (Bskal bzang byams pa), Tsarong Kelzang Chödrak (Tsha rong Bskal bzang chos grags), and all the monks of the Chakpori medical college.57

Transmission in the Kagyüpa School and the Rimé Movement in Eastern Tibet

As briefly mentioned above, the tradition of refining mercury and manufactur-ing pills was not restricted to Central Tibet, but was also practised in eastern

56 Phan bde’i gter mdzod 167/5, ’Jam dpal rgya mtsho rnam thar 135a (271)/1. The term ounce is a rough rendering of the Tibetan term srang, also thur srang. It is a unit of weight measuring precious substances.

57 It is reported that the family of the Eighth Dalai Lama built their estate to the east of Lhalu garden in 1762. Later the family estate of the Twelfth Dalai Lama was also situ-ated in this area. See ‘Features of Lhasa Neighborhoods’, THDL ID Number: LSA051. URL: <http://128.143.78.30/~ibot/tibet/scale/LHASA/xml_php/phpConx_ibot.php?IDnum= LSA051>. Last accessed 9 October 2013. The doctors are not mentioned in other histori-cal and medical sources.

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Tibet. In the seventeenth century, the medical centre at Drigung trained doc-tors whose expertise also included mercury refining techniques. The most important pupil of Könchok Dropen Wangpo was Pöntsang Yeshé (Dpon tshang Ye shes, b. 1641?). A number of medical works can be attributed to him. Among them, one finds A Supplement to the Pendé Nyingpo. The Practice of the Minor Mercury Processing (Phan bde’i snying po’i yan lag dngul chu btso bkru chung ba’i lag len).58 According to Jampa Trinlé and Sönam Bakdrö, he was also one of the teachers of the famous Situ Chökyi Jungné (Si tu Chos kyi ’byung gnas, 1699/1700–74).59 Situ Chökyi Jungné, an influential artist, writer, and medical doctor also authored several treatises, and was the court chaplain at the Derge kingdom in eastern Tibet. His main seat was at Pelpung monastery (Dpal spungs). In his autobiography he reports in great detail on the process-ing of mercury and the manufacturing of pills, both of which were conducted under his supervision in 1767 in Derge and again in 1770 in the same region.60

According to Sönam Bakdrö, Situ Chökyi Jungné wrote a treatise on refin-ing mercury titled The Practice of the Great Refinement of Mercury: A Churning Stick for the Ambrosia of Immortality (Dngul chu btso bkru chen mo’i lag len ’chi med bdud rtsi’i bsrubs shing). The manuscript is extant but unpublished.61 Fortunately, an important and detailed treatise that is based on his oral instruc-tion on refining mercury is extant.62 It was written by Gurupel (Gu ru ’phel), a close pupil of Situ Chökyi Jungné and a doctor of the Derge kingdom. It also contains a brief transmission line of this teaching, naming Chökyi Drakpa, Könchok Dropen Wangpo, Yeshé who belonged to the Drom clan and was a yogin of the secret mantra (’Brom rigs Gsang sngags kyi rnal ’byor Ye shes), Karma Tenpel (Karma bstan ’phel), and Situ Chökyi Jungné. It is possible that the so-called Yeshé of the Drom clan is identical with Pöntsang Yeshé.63 One should stress that Karma Tenpel, Situ Chökyi Jungné, and Gurupel are only

58 ’Bri gung gso rig gces bsdus 378/1–379/7. It is interesting to note that there is another work on an aspect of the process of refining mercury in the library of the Mentsikhang in Lhasa that, according to the short description, follows the tradition of Drigung Tsewang Tenpa (alias Könchok Dropen Wangpo). The author’s name in the colophon is the old medical sage Jñāna (Drang srong rgan po Dznyā na’i ming can), thus the Sanskritised form of the name Yeshé. See Börang kyongjong mentsikhang (ed.) 2006, p. 20. For some more details on the colophon, see Sönam Bakdrö 2006, p. 40. For more details on Pöntsang Yeshé in general, see Jampa Trinlé 2000, pp. 373ff. and Sönam Bakdrö 2006, pp. 39f.

59 Jampa Trinlé 2000, p. 377 and Sönam Bakdrö 2006, p. 39.60 Si tu rang thar 544/4–548/1, 623/5–626/1.61 Sönam Bakdrö 2006, pp. 41, 55, 362.62 Si tu zhal lung. 63 This opinion is also expressed by Sönam Bakdrö 2006, p. 39.



three of probably a longer list of doctors who knew how to refine mercury and used it for special pills. Karma Ngelek Tendzin Trinlé Rapgyé (Karma nges legs bstan ’dzin phrin las rab rgyas), who was born in the seventeenth century and was a pupil of Situ Chökyi Jungné, should also be mentioned in this context. One of his works, A Treasury of Jewels of Happiness (Phan bde’i nor bu’i bang mdzod), which is arranged as a supplement to the third and the fourth parts of the Gyüshi, also contains a detailed description of how to detoxify mercury.64 One can also point out the famous Deumar Tendzin Püntsok (De’u dmar Bstan ’dzin phun tshogs), who wrote a treatise on refining mercury with the title The Practice of Processing the Precious:65 A Tight Binding of the Ruler of the Moon (Rin chen btso bkru’i lag len zla dbang rab ’ching), a text on making Powerful Pills titled A Treatise of the Clear Practice of the Three Precious Powerful Pills: The Profound and Luminous Heart Essence (Rin chen dbang po ril bu gsum gyi lag len gsal ba’i bstan bcos zab gsal snying thig), and also a work on how to administer jewel pills called The Practice to Administer Jewel Pills: The Definite and Profound Heart Essence (Rin chen ril bu gtong thabs lag len nges zab snying thig).66 It is evident that a living tradition of mercury processing existed in the eighteenth century in eastern Tibet. It continued into the next century.

The overall political and intellectual progress in Tibet during the nine-teenth century lay in eastern Tibet, as did the future of Tibetan medicine, as well as the practice of refining mercury. All of this was closely linked to widely respected personalities of the non-sectarian movement—or the rimé move-ment as it is called in Tibetan—namely Kongtrül Yönten Gyatso (Kong sprul Yon tan rgya mtsho, 1813–99/1900), Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo (’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po, 1820–92), and Mipam Namgyel Gyatso (Mi pham Rnam rgyal rgya mtsho, 1846–1912). They all practised as physicians and wrote medical treatises.

Kongtrül Yönten Gyatso developed an interest in medicine early, studied the main texts, and was involved in teaching and practising medicine. In 1838, he stayed at Karmagön monastery (Karma dgon) where he made the prepara-tions for producing the ‘Major Black Precious Pill’ (Rin chen ril nag chen mo).67 Under the supervision of the doctor Karma Tsepel (Karma tshe dpal), who came from Pelpung monastery, they made the powder of the ‘eight metals’ and the ‘eight elements’. Then they conducted the extensive process of refining mer-cury that ended with certain rituals and the manufacturing of the Major Black

64 Phan bde nor bu’i bang mdzod 833/1–861/5.65 The term ‘precious’ here is a synonym for mercury.66 De’u dmar gso rig gces btus 844/1–852/5, 508/1–531/11, 853/1–858/3.67 Kong sprul rnam thar 120/23, Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Thayé 2003, pp. 33f.

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Jewel Pills. Thirty-three years later, in 1871, Pünrapa Tsering Penden (Phun rab pa Tshe ring dpal ldan), the governor of Nyarong (Nyag rong), wished to repeat it and summoned Kongtrül to Dzongsar monastery (Rdzong sar) to preside over a ritual for long life (zhabs brtan) for Khyentsé Wangpo.68 On this occa-sion, Pünrapa requested Khyentsé Wangpo to direct an extensive purification process, but he refused and recommended Kongtrül Yönten Gyatso instead as the only person who had the expertise to do it. Khyentsé Wangpo told Yönten Gyatso that the textual presentation of the known practices of refining mer-cury and producing medicinal powders needed not just additional explana-tions but an extensive and detailed new arrangement.69 In the following year, 1872, Kongtrül travelled to Rigyel Ganden Künkhyap fortress (Ri rgyal dga’ ldan kun khyab rdzong) where the refining process began on the first day of the third Tibetan month.70

Kongtrül writes in his autobiography that at the beginning he performed a smoke and a drink offering (bsang gser skyems), a feast offering according to ‘The Heart Drop of Yuthok’ (G.yu thog snying thig tshogs mchod), and an offer-ing to the guardians of the teachings (bka’ srung).71 The entire process of refin-ing mercury was carefully recorded by Yönten Gyatso and published under the title The Fully Clear Practice of Transforming the King of the Juice of Ambrosia to Extracting the Essence by the Great Refinement of Mercury: The Quintessence of a Wise Doctor (Bdud rtsi bcud kyi rgyal po dngul chu btso bkru chen mo’i sbyor bas grub pa’i bcud len tu bsgyur ba’i lag len rnam par gsal ba ’tsho byed mkhas pa’i snying bcud).72 Moreover, on the same occasion, he composed a work titled The Method of Medicinal Ashes on the Detoxification of the Eight Metals and the Eight Elements that Are Necessary for Minor and Major Compounded Medicaments: Exceptional Wealth of a Wise Doctor (Sman sbyor che chung rnams la nye bar mkho ba’i lcags brgyad dang khams brgyad kyi dug ’don thal sman gyi cho ga ’tsho mdzad mkhas pa’i khyad nor).73 Another account on the same refinement of mercury was left by Mipam Namgyel Gyatso, who also attended the event in 1872. His treatise with the title The Account of Compounding Jewels

68 Kong sprul rnam thar 241/11, Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Thayé 2003, pp. 161f. Unfortunately, the biography of Khyentsé Wangpo could not be included for this study as it was not available in time.

69 Kong sprul rnam thar 244/19, Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Thayé 2003, pp. 165f.70 Kong sprul rnam thar 245/8, Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Thayé 2003, p. 166, Dngul chu rtogs

brjod 527/15.71 On the esoteric medical cycle of Yutok nyingtik (G.yu thog snying thig), see Ehrhard 2007

and Garrett 2009.72 Mkhas pa snying bcud.73 Mkhas pa khyad nor.



and Mercury: Wonderous Earrings that Secure Immortality (Rin chen dngul chu’i sbyor ba’i rtogs pa brjod pa’i gtam ngo mtshar ’chi med grub pa’i rna rgyan) is still extant in his collected works and in separate editions of his medical writings.74

After the process was completed, Kongtrül performed a consecretion cer-emony based on the Medicine Buddhas. Moreover, at that time, he also felt the need for a more clinically-oriented treatise dealing with the actual administer-ing of medicines, specifically of the ‘Moon-crystal’ Pills (Zla shel). The treatise titled Essential Remedies that are of Importance for Novice Doctors: Drops of Ambrosia (’Tsho byed las dang po ba la nye bar mkho ba’i zin tig gces par btus pa bdud rtsi’i thigs pa) is still known and became a very influential work since it also dealt with medicines for specific diseases.75 In this treatise, Kongtrül also describes how jewel pills should be administered properly.76 Moreover, he out-lines a brief method of how to detoxify mercury.77 His work on ‘Moon-crystal Pills’ is preserved in the medical writings of the Drigung Kagyüpa.78

A number of brief but important works written by Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo should be seen in context of these activities of promoting medicine in general and jewel pills in particular. These works deal with specific medi-cal formulations, such as the Moon-crystal Pills and Precious Hot Compound, but also with the refinement of mercury and the mode of administering jewel pills.79 The public mercury processing and jewel pills manufacturing of 1872 was undoubtedly a major event not just for the development of Tibetan medicine but also for the religious and political life of that time. For instance, Pünrapa, the governor of Nyarong, could employ it for enhancing his status

74 Dngul chu rtogs brjod, Mi pham rnam thar 62/18, 113/6.75 Kong sprul zin tig. See also Jampa Trinlé 2000, p. 399.76 Kong sprul zin tig 252/16.77 Ibid., 86/17.78 ’Bri gung gso rig gces bsdus 406/1–410/17.79 These are published in his medical writings Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po’i sman yig. They are:

How to Administer Jewel Pills (Rin chen ril bu gtong tshul) in Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po’i sman yig 120/1–123/18; The Compounded Pills of Ambrosia of Immortality (known as) Moon-crystal: An Elixir of Immortality (Zla shel ’chi med bdud rtsi ril bu’i sbyor ba ’chi med bcud len) in ibid., 209/1–21; Notes on the Practice of the Big Moon-crystal: A Reflection of the Moon of Ambrosia (Zla shel chen mo’i phyag len gyi zin bris bdud rtsi’i zla snang) in ibid., 210/1–213/13; The Big Moon-crystal (Zla shel chen mo) in ibid., 214/1–215/5; Notes on Precious Hot Compund: The Oral Tradition of a Wise Man (Rin chen tsha sbyor gyi zin bris mkhas pa’i ngag rgyun) in ibid., 233/1–234/5; and Oral Advice on Refining Mercury (Dngul chu btso bkru’i skabs zhal shes) in ibid., 245/1–15. Still another work on refining mercury that can be traced to him is preserved in the medical writings of the Drigung Kagyüpa. See ’Bri gung gso rig gces bsdus 486/1–487/22.

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and to present himself as a benevolent leader, as he was disputed and involved in unabating power struggles.

One can be sure that not only political and religious leaders but also medi-cal practioners in Central Tibet had heard about this event and most likely tried to procure some of the jewel pills produced in Rigyel, even more so since this tradition, as it seems, died out in Central Tibet. Consequently, a few years later, in 1875, Pünrapa received an order from the Twelfth Dalai Lama Trinlé Gyatso (’Phrin las rgya mtsho, 1856–75) that Khyentsé Wangpo or Yönten Gyatso should come to Lhasa to prepare precious pills involving the refine-ment of mercury on a large scale.80 As Yönten Gyatso writes, he became very upset and even physically unwell, but then he did not have to follow the order because the news reached him that the Twelfth Dalai Lama had passed away. Activities with regard to processing mercury and manufacturing pills were taken up again in 1933 under the leadership of Jamyang Chökyi Lodrö (’Jam dbyangs chos kyi blo gros, 1893–1959) and Kesip Atsang (Ke srib A tshang).81

Transmission in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

The strong interest in establishing the tradition of mercury processing again in Lhasa under the supervision of the central government run by the Gelukpa school did not cease. It is well known that the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, Tupten Gyatso (Thub bstan rgya mtsho, 1876–1933), took a strong interest in reforming Tibet and its institutions. This also included the Chakpori medical college. In 1887 he, or rather his regent, Demo Rinpoche Ngakwang Lozang Trinlé Rapgyé (De mo Rin po che Ngag dbang blo bzang ’phrin las rab rgyas, 1855–99), ordered a renovation of the buildings including their religious icons.82 Both of them commissioned new statues and texts and introduced new or newly-arranged medical rituals. A few years later, in 1893, they gave orders to purify mercury for a large-scale production of precious pills. Rituals as part of the preparatory measures began on the first day of the fourth Tibetan month at the Zhapten Lhakhang chapel (Zhabs brtan lha khang) near the Norbulingka palace (Nor bu gling ka pho brang), the summer residence of the Dalai Lamas. There the doctors and their assistants refined a total of 770 ounces of mercury. Of this

80 Kong sprul rnam thar 257/11, Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Thayé 2003, pp. 178f.81 Sönam Bakdrö 2006, pp. 48, 57. The biography of Jamyang Chökyi Lodrö did not reach the

author in time. It could therefore not be checked.82 Phan bde’i gter mdzod 168/5. Surprisingly, the biography of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama

does not mention these events for these years. See Thub bstan rgya mtsho’i rnam thar.



total amount, 550 ounces came from the central government and 220 ounces from the Tengyeling Labrang (Bstan rgyas gling Bla brang), the residence of the Demo regent and his incarnation line. Furthermore, the ‘chief official atten-dant of the Dalai Lama’ (sku bcar spyi khyab mkhan po),83 along with the gov-ernment official (las byed do dam pa rtse gnyer) Pünrap Ngakwang Losel (Phun rab ngag dbang blo gsal), ordered Orgyen Tenzin Gyatso (born in the nine-teenth century) to compose a detailed treatise on refining mercury based on the works of Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo and Kongtrül Yönten Gyatso. Orgyen Tenzin Gyatso finished his work on the fourth Tibetan month of the same year at the Chakpori medical college. His important treatise is still extant and offers precious insight into the history of processing mercury and the actual refine-ment practices of the nineteenth century.84 Trekhang Jampa Thupwang also accompanied the Thirteenth Dalai Lama on his travels and later became head of the Mentsikhang, founded in 1916. It is said that he supervised the refine-ment of mercury and the production of jewel pills in 1919.85 His most impor-tant student was certainly Khyenrap Norbu (Mkhyen rab nor bu, 1883–1962), who as a teacher shaped a generation of future doctors.

With the invasion of Tibet by Chinese troops and the subsequent devel-opments, Tibetan medicine declined, in particular during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) when its practice was forbidden and many physicians were imprisoned. After Mao’s death, however, most physicians were rehabili-tated and asked to practise again. This also resulted in an attempt to process mercury and manufacture jewel pills under Troru Tsenam (Khro ru Tshe rnam, 1926–2004) and others who in 1977 were still remaining at the labour camp in Powo Tramo (Spo bo Kra mog) in Kongpo (Kong po).86 As one can imagine, the circumstances were not favourable, not only in relation to the necessary uten-sils and ingredients, but also the expertise. Troru Tsenam relied mostly on the notes written by Kongtrül Yönten Gyatso that he had obtained from the physi-cian Püntsog Tashi (Phun tshogs bkra shis); but he also received advice from Tendzin Chödrak (Bstan ’dzin chos grags, 1924–2001), who had completed this practice earlier.87 When Troru Tsenam was young, he had studied the purifica-tion of mercury at Katok monastery (Kah thog), but he still felt that his experi-ence and knowledge were not enough to conduct such a highly complicated

83 He probably is Trekhang Jampa Thupwang (Bkras khang Byams pa thub dbang, ca. 1863–1922), who became the personal physician of the Dalai Lama in 1897.

84 It is the treatise Phan bde’i gter mdzod.85 Sönam Bakdrö 2006, p. 47.86 Lappendum Lozang Lodrö 2006, pp. 230ff.87 Cf., also Sönam Bakdrö 2006, pp. 47, 56.

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procedure. Especially, there was a huge risk that the process might be insuf-ficient, and the mercury therefore would not be completely detoxified, which might have caused serious health problems to patients. Troru Tsenam knew that only a few doctors, either past or present, had mastered this technique in Tibet and that this knowledge was not wide-spread. It is most likely that the lineage from Situ Chökyi Jungné, Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo, Kongtrül Yönten Gyatso, and Mipam Namgyel Gyatso was interrupted. Therefore, he had to find more reliable information, and he began a search for Tibetan texts that deal with the purification of mercury. He found several texts at the printing house in Derge and later some others at unnamed localities.88 This enabled him to repeat his previous attempt to process mercury and to improve it considerably. He returned to Powo to start the processing anew. In 1977 he, together with other doctors and assistants, successfully detoxified mercury for the first time.89 It seems that this became the starting point for a revival of the knowledge on refining mercury that was at that time running the risk of becoming extinct.90 Much later, in 1996, Troru Tsenam wrote a treatise on the practice of refin-ing mercury, producing ashes based on metals and manufacturing jewel pills.91 Perhaps this publication should be seen in the context of a large-scale mercury processing event that took place in 1997.92

88 For similar activities by other doctors, see Tenzin Choedrak 2005, p. 294.89 Lappendum Lozang Lodrö 2006, p. 241. The doctors and assistants were Tendzin Chödrak,

Tupten Shakya (Thub bstan shakya), Jamyang Lhündrup (’Jam dbyangs lhun grub), Rindzin Wangyel (Rig ’dzin dbang rgyal), Yeshé Dorjé (Ye shes rdo rje), Tségyel (Tshe rgyal), Ngakwang Gyamtso (Ngag dbang rgya mtsho), and others. They produced 19 kg of refined mercury or tsotel (btso thal).

90 Lappendum Lozang Lodrö 2006, pp. 241f. In 1980, 19 kg of tsotel were produced at Mandal monastery under the supervision of the Derge Mentsikhang. Four years later, in 1984, the printing house and the Mentsikhang in Derge manufactured together Precious Cold Compound, Major Black Pills, ‘Wish-fulfilling Jewel’ (Ratna bsam ’phel), and ‘Precious Accumulation Pills’ (Rin chen mang sbyor). In 1987, the Tibetan clinic in Rebkong in Amdo made 51 kg of tsotel. Then, a year later, three clinics for Tibetan medicine produced tsotel. In the sixth month, the clinic of Gannan prefecture in Gansu province produced 50 kg and prepared precious pills such as Major Black Pills and Wish-fulfilling Jewels. The Tibetan clinic in Jyekundo manufactured 51 kg in the seventh month. In the tenth month, the clinic in Tsolho (Hainan) manufactured 52.5 kg. In 1995, the Tibetan clinic in Jomda County of the Chamdo Prefecture together with the Troru monastery (Khro ru dgon) made 37.5 kg and prepared some pills such as Tarima Pills. For the names of the doctors and assistans involved in it, see the cited source.

91 Troru Tsenam 2001.92 Sönam Bakdrö 2006, pp. 49f. Lappendum Lozang Lodrö 2006, pp. 244f.



Troru Tsenam, together with Tendzin Chödrak and some others, can surely be seen as instrumental in the survival of the centuries-old practice of produc-ing jewel pills. Troru Tsenam is consequently regarded as a member of a direct transmission line that included many personalities briefly introduced in this article.93 While this represents the development in Tibet, the first processing of mercury by Tibetans in Indian exile was undertaken by Tendzin Chödrak, who held the same transmission lineage as Troru Tsenam, at the Men-Tsee-Khang in Dharamsala, in spring 1982.94

Conclusion

In summary, it can be said that the knowledge of refining mercury in Tibet can be traced back over 800 years. It appears for the first time in a simple form in textual sources authored by two famous monks of the Sakya school, Drakpa Gyeltsen and Künga Gyeltsen in the twelth century. At about the same time, Yutok Yönten Gönpo offers a more complicated process involving several alchemical stages, but this clearly does not yet represent the highly sophis-ticated procedure that is known today. This situation fully changed with the unprecedented techniques introduced by Orgyenpa Rinchenpel in the early thirteenth century, an important turning-point in Tibetan medicine. His inno-vative procedure soon spread to medical centres in Central Tibet and had a lasting influence, culminating in the works of Drongtsé Lhasé Rinchen Gyatso and Nyamnyi Dorjé in the following centuries. In the seventeenth century, this

93 Lappendum Lozang Lodrö 2006, p. 232. The transmission line goes: Orgyenpa Rinchenpel (1230–1309), Rangjung Dorjé (1284–1339), Sönam Zangpo (Bsod nams bzang po, fl. 14th cent.), Nyamnyi Dorjé (1439–75), Drapön Sönam Tashi (Phrag dbon Bsod nams bkra shis, fl. 15th/16th cent.), Tsojé Dharmä Tsenchen (’Tsho byed Dharma’i mtshan can, fl. 16th cent.), Kongmen Könchok Gyeltsen (Kong sman Dkon mchog rgyal mtshan, fl. 16th/17th cent.), Drigung Chökyi Drakpa (’Bri gung Chos kyi grags pa, 1595–1659), Könchok Dropen Wangpo (b. 1631), Dromrig Neljor Yeshé (’Bram [’Brom] rigs rnal ’byor Ye shes, fl. 17th cent.), Tsojé Karma Tenpel (’Tsho byed Karma bstan ’phel, fl. 17th cent.), Situ Chökyi Jungné (1699/1700–74), Dege Druntsho Gurupel (Sde dge drung ’tsho Gu ru ’phel, fl. 18th cent.), Choktrül Karma Ratna (Mchog sprul Karma ratna, fl. 18th cent.), Tsojé Karma Tsewang (’Tsho byed Karma tshe dbang, fl. 18th/19th cent.), Khewang Karma Tsepel (Mkhas dbang Karma tshe dpal, fl. 19th cent.), Kongtrül Yönten Gyatso (1813–99/1900), Mipam Namgyel Gyatso (1846–1912), Kesi Lama Atsang (Ke srib Bla ma A tshang, fl. 19th/20th cent.), Tachung Lama Tsering Chöpel (Rta chung bla ma Tshe ring chos ’phel, fl. 19th/20th cent.), and Troru Tsenam (1926–2004). See also Sönam Bakdrö 2006, pp. 49f.

94 Tenzin Choedrak 2005, p. 323; Kloos 2010, p. 80; Men-Tsee-Khang (ed.) 2011b, p. 5.

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tradition was upheld by Chökyi Drakpa, who incorporated it into the monastic setting of the Drigung Kagyüpa school. Two major lines of transmission issued from it: one can be located in eastern Tibet, which was mainly handed down by doctors of the Kagyüpa schools, and the other one remained in Central Tibet, practised by followers of the Gelukpa school. The latter was strongly linked to the Dalai Lamas and the doctors under his rule. It seems that this actively practised tradition in eastern Tibet laid the foundation for the survival of this knowledge in the twentieth century. The historical development as outlined above shows the high importance that the refining of mercury and manufac-turing of precious pills had and still has. It focuses on the events when mercury was refined, but this is certainly just one side of a more complex phenomenon. Future research should address other aspects as well, such as, for instance, the use of mercury in specific medicines, their composition, and medical applica-tion in a comparative and historical study.

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On the History of Refining Mercury in Tibetan Medicine

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