Nutritional interventions for sustainable dairy production in Goa

i

SOUVENIR AND CONCEPT PAPERS

State Level Workshop for

Veterinary Officers and Progressive Dairy Farmers

On

Nutritional Interventions for

Sustainable Dairy Production in Goa

October 6 - 7, 2010

Organized by

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Goa(Indian Council of Agricultural Research)

In collaboration with

Association for Coastal Agricultural Research, Goa

At

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Ela, Old Goa - 403 402

EditorsDr. Prafulla Kumar Naik

Dr. Narendra Pratap Singh

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ii

Correct Citation :

Naik, P. K. and Singh, N. P. (Eds.). 2010. Nutritional Interventions for Sustainable Dairyproduction in Goa. Proceedings of State level Workshop for Veterinary Officers and ProgressiveDairy Farmers.

Printed at :

Sahyadri Offset System,Corlim, Tiswadi, Goa - 403 110Tel.: 0832 - 2285901

Published by :Dr. Narendra Pratap SinghDirectorICAR Research Complex for GoaEla, Old Goa - 403 402, IndiaTel : 0832 - 2285381, 2284677 / 78 / 79E-mail: [email protected] : www.icargoa.res.in

Compiled and Edited by :

Dr. Prafulla Kumar NaikDr. Narendra Pratap Singh

All rights reserved© 2010, ICAR Research Complex for Goa

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.icargoa.res.in

iii

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Goa

gratefully acknowledges

Association for Coastal Agricultural Research, Goa

for collaboration

and

National Bank for Agriculture & Rural Development (NABARD),

Goa Regional Office

Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited,

Curti, Ponda, Goa

State Bank of India, Administrative Office, Panaji, Goa

Canara Bank

M/s Tapascharya Enterprises, Madgaon, Goa

M/s Sadhale Enterprises, Ponda, Goa

for sponsoring

The State level Workshop for

Veterinary Officers and Progressive Dairy Farmers

on

Nutritional Interventions for Sustainable Dairy Production in Goa

&

its Publications

xix

PROGRAMME

State Level Workshop for Veterinary Officers and Progressive Dairy Farmers

October 6 - 7, 2010

Theme : Nutritional Interventions for Sustainable Dairy Production in Goa

Venue : Conference Hall, ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Ela, Old Goa

6th October, 2010

9.30 am � 10.00 am Registration

10.00 am � 11.45am Inaugural Function

10 am Invocation

10.05 am Welcome address by Dr NP Singh, Director, ICAR RC Goa

10.15 am Lighting the lamp

10.20 am Honouring the dignitaries on the dais (presentation of bouquets)

10.25 am Address by Shri Madhav A Sahakari, Chairman, Goa Milk Union

10.40 am Address by Director, AH & VS, Goa

10.55 am Release of �Souvenir of Workshop� by Shri Ravi S Naik, the Chief Guest of the function

11.00 am Release of Extension Folder on �Feeds and Feeding of Dairy Cows in Goa� by the Guest of Honour

11.05 am Address by the Chief Guest, Shri Ravi S. Naik, Hon�ble Minister, AH & VS, Govt. of Goa

11.30 am Vote of thanks by Dr PK Naik, Organizing Secretary

11.40 am National Anthem

11.45 am � 12.15pm Tea

12.15 pm � 1.00 pm Key note address by Dr NP Singh, Director, ICAR RC Goa

1.00 pm � 2.00 pm Lunch

2.00 pm � 5.00 pm Technical Session � I

Chairman Dr NP Singh

Rapporteur Dr BL Manjunath

2.00 pm � 2.45 pm Cultivation of fodder Crops (Dr Nagaratna Biradar)

2.45 pm � 3.30 pm Strategies for seed and planting material production for fodder crops (Dr Vinod Kumar)

3.30 pm-4.00 pm Tea

4.00 pm � 5.00 pm Significance of minerals in feeding of dairy animals and relevance of developing area specific mineral

mixture (Dr NKS Gowda)

7th October, 2010

10.00am � 1.00 pm Technical Session � II

Chairman Director AH & VS, Goa

Rapporteur Dr EB Chakurkar

10.00am �10. 45 am Soil nutrient management for fodder production in Goa (Dr NP Singh)

10.45 am �11.30 pm Production practices of suitable fodder crops for Goa (Dr BL Manjunath)

11.30 am � 12 pm Tea Break

12.00 pm-1.00 pm Feeding strategies for sustainable dairy production in Goa (Dr PK Naik)

1.00 pm � 2.00pm Lunch

2.00 pm-5.00 pm Technical Session � III

Chairman Shri Madhav A. Sahakari, Chairman, Goa Milk Union

Rapporteur Dr BK Swain

2.00 pm � 2.30 pm Reproductive problems and their remedies in dairy animals vis-à-vis nutritional deficiencies (Dr EB Chakurkar)

2.30 pm � 3.00 pm Role and activities of Goa State Co-operative Milk Producer�s Union Limited, Goa for enhancement of milk

production (Dr RB Dhuri)

3.00 pm � 3.30 pm Role and activities of Department of Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Services, Goa for enhancement of

milk production (Dr UVT Pednekar)

3.30 pm � 4.00 pm Tea

4.00 pm � 5.00 pm Discussion

xx

CONTENTS

Sl No Topic Page No

1 Soil nutrient management for fodder production in Goa

Narendra Pratap Singh

2 Cultivation of fodder Crops

Nagaratna Biradar, S Karthigeyan, Vinod Kumar, K Sridhar and NS Kulkarni

3 Strategies for seed and planting material production for fodder crops

Vinod Kumar, Nagaratna Biradar, K Sridhar, S Karthigeyan, NS Kulkarni

4 Production practices of suitable fodder crops for Goa

BL Manjunath

5 Strategies for round the year fodder availability for feeding of dairy animals in Goa

Prafulla Kumar Naik

6 Nutritional enrichment of crop residues for livestock feeding

Prafulla Kumar Naik

7 Feeding bypass fat to high yielding dairy cows for optimization of milk production

Prafulla Kumar Naik

8 Significance of minerals in feeding of dairy animals and relevance of developing

area specific mineral mixture

NKS Gowda

9 Feeding strategies for sustainable dairy production in Goa

Prafulla Kumar Naik

10 Reproductive problems and their remedies in dairy animals vis-à-vis nutritional deficiencies

Eaknath B Chakurkar

11 One day packed ration (complete feed block)

� The solution for nutritional management of dairy animals in Goa

Prafulla Kumar Naik

12 Importance of feed quality testing for improving dairy production

Bijaya Kumar Swain

13 Vegetable waste as livestock feed

M Thangam

14 Role and activities of the Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited

for enhancement of milk production

RB Dhuri

15 Role and activities of the Department of Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Services, Goa

for enhancement of milk production

UVT Pednekar

16 List of verious organizations

17 Phone numbers of various organizations

1-7

8-14

15-21

22-28

29-38

39-41

42-46

47-61

62-71

72-79

88-81

82-89

90-94

95-98

99-107

108-113

114

1Nutritional Interventions for Sustainable Dairy Production in Goa

Soil Nutrient Management forFodder Production in Goa

Narendra Pratap [email protected]

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Goa � 403 402

Crop production is concerned with the utilization of plant morphologicaland Physiological responses within an agro-climatic environment to producemaximum yield per unit area and time. The development of crop productiontechnologies is the master key to unlock the yield potential of crops. Foddersas a group of crops differ from food and commercial crops in several aspects;the principles and practices of their cultivation vary accordingly. A combinationof diversified soil types, wide range of climatic conditions (cloudy to sunshine,hot to cold, dry to rainy) and a large group of forage species suited to differentagro-ecological conditions and input situations, makes a congenial environmentfor intensive forage production programme in our country. The cultivated foddercrops can be grouped as follows.

Cereal foddersCereals are the crop plants belonging to grass family Gramineae and grown

for their edible starch seeds botanically known as �caryopsis�. Cereal fodders

and grasses are characteristically determinate in growth habit and theirherbage quality starts deteriorating after flowering. Cereal fodders like maize,sorghum, pearl millet and oats provide energy-rich herbage to livestock. Thesehave wider adaptability and variability in terms of growth, regeneration potential,yield and quality of herbage.

LegumesThe word legume is derived from the Latin word "Legre" (to gather) because

the pods have to be gathered or picked by hand as distinct from �reaping� the

cereals. The plants belong to family Leguminoseae and having nitrogen fixingnodules on their roots. Legumes by and large are indeterminate in growth andthus, maintain quality traits over longer periods. The leguminous fodders havespecial significance because of high herbage protein and partial independencefrom soil for their nitrogen needs.

Other cropsBesides these important groups of fodders, root crops (turnips, carrots

and fodder beets), Brassica spp. and vetches are used as supplementary

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2 Souvenir & Concept Papers of State Level Workshop for Veterinary Officers and Progressive Dairy Farmers - 2010

source of feed to the livestock. Due to early bulking capacity and short duration,these are often gown as catch crops.

The soil and nutrient requirement for different forage grasses depends onForage species, its duration/interval of cutting, method of cultivation, etc.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)Sorghum as a green foliage is very popular in most parts of north India and

nearly 2.5 million ha area is planted during kharif. In summer, under irrigatedconditions, multicut sorghum is very popular. Forage sorghum is characterizedby quick growth, high biomass accumulation, and dry matter content and wideadaptability beside drought withstanding ability. It is also suitable for silageand hay making.

VarietiesThere are improved varieties and hybrids capable of yielding on an average

50 tonnes/ha in single cut varieties and up to 70 tonnes/ha in multi cut varieties.The dual-purpose varieties and hybrids, CSV 15 and CSH 13 are suitable forboth forage and grain production.

Field preparation and sowingNormally 2-3 harrowing are required before taking up planting as rain fed

crop and sown with the onset of monsoon. Seed rate of 12-15 kg/ha for singlecut and 20-25 kg/ha for multicut sorghum is required. Optimum spacing is 45cm between rows for multicut sorghum and 30 cm for single cut sorghum. Asregards fertilizer application 100 kg N and 60 kg P2O5/ha for multicut sorghumand 80 kg N and 40 kg P2O5/ha for single cut sorghum is recommended. Inforage sorghum, the mixed cropping is also practiced with fodder legumes,viz. cowpea and cluster bean, in 2:1 ratio to improve fodder yield and quality.

HarvestingSince HCN is present in sorghum especially in early stages up to 40-50

days, proper care has to be exercised during harvesting for avoiding HCNpoisoning. Single cut varieties are harvested at 50% flowering to full bloomstage and in multicut varieties, the first harvest is taken at 55 days after sowingand subsequent cuts at 40 days interval.

Maize (Zea mays)Maize in India ranks fifth in total area and third in total production and

productivity. The level of production has to be raised because of substantialdemand as food, feed and poultry feed. Maize can successfully be grown askharif, rabi and zaid crop. Presently, the maize crop is grown in 20-30% irrigatedconditions only.

Soil Nutrient Management for Fodder Production in Goa


VarietiesMostly maize is grown during rainy season. Some cultivars require 60-70

days to mature; others require 100-110 days to mature. Grain colour also variesfrom yellow to orange to white. Mainly flint types are preferred.

SoilVery sandy soils rapidly respond to management practices than those that

are fine textured. Intermediate texture of loam to silt loam in surface horizonand little higher content of clay as silt loam to silty clay loam in subsoil is themost ideal. Soil pH of 7.5-8.5 supports good crop growth, as the crop is grownunder rain fed conditions. It is important that soil must have good water holdingcapacity, with proper drainage system to avoid water logging conditions.

Seed rate and sowing timeAbout 50-60 kg seed would be needed to sow one hectare. Seed should be

grown 5 cm deep into soil for good germination, seedling growth and vigour.Transplanting should be avoided as the plant cannot cope up with main cropstand. It is preferred to sow 10-15 days before start of rain which will give15% higher yield.

Manures and fertilizersA balanced application of 60-12 kg N, 40-60 kg P and 40kg K/ha is

recommended. Early maturing varieties require less quantity than full seasonmaturity crops. It is also advisable to apply 20 kg zinc sulphate /ha along withbasal dose of fertilizer. One-fourth of nitrogen and entire quantity of phosphorus,potassium and zinc should be applied 5-7 cm deep before sowing. The rest ofthe doses are applied at knee-high stage and after emergence of flag leaf butbefore tassel emergence.

Plant populationA population of 65,000-70,000 plants /ha at harvest is optimum for realizing

higher yields. For attaining desired level of plant density, a row to row andplant to plant spacing of 75 cm × 18 cm or 60 cm × 22 cm should be maintained.

IrrigationTo ensure high and stable yield, it is desirable to give 1 or 2 irrigations at

critical stages. Flowering and grain-filling stages are most critical; the cropshould be irrigated at these stages, if rain fails.

IntercroppingShort-duration varieties of pulse crop, oilseed crop and vegetable can

successfully be grown as intercrop. A ratio of 2 rows of maize with 1 row ofother desired crop can be adopted.



HarvestingIn absence of irrigation, crop can be harvested at any stage, at pre-flowering.

It can be used as fodder and at dough stage green ear and stovers may beused for cattle. For fodder purpose, the milk to early dough stage is preferredfor higher yield and protein content. For silage, late dough stage is preferred.

Napier × bajra hybrid (Pennisetum glaucum × Pennisetum purpureum)Among grasses, N-B hybrids are the highest green forage yielder in a unit

time and space. It is vigorous, nutritious, succulents, palatable and respondsto heavy nitrogenous fertilization. Young leafy fodder is highly palatable andpossesses a fairly good quality, but mature grass has large portion of stemand hence not considered of good quality. It grows well on deep, retentivesoils of moderate to fairly heavy texture and also grows on light textured withsandy loam to loamy soils. For better response to management, loamy soilswith good drainage are preferred. One rooted slip or stem cutting is planted ata depth of 3-5 cm on one side of the ridge at 75 × 30 cm spacing at the rate of

40,000 rooted slips or stem cuttings/ha in the month of mid-February to July.In irrigated situation, it can be planted throughout the year. A basal dose of 5tonnes of FYM/compost: nitrogen: 50 kg/ha (urea 110 kg); phosphorus 50 kg/ha (super phosphate 310 kg); potassium 40 kg/ha (muriate of potash 65 kg)should be applied followed by a top dressing of 50 kg N/ha after each cut. Thebasal application should be repeated once in a year for sustained higher yields.The fields should be irrigated 3rd day after planting and as and when requiredthereafter. The irrigations need to be frequently applied especially during springand summer. First cut should be taken 60-75 days after planting andsubsequent cuts once in 45 days. The normal yield levels range from 150-160tonnes/ha/year. CO-2 variety yielded 300-350 tonnes green fodder/ha insouthern India when cut at 10-15 cm from the ground at regular intervals of 45days.

Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)Para grass is also commonly known as buffalo grass, California grass,

giant couch grass, water grass and pani wali ghas. It is an exotic, hairy andperennial grass, spreading rapidly by surface runners, profusely rooting atnodes. Stems rhizomatous with ascending branches; culms hollow, succulentand glabrous with hairy internodes; leaf blade linear, dark green, 30 cm longand 6-16 mm broad; inflorescence open panicle and 6-20 cm long. It growswell in water logging conditions on river and canal banks and can withstandprolonged flooding. This grass is more suited for water-inundated conditionsand sewage farms. It is a grass of tropical climate and grows well in warm



humid situations of high rainfall areas but in protected areas, it can persistwith rainfall as low as 900 mm per year. It performs well in moist clayey/silty/peaty/sewage farm soils and waterlogged soils. It is highly profitable to growon submerged or low lying as well as saline soils where nothing else survives.The grass performs well with legumes like Centrosema,Calpogonium, Lotononissp., Vicia and Aeschynomene. In a well prepared and levelled field, shoot bitsof 30 cm length each with 2 3 nodes are planted in lines at about 50 cmdistance; under irrigated conditions best time of planting is in March whileunder rain fed conditions at the onset of monsoon. 40,000 rooted slips arerequired to plant one hectare of land. A basal dose of 5 tonnes of FYM/compostis given with 40:50:50 kg NPK/ha followed by a top-dressing of 40 kg N/haafter each harvest. Generally, the first cut is taken in 3 months from plantingand subsequent cuts at monthly intervals. The green forage production ranges130-140 tonnes/ha. The grass is less nutritive with 7% crude protein, 0.76%calcium and 0.49% phosphorus. The grass is used as green fodder, soilingand even for hay. It can withstand moderate grazing. It should not be grazedtoo closely and first grazing should be deferred till the grass attains the heightof 30-60 cm and is well established. Controlled/ light grazing ensures rapidgrowth.

Stylo (Stylosanthes hamata)This is also known as Caribbean stylo and Verano stylo.It is herbaceous

and dichotomously branched perennial. It attains a height of 1.2 m; leavestrifoliate, eaflets lanceolate, acute, and glabrous with 4-6 pairs of veins; rachis4-6 mm long and bidentate; stipules adnate to the base of the petiole withhairs on the sheath and teeth. The inflorescence is an oblong spike with 8-14yellow flowers on a long stem. The pods or so-called seeds are medium todark brown in colour, 2-2.5 mm long asymmetrical by reniform, radical endsfairly prominent and beak is slightly coiled. Actual seed comes after removingthe brown covering and is light yellow in colour. It is a native of the islands ofWest Indies and found generally adjacent the coastal regions of North andSouth America, and introduced in many tropical regions of Australia, Burmaand India. It thrives well in the areas receiving annual rainfall from 500 to 1,270mm with a pronounced dry season. It is adapted to a wide range of soil typesand is drought resistant. In a well prepared field the seeds are broadcast orsown in line at 50 cm apart @ 5-6 kg/ha in pure and 3-4 kg/ha in mixed pastureduring the early rainy season. Before sowing, the seeds should be scarifiedor treated with hot water for 1 1.5 minutes. During the establishment year, 1-2 weedings and inter culturing are required for better growth. At the time offield preparation and before sowing 5-8 tonnes/ha FYM + 20 kg N and 40 kgP2O5/ha and 40 kg K2O/ha are applied. From second year onwards, 30 kg



P2O5 and 15 kg N/ha are suf f icient. I t may be mixed with Cenchrus,Dichanthium, Heteropogon, Sehima, Chrysopogon,sabai grass and blue panic.During establishment year (first year), it should not be allowed to be grazed atall but should be harvested at the height of 10 m from ground level after fourmonths of sowing. From second year onwards, it may be grazed or harvested2-3 times. Rotational grazing is preferred for higher production. The greenforage production ranges from 20-30 t/ha, while the dry forage is 6-10 tonnes/ha. It generally produces 350 - 400 kg seeds/ha but from well-managed pastureseed production reaches up to 1000 kg/ha. It, contains 12 18% C.P., 0.61-1.72% Ca, 0.10 0.12% P and 7.0 -14.2% ash. Being nutritive and palatable, itis used as feed for all types of animals in the form of hay, silage. Among thespecies of Stylosanthes, S. hamata and S. viscosa lines were found rich incrude protein and lower in fibre contents as compared to S. scabra andS.sebrana lines.

Grass-legume mixturesGrass-legume mixtures have been used in many countries for realizing

higher total herbage yield by growing them in association, rather than inindividual swards where no fertilizer N is applied. The legumes in the pasturemay also increase N content and digestibility of the herbage. In the diet ofanimals, grasses and legumes have also greater beneficial associative effectthrough rumen than when they are fed separately. Further, the adopted legumesin the mixture provide a simple and practical means of meeting the nitrogenneed of the associated grasses as most of the legumes fix atmosphericnitrogen. The plant interaction in the mixtures often becomes competitive foravailable water, nutrients and light, thus affecting the overall yield. Studiesconducted at the IGFRI, Jhansi, have shown the nitrogen equivalence oflegume to the tune of 40-60 kg N/ha when introduced in natural grasslands.This means that 40-60 kg N/ha can be added to the grassland soil as microbialfertilizer manufactured by legumes. Besides being a substitute and a cheapsource of nitrogenous fertilizers, legume also influence total dry, matterproduction and crude protein yield. The suitability of soils for different kinds offorage grass and legume species is given in Table 1.



Table 1. Soil suitability for different kinds of forage grass and legume species

Situations Species

1. Marginal Soils/ desert land/sand dunes/ravines Cenchrus ciliaris (Anjan grass)Cenchrus

set igerus (B lack An jan)Chrysopogonfu lvusLas iurus s ind icusAty los iascaraboeoidesLablab purpureusCli tor iatarnateaStylosanthes humilisStylosantheshamataMacroptilium atropurpureum (Siratro)

2. Cultivable wasteland Cenchrus ciliarisCenchrus setigerusSehimanervosumDichanth ium annula tum(Marve l )Sty losanthes sp .Macropt i l iumatropurpureumClitorio ternateaCentrosemapubescens (Centro)Glycine wightii

3. Saline and alkaline lands Chlor is gayana (Rhodes grass)Chlor isbarbataDip lachne fusca (Karna lgrass)Las iurus s ind icusSetar iasphacelataMacroptillium atropurpureum

4. Acids soils Pennise tum po lys tachyonPaspa lumnotatumCentrosema pubescensDesmodiumintortumStylosanthes guyanensis

5. Land affected by shifting cultivation Cenchrus c i l ia r isCenchrusset igerusChrysopogon fu lvusCl i to r iaternateaLablab purpureus



Cultivation of Fodder Crops

Nagaratna Biradar, S Karthigeyan, Vinod Kumar, K Sridhar and NS [email protected]

IGFRI Regional Research Station, Dharwad, Karnataka � 580 005

Mixed farming is prevalent in India. Every farmer here keeps at least fewlivestock that acts as complimentary and supplementary to his crop husbandry.India has a huge livestock population of over 343 millions, besides poultry,distributed over 100 million households in approximately 600,000 villages.According to the live stock census of 2003 the country had 485 million livestockpopulation and 489 million poultry population, being the first in cattle and buffalopopulation, second in respect of goat and third in respect of sheep populationin the world. India has 57% of the world�s buffalo and 16% of the world�s cattle

population. However the livestock production scenario is very bleak as theproductivity of livestock is lowest in the world. We are thus deficit in all thelivestock products though one fourth of the total cattle population is owned byus. The main reasons for the low productivity of our livestock are malnutrition,under-nutrition or both, besides the low genetic potential of the animals. Themalnutrition and/or under-nutrition of livestock is due to the lack of adequatequantity of feed and fodder in the country. Table 1 depicts the status of themin the country.

Table 1. Balance-sheet of animal feeds and fodders

Feeds and fodders Availability Requirement DeficitGreen fodder 224.08 m tonnes 611.99 m tonnes 387.91 m tonnesCrop residues 231.05 m tonnes 869.79 m tonnes 638.74 m tonnesConcentrates 31.6 m tonnes 65.4 m tonnes 81.8 m tonnes

It is seen from the figures of availability, vis-a-vis the requirement of green-fodder crops, crop residues and concentrates, that there is exists an enormousgap between demand and supply of all kinds of feeds and fodders. However,the area under cultivated fodder production is limited only to 4.60% of the totalcultivable land. In the advanced States of Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat and someparts of Rajasthan, land use for green fodder production is around 10% ormore. Similarly, the area under permanent pastures constitutes 3.6% ofgeographical area in the country and cultivable wasteland is approximately 13and 15 million hectares respectively. Likewise, the total area under forests is2.51 crore hectares and that open to grazing is 2.1 crore hectares. All theseresources are able to meet the forage requirements of the grazing animals



only during the monsoon season. But for the remaining periods of the year,the animals have to be maintained on the crop residues or straws of jowar,bajra, ragi, wheat, barley, etc. either in the form of whole straw or a bhusa,supplemented with some green fodder, or as sole feed. Hence it is essentialto cultivate improved fodder crops for better livestock productivity.

Improved fodder crops are bred with the objectives of getting high yields ofdry matter, higher contents of nutrients, absence of toxic and physiologicallyactive substances, greater intake and digestibility, a higher response to inputs,greater tolerance to adverse soil and weather conditions, freedom from majordiseases and pests, greater seed production ability and a higher degree ofpersistence and aggressiveness. Some of the important high-yielding varietiesof fodder grasses, fodder legumes and fodder trees suitable for high rainfallzones of peninsular India along with their cultivation methods are enumeratedbelow.

I. Improved grasses

1. Hybrid Napier (Pennisetum typhoides x P. purpureum)New variety of this crop is Sampoorna. It is suitable for intensive crop

production where irrigation is available. It responds very well to the fertilizers.It�s a fast growing fodder crop with very good yield. It has more tillers and

leaves. It however can not tolerate water logging condictions and can not bestored as hay. It is ideal to cut between 50 to 55 days as it natures rapidly,becomes rough and stemmy if delayed.

Method to growSoil : wide range of soils with adequate fertility

Establishment : Root slips or stem cuttings

Fertiliser : FYM 25 t, 150-300 kg nitrogen / ha/yr, N-40 kg aftereach cut P2O5-30 kg and K2O-20 kg

Seed rate : 26000 slips at 60x 60cm

Cuts : 5-6 cuts in a year

Green fodder yield : 200-300 t/ha /year

Nutritive value : CP ranges from 9.5-19.7% and IVDMD from 68-74%.

2. Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)Its unique feature is that it is a shade loving plant and is suitable for orchards.

It is highly leafy yielding good quality and palatable fodder. It can be grownwith protective irrigation and can be preserved as hay. This crop can be grownfor the purpose of cut and carry livestock feeding system or for grazing.



Method to growSoil types : Well drained soils including low to medium soil fertilityEstablishment : Seeds, root slipsFertiliser : FYM- 20 to 25 t, N 50 kg and P2O5 20-40 kg / ha after

each cutSeed rate : 2-3 kg/ha or 40000 root slips at 50x50 cm spacingCuts : First cut after 45-50 daysGFY : 130-150 t/haNutritive value : Crude protein 6-25 %, digestibility 64%

3. Perennial Fodder SorghumThis fodder sorghum is perennial in nature giving 6-7 cuts in a year. It has

very good tillering ability (10-15 tillers/plant) and has good leaf percent. It hasvery good crude protein (8.4 percent) and has less crude fiber (34.0 percent),due to which it has good digestibility. It is resistant to pests and diseases andcan be preserved as hay.

Method to growSoil : Well drained soilEstablishment : By seed, 10 -12 kg/ha at 45 cm row to row and 10-15

cm within rowCuts : 3-4 cuts in dry land, 6-7 cuts under irrigationGreen Fodder Yield : 170 tons/haSeed yield : 500 kg/haNutritive value : 8.4 % crude protein and good palatability

4. Pennisetum Trispecific Hybrid (PTH)It is a cross between three species Pennisetum typhoides [P. glaucum] ×

P. purpureum × P. squamulatum. It is hence called trispecific hybrid. It hasacquired the softness of Bajra, yield potential of Napier grass and droughttolerance from P.squamulatum. It grows tall with thin stem and profuse tillers.It can be grown under shade, yields good quality forage has drought toleranceand can be preserved as hay.

Method to growEstablishment : By root slips, seed or stem cuttingsFertilizer : 90 kg Nitrogen and 60 Kg PhosphorousSeed rate : 40000 rootslips at 50x50 cmCuts : 3-4Green Fodder Yield : 85-90 t/ha/year



5. Nandi grass (Setaria sphacelata)It is suitable for high rainfall zone and is tolerant to flooding and water

logging. It grows over 2-3m tall and is suitable both for cut and carry systemof livestock feeding or for grazing. This grass can be utilized for silagepreparation or for storing as hay.

Method to growSoil : Sandy, clay loam and light clayEstablishment : By seed, stem cuttings or root slipsSeed rate : 2-5 kg/ha or root slips 66000/ ha at 50 x 30cmCuts : 3-4 cuts in a yearGreen fodder yield : 30-40 t/ha/yearNutritive value : Crude protein 4.8 to 18.4 per cent

6. Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)Suitable for poorly drained and water logged condition. It is highly tolerant

to saline or sodic soil conditions. It grows well in high rainfall humid areas. Itgrowth is creeping type and spreads rapidly. It has soft and hairy leaves. It ismore suitable for livestock grazing.

Method to growSoil : Suited to poorly drained soils. Also grows in wide

range of soil types (from sandy to clay soils)Establishment : By seed, roots slip or stem cuttingsFertiliser : Responsive to fertilizer N and application after each

cut for maximum productionSeed rate : 2.5-3.5 kg/ha or 40000 slips at 50x50 cmCuts : 3- 5 weeks (3 - 4 cuts in a season)Green fodder yield : 30-40 t/ha in 3 cuts.Nutritive value : Crude Protein ranges 14-20% and digestibility 65-80%

II. Fodder legumes

1. Hamata (Stylosanthes hamata)It is a branched, semi erect plant that grows on soils with low fertility. It is

highly drought tolerant and can be grown for the purpose of conserving soil. Itgrows well under shade and hence suitable for silvipasture or hortipasturesystems. Being legume it improves the soil fertility. It is perennial in narureand in a year 3 cuts can be taken up. The fodder harvested from the crop canbe stored as hay or leafmeal and it has good palatability.



Method to growSoil type : Infertile, acid, sandy surfaced soils, onto more alkaline

soilsEstablishment : SeedSeed rate : 4-6 kg / haFertilizer : Application of 10-20 kg P /ha at planting and every 2

or 3 years after establishmentCuts : 2-3 cuts/yearGreen Fodder Yield : 25-30 t/ha/3 cutsNutritive value : Crude protein 17-24 %, digestibility 60-65 %

2. Stylo guianensis (Stylosanthes guianensis)It grows well in high rainfall area (1000-2500 mm rainfall) and adapts itself

in acid infertile soils. It�s a erect growing plant suitable for cut and carry system

of livestock feeding. It has good fodder yield as campared to hamata and staysgreen even in dry season.

Method to growSoil type : well-drained, open-textured soils from sands to light

claysEstablishment : seedsSeed rate : 3-6 kg/haFertilizer : 10-20 kgP /haCuts : 2-3 cutsGreen Fodder Yield : 30-35 t/haNutritive value : Crude protein 12-20%, digestibility 52-60 %

3. Centro (Centrosema pubescens)It�s a creeper suitable for high rainfall area. It can be grown in acid, low to

medium fertility soils. It though has high forage quality but is less persistent.

Method to growSoil type : Low to medium fertile soilEstablishment : Seeds, 3-4 kg/haFertilizer : 22 kg P and 30 kg K per haCuts : 3-4 cutsGreen Fodder Yield : 20 t/ha in 3 cutsNutritive value : Crude Protein 21-29% and digestibility 52-69%

4. Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum)It is a herb with wide soil adaptation. It can be grown as cover crops, hence

suitable for soil conservation. It has very good atmospheric nitrogen fixation



ability, thus improves the soil fertility. The fodder of this crop is highly nutritiveand palatable.

Method to growSoil type : Wide range of soils from clay to gravelEstablishment : Through seedsSeed rate : 4-5 kg/haFertilizer : 20-30 kg P /haGreen fodder yield : 25-30 t/ha in 3 cutsNutritive value : Crude protein 12-25 %, digestibility 45-65 %

5. Lucerne ( Medicago sativa)A very fast growing fodder crop that has the potential to give 11-13 cuts in

year. It has many advantages even in terms of its nutritive values (rich in proteinand calcium) thus it can replace the concentrate feeds of the livestock. Thefodder obtained from this crop can be preserved as leafmeal or hay for offseason utilization.

Method to growSoil type : Deep well drained soilsEstablishment : Seed rate of 10 kg/ha with spacing 25-30 cm x 10 cmCuts : 10-11 in a yearGreen Fodder Yield : 90-110 t/haNutritive Value : Crude Protein 15-22% and rich in Calcium

III. Fodder trees

1. Subabul (Leucaena leucocephala)It is a hardy ever green shrub, grows in the annual rainfall range of 500mm

to 2000m. It can tolerate drought, saline and acid soils, but not waterloggedcondition. It yields very high nutritive quality fodder for ruminant livestock.Fodder obtained from this crop can be preserved as hay or leafmeal. This canalso be grown for getting multiple products in a wide range of farming systems.

Method to growSoil type : Well drained soilsEstablishment : 6-12 months seedlings, seed rate 3-4 kg/ha, spacing

of 1 x 0.1 for a pure crop of fodder and 2 x 0.2 m whenraised along boundaries.

Fertilizer : 20:50:30 kg/ha NPKGreen Fodder Yield : 25-30 t/ha in 4-5 cutsNutritive value : Crude protein 27-34 % and digestibility 55-70%



2. Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora)It can be grown in a wide range of soil types and rainfall regimes. It adapts

well even in high rainfall zone. It yields highly good and palatable forage, whichcan be utilized for hay or leafmeal preparations.

Method to growSoil type : wide range of soils that are alkaline, poorly drained,

saline or of low fertility

Establishment : Seed or stem cuttings, spaced 1-2 m apart

Fertilizer : No fertilizer required

Nutritive value : Crude protein 25-30 % and digestibility 75 %

Ideal fodder crops, however depends on the resource matrix of the farmers.It is important that the farmers select fodder crops that ensure maximumoutturn of digestible nutrients per hectare or maximum livestock products froma unit area of their farming system.



Strategies for seed and planting material productionfor fodder crops

Vinod Kumar, Nagaratna Biradar, K Sridhar, S Karthigeyan, NS [email protected]

IGFRI Regional Research Station, Dharwad, Karnataka � 580 005

Livestock rearing in India is changing with the requirement of time as isalso evident that demand for milch breed of cattle is going up as compared todual or draught breed. In this globalize / market dependent agri-economy, milchanimals have to be of high productivity and reproductive efficiency. Feeding

livestock with quality fodder around the year is essential to attain this. Feed &fodder cost constitute about 60-70% of cost of milk production. In India, dryfodder accounted for around 68-70 per cent of the total livestock feed.Percentage share of concentrates in livestock production system was around2 per cent in 1970-71 and has increased significantly to 7.63 per cent in 1995-96 (NCAP study). This indicates that farmers are forced to invest more onconcentrates resulting livestock husbandry less remunerative. Increasing areaunder fodder production require adequate quantity of quality fodder seeds ofhigh yielding varieties. Forage seed provide the means of transferring newand improved species of forage crops to farmers and development agencies.It has been estimated that in India the current demand for seeds of cultivatedfodder is around 3.55 lakh tones per annum based on area under cultivation(8.3 m ha). However farmers are not able to get seeds of high yielding foddercrops and legumes. This is because no private organization is involved inseed production of these crops and the Central Fodder Seed Production Farms(CFSPF), are not able to meet the demand. The demand for forage seeds isincreasing and the availability is very low, meeting only 15�20% of the

requirement. A number of promising forage varieties have been developedwhich can be incorporated into the production chain. At present, fodder seedmarket is not very organized. Timely availability of quality seeds is also a majorconstraint. The seed production technology of forage crops differs from otherprincipal agriculture crops. The seeds of these crops mature at different stagesare small in size, voluminous and germination percentage is low. Thus.harvesting at right stage demands expertise as is required to maintain thegood germination and economics.

Forage seed productionAn important requirement in seed production is for the grower to plant in

areas or sites which are most likely to support high seed yields. Experiencehas shown that shoot density, the number of seeds formed per flower and the



percentage harvest recovery of the seed are three of the most important factorscontributing to seed yield. They are also the most influenced by weather andfarming practices. It is not surprising therefore that most seed productionprogramme failures are caused by poor choice of site and grower selectionthan any other factor. The best forage seed crops are produced in environmentswith sufficient radiation, temperature and rainfall for vegetative growth,favourable photoperiods and higher temperature for floral induction and calm,dry weather during maturation and harvest. Material for multiplication must bechosen to match the prevailing conditions for climate, day length and soils.Many pasture seed production interests may fail to mature mainly because ofan unsuitable choice of site. For instance Berseem seed production can bebest taken up in Northern parts, Lucerne seed production in western part andStylosatnthes guianensis in costal belts of India. Type of soil should also beconsidered while selecting site. The soil requirements of forage crops varysignificantly. Some crops prefer deep soils with a good moisture-holdingcapacity while others, such as the non-competitive legumes, can grow wellon less fertile sandy soils. In general, a soil with good moisture-holdingcapacity is an advantage, especially with grasses, against unreliable rainfalland inefficient irrigation. The problems of acidity and alkalinity also requireattention while selecting a site. Several important forage species are adaptedto acid soils and grow poorly on alkaline or neutral soils. Fertile soils of suitablepH are preferred. Care should be taken with densely textured soils whichpresent a high resistance to seedling elongation and decrease speed ofemergence. If on-site operations are to be mechanical, the land should bereasonably level and well drained.

Crop establishmentEstablishment requires conditions favourable for germination, emergence

and growth. It also requires conditions favourable for vegetative material toinitiate new roots and shoots. It may also require destruction/weeding ofunwanted plants which could dominate the newly established crop. This isthe most hazardous phase in plant growth and extra care should be taken toensure a good seed crop. Pasture seed crops warrant more care duringestablishment with better land preparation, more precise sowing techniques,higher seeding rates and even additional operations (e.g. herbicides, irrigation)not normally used with pastures. This ensures that new areas establish andproduce adequate populations such that extra seed is not required to ��gap

fill�� the crop. The following general practices should be considered when

establishing a pasture seed crop.

Land clearingNewly-cleared land is often used for seed crops to ensure less competition

from weeds and other pasture plants (and therefore less contamination of the

Strategies for seed and planting material production for fodder crops


crop). This is particularly important with some of the less competitive legumeswhere less fertile land is used. This can also be the case with more competitivegrasses where no suitable pre-emergence herbicide can be recommended.New stands planted on old weedy cultivations may not produce a worthwhileseed crop in the first year.

Seed-bed preparationFor seed crops, thorough land preparation is essential to provide a clean,

firm fine seed-bed. Land leveling is advantageous for irrigated systems ormechanized harvesting. Rough, weedy Underdeveloped /under-prepared seed-beds may cause poor establishment giving poor plant populations which allowuneven tiller and seed maturation. Cultivation affects the size, distribution andpacking of soil particles. It provides a tilth next to the seed and should optimizethe condition of the soil surface to maximize emergence, water infiltration andmaintain gas diffusion to avoid short-term anaerobic conditions caused byslaking and crusting.

Time of sowingPlanting time depends largely on the reliability of rainfall and potential

evapotranspiration. Early sowings have the best chance of producing a goodharvest. Within given areas, small niches may exist which allow for differenttimetables to take advantage of rainfall extremes, irrigation and weed controlpatterns.

Choice of vegetative material or seedVegetative material may be in the form of rhizomes, stolons, stem pieces

or cuttings (splits). Such materials are genetically identical to the parent plant.Whether seed is sown by hand or machine good quality seed must be used. Ifthe resultant crop is to be certified, seed of the appropriate status or generationmust be used.

Seeding rateAs an approximate guide, seeding rates for forage seed crops should

generally be at least twice those recommended for normal pasture sowings.In the first season of production, growth of pasture, weed suppression,avoidance of erosion, amount of nitrogen fixed by sown legumes and thegrazing returns are greater for high sowing rates (Humphreys, 1978). Withhigher sowing rates, the need for later ��thickening up�� of the seed stand should

be minimal. Lower seeding rates are recommended for row planting comparedwith broadcast sowing. However, the temptation to save too much should beresisted as it could lead to a sparse, weedy stand producing low seed yieldsin the early years. If low quality seed has to be used, e.g. seed of good genetic



quality but of low germination percentage and low purity, the sowing rate shouldbe increased.

Depth of sowingOne of the commonest causes of failure in establishment of small-seeded

species is sowing too deeply. Maximum sowing depth is constrained byendosperm reserves which must be adequate to support hypocotyl or epicotylelongation until seedlings emerge above the soil and begin photosynthesizing.The elongation rate is a function of genotype, temperature and soil water. Thus,the timing, rate and depth of sowing are critical. Since most pasture plantseeds are relatively small, they are generally sown on the surface of the soilor incorporated to not more than 1 cm depth. The use of sowing machinerythat enables control of depth of sowing is desirable although many smallfarmers are able to establish the crop successfully by hand broadcasting.

Crop managementThe overall aim of management, whether for grasses or legumes, is to

produce high yielding seed crops. Pasture species have been bred for theirforage potential ( i.e. production of leaf and stem) not for seed yield.Consequently, the harvest index (i.e. seed to shoot ratio) may be very low andyields are seldom more than one tonne per hectare. The local environmentsets the broad growing conditions which are then manipulated throughmanagement to meet the needs of particular crops. The management ofgrasses and legumes differ markedly.

Nitrogen fertilizerNitrogen is the most important nutrient for grass seed production. To the

farmer, the amount of nitrogen to apply and when to apply it constitute animportant decision. This decision depends on many factors including the ageof the crop, the time of year and the climatic conditions at the time ofapplication. The main effect of the application of fertilizer is to increase seedyield by producing more seed heads. To achieve this, nitrogenous fertilizershould be applied as a single dressing as soon as possible after the cleaningcut. This must be spread evenly to avoid alternating yellowish and dark greenstrips indicating under- and over-fertilization. The optimum rate of fertilizernitrogen varies depending on the species or even the variety grown. Arecommended ��safe�� level for a typical crop such as Panicum maximum is100 kg elemental nitrogen per hectare, equivalent to 220 kg urea per hectare,applied at the beginning of the crop cycle.

IrrigationIrrigation ensures good seed yields in areas with unpredictable or low rainfall.

Drought is known to reduce seed production but with good moisture availability,



drought stress is often eliminated. In some cases, however, moisture stresscan be used to stimulate the reproductive phase.

Seed harvestingIn tropical pasture seed crops, the choice of harvest time is a complicated

decision because some immature seeds will always be present. Even themost closely synchronized crops comprise inflorescences in various stagesof maturity and there is further variation in flowering time within individualinflorescences. For a particular crop, the period in which high yields of ripeseed can be harvested depends on the species or cultivar involved, weatherconditions and harvest method. In practice approximately 25--50% of thepotential yield is available because of continuing production and loss. Thedecision to harvest the crop depends on what the head looks like. All indicatorsfor harvest are somewhat subjective; therefore, for accurate assessment thereis no substitute for experience aided by keen observation. Seed moisturecontent, endosperm hardness or seed weight can be monitored, but for allpractical purposes appearance of the crop is the best factor.

GrassesA number of visual indicators have been proposed for grass seed crops to

fix the optimum harvesting time more closely. Timing also depends on weatherconditions, because wind and rain can strip seeds from the inflorescence.When harvesting large areas, start earlier to avoid losses. Crops shouldgenerally be harvested when the bulk of seed is not far from shedding. At thisstage, ripening seed can be readily removed by gentle rubbing or by strokingfrom the base to the apex of an inflorescence. Samples should be checked toensure that the florets contain seeds by biting individual seeds, or by rubbingin the palm of the hand to remove seeds. Crop colour depends on changes inthe pigmentation of individual seeds during maturation, and these do not occurin all crops e.g. Brachiaria decumbens (signal grass). When a large numberof ripening seeds are present, any colour changes in individual seeds arereflected in the overall appearance of the crop e.g. Chloris gayana. Thismethod is more useful when crops are reasonably well synchronized.

LegumesWhere plants are of a determinate nature it is possible to deduce optimum

harvest dates by examining the head from emergence through to seedshedding/shattering. It is more difficult to determine the optimum harvest datesfor indeterminate plants because of the longer flowering period. Where seedis very scarce, hand picking can take place whenever sufficient have changedcolour and environmental conditions allow, but the cost is often prohibitive.



HarvestingHand-harvesting is the simplest method and, where labour is cheap and

plentiful, it is the most sensible to use. Grass seed heads may be cut withsickles, bound and stoked in the field, then collected for threshing some twoweeks later. Heads may be beaten with sticks, roughly sieved and then sundried. Only light threshing is required to detach most of the remaining usefulseeds and to separate detached seeds from the bulk. Sweating is useful asall spikelets undergo abscission enabling the producer to recover a higherproportion of this standing seed. It generally gives about twice the yield ofdirect-heading. Seed is also of very high quality because maturation can becompleted in the moist conditions inside the stack. Similar results can beachieved with direct-headed seed if it is also dried properly (to 10% moistureor less); sweated seed also stores very well. It should be spread thinly todissipate heat and even if it gets lumpy, mouldy and grey the seed should notbe damaged.

Post harvest seed conditioningAfter harvest, seeds must be threshed, cleaned and dried ready for storage.

Newly harvested seeds contain husks, straw, soil particles and other unwantedseeds. These must be removed through the threshing and cleaning processto obtain good quality seeds of the required cultivar. Seeds are often harvestedat higher moisture contents than those recommended for storage. Moist seedsare more susceptible to damage during cleaning because they are relativelysoft. Drying reduces seed moisture to a safe level for both cleaning and laterstorage. Threshing involves separating the seeds from panicles and straw,and winnowing the chaff from the seeds. The process of separating the seedfrom the chaff or pod often requires considerable energy but sorting the seedfrom the straw is a relatively easy process. This process is followed bywinnowing. Winnowing uses wind to separate heavy and light material. Itinvolves dropping the material from shoulder height or higher on to a cleanarea on the ground with wind blowing from behind. Any material that is lighterthan the seed is removed and the remaining fallen seed is hand sorted toremove imperfect seed and non-seed material.

Seed PackingAt the end of processing, the seed is packed and sealed into containers of

uniform size. Seeds are packaged in different materials and containers. Indetermining the kind of packaging material or container best suited, thefollowing points need consideration.(i) Quantity of seed in each package(ii) Quality of seed and protection desired(iii) Cost of the package



(iv) Value of the seed(v) Conditions under which the container is kept

Seed storageSeed is stored from harvest to the next planting, which may be in the next

season or after several seasons. A number of factors influence the viabilityand maintenance of seed quality during storage. The most important are seedmoisture and temperature. If seed is to be stored for any length of time, itmust be at safe moisture content. High moisture contents allow insect andmicro-organism activity, which cause heating. Maintenance of seed viabilitydepends on the conditions experienced before and during storage. Damageduring harvesting, inadequate or improper drying, rough handling and poorphysical storage should be avoided. Relative humidity (rh) and temperature(T) of the storage environment affect maintenance of seed quality. Relativehumidity (rh) has the most influence on seed longevity because it affects seedmoisture content (mc). Moist seeds are also more susceptible to attack byinsect pests and diseases. It is therefore most important to control seedmoisture content during storage. The moisture content of seed is in equilibriumwith the ambient relative humidity during storage. To maintain low seedmoisture content, the storage facilities must be located in an area/localitywhere the relative humidity is low or have artificially controlled relative humidity.The maximum relative humidity for successful storage will depend on the kindof seed, length of storage period and ambient temperature.



Production Practices ofSuitable Fodder Crops for Goa

B L [email protected]

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Goa - 403 402

Dairy production in Goa is still in its infancy. The state depends on theneighbouring Karnataka and Maharashtra for nearly 60 per cent of milkrequirement. To make dairy production, a viable venture, fodder productionand its continuous supply assumes greater significance.

Demand and Supply of fodder in GoaGoa has an estimated cattle population of 71,794 which includes Crossbred

(16,807) and Indigenous (54,987) while the Buffaloes account to 37,499 Nos.To feed even cross breed cattle @ 25 kg/ animal/day, about 1,55,125 t/yr fodderis required. However, present position is around 10,000 t/year leaving a deficit1, 45, 000 t/yr. In addition, buffaloes and indigenous cattle need to be fed. Atpresent there is no organized large scale fodder production in the State. Theseasonal fodders like maize is cultivated in scattered packets covering anarea of approximately 50 ha while perennial fodders like Hybrid Napier arecultivated to an extent of 40 ha.

Scope for higher fodder production in GoaThe hot humid tropical climate of the region facilitates luxuriant growth of a

wide variety of fodder crops. The varying topography with diverse soils favoursluxurious growth of a wide variety of annual and perennial forage grasses andlegumes and forage yielding plants. The vast forest area available especiallyaround the Western Ghat region provides scope for luxuriant growth of Karadand other weedy grasses and legumes.

Planning for forage productionA good planning of forage production helps in round the year availability of

green forage for the cattle. Under optimum situations of perennial forages likehybrid napier an intensive fodder production area of about 1800-2000 m2 isrequired for two cows with management of organics, earthing up, irrigationand fertilizers and rotational harvest with a cycle of at least 45 to 50 days.

Suitable Fodder species for GoaA wide variety of forage grasses and legumes can be cultivated in Goa.

Based on the feasibility studies for over a decade, the following forage grasses/legumes were found better for local agro-climatic situations.



Maize (Zea mays) � Dual purpose

Maize is the C-4 plant with high yield potential. Although it is not a traditionalcrop of Goa, attempts made to introduce different genotypes so as to assessits feasibility for commercial exploitation indicated that Kanchan, a privatecompany composite performed better (6.02 t/ha grain yield ) as compared toothers. The variety had bigger cobs with more seed rows and cob weight,grains/cob and the grain weight. It was followed by another private hybridPrabha (5.76 t/ha- grain yield). Both these varieties / hybrids yieldedsignificantly higher stover yield (12.7 t/ha and 2.8 t/ha, respectively) ascompared to others. Maize can successfully be grown as kharif, rabi andsummer crop. Presently, the maize crop is grown in 20-30% irrigated conditionsonly.

SoilVery sandy soils rapidly respond to management practices than those that

are fine textured. Intermediate texture of loam to silt loam in surface horizonand little higher content of clay as silt loam to silty clay loam in subsoil is themost ideal. Soil pH of 7.5-8.5 supports good crop growth, as the crop is grownunder rain fed conditions. It is important that soil must have good water holdingcapacity, with proper drainage system to avoid water logging conditions.

Seed rate and sowing timeAbout 50-60 kg seed would be needed to sow one hectare. Seed should be

sown 5 cm deep into soil for good germination, seedling growth and vigour. Itis preferred to sow 10-15 days before start of rain which will give 15% higheryield.

Manures and fertilizersA balanced application of 100 kg N, 50 kg P and 25kg K/ha is recommended.

Early maturing varieties require less quantity than full season maturity crops.It is also advisable to apply 20 kg zinc sulphate /ha along with basal dose offertilizer. One-fourth of nitrogen and entire quantity of phosphorus, potassiumand zinc should be applied 5-7 cm deep before sowing. The rest of the dosesare applied at knee-high stage and after emergence of flag leaf but beforetassel emergence.

Plant populationA population of 65,000-70,000 plants /ha at harvest is optimum for realizing

higher yields. For attaining desired level of plant density, a row to row andplant to plant spacing of 75 cm × 18 cm or 60 cm × 22 cm should be maintained.

B L Manjunath


IrrigationTo ensure high and stable yield, it is desirable to give 1 or 2 irrigations at

critical stages. Flowering and grain-filling stages are most critical; the cropshould be irrigated at these stages, if rain fails.

IntercroppingShort-duration varieties of pulse crop like local cowpea can successfully

be grown as intercrop. A ratio of 2 rows of maize with 1 row of cowpea can beadopted.

HarvestingIn absence of irrigation, crop can be harvested at any stage, at pre-flowering.

It can be used as fodder and at dough stage green ear and stover may beused for cattle. For fodder purpose, the milk to early dough stage is preferredfor higher yield and protein content. For silage, late dough stage is preferred.

Fodder maizeThe crop can be cultivated throughout the year under Goa conditions. The

hot humid weather prevailing under Goa situations is ideal for its cultivation.The fodder is very nutritious and need to be preferred for milch and draughtpurpose cows.

SoilAlthough the crop can be cultivated in all types of soils, irrigated and well

drained fertile loamy soils are ideal.

Seed rate and sowing timeAbout 125 kg seed would be needed to sow one hectare. Lines may be

opened at a distance of 30cm and certified disease free seeds only need tobe used.

Manures and fertilizersA balanced applicat ion of 150 kg N, 100 kg P and 50 kg K/ha is

recommended. Half of nitrogen and entire quantity of phosphorus, potassiumand zinc should be applied before sowing. The rest of the nitrogen need to beapplied after four weeks after sowing.

IrrigationA light irrigation immediately after sowing is essential. Later, the crop may

be irrigated at 10-12 days interval depending on soil and climatic conditions.

IntercroppingLocal cowpea can be intercropped by following a spacing of 45cm between

the lines and harvesting together to get a nutritious and palatable forage.

Production Practices of Suitable Fodder Crops for Goa


HarvestingThe crop will be ready for harvest by 70 days. Harvesting at milky stage

gives nutritious and palatable forage. Delay in harvest results in increasedfibre content and reduced green forage yield.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)Local Cowpea is very unique in its vegetative growth producing huge

palatable biomass which needs to be properly harnessed.

Soil and climateIt is adapted to variety of soil types, viz. red loam, black clay loam, coarse

gravel, sandy loam, light sandy soils. It is also grown in sloppy land in hillytracts and heavy loam soils. It is more tolerant to heavy rainfall than any otherpulse crop. It suffers from water stagnation and heavy drought. It thrives wellunder the temperature range of 21- 35°C.

Cropping systemThe crop is usually grown as kharif crop and can also be grown as pre-

monsoon and late monsoon crop. It can be also grown as second crop duringrabi after rice under residual soil moisture.

CultivationFields should be prepared well for sowing. The crop is sown in the first

week of June in the hills and in the second fortnight of December in coastalplains. The row to row spacing is 30-45 cm. The recommended seed rate is20-25 kg/ha. One hand weeding or hoeing 20-25 days after sowing orapplication of weedicide Pendimethalin @ 1.0-1.5 kg a.i /ha immediately aftersowing helps in control of weeds. The crop requires adequate moisture. Inplains, 3-4 irrigations are required. About 50 kg N and 50 kg P/ha and 25 kg Kare recommended. Half the nitrogen is applied as basal dose and half for topdressing. The crop matures in 100 days. Seed yield up to 1.0 tonnes/ha isobtained.

Hybrid NapierNapier × bajra hybrid (Pennisetum glaucum × P. purpureum) often also

referred as Bajra-Napier hybrids, Cumbu-napier hybrids, are tall growing (200-300 cm), erect, stout, deep rooted, perennial hybrid grass. The hybrid is atriploid and hence sterile. They spread by short, stout rhizome to form largeclumps or stools up to 1 macross and are propagated by two nodded stemcuttings or by division of rootstock. Hybrid napier, Co-3, PBN-16 and DHN-6are found better for Goa conditions. It grows well on deep, retentive soils ofmoderate to fairly heavy texture and also grows on light textured with sandy

B L Manjunath


loam to loamy soils. For better response to management, loamy soils withgood drainage are preferred. One rooted slip or stem cutting is planted at adepth of 3-5 cm on one side of the ridge at 75 × 30 cm spacing at the rate of

40,000 rooted slips or stem cuttings/ha in the month of June. In irrigatedsituation, it can be planted throughout the year. A basal dose of 5 tonnes ofFYM/compost: nitrogen: 50 kg/ha (urea 110 kg); phosphorus 50 kg/ha (superphosphate 310 kg); potassium 40 kg/ha (muriate of potash 65 kg) should beapplied followed by a top dressing of 50 kg N/ha after each cut. The basalapplication should be repeated once in a year for sustained higher yields. Thefields should be irrigated 3rd day after planting and as and when requiredthereafter. The irrigations need to be frequently applied especially duringsummer. First cut should be taken 60-75 days after planting and subsequentcuts once in 45 days. The normal yield levels range from 150-160 tonnes/ha/year.

Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)Para grass is also commonly known as buffalo grass and California grass.

It grows well in water logging conditions on river and canal banks and canwithstand prolonged flooding. This grass is more suited for water-inundatedconditions and sewage farms. It is a grass of tropical climate and grows wellin warm humid situations of high rainfall areas but in protected areas, it canpersist with rainfall as low as 900 mm per year. It performs well in moist clayey/silty/peaty/sewage farm soils and waterlogged soils. It is highly profitable togrow on submerged or low lying as well as saline soils where nothing elsesurvives. The grass performs well with legumes like Centrosema, Calpogonium,Lotononis sp., Vicia and Aeschynomene. In a well prepared and levelled field,shoot bits of 30 cm length each with 2-3 nodes are planted in lines at about 50cm distance; under irrigated conditions best time of planting is in March whileunder rain fed conditions at the onset of monsoon. 40,000 rooted slips arerequired to plant one hectare of land. A basal dose of 5 tonnes of FYM/compostis given with 40:50:50 kg NPK/ha followed by a top-dressing of 40 kg N/haafter each harvest. Generally, the first cut is taken in 3 months from plantingand subsequent cuts at monthly intervals. The green forage production ranges130-140 tonnes/ha. The grass is less nutritive with 7% crude protein, 0.76%calcium and 0.49% phosphorus. The grass is used as green fodder, soilingand even for hay. It can withstand moderate grazing. It should not be grazedtoo closely and first grazing should be deferred till the grass attains the heightof 30-60 cm and is well established. Controlled/ light grazing ensures rapidgrowth.

Stylo (Stylosanthes hamata)This is also known as Caribbean stylo and Verano stylo. It thrives well in

the areas receiving annual rainfall from 500 to 1,270 mm with a pronounced



dry season. It is adapted to a wide range of soil types and is drought resistant.In a well prepared field the seeds are broadcast or sown in line at 50 cm apart@ 5-6 kg/ha in pure and 3-4 kg/ha in mixed pasture during the early rainyseason. Before sowing, the seeds should be scarified or treated with hot waterfor 1 1.5 minutes. During the establishment year, 1-2 weedings and inter-culturing are required for better growth. At the time of field preparation andbefore sowing 5-8 tonnes/ha FYM + 20 kg N and 40 kg P/ha and 40 kg K/haare applied. From second year onwards, 30 kg P and 15 kg N/ha are sufficient.I t may be mixed with Cenchrus, Dichanthium, Heteropogon, Sehima,Chrysopogon, sabai grass and blue panic. The green forage production rangesfrom 20 - 30 t/ha, while the dry forage is 6-10 tonnes/ha. It generally produces350 - 400 kg seeds/ha but from well-managed pasture seed production reachesup to 1000 kg/ha. It contains 12 18% C.P., 0.61 - 1.72% Ca, 0.10 0.12% P and7.0 -14.2% ash. Being nutritive and palatable, it is used as feed for all types ofanimals in the form of hay, silage. Among the species of Stylosanthes, S.hamata and S. viscosa lines were found rich in crude protein and lower infibre contents as compared to S. scabra and S.sebrana lines.

Grass-legume mixturesGrass-legume mixtures have been used in many countries for realizing

higher total herbage yield by growing them in association, rather than inindividual swards where no fertilizer N is applied. The legumes in combinationmay also increase N content and digestibility of the herbage. In the diet ofanimals, grasses and legumes have also greater beneficial associative effectthrough rumen than when they are fed separately. Further, the adopted legumesin the mixture provide a simple and practical means of meeting the nitrogenneed of the associated grasses as most of the legumes fix atmosphericnitrogen. The plant interaction in the mixtures often becomes competitive foravailable water, nutrients and light, thus affecting the overall yield. Besidesbeing a substitute and a cheap source of nitrogenous fertilizers, legume alsoinfluence total dry matter production and crude protein yield.

Scope for additional forages in Goa situations(i) Most of the paddy field bunds especially in morod and kher lands (rain

fed up and low lands) the perennial forage grasses like hybrid napier canbe cropped across the slope.

(ii) The residual moisture available in rice fallows can be utilized for thecultivation of fodder maize + cowpea combination during rabi- summerseason.

(iii) Alternatively, the groundnut and cowpea can be cultivated utilizing theresidual moisture and the haulms can be used for feeding the cattle alongwith rice straw.

B L Manjunath


(iv) The undulating cashew grown areas can be intercropped with hardypasture grasses like anjan, marvel and with legumes like Stylosatntheshamata and Stylosatnthes scabra.

(v) The luxuriant growth of paragrass grown in low lands and marshy areascan be better harnessed.

(vi) Karad grass growing luxuriantly in forest/ hill slopes can be harvested inright season, properly dried and staked for lean season requirement.

(vii) Tree fodder like subabul, Jack which grow wildly in Goa situations maybe better harnessed.

(viii) Use of crop by-products like paddy straw, ragi straw, maize stover,groundnut haulms, cowpea haulms, sugarcane tops needs propercollection and utilisation.

Fodder production through Integrated Farming SystemsStudies conducted at ICAR Research Complex for Goa indicated that hybridnapier like PBN-16 (81.5 t/ha) and CO-3 (54 t/ha) can be cultivated as intercropin coconut along with perennial forage legume Centrosema pubiscens. Foragegrass intercropping in coconut integrated with dairy unit shown net returns ofRs.3000/cow/year with additional employment potential of 70 man days/cow/year.

Forage seed distribution through multiplication of forage grassesThrough the co-ordination of Mega Seed Project, high yielding forage grassesare introduced and multiplied for further distribution to the farmers. The hybridnapier introduced include CO-3, DHN-6, PBN-16, APBN-1, IGFRI-3, IGFRI-7,PTH, NB-21 etc. Demonstration plots of the high yielding varieties have beenestablished.

ConclusionThe problem of fodder deficit in dairy production although difficult to eradicate,the gap can be minimized through careful planning and execution ofdepartmental programmes through co-ordinated approach. A system approachin viewing the farm in totality keeping the requirements of different componentsnot only helps in increasing the profitability but also helps in minimizing therisks involved.



Strategies for Round the Year Fodder Availability forFeeding of Dairy Animals in Goa

Prafulla Kumar [email protected]


The trend of decreasing land holding size and source of regular daily incomeof the agricultural farmers by cultivating seasonal crops are the key factorsfor developing more interests towards the dairy farming. In most of the partsof the country including Goa, the milk production is �production by masses�

�not by mass production�. There are very few organized elite dairy herds in

Goa and majority of the dairy farmers of the state have a small herd of around2-5 milch animals with daily milk production of around five liters per animal.Milk production and profit in dairy farming depends upon the feeding andmanagement practices. During recent years, prices of various concentratefeed ingredients like maize grain, soybean meal, groundnut cake, rice polishetc, have increased, which is a major constraint for profitable milk productionas the feed cost alone constitutes about 75% of the total cost of production.Long term economical milk production along with the maintenance of betterhealth and fertility of the dairy animals can only be achieved through feedingof quality green fodder. Thus, the need of the hour is not only to enhance thefodder production, but also to make the fodder accessible round the year toall types of dairy animals adequately.

Importance of feeding green fodder(i) Fulfills bulk of the animal easily and quickly(ii) Good palatability and digestibility(iii) Good source of water as they contain 75-85% water depending upon the

type of fodder and stage of harvesting(iv) Main sources of fibrous carbohydrate, which are well utilized by the animals

(the non-legume fodders are rich in carbohydrate)(v) Major sources of vegetable protein (legume fodders are rich in protein

content)(vi) Good sources of important minerals like calcium and iron.(vii)Rich source of carotene (vitamin A) and vitamin E, required to maintain

optimum fertility of the animals.(viii) The milk and milk products of the dairy animals fed on green fodders

are rich conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which has major health benefits inhuman beings.



Constraints in availability of green fodderThe major constraints in the availability of green fodder may be broadly

categorized as follows.

1. Small land holding size of the dairy farmersThe �no land� or �small land holding size� factor of the dairy farmers is the

major cause of less fodder production. Majority of the dairy farmers of thestate are landless or have small piece land for rice or vegetable or otherhorticultural production and they just can not afford that piece of land specificallyfor fodder cultivation. Based on the land holding capacity and interest of thefarmer for dairy production, there are mainly four types of farmers.(i) Have dairy unit but no land for fodder production(ii) Have dairy unit but the land available for fodder production is inadequate

to maintain the dairy unit(iii) Have dairy unit and the land available for fodder production is adequate to

maintain the dairy unit(iv) Have adequate land for fodder production but no interest in dairy

production

2. Unawareness for fodder cultivationIn most of the cases, the dairy farmers are not aware of the package of

practices for fodder cultivation and its effective utilization as per the farmingconditions for round the year fodder availability for their dairy unit.

3. Land utilization pattern and crop production systemThe availability of feed resources of a state is dependent up on the land

utilization pattern and crop production system. The green forages can becontributed from the cultivated fodder (gross cropped area), private primaryg raz ing ( fa l low land) , pub l ic p r imary g raz ing (permanent pasture ,miscellaneous tree crops and cultivated waste land) and public secondarygrazing (forest area). Goa is a very small state with a total geographical areaof 3702 sq km. The gross cropped area (GCA), fallow land, permanent pastureland, miscellaneous tree crops, cultivable waste land and forest arearespectively form about 48.50, 2.40, 0.37, 0.17, 12.64 and 35.92, per cent ofthe total area. An average of 4% of this GCA should be under fodder production;however, in the map for area under fodder crops of the various states of thecountry, Goa has no land for fodder production. Further, out of the total forestarea, only 14.04% (200 sq. km) is private forest.

4. Seasonal variationThe seasonal variation in weather or climate is mainly responsible for the

inadequate fodder accessibility round the year. There is flush of fodder during

Strategies for Round the Year Fodder Availability for Feeding of Dairy Animals in Goa


monsoon or rainy season (July to September), which reduces in winter andpractically there is negligible amount of fodder during summer season. Althoughdue to improved irrigation facilities, the situation has improved to some extent,but the trends remain almost as above. However, the scarcity of green fodderis aggravated during lean periods of May- June and November-December.

Strategies for round the year fodder availabilityThe strategies for round the year fodder availability for the dairy animals

can be chalked out as follows.

1. Developing liaison among farmersFor successful dairy farming, the farmer having dairy unit but no land or

inadequate land for fodder production needs more attention. Arrangementshave to be made to make liaison between him and other neighbour farmersproducing surplus green fodder or farmer who will produce green fodder forhim on contract basis. As the year round supply of green fodder isindispensable for the dairy animals, no scheme on dairy farming should bemade without the arrangement for fodder availability.

2. Development of awareness for fodder cultivationThe popularization of intensive fodder production technologies for dairy

animals through organ izat ion of f requent t ra in ing , workshops anddemonstration is needed to create awareness among the grass root levelworkers and farmers. The package of practices should include introductionand popularization of cultivation of nutritious high yielding fodder varieties alongwith the fodder tree for the availability of quality green fodder and its feedingschedule round the year for the dairy animals. In the horticulture based farmingsystem, fodder crops can be cultivated through intercropping approach withcashew and coconut etc.

3. Improvement in the land utilization pattern and crop production systemThe land utilization pattern and crop production system must be improved

for more forage availability. An average of 4% of the GCA of the state shouldbe used for fodder production. Grazing based animal husbandry plays asignificant role for the small farmers having indigenous low productive animals.During monsoon, the animals can be primarily thrived on the grazingresources. The area under permanent pasture and miscellaneous tree cropsform very less area in this state. Further, due to the soil erosion, the pastureland is at its lower ebb of production. The grass land needs to be improvedthrough re-seeding and introduction of some legumes. A systematic andintegrated approach needs to be emphasized on mixed herd grazing whichwill take care of shrubs, bushes and other herbages. The forest covering areais the valuable grazing resources for the livestock population. The livestock

Prafulla Kumar Naik


graze the forest area mostly during rainy season. During lean period, the treeleaves and shrubs from the forest area are the potential feed resources forthe livestock. The silvi-pastoral system integrating pasture and tree is likely toreduce the grazing pressure. The utilization of crop-residues can be improvedby the catalytic supplementation of top feeds like Leucaena leucocephala,Sesbania and Glyricedia etc. The lands, which are unfit for conventionalagricultural farming, may be put to alternate land use system such as agro-forestry, silvi-pastoral or horti-pastoral. The degraded lands should berehabilitated and the eroded waste land should be harnessed for edible biomassproduction. Specific attention is needed for the control and over exploitationof grazing areas by uncontrolled and over grazing especially by the non-descript cattle.

4. Establishment of local fodder market or fodder bankFodder is most nutritious, when grazed standing in the field or feeding fresh.

Local fodder market or fodder bank for fresh green fodder has to be establishedat each Taluka of Goa, so that the large land holding farmers will be encouragedfor more fodder production and their fodder will be sold on appropriate priceon daily basis.

5. Judicious feeding of green fodderThe green fodder should be fed very judiciously to avoid wastage and making

profitable. The dairy animals should be categorized as per the milk productionand stage of lactation. For feeding the dairy animals, the green fodder shouldbe harvested at the optimum stage i.e. when both the yield and quality offorages are reasonably high. The optimum stage of harvesting of commonlygrown fodder crops like maize, cow pea, guar and napier bajra hybrid are milkstage, before flowering, full flowering to pod initiation and about one meterheight, respectively. If sufficient good quality cultivated green fodder isavailable, then daily feeding of 45-55 kg good quality green fodder along withad lib. (free choice) straw will take care of the bulk, maintenance and productionrequirement of a lactating animal (cow producing up to 7 liters milk with 4%fat content and buffalo producing up to five liters milk with 7% fat content perday). Thereafter, one kg concentrate mixture can be added for every 2.5 kgand 2.0 kg additional milk produced by the cow and buffalo, respectively. If thedairy animal is pregnant, besides the maintenance and production requirement,one kg concentrate mixture as pregnancy allowance should be offered extraonly in the last three months of the pregnancy. When the green fodder is notavailable sufficiently, as a thumb rule 10 kg good quality fresh green foddercan be replaced by one kg concentrate mixture (20-22% crude protein). Thegreen fodder must be chopped before feeding to the dairy animals for better



utilization. The required concentrate mixture, green fodder and straw may beoffered either separately or mixing together as total mixed ration (TMR).

6. Preservation of fodder by nutritional technologiesThe excess fodder can be preserved for the lean period by mainly two

nutritional technologies i.e. by hay making and silage making.

Hay MakingThe various types of green fodder that is harvested at proper stage, dried

and stored at 85-90% dry matter with minimum possible nutrient losses isknown as hay. It is entirely different from the straw, which is obtained afterharvesting after fully formed seeds and as such is poorer in nutrients.

AdvantagesDue to hay making good quality fodder will be available during lean season

and more fodder can be stored in less space. If properly cured and preserved,it makes one of the most economical feeds of the farm.

PrincipleTo ensure that the hay can be safely and efficiently stored, the moisture

content of the fodder, which is normally about 75-85%, must be reduced toabout 15%. The aim of haymaking is to reduce the water or moisture contentof the green fodder to a level low enough so that it can be safely stored inmass without undergoing fermentation (the plant and the bacterial enzymesdo not act on the plant nutrients) or becoming mouldy. The practical methodof determining the safe limit for the hay storage is to twist a wisp of hay in thehands. If the stems are twisted and there is no indication of moisture, it canbe stored.

Crops suitableThe good quality hay may be obtained from leafy fodder and hollow thin

stems cut at the right time and cured properly. The leguminous fodders likecowpea and guar have soft and pliable stems and are therefore most suitablefor hay making. However, from non-leguminous fodders and grasses, hay canbe prepared by harvesting at the proper stage, particularly when the stemsare soft and pliable.

Types of HayBased on the type of fodders, the hays can be of mainly three types i.e.

(i) legume hay, (ii) non-legume or grass hay or (iii) mixed hay.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Legume hayIt is mostly relished by the dairy animals. It produces more digestible

nutrients in a given area. The protein of legume hay is of excellent quality. It ishigher in vitamins i.e. carotene and vitamin D and rich in calcium content. InGoa condition, the legumes crops suitable for hay making are cowpea andguar.

Non-legume hayThe non-legume hay includes grass hay also and is inferior to the legume

hays. It is less palatable and contains less protein, minerals and vitaminsthan the legume hays, but rich in carbohydrates. However, it can be growneasily and the outturn per hector is more than that of the legume hay. In Goa,natural grasses like karad grass are harvested and dried for the preparationof hay, but the nutritive values are less.

Mixed hayIt is Prepared from mixed crops of legumes and non-legumes. Generally, it

is harvested earlier because of the variation in seeding time of the mixed crop.If harvested earlier, the cereals are richer in protein.

Stage of harvestingThe stage of harvesting is very important during hay making as it affects

the nutritive value of the fodder. The hay should be made at pre-flowering orflowering stage, when it has more digestible nutrients. The best time forharvesting a crop for hay making is when 10-25% of its plants are in floweringstage. Too early a stage will yield a low tonnage and too late stage make thecrop woody and of low nutritive value. However, when the fodder is at thisstage of growth, the climate or weather may not be always favourable for dryingthe fodder crops. Therefore, in practice the fodders are often not harvestedtill the weather improves.

MethodsThe hay can be prepared mainly by two methods i.e. by (i) sun curing method

and (ii) Mechanical drier method.

Sun-curing methodThe harvested fodder crops are chopped to 5-8 cm length and are spread

under the sun in 10-15 cm thick layer. Then it is dried for a period of 3-4 dayswith turning in every 2-3 hours. As a thumb rule, if the stems break easily ontwisting, it is considered as fit for storage.



Mechanical drier methodThis method of hay making is very much suitable to avoid the major

constraints of the sun-curing method of hay making due to uncertainty ofweather such as dry spell of rains or continuous rains or high speed wind etc.Due to lack of time and infrastructure and high investment, the dairy farmerscan not prepare this product at their own level. By making it available throughthe co-operative societies or other feasible sources with assured quality anda reasonable price, the dairy farmers would prefer to make the purchase fortheir livestock.

Nutritive valueIn suitable conditions, hay making under normal sunshine does not affect

the nutritive value of the green fodder significantly. However, if the crop is notquickly dried and left in the field unattended; then there are heavy losses dueto shattering of leaves, fermentation, oxidation and leaching. In leguminouscrops like cowpea and guar, where the leaves dry earlier than the stems, theshattering of leaves is more common. If drying is prolonged without turning,the leaves become brittle and shattering of leaves will cause substantial lossesof proteins, vitamins and minerals. The leguminous hay should be transportedfrom the field early in the morning so that there is less shattering of leaves.After the crop is harvested, the plant enzymes act on the soluble carbohydratesforming CO2 and H2O, which results in the higher crude fiber content of thehay as compared to the green fodder. The proteins are also hydrolyzed toamino acids during this process. If the green fodder is exposed to the sun fora longer period without proper turnings, the carotene content is reduced.However, the sunlight has a beneficial effect, since due to irradiation ofergosterol present in the green crop, vitamin D2 is formed. Leaching due toheavy rains causes loss of protein, soluble carbohydrates, soluble mineralsand vitamins and the crude fiber content is increased. The hay making in fieldcondition by conventional method under sunshine can cause about 15-20%losses on weight and quality of the green fodder, however, the losses may bereduced by mechanical drier method of hay making. Feeding 10 kg hay withdry matter content of 85% is equivalent to about 35 kg fresh green fodderdepending upon the type of fodder.

Characteristics of good hayIt should be leafy and greenish colour. It should be soft and pliable. It should

have fragrance and high palatability. It should be free from weeds andpoisonous plants. It should have a uniform composition. There should be lessloss of leaves due to shattering. It should be free from fungus or moulds.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Silage makingSilage making is a method of fodder preservation in its original form as far

as possible. Silage is a green material produced by the controlled fermentationof green fodder crop retaining the high moisture content. It may be called�pickles of green fodder � for the dairy animals.

AdvantagesIt can be prepared, when the weather does not permit haymaking. It can be

prepared from the plants, which have thick stems and thus generally are notsuitable for hay making like sorghum, maize etc. The weeds can also be utilizedalong with the main fodder crops for silage making. The silage making destroysmajority of the weed seeds. It is highly palatable by the dairy animals. Theorganic acids produced in the silage are similar to those normally produced inthe digestible tract of the ruminants and therefore are used in the same manner.

PrincipleThe fresh fodder, when packed in a container and allowed to ferment to

under anaerobic condition produces some volatile fatty acids, which preservethe forage material for a long time with minimum loss of nutrients. The materialproduced is known as �silage� and the process of conserving green fodder as

silage is called �ensiling�. The quality of silage formation is achieved by

controlled bacterial fermentation in the absence of air (oxygen), where thesugars and sugar like compounds in the fodder crops are converted into lacticacid. The acid is bacteriostatic (inhibits growth of micro-organisms), hencehelps in conserving the green fodder as stable silage.

Crops suitableThis process is highly dependent upon the sugar content of the fodder. The

fodder crops rich in soluble carbohydrates are most suitable for ensiling. Thenon-leguminous fodders like maize, jowar, bajra, and napier bajra hybrid havemore sugar content as compared to the leguminous fodders like cowpea andguara and are therefore, more suitable for silage making. The leguminousfodders are not suitable for silage making due to low dry matter, high proteinand high buffering capacity. The crops should have solid stems so that smallamount of air is trapped. However, hollow stemmed crops can also producegood silage but the trampling should be adequate.

Stage of harvestingThe dry matter or moisture content and sugar content of the fodder crop

are the important factors for the production of good quality silage, which areagain related to the stage of harvesting of the fodder crops. The dry matterpercentage at the time of ensiling should be 30-35% i.e. the moisture content



of 65-70%. The thumb rule for determining the optimum dry matter or moisturecontent is to press a handful of chaffed fodder in hand palm, known as �Grab

Test�; if the dry matter or moisture is appropriate, the hand palm will remain

almost dry. If the fodder crops are cut when too immature, these crops beinghigh in sugar and water content may cause excessive acid formation.Therefore, the fodder crops should be harvested at right stage to producegood silage. The fodder maize crops should be harvested at grain in milk stage.The fodder jowar (sorghum or chari) and bajra crops should be harvested atflowering to dough stage and flag leaf stage, respectively. The fodder napierbajra hybrid crops should be harvested at one and half meter height. If silagewill be prepared from natural grasses, then it should be harvested at floweringstage.

Site for construction of silo pitIt should be near to the cattle shed and on a higher and slopy ground to

avoid seepage of rain water into the silo pit. The water table of the pit areashould not be high.

Type and size of silo pitBunker type rectangular silo pits can be constructed, which should be

cemented. The size of the silo pit depends up on the quantity of green fodderavailable with the farm. However, depending upon the availability of space,numbers of one cubic meter (length, depth and width one meter each) silopits can be constructed. Every one cubic meter of pit can hold 500 kg of greenfodder.

MethodAfter harvesting, chop the fodder crops to the length of 8-10 cm and then

spread in the pit uniformly. Press the chaffed fodder with adequate tramplingby manual labour or tractor. Care should be taken that the material on thesides and edges are properly compressed and raised above the ground levelfinally giving a tomb shape. Cover the material with polythene sheet or ifpossibly by 10-15 cm straw layer followed by 5-7 cm layer of soil and thenplasters it with mixture of clay and dung. Care must be taken that if any crackor hole develops, then it should be plugged immediately to avoid entry of air orwater into the pit. The silage is ready for feeding to the animals within 40-45days of sealing the pit but, can be kept preserved for long period if sealedproperly. It should be opened from one side after removing the top layer of thecovering. Remove the uniform layer vertically like slicing bread loaf. Immediatelycover the open side with plastic sheets or gunny bag to avoid spoilage. Oncethe silo pit is opened, silage should be used daily to avoid any spoilage.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Nutritive valueThere are some changes in the nutrient content of the green fodder during

ensiling. The dry matter content of the silage remains slightly higher than thegreen fodder. The protein content is slightly decreased, but the content of thesoluble carbohydrates and â-carotene (vitamin A) is decreased. The

fermentation loss of about 10-15% is almost inevitable during ensiling, so it isquite acceptable. However, ensiling helps to reduce the anti-nutritional factorslike nitrate, hydrocyanic acid and oxalate content of the fodder crops. Foroptimum utilization of nutrients, the milch cow should be fed 20-25 kg silageper head per day. Too wet silage some times affects the flavor and odour ofthe milk. The affect may be small or pronounced depending upon the quantity,quality and time of feeding, therefore, silage should be fed after milking.

Characteristics of good silageThe colour of the good quality silage should be greenish yellow or khaki. It

should have vinegar smell. The texture should be firm. It should not have mouldgrowth. It should be highly palatable and pleasing taste. The pH should bebelow 4.2.

ConclusionDairy farming without green fodder availability round the year is not

economical in long term. Therefore, the need of the hour is to intensify thecultivation of the high yielding and nutritious fodder crops along with theirpreservation to make available for the feeding of dairy animals through out theyear.



Nutritional Enrichment of Crop-Residues forLivestock Feeding



Various crop residues form major portion of the ration of the dairy animalsof our country including Goa. The small and poor dairy farmers even feedtheir animals exclusively on the crop residues, which lead to low productivity.The type and quantity of crop-residues available is area specific. As paddy isthe main cereal crop of Goa, the major crop residues available for feeding ofthe dairy animals are paddy straw. Goa has the potential to produce 67, 229tonnes of paddy straw annually. Further, karad grass is naturally grown in Goaafter the monsoon and are cut and preserved for feeding the dairy cows. Cropresidues like jowar straw (kadaba kutti) and maize stovers are also beingimported from the neighbouring states like Karnataka and Maharashtra to fullfill the shortage of the crop residues for animal feeding. The main factors thathinder the utilization of all types of the crop residues are their poor palatability,low protein content and high indigestible cell wall content (hard stem). Thecrop residues mainly provide bulk to the animals.

The palatability or nutritive value of the poor quality crop residues can beenhanced by many nutritional technologies.

1. Chaffing(i) Chaffing is the process by which the tall straw and stovers are cut into 1-

4 cm long pieces either by hand choppers or toka or by manually operatedor motor power operated chaff cutter.

(ii) By chaffing, the considerable wastage due to soiling and selective feedingof softer parts of the tall straws and stovers is considerably reduced duringfeeding.

(iii) Chaffing increases the palatability and voluntary feed intake.(iv) The factors facilitating increased feed intake are the increase in density,

reduction in the time of mastication and also increase in the rate ofpassage through the gastro-intestinal tract.

(v) However, the cost of processing is the main limiting factor in its practicaluse.

2. Water washing(i) Dip the chaffed straw in water for about two hours.(ii) Then decant the water and repeat the washing twice.



(iii) This practice is useful for the treatment of paddy straw as it enhancesthe palatability and removes the greater proportion of water-solubleoxalates (oxalates reduces the availability of calcium in animals).

(iv) Washing has no effect on the energy value of paddy straw.(v) This method is very simple and can be adopted easily by the dairy farmers.

3. Water soaking(i) Soak the chaffed dry roughages in water for more than 3-4 hours(ii) Due to swelling and softening of the straw, the voluntary feed intake of the

animal is increased 7-10 per cent, which may be attributed to the increaserate of passage through the gastro-intestinal tract of the animal.

4. Urea-ammoniation technologyThe urea ammoniation of crop residues is a well established technology

for the nutritional enrichment of the different straws. In this technology, thenutritive value of the local grasses (karad) can also be improved. Due to thistreatment, the crude protein content of the straw is almost doubled and itsdigestibility is increased by 30-40%. The voluntary feed intake of the treatedstraw is doubled in comparison to the un-treated straw. It can serve as amaintenance ration, when supplemented with 25 g salt, 50 g mineral mixtureand two kg green fodder. The different steps of this technology are as follows.(i) Four kg urea is dissolved in 50 litres of water(ii) Spray it over 100 kg chaffed straw thoroughly(iii) Cover it with a polythene sheet completely for 21 days under normal

condition(iv) After 21 days, the polythene is removed from one side and is fed to the

animals

Precautions during feeding of urea treated straw(i) Open the stack from one side only(ii) Before feeding the urea treated material, keep the material open for some

time so that ammonia gas will be evaporated and does not damage eyesof the animal

(iii) Adopt the animal to urea treated straw gradually.(iv) Do not feed it to the calves of below six months of age

Constrains of urea treatment technologies and its solutionThe main constraint of the technology is that it is slightly labour intensive

and the farmer hesitates to adopt this technology for long term. Therefore,this technology should be popularized through commercialization at varioussocieties or Taluka level.

Nutritional Enrichment of Crop-Residues for Livestock Feeding


ConclusionThe poor quality crop residues must be processed with the above

technologies before feeding the animals for optimum utilization and betterproductivity. However, commercialization of the urea ammoniation technologyat var ious organizat ion levels is the need of the hour for its properpopularization.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Feeding Bypass Fat to High Yielding Dairy Cows forOptimization of Milk Production



In Goa the population of the crossbred cattle increased sharply by 71.4% andthe indigenous cattle decreased by 22.2% during the period between 16th and 17th

census. There is a decline of 14.8% in cattle population during the inter-censalperiod. In Goa although, the number of low to medium yielding dairy animals aremore, still there are good numbers of elite herd producing more than 15 liters milkper animal per day. Further, there is an increase trend of maintaining high yieldingdairy cows by the progressive dairy farmers. In India, the dairy cows having about450 kg body weight and daily milk yield of more than 15 kg are treated as highyielders. Immediate after parturition, physiologically there is decline in feed intakeof the animals, which is generally resumed later than the peak milk production.The tremendous energy out put associated with the milk fat secretion and declinefeed intake puts the high yielding dairy animals in negative energy balance,particularly during the early lactation (first three months of parturition), for whichthey need scientific and systematic feeding practices. With limited feed intake ordry matter intake (DMI), the energy intake can be enhanced by making the dietenergy dense, which can be achieved by incorporating either concentrates (cerealgrains) or fat. The addition of concentrates at higher level in the ration decreasesthe fiber intake, which ultimately leads to acidosis and milk fat depression. As fatis the most energy dense nutrient (contains 2.25 times more energy than thecarbohydrate and protein), its dietary supplementation is the best alternative forthe enhancement of the energy density of the ration without lowering the fiberintake.

Fat content of the dairy rationIn proximate analysis, the dietary fats are expressed as ether extract (EE),

which includes both the true fats and all the ether soluble non-fatty acids (FA)substances. In dairy ration, the fat (EE) is mostly contributed by the green fodderand concentrates (oil seeds, oil seed cakes, cereals and their byproducts). Thereis almost no variation in the fat content of the commonly grown fodder for livestockfeeding, which is around 3% on dry matter (DM) basis. However, due to the advancein various feed processing technology, there is large variation in the fat content ofthe concentrates available in the market. As per the specifications of the Bureauof Indian Standards (BIS), the fat content of the concentrate mixture should be atleast 2.5-3.0%.By-pass fat or Rumen protected fat



The stomach of the dairy animal is divided into four compartments i.e. reticulum,rumen, omesum and abomasum. Out of the four compartments, the size of therumen is larger and contains a number of micro-organisms like bacteria, protozoaand fungi. All the feed taken by the animal goes to the rumen and then it is attacked/fermented by the micro-organisms. Due to this fermentation, many fermentativesubstances like volatile fatty acids, ammonia etc are formed, which aresubsequently used by the micro-organisms for their own proliferation. After theoptimum proliferation of the micro-organisms, they come to the abomasumcompartment through the omesum compartment. The abomasum compartmentof the dairy animal is similar to the stomach of non-ruminants like rabbit, horseand also human beings, where the pH is acidic. Due to the acidic pH, the micro-organisms are killed and then go to the lower part of the digestive tract of theanimal and used as microbial nutrient. This process has both advantage anddisadvantage. The advantage is with the low productive animal with low qualityfeed, because the low quality feed is converted to microbial nutrient, which hasmore nutritive value or biological value than the low quality feed and therefore, thenutrient requirement of the animal is fulfilled easily. The disadvantage is with thehigh productive animal with the high quality feed because the high quality feed isalso converted to microbial nutrient, which may have low nutritive value or biologicalvalue than the high quality feed and therefore, the nutrient requirement of the animalmay not be fulfilled easily. Designing feed or nutrient, which will not be attacked bythe micro-organisms of the rumen, is the only solution to overcome this problem.The nutrient, which resists degradation in the rumen of the animal by the rumenmicro-organisms, but gets digested in the lower digestive tract, is known as by-pass nutrient. Actually, the term �bypass nutrient� is not an appropriate term as the

nutrient is not bypassing the digestive system. The appropriate term is �rumen

protected nutrient�, however in routine practice; the term �by-pass nutrient� is

frequently used. Thus, the nutrient may be protein, fat or starch, which is protectedin the rumen. The dietary fat, which is not degraded in the rumen of the animal bythe rumen micro-organisms, but gets digested in the lower digestive tract, is knownas rumen protected fat (PF) or by-pass fat. It can be supplemented to the dairyanimals at higher levels with little negative effects on the feed digestibility. As thefatty acids (FA) are directly absorbed from the lower alimentary tract, it is easier tomodify the FA profile of the milk by feeding the specific fat (FA) in protected form.

Natural by-pass fatThe oil seeds provide natural partial protection from the ruminal degradation

(lipolysis and biohydrogenation) in the rumen due to their hard outer seed coat.However, the protection is very inconsistent as the processing (ground, extruded,pelleted) of oilseeds reduce their resistance to biohydrogenation. The cottonseedand cotton seed cake are good sources of both by-pass fat and by-pass protein.Also, the soybean meal is a good source of by-pass protein.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Calcium soap as by-pass fatVarious physical and chemical treatments can be imparted to the fats (FA) to

make it more protected from the degradation in the rumen. The various forms ofby-pass fat that can be prepared are casein-formaldehyde protected fat, crystallinefat, fatty acyl amides, hydrogenated tallow or triglycerides and calcium soap eachhaving its own merits and demerits. The calcium soaps are calcium salts of longchain fatty acids (Ca-LCFA) prepared from oils or fats and calcium salts, whichare not soluble in water (inert in the rumen) but dissociated in the acidic environmentof the abomasums and then absorbed in the lower digestive tract. In addition, asabout 80% of the fat is bound with calcium, it is also a good source of calcium forthe dairy animal. Besides, as it is dry at room temperature, it is easily transportableand can be mixed into the diets without specific equipment.In India, although by-pass fat is available commercially, it is often out of reach tothe dairy farmers because of its high cost. Therefore, the author of the article hasdeveloped a simple, pro-smallfarmer indigenous technologyfor the preparation of calciumsoap as by-pass fat bytreating vegetable fatty acid oiland calcium hydroxide underspecific conditions through anICAR ad-hoc ResearchProject.The calcium soap contains 70-75% fat, 7-8% Ca and is 80-85% rumen protected.The by-pass fat can be included @ 2-3% of dry matter intake (200-300 g daily)without any adverse affect on feed intake and fiber digestibility. In a field trial withhigh yielding cross bred cows during early lactation, the milk yield (3.2 kg/day;19.7%) and fat corrected milk yield (2.8 kg/ day; 22.3%) was increased along withimprovement in body condition score and reproductive performance, however thesupplementation had no significant beneficial effect in the mid-lactation.

Level of fat in dairy rationGenerally, in our feeding practices the concentrate mixture forms up to 50-60%

of a dairy ration and the rest part of the ration consist of green fodder and cropresidues. Usually, the dairy ration (mixture of cereals and forages) contain about3% fat and the total dietary fat in ration should not exceed 6-7% of the total feed(dry matter) intake. Therefore, the best options is to supplement 3-4% by-pass fatin the ration of the high yielding dairy cows to make the complete ration of 6-7% fatcontent. However, the by-pass fat can be included in the diet in higher amount i.e.up to 9% of the dry matter intake due to its inertness in the rumen. Keeping in viewof all aspects, it is better to supplement different types of fat in the dairy ration.The ration of the high yielding dairy animas should have about 6-7% fat with the

Feeding Bypass Fat to High Yielding Dairy Cows for Optimization of Milk Production

Indigenously prepared by-pass fat


first 3% from oilseed sources and the rest from calcium soap as bypass fat or 1/3rd fat from each source of natural feed, oil seed and calcium soap as by-pass fat.

Effect of feeding by-pass fat on dairy animalsThe effect of feeding calcium soap i.e. calcium salts of long chain fatty acids

as by-pass fat on the dairy animals are as follows.

Feed intake� Either decreases or is not altered� If palatability is a problem, then it should be diluted with grain to over come it

Digestibility of nutrients� Generally, no effect on the digestibility of total feed (dry matter and organic

matter)� Digestibility of crude protein (CP) is either increased or not altered� Digestibility of fat is increased up to a certain level of by-pass fat

supplementation.� Digestibility of fibre (NDF) is either increased or not affected.� When by-pass fat is supplemented with replacement of some part of starch of

the ration, then digestibilities of feed (dry matter), crude protein (CP), fat (EE)and fibre (NDF) are increased.

Milk yield and fat corrected milk yield� Generally, milk yield and fat corrected milk (FCM) yield are increased� The effect on milk yield tends to be greater in Holstein cows than in Jersey

cows� The effect is more in primiparous cows than in multiparous cows; however, for

milk yield the interaction is not significant but for FCM yield the interaction issignificant.

� The effect on the milk yield and FCM yield is generally increased in early andpeak lactation. There is tendency to produce more milk for 60 days and moreFCM for 90 days after parturition (postpartum). During early lactation (first 90days postpartum), the milk yield and FCM yield can be increased up to 3.2 kg/d (19.69%) and 2.8 kg/d (22.3%), respectively. In mid-lactation, feeding of by-pass fat may not have beneficial effect.

Milk composition� The milk fat content is the most sensitive to the dietary changes followed by

milk protein and then the lactose.� Similar to milk yield, the effect on milk composition tends to be greater in Holstein

cows than the Jersey cows.� The milk fat percentage is either increased or decreased or not altered. However,

generally the total milk fat yield is increased due to the increase in the milkproduction.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


� The milk fat percentage and yield decreases linearly with the increase in theamount of dietary by-pass fat

� The milk protein percentage is slightly decreased� The effect on milk protein content is not influenced by the breed of the animal� The decline in milk protein content is both in multiparous cows and primiparous

cows� The decline in milk protein is in the late lactation but not in early lactation� However, always the supplemental by-pass fat has not the negative effect on

the milk protein percentage and may not be altered; but, the total yield of themilk protein is increased due to the more milk production

� Generally, the lactose content is not influenced� The supplemental effect on the milk total solid (TS) is greater for primiparous

cows than multiparous cows� Very often, there is increase in milk yield without changing the milk composition

Body weight and body condition score� The general pattern of change in body condition score (BCS) over lactation is

an initial fall continuing for 2-3 months and then a lower recovery over the midlactation

� The body weight (BW) and BCS do not change in parallel; the change in BCSoccurs later than change in BW

� The loss of BW is more and longer lasting in the primiparous cows than inmultiparous cows

� Although, there was no significant effect of the supplemental by-pass fat onthe changes of the BW and BCS of the dairy cows, the recovery of the BW andBCS losses are better in the by-pass fat supplemented cows.

Reproductive performance� Positive effect on the reproductive performance of the dairy cows� Increases the pregnancy rate and reduces the open days� Number of artificial inseminations required per conception is reduced� However, the changes in reproductive performance associated with the fat

supplementation are related to the magnitude of the milk response of the fatsupplementation.

ConclusionKeeping of high yielding dairy cows in Goa should be encouraged for thesustainability of milk production of the sate. Indigenously prepared by-pass fatcan be supplemented in the ration of the high yielding dairy cows during earlylactation (first 90 days of parturition) to increase the milk production andreproductive performance of the animals.

Feeding Bypass Fat to High Yielding Dairy Cows for Optimization of Milk Production


Significance of Minerals in Feeding of Dairy Animals andRelevance of Developing Area Specific Mineral Mixture

N K S [email protected]

National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore - 560 030

The performance of livestock in the tropics is mainly governed by the qualityand quantity of nutrients provided in the diet. In most of the developedcountries, the principal means by which cattle producers try to meet therequirement is through the use of free choice dietary minerals. This is neitherpractical nor cost effective. In developing countries, where the livestock arefed on crop residues and concentrate by -products, the imbalance of mineralscould be of greater magnitude. Straws and stovers are low in many mineralsand contain anti-nutritional factors like silica, oxalate and tannins, which affectthe utilization of micronutrients. Under such feeding systems the bioavailabilityof minerals gains importance and the need for use of mineral chelates.Classification of minerals

Minerals that are needed in relatively larger amounts are referred to asmajor or macro minerals and those that are needed in very small amounts arereferred to as trace or micro minerals.

Class ElementMajor or Macro minerals Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Magnesium

(Mg), Sodium (Na), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (CI)

Trace or Micro minerals Copper (Cu), Cobalt (Co), Fluorine (F), Iodine (I), Iron(Fe),Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Selenium (Se), Chromium(Cr), Molybdenum (Mo)

Newer trace elements Nickel (Ni), Boron (B)b, Lithium (Li)b, Tin (Sn)b, Vanadium(V)b.

b Inconclusive evidence of essentiality

Mineral distribution in animal bodyMinerals are widely distr ibuted in the body, with calcium (Ca) and

phosphorus (P) being present in large amounts followed by magnesium (Mg),sodium (Na), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl) and sulphur (S). Calcium representsabout 46% and phosphorus about 29% of the total body minerals, while othertrace elements constitute about 0.3%. Bones and soft tissues are the primarystorage site for most of the essential elements. Most minerals are distributedmore evenly in the body and exist in accordance with is function.General functions of minerals



Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and fluorine are the constituents of bonesand teeth and provide strength to skeletal system. Minerals like Ca, P, Mg,Fe, Man, Cu, Zn, Mo and Se play essential role in enzyme functioning, whileNa, K and Cl help in maintaining osmotic pressure and acid-base balance inbody.

Trace minerals play an important role in activating several enzyme systemsresponsible for various biochemical functions. Elements like Fe, Cu, Co, Moand I are integral part of enzymes/vitamins/hormones. Minerals like seleniumhave synergistic action with vitamin E for acting as antioxidant. There is anincreased documental evidence of impaired productivity in livestock due totrace mineral deficiency. Elements like Cu, Cobalt and iron are essential inhaemoglobin and vitamin B12 synthesis. Sulphur is a constituent of certainessential amino acids and is necessary for formation of wool, hoof and skin.Iodine is required for nutrient metabolism as it is a component of thyroidhormone.

Specific role of minerals

Calcium and PhosphorusClinical signs of Ca & P deficiency are mostly seen in young livestock,

manifested in the form of rickets, lameness and stunted growth. A moderatedeficiency in the diet may lead to growth retardation and reduced production.Phosphorus deficiency may lead to poor appetite and chewing of inanimateobjects like wood/ cloth, and is termed as "Pica". Utilization of Ca and P isclosely dependent on vitamin D availability. In high yielding animals, extremedeficiency of calcium causes milk fever due to impaired Calcium metabolism.Magnesium

Magnesium deficiency in ruminants causes grass staggers or grass tetanyleading to excitability, shivering and convulsions. This condition results fromconsuming large quantit ies of green and lush pasture containing highpotassium. High ammonia concentration in the rumen is reported to impairMg absorption as it could happen while feeding ammoniated straw.Sulphur

Sulphur is required for the synthesis of certain amino acids and vitamins.Symptoms of sulphur deficiency include lack of appetite, reduced growth,reduced wool growth and weakness. Without adequate Sulphur in the diet,the rumen microbes cannot efficiently utilize nitrogen.Sodium, Potassium and Chlorine

These minerals maintain the acid base balance and osmotic pressure inthe body. They are required for muscular activity and their requirement inworking animal is more due to their losses in sweat. Deficiency of sodiumand chlorine in diet reduces palatability and would lead to anorexia and drop

Significance of Minerals in Feeding of Dairy Animals and Relevance of Developing Area Specific Mineral Mixture


in milk production. The most common source of these elements is commonsalt.

Copper and MolybdenumCopper is involved in haemoglobin formation, iron absorption and connective

tissue metabolism via enzyme function. Copper play a key role in supportingboth reproduction and immunity in animals. Reproductive disorders due tocopper deficiency include low fertility, depressed oestrus, abortion and foetalresorption. Molybdenum requirement of animals are extremely low and theserequirements are likely to be met readily by normal diets and evidence ofMolybdenum deficiency is rare. Molybdenum form thiomolybdates afterreacting with sulphur in rumen and inturn, react with copper to form insolublecopper thiomolybdate, which is unavailable to cattle, and cause secondarycopper deficiency. Other antagonistic relationships that may reduce the copperutilization and lead to impaired reproductive efficiency are copper - iron, Copper- Zinc and Copper - Phytate complexes. Molybdenum acts as a cofactor ofenzyme xanthine oxidase which is responsible for purine and pyrimidinemetabolism.

ZincZinc is actively involved in enzyme function, and as a constituent of several

metallo-enzymes, Zn is involved in several enzymatic reactions associatedwith carbohydrate, protein and nucleic acid metabolism. Reproductivefunctions are seriously impaired by Zn deficiency. Spermatogenesis andsteroidogenesis are adversely affected due to Zn deficiency. Zinc also playsa vital role in enhancing immune functions in animal body. Zn deficiency leadsto delayed wound healing. Zinc is also responsible for the synthesis of Retinolbinding protein, a carrier protein of Vitamin A from liver hepatocytes to varioussite organs.

ManganeseManganese deficiency can have impact on suppression of conception rates,

delayed oestrous, abortions in animals and deformed calves at birth. There isan increase in the incidences of cystic ovaries due to Mn deficiency as Mnhas role in the synthesis of gonadal hormones and ovarian luteal metabolism.

SeleniumSelenium, an important trace element can be both deficient and toxic

depending on the geography. Selenium requires vitamin E for its biologicalactivity. The common clinical symptoms associated with selenium deficiencyare an increase in the incidence of retained placenta. Another effect of Se

N K S Gowda


deficiency is cystic ovaries and increased incidence of weak or silent heat.As with copper and zinc, there is evidence that a deficiency of selenium willalter immune system function in animals making them more susceptible toinfections. Toxicity is often common in some areas, (Haryana, Punjab andWestern UP) which are manifested in the form of loss of hair and lesions inepidermal tissues, probably due to its antagonistic effect with sulphur.

CobaltCobalt deficiency is one of the most severe mineral limitations to grazing

livestock in tropical countries. Clinical symptoms of cobalt deficiency includelack of appetite, rough hair coat and thickening of skin. Rumen fermentationand microbial activity is affected resulting in poor synthesis of vitamin B12.

IronIron deficiency in all categories of animals affects haemoglobin synthesis

and tissue respiration. Lack of iron in the diet cause anaemia, lower weightgain, listlessness, reduced appetite and decreased resistance to infection.As iron is present in high quantities in fodders and also as a soil contaminant,its deficiency is rare.

FluorineFluorine is required in very smaller quantity to animals to prevent decay of

teeth. However, mostly fluorine is a cause for toxicity than the deficiency asin some endemic areas the water and soil contain toxic amount of fluorine.Excess fluorine intake affects bone mineralization and also interfere withenzyme functioning of glucose and thyroid metabolism.

Factors influencing mineral content of plantsForages and plant-by products are the main dietary source of minerals for

livestock and animals on pasture can receive a certain level of minerals. Themineral uptake by plants depends on the soil profile and agricultural practicesfollowed. Plant minerals are dependent upon a number of factors includingsoil, plant species, stage of maturity, yield, pasture management and season/climate. Most naturally occurring mineral def iciencies in livestock areassociated with specif ic regions and are direct ly related to the soi lcharacteristics. The uptake of minerals like Ca, P, and Mg is high from acidicsoils, whereas plants from alkaline soils better absorb Cu, Zn, Co. Fertilizationis quite effective in elevating mineral concentration in soils, thereby its uptakeby p lants . Poor dra inage condi t ions of ten increases t race e lementconcentrations like Mn and Cu, thereby resulting in a corresponding increasein plant uptake. With approaching plant maturity, mineral contents decline dueto a natural dilution process and translocation of nutrients to the root system.



Increased crop yields remove minerals from the soil at a faster rate, therefore,deficiencies are frequently found.

RequirementsMineral requirements are highly dependent on the level of productivity and

the type of feed ingredients used in formulating the ration. Type of roughageused as a basal diet also influences the mineral requirement. Presence ofcertain anti-nutritional factors like oxalates, tannins, silicates and phytatesaffect the utilization of certain mineral elements like Ca, P, Zn and Mn. Undersuch circumstances extra supplementation is required as marginal deficienciesunder low levels of production become more important with increased levelsof production. Most of the suggested mineral requirements are often basedon growth performance and quantities of a specific mineral sufficient to preventclinical signs of a deficiency. Selenium, Cu, Zn, Co deficiencies alter variouscomponents of the immune system. Important differences in mineral utilizationcan be attributed to breed. Marked ruminant animal variation within breeds inthe efficiency of mineral absorption from the diet are 5-35% for Mg, 40-80%for P, and 2-10% for Cu. Adequate intake of forages by grazing ruminants isessential to meet mineral requirements. Factors which greatly reduce forageintake, such as low protein content and increased lignification reduce totalmineral consumption. When energy and protein supplies are adequate,livestock performance improves resulting in high mineral requirements. Themicronutrient requirements can be influenced by metabolic or nutritional factorsthat results in other elements complexing specific micro elements rendering

Animal

Type Accompaying Feed

Soil Plant Minerals

Organic matter

Fertilizer

Leach

ing

Dung , Urin

e

Miner

als Nutrients

Seeds

Cell wall

Mature Straws(Low availability of Minerals)

Soil, plant, animal inter-relationship

Ocean

N K S Gowda


them nutritionally unavailable to the animal. Complexing between molybdenumand sulphur reduces the availability of copper to the animal. The detection ofmicronutrient deficiency or excesses involves clinical, pathological andanalytical criteria in addition to the productive response from specific mineralsupplementation. Clinical signs of mineral deficiency along with feed ingredientand animal tissue analysis would give a fair degree of information on themineral deficiency or excesses. Even when the diet is deficient in certainmicronutrients, the blood levels of such micronutrients remain fairly constantdue to homeostasis. The mineral requirement can be expressed in amountsper day or per unit of product or as a percent of dietary dry matter intake.Expressing on dry matter intake may be practical as long as there is no variationin feed intake. But with straws and stovers, expression in absolute amountsis more appropriate. Mineral requirements are highly dependent on the levelof productivity. High producing dairy cows require more dietary Ca and P thando low yielding cows.

Requirement of mineralsMinerals Young stock Lactating animal (Cow / Buffalo)

Macro element (% of diet)Ca 0.50 0.70P 0.31 0.48Mg 0.16 0.20K 0.65 1.00Na 0.10 0.18S 0.16 0.25Micro element (mg/kg dry matter intake)Co 0.10 0.10Cu 10.0 10.0I 0.25 0.6Fe 50.0 50.0Mn 40.0 40.0Mo - 4.0Se 0.30 0.3Zn 40.0 40.0N R C (2001)

Mineral interactionMinerals often interact with other minerals, vitamins and proteins. These

interactions can take place in the feed, in the digestive tract and also duringthe tissue and cell metabolism. Example of synergistic effect of interactionare between Ca & P, Na & Cl, Zn & Mo and those of antagonistic effect are Mg& P, Cu - Mo - S and selenium & S. Presence of vitamin D has synergisticeffects on Ca & P absorption while vitamin E and Selenium has synergistic



action. In case of Ca and P the ratio of 2:1 is very important for their betterut i l izat ion. Hence the balance between the minerals is an importantconsideration for arriving at mineral requirements.

Deficiency and ToxicityMineral deficiencies are more common in tropical countries, where poor

quality straws/ stovers form the bulk of the dry matter intake. Loss of hair,skin disorders, non - infectious abortion, low fertility, loss of appetite, boneabnormalities, tetany, diarrhoea and rundown condition are some of thecommonest clinical signs suggestive of mineral def iciencies. Mineraldeficiency signs are often confusing as the observed symptoms can involvemore than one mineral and can be associated with protein and/ or energyinadequacy. Some minerals like Ca, P and Mg are stored in body tissues andtheir deficiency symptoms are exhibited only after a period of time. Calciumand phosphorus deficiency can be observed more quickly, particularly in highproducing animals and fast growing calves. Specific deficiency of individualminerals is discussed separately. Toxicity due to excess ingestion of some ofthe minerals is often region-specific and is closely related to the geochemicalcharacteristics of soil, water and plant species. Such toxicities are mostlyendemic in nature as in fluorosis and molybdenosis. Farm animals are notsensitive particularly to excess of most of the minerals and the mineral levelneed to be high before any toxicity symptoms are seen. However, certainspecies could be more sensitive. For example, Copper toxicity may affectthe sheep more than other species. Elements like fluorine, selenium, leadand cadmium may cause toxicity leading to impaired metabolism and loss inproduction. Critical values for minerals in soil, plants and animals have beenestablished, which will help in identifying the deficiency.

Bioavailability of micronutrientsBioavailability is the proportion of the ingested element that is absorbed,

transported to target site for performing its function. Several factors like thechemical form of mineral salt, physiological status of animal, species andmineral interaction with other constituents of feed influence the bioavailabilityof minerals. Physiological status like growth, bone development, pregnancy,lactation or stress may increase the requirement of mineral. Animals deprivedof an essential trace element become more efficient in absorbing, whensupplemented due to adaptive mechanism. Intrinsic factors like solubility ofchemical salt, adsorption to large molecules of f ibre, silica and othercompounds, competitive antagonism amongst metal ions e.g. Cu-Zn, Cd-Zn,Fe-Zn, Mn-Fe will determine the ultimate availability of mineral elements. Anti-nutritional factors like tannins, phytates, oxalates and excess sulfates willdepress the absorption of trace minerals, whereas peptides, amino acids,

N K S Gowda


ionophores and lactose may enhance the bioavailability of certain minerals.The mineral release from the feed/fodder on digestion also varies dependingon their distribution within the plant cell and the form in which they exist. Someminerals when they are supplemented in inorganic form are better utilizedthan through natural green fodders, probably due to the interference of fibre.Similarly, the paddy straw which contains more ADF has less bioavailableminerals than finger millet straw. Several legumes though rich in Fe and Zn,their bioavailability is limited due to phytate. Among the individual inorganicsalts the mineral availability depends on their chemical form and elementalproportion. Among the better bioavailable salts ferrous sulfate, cupric chloride,copper sulfate, zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc carbonate, manganese oxide,potassium iodide, cuprous iodide and sodium selenite have higher proportionof Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, I and Se, respectively.

Organo mineral complexesOf late there is a growing interest in the use of organic or chelated minerals

due to the better bioavailability, improved reproductive performance, immuneresponse, decrease in the incidences of mastitis and carcass quality. Aminoacid or polysacchar ide complexes of t race minerals (Cu-Lysine, Zn-methionine, Zn-Polysaccharide, Mn-lysine) have the highest biological activityand also have a higher stability and solubility. Organic forms of Zn and Cu asZn-methionine or Cu-lysine bypass the rumen and are available at intestine,thus protecting the essential amino acids from degradation and make themavailable for absorption in the gut. Zn-methionine supplementation in cattlehas improved disease resistance and prevented foot rot and hoof problems.Copper in chelated form would have an advantage over an inorganic formwhen Mo level is high, as it may escape the complexing. Mixture of Zn, Mn, Cuand Co in organic forms may stimulate feed intake and growth during stressperiod. These chelated minerals can be of much use in areas of severedeficiency of trace minerals like tropical feeding systems. Commercialpreparations of several organo-mineral complexes are available which couldbe used in areas of severe deficiency or to target groups. The minerals arebetter utilized in organic forms than inorganic forms. Even in case of inorganicsalts the better bioavailable salts have to be selected. Biologically mostsulphates and chlorides are more readily available than oxides. Ferrous formis utilized better than ferric form. Orthophosphates are readily absorbed,whereas meta and pyrophosphates have limited absorption rate. Dicalciumphosphate is a better source of Ca & P than rock phosphate which containshigh levels of fluorine.



Mineral SupplementationThe most efficient method of providing supplemental minerals is through

use of mineral supplements combined with concentrates, which assures anadequate intake of mineral elements by each animal as it consumes thenutrients. Indirect provision of minerals to grazing cattle includes use of mineralcontaining fertilizers, altering soil pH, and encouraging growth of specificpasture species. However this approach may not be always feasible due tothe complex soil-plant-animal interrelationship. Direct administration ofminerals to livestock in drinking water, mineral licks and mineral mixtures arealso quite effective in preventing mineral deficiencies. In acute deficiency,drenches, slow releasing mineral boluses and injectable preparations areuseful in correcting the disorder. However, the most practical approach is tosupplement th rough feeds and f odders wh ich are r ich sources o fmicronutrients.

Categorization of common tropical feeds based on trace mineral content

Mineral Good sources Moderate sources

Ca 1-2 % Legume fodders, tree leaves

0.7 � 1.0% Green fodders, local grasses

P 1-3 % Oil cakes, bran, rice polish

0.5 � 1.0 % Legume fodders, green fodders

Mg 0.4-0.7 % Green fodders, top feeds, dry roughages, oil

cakes

0.2 � 0.4 % Legume fodders, tree leaves

Fe 1000-5000 ppm Legume fodders, cultivated green fodders, mixed local grasses, oil seed cakes, tree leaves, meat meal and top feeds.

500-1000 ppm Cereal green fodders, oil cakes and brans, tree leaves and dry fodders.

Cu 30-70 ppm Legume fodders, cultivated green fodders, tree leaves, castor cake, groundnut haulms.

15-30 ppm Local grasses, oil cakes, cereal by products, top feeds.

Zn 150-300 ppm Legume fodders, oil seed cakes, bran, meat meal.

50-150 ppm Cultivated green fodders, cereal green fodder, top feeds, unconventional feeds like tapioca meal, coffee husk, rubber seed cake, tree leaves like glyrecidia, neem, jack, banana.

Mn 100-250 ppm Wheat bran, rice bran, paddy and ragi straw, Lucerne fodder.

40-100 ppm Green fodders, leafy vegetation.

I 0.1-0.7 ppm Marine products, oil seed cakes, iodized salt, yeast.

-

Co 0.2-0.6 ppm Legume fodders, animal proteins, fermented products.

-

Mo 0.5-1.5 ppm Legumes, green grasses.

-

N K S Gowda


Specification of a mineral mixtureIt should contain minimum of 18-20% Ca, 8-10% P. It should provide at

least 50% of trace element requirement of the animal. In areas of knowndeficiency, 100% requirement of specific trace mineral must be providedthrough mineral mixture. It should have best bioavailable mineral salts andshould be palatable. It should have an accepted particle size for uniform mixing.The fluoride level should not exceed 0.05%. The silica and moisture contentshould not exceed 3-4% and 5% respectively. It should not be mixed withvitamin supplements due to oxidation. When known antogonists like sulfur,molybdenum are present in excess, adjust the supplemental levels of copper.Sulfur level should not exceed 0.4%. Do not add iron, unless known deficiencyis reported/ exist. In areas of well recorded deficiency of trace minerals, aportion (25 or 50%) of it can be replaced with chelated minerals.

Specification of mineral mixture (BIS, IS 1664: 1992)Element / Particulars Percentage (with salt) Percentage (without salt)

Moisture (Max) 5 5Calcium (Min) 18 23Phosphorus (Min) 9 12Magnesium (Min) 5 6.5NaCl (Min) 22 -Iron (Min) 0.4 0.5Iodine as KI (Min) 0.2 0.026Copper (Min) 0.06 0.077Manganese (Min) 0.1 0.12Cobalt (Min) 0.009 0.012Fluorine (Max) 0.05 0.07Zinc (Min) 0.3 0.38Sulphur (Min) 0.4 0.5Silica (Max) 3.0 2.5

Elemental composition of mineral salts, extent of bioavailability and cost

Element Source (feed grade) Element (%) Bioavailability Approx. costRs. Per kg asper prevailingmarket rate

Ca Dicalcium phosphate 20-22 High 38Calcite 35-40 Intermediate 2-3Monocalcium phosphate 16 High 22Bone meal 28-36 High 18

P Dicalcium phosphate 16-18 High 38Sodium phosphate 20-23 High 118Monocalcium phosphate 18-20 High 22



Bone meal 8-16 High 18Diammonium phosphate 20-21 Intermediate -Mono ammonium phosphate 22-24 Intermediate -

Mg Magnesium sulfate 9-16 High 15Magnesium carbonate 20-28 High 10Magnesium oxide 52-60 High 92Magnesium chloride 10-12 High 19

S Magnesium sulfate 20-22 High 15Sodium sulfate 10 Intermediate -Potassium sulfate 26-28 High -Copper sulfate 12-13 High 120Zinc sulfate, mono hydrate 17-18 High 35Zinc sulfate, heptahydrate 11-12 High 37

NaCl Common salt 20-25(Na),65-70(Cl) High 6K Potassium chloride 48-50 High 23

Potassium sulfate 40-42 High -Cu Copper sulfate 23-25 High 136

Cupric chloride 35-37 High -Cupric carbonate 50-52 High -

Zn Zinc sulfate 22-36 High 35Zinc oxide 46-73 High 160Zinc carbonate 50-52 High -

Co Cobalt chloride 22-24 Intermediate 550Cobalt carbonate 46-55 Intermediate -Cobalt sulfate 20-22 Intermediate

I Potassium iodide 66-69 High 1300Calcium iodide 60-63 High -Cuprous iodide 65-66 High -

Mn Manganese oxide 50-60 High 68Manganese sulfate 25-27 High 48

Fe Ferrous sulfate 20-30 High 10Ferrous carbonate 35-40 Low -

Se Sodium selenite 43-45 High 5500

Composition of mineral mixture suggested previously for dairy cattle(ICAR, 1985)

Ingredient kg/100 kg mixture

Dicalcium phosphate (DCP) 54.30Common salt 26.24Calcite 11.0Magnesium carbonate 3.0Ferrous sulfate 5.0Copper sulfate 0.07Manganese oxide 0.07

N K S Gowda


Cobalt chloride 0.05Potassium iodide 0.01Sodium fluoride 0.01Zinc sulfate 0.25

Feeding of area specific mineral mixture (ASMM)Feeding of �free choice� mineral supplements could be the easiest way of

supplementing minerals. Alternatively providing area specific mineral mixture(ASMM) based on the deficiency of minerals in different agro-climatic zonesis most appropriate and cost effective method of mineral supplementation.The former approach could sometimes lead to deleterious effect, as some ofthe minerals may be available in excess than requirements affecting utilizationof other minerals. For example, excess of calcium disturbs the Ca - P ratio,excess of selenium affects sulphur utilization, excess of molybdenum andsulphur reduces copper absorption and excess of iron disturbs coppermetabolism. More practical method is of supplementing only the most deficientminerals through area specific mineral mixture by assessing the mineralcontent in soil, feeds and fodders and in animals in different agro-climaticzones. This approach has been found to improve the reproductive efficiencyin crossbred cattle under field conditions and this technology has been asuccess. In general, straws and stovers are deficient in most of the minerals.Legume fodders are good sources of Ca, Cu, Zn and Fe and local grassesare rich in Zn and Fe. Top feeds/ tree leaves are good sources of Ca and Fe.Amongst the concentrate feeds, oil cakes, brans and rice polish are goodsources of phosphorus and moderate sources of Ca, Zn & Fe. In two trials,feeding of ASMM (Ca + P + Zn + common salt) or (P + Cu + Zn + commonsal t ) showed improvement in heal th condi t ion wi thin th i r ty days ofsupplementary feeding. There is deficiency of phosphorus, copper, zinc andcobalt in different agro-climatic zones of the country. In another trial, feedingASMM using the salts of Ca, P (di-calcium phosphate) and Cu (coppersulphate) with common salt as a base @ 30-35gm /adult cow for 90 to 120days, there was improvement in general health and reproductive performance.Supplementation of ASMM improves fertility in postpartum anestrus and repeatsbreeding animals and could be a cost effective and practical approach toovercome reproductive problems in dairy animals. Improvement in reproductiveefficiency in these animals supplemented with ASMM has been attributed theirbeneficial role in endocrine system and play an important role in resumptionof follicular growth and fertil ity in dairy cows. The value of saving onmaintenance cost of animals by reduction in age at first calving, reduced post-partum breeding period, improvement in general health and better reproductiveefficiency in terms of additional calves, all put together will be 8 times higherthan the cost of mineral mixture supplementation.



Formulation of area specific mineral mixture(i) Identify the most deficient minerals and select the best bioavailable

mineral salts.(ii) Consider the elemental proport ion, cost factor and commercial

availability in mind while selecting the mineral salt. Select a salt whichhas higher proportion of the element, commercially available and isreasonably cheaper.

(iii) Fix the quantum of mineral mixture to be fed to an adult cow per day(Example: 45 gm/day). This depends on the number of minerals mostdeficient and level of production.

(iv) Calculate to obtain 18-20% Ca and 8-10% P in the mixture through DCPand calcite.

(v) Calculate and supplement 100% requirement of deficient trace mineralsthrough their respective salts.

(vi) Add up all the quantum of mineral salts taken and make up the differencewith iodised common salt, so as to get 45 gram. Iodised common salt isselected as a base/ carrier material and also to improve palatability ofmineral mixture.

(vii) Before mixing the salts, ensure that all the salts are finely powdered /pulverized.

(viii) While mixing the ASMM, first weigh required quantity of common saltand to it add the trace mineral salts, mix well and prepare a premix.

(ix) Weigh required quantity of DCP and calcite and add the trace mineralpremix to it. Put the mixture in a mixer, mix uniformly and pack.

(x) Ensure that the packet is air tight and keep it away from moisture.(xi) Avoid mixing of vitamins with mineral mixture. Vitamins can be fed

separately.

Example of area specific mineral mixture (ASMM)(Example : Most deficient minerals are Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn and Co)

Element Source Proportion Proportion*(g/45 gm mixture) (g/100 gm mixture)

Ca, P Dicalcium phosphate 26 57.7Ca Calcite 10 22.2Cu Copper sulfate 0.4 0.9Zn Zinc sulfate 1.6 3.5MnManganese oxide 0.8 1.8Co Cobalt chloride 0.005 0.01NaCl Iodised Common

salt (food grade) 6.2 13.7* 45 gm ASMM per cow per day

N K S Gowda


Key characteristics of ASMM TechnologyThis technology aims at correction of mineral imbalance in the animals

body, thereby improving reproductive efficiency and production. As thistechnology aims at providing only major deficient micronutrients, it avoidsantagonistic effects of excess levels of other minerals, thereby improving thebioavailability of micronutrients. This is simple and cost effective for adoptionin the field and does not require huge investments in terms of machinery orinfrastructure. It does not interfere in the existing feeding system and isenvironmental friendly. It does not have any adverse or side effects either onanimals and/ or on humans using animal products. It improves reproductiveefficiency, productivity, life time production and health of the animals. Thistechnology is ethically acceptable. The potential transferable areas under ASMMtechnology are the intensive and semi intensive dairy production, all dairyfarmers, animals with reproductive problems and growing heifers, whereanimals are predominantly fed on straws/ poor quality roughages. The targetgroups of the ASMM technology are animal feed manufactures, manufacturersof feed addit ives, Animal Husbandry Department, mi lk unions, f ie ldveterinarians and livestock owners.

Overall impact of ASMM technologySupplementary feeding with ASMM is able to correct the most common

reproductive problems like delayed puberty, anestrus, repeat breeding, silentheat etc. Overcoming these problems by this strategic approach has a bigpotential to improve the reproductive efficiency in dairy animals and improvethe economy of the livestock farmers by reducing the cost of feedingunproductive animals and increasing his/ her income by improved productivityof the animal. The intervention and introduction of such technology at NationalLevel will lead to substantial increase in productivity, prof itabil ity andsustainability of small holding livestock production system across the country.

In Karnataka in four zones comprising south, middle, north, hilly/ coastalregions, four different combinations of ASMM were formulated employing thebest bioavailability mineral salts with common salt as base. Presently thesefour types of mineral mixture are being prepared at mineral mixturemanufacturing plant of KMF at Gubba, Tumkur Taluk in Karnataka and regularlymonitored by NIANP scientists.

ConclusionsTrace minerals play significant role in production and reproduction either

singly or in combination. Overcoming the deficiency or imbalance of the traceminerals improves the productive efficiency of livestock to a great extent.Hence minerals are to be considered in tropical feeding system not in isolationbut as a part of total nutrient management system. The emphasis should be



on ways of mineral supplementation cost-effectively based on prevailinglivestock farming system and available resources. Strategic supplementationof area specific mineral mixture (ASMM) would be a practical approach inovercoming problems of production and reproduction in dairy animals.Supplementing limiting micronutrients from locally available feed resourcescould be an alternate approach for overcoming micronutrient deficiency. Adatabase on the micronutrient status for different agro-climatic zones of thecountry needs to be generated. Quality assessment of minerals in terms ofbioavailability to animals needs to be worked out. Detailed study on the use ofchelated minerals in terms of cost benefits needs to be studied.

N K S Gowda


Feeding Strategies forSustainable Dairy Production in Goa



In Goa, the dairy farmers mostly keep cows (indigenous and crossbred)along with few buffaloes for milk production. However, the genetic potential ofthe dairy animals is exploited fully, when they are fed with well balanced ration.Further, as feed cost is around 75% of the total cost of production, the successof the dairy farming depends not only on the quality of the ration, but also onthe economy of the ration. Therefore, knowledge on the nutrient requirements,feeds and feeding practices of the dairy animals is highly essential.

Nutrient requirementBesides water, five nutrients namely carbohydrate, protein, fat, minerals

and vitamins are required by the dairy animals in proper amount and proportionsfor optimum production. Animals get these nutrients from their feed ingredientsfor their maintenance, production and reproduction purposes. All types ofnutrients are present in all feed ingredients, but in varying proportions. However,the predominant source of these nutrients has been discussed below.

WaterWater helps in absorption of food material from the digestive system and in

elimination of the waste products from the body after digestion. As water is amajor component of milk, it helps in milk production. The animals must beprovided ad- libitum (free choice) clean drinking water throughout the day foroptimum production. Animals get water mainly as drinking water in addition tothe amount available through green fodder.

CarbohydrateThe main function of carbohydrate is to provide energy. Carbohydrate can

be broadly divided into two types i.e. structural (fibrous) carbohydrate andsoluble carbohydrate (sugar and starch). The main sources of f ibrouscarbohydrate are green fodder; while the predominant sources of solublecarbohydrate are cereal grains (maize, rice kani, sorghum etc) and theirbyproducts (rice polish, de-oiled rice polish, wheat bran etc). Both types ofcarbohydrates are well utilized by the dairy animals.

Feeding Strategies for Sustainable Dairy Production in Goa



ProteinThe main functions of protein are to synthesize tissue protein or milk protein.

However, if the diet contains excess protein than the required amount, it isused by the body to get energy, which is not economical. Based on source,protein can be broadly divided into two types i.e. vegetable protein or animalprotein. The major sources of vegetable protein are leguminous fodder (cowpea, guara etc), oil seed cakes (soybean meal, groundnut cake, cotton seedcake etc) and some agro industrial by-products (rice polish, de-oiled rice polish,wheat bran etc). Although the quality of animal protein is better than vegetableprotein, it is generally not encouraged to feed animal protein to the dairy animalsbecause of the chances of occurring "made cow disease". As a single proteinsource is not rich in all the essential amino acids, to get a balance of aminoacids for proper protein synthesis, it is always encouraged to feed proteinfrom two or more sources.

FatIt provides 2.25 times more energy than the carbohydrate and protein.

Besides, it provides essential fatty acids (fatty acids, which are not synthesizedin body but are required by body), makes the diet more palatable and reducesdustiness of the diet. The main sources of fat in the diet are oil seeds (cottonseed, full fat soybean etc), expeller type oil cakes (groundnut cake, cottonseedcake etc) and supplements like by-pass fat (rumen protected fat).

MineralsThere are about 17 minerals, which are well defined for dairy animals. The

minerals are broadly divided into two groups i.e. seven macro minerals(calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, chlorine and sulphur)and ten micro minerals (iron, copper, zinc, manganese, cobalt, iodine,molybdenum, selenium, chromium and fluorine). The minerals help in properutilization of other nutrients (carbohydrate, protein and fat), keep animalshealthy, increase milk production and reduce infertility. Although, each mineralhas its own importance; calcium and phosphorus are required in highestamount in the diet of lactating animals.

VitaminsAbout 15 vitamins are required by the dairy animals. Like minerals, vitamins

also help in proper utilization of other nutrients (carbohydrate, protein andfat), keep the animals healthy, increase milk production and reduce infertility.The dairy animals have the ability to synthesize vitamin B complex, vitamin C,vitamin K and vitamin D in their own body, however for the synthesis of vitaminD exposure to sun light is needed. Thus, only vitamin A and vitamin E aredietary essential for the dairy animals. Green fodders are predominant sources

Prafulla Kumar Naik


of these vitamins (A and E). Therefore, vitamin mixture must be supplementedwith the ration, when green fodder is either not available or available in limitedquantities.

Feeds of dairy animalsThe balanced ration of dairy animals has mainly two components i.e.

roughage and concentrate mixture. The roughage part includes both dryroughages and green roughages (fodder).

Dry roughagesThe dry roughages include crop residues like straws and stovers. The

available dry roughages in Goa are paddy straw, dried karad grass, maizestovers and jowar straw (kadaba kutti). The maize stovers and kadaba kuttiare mostly being imported from the neighbouring state Karnataka. The cropresidues are very poor in nutritive value and mainly provide bulk to the animal.

Green roughagesThe green roughages include cultivated fodder crops, road side un-

cultivated grasses and tree leaves. The cultivated fodder are mainly of twotypes i.e. legumes and non legumes. In Goa, the legume fodders cultivatedare mainly cowpea and guara; while the major non-legume fodder cropsavailable are maize, hybrid napier, para grass, jowar etc. The legume foddersare rich in crude protein (15-18%) content; while the non-legume fodders arerich in carbohydrate, but less in crude protein (8-10%). Generally, the nutritivevalues of the grasses are lower than the cultivated fodder. The fodder treesinclude Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania, Glyricedia etc with high crudeprotein content (20-25%).

Concentrate mixtureIt is a mixture of different concentrate feed ingredients like cereal grains

(maize, rice kani, wheat, sorghum etc), cereal grain byproducts (rice polish,de-oiled rice polish, wheat bran etc), oil cakes (soybean meal, groundnut cake,cotton seed cake etc), oil seeds (soybean, cotton seed etc), mineral mixtureand common salt in different ratios as per the requirement.

MaizeIt is one of the best feed for all types of livestock. It is richest source of

energy. The protein content varies from 8-12%. It is deficient in lysine andmethionine. However, many new varieties of corn have been evolved, whichare rich in lysine.



Rice kaniIt is good source of energy, but is seldom used for livestock feeding. It

contains 12-14% protein.

SorghumIt is also known as Jowar or Chari. It resembles to maize in feeding value,

but slightly less palatable to maize. The grains should be ground before feedingto the dairy animals other wise it will come out as such in the faeces escapingdigestion.

Rice polishIt is the by-product of the rice milling and is extensively used for livestock

feeding. It contains about 12-14% protein, 12% fat and 3% fiber. It is a goodsource of energy and rich in vitamin B complex.

De-oiled rice polishIt is the by-product of the rice milling, but the oil has been extracted through

solvent extraction process for human consumption. It is extensively used forlivestock feeding. It contains more protein than the rice polish (about 16%protein) but the fat content is negligible around 0.5%. It is rich in vitamin Bcomplex.

Wheat branIt is the by-product of the wheat milling industry and is extensively used for

livestock feeding. Depending upon the variety, the crude protein content ofwheat grain ranges from 8-14%. Although wheat grain is a good source ofenergy, it is seldom used for livestock feeding; however, its by-product wheatbran is extensively used for livestock feeding. The wheat bran contains 12-14% crude protein.

Soybean mealSoybeans prior to oil extraction are called full fat soya containing about 38-

40% protein and 18-20% oil. The soybean meal is the product remaining afterextracting most of the oil from the whole soybeans. The oil is removed bysolvent extraction or by expeller process in which the beans are heated andsqueezed. In the solvent extracted soybean meal, the protein content rangesfrom 47-52% in de-hulled form, while in the non-dehulled form, it varies from42-47%. The expeller extracted soybean meal contains 42-44% protein and6-8% oil. The raw soybeans should not be fed as such as it contains manyanti-nutritional factors. The raw soybeans must be roasted before feeding.Roasting increases the by-pass protein content to 60% as against around 25-30% in raw beans.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Groundnut cakeIt is an important source of protein for livestock feeding. There are three

types of oil cakes available namely ghani pressed, expeller pressed and solventextracted cake. The content of oil is variable according to the process ofextraction of oil. The fat content is 10-12% in ghani pressed, 6-8% in expellerpressed and 0.5-0.7% in the solvent extracted cake. The protein content isvariable from 40-50%. The groundnut cake may be decorticated or with theouter hulls. In the un-decorticated groundnut cake, the fiber content is veryhigh.

Cotton seed cakeCotton seed cake is mostly available as expeller pressed cake for feeding

the dairy animals. In cotton growing belt, it is the main source of protein forthe dairy animals. The expeller pressed cotton seed cake generally contains6-8% fat and 25% protein. Cotton seed cake contains natural by-pass protein,which is good for high yielding dairy animals. Sometimes, cotton seeds assuch are fed to the lactating animals as it is a good source of both fat andprotein. Further, feeding cotton seeds to the dairy animals helps in easyseparation of butter from the milk.

Mineral mixtureSupplementation of mineral mixture is highly essential for optimum

production and fertility. The concentrate mixture of dairy animals should contain2% standard mineral mixture.

Common saltCommon salt is a good source of sodium and chloride. The concentrate

mixture of the dairy animals must contain 1% common salt.

Feeding of dairy animalsThe ration of the dairy animals can be divided into two parts i.e. maintenance

ration and production ration. The maintenance ration takes care of the bodyneeds of animals where as the production ration includes growth of animal,growth of foetus during pregnancy and formation of milk. The maintenanceand production requirements are added together before formulation of dailyration of the animal. Dairy animals are roughage eaters and can not bemaintained for long period by feeding only concentrate mixture, which is alsonot economical. As the dry roughages are very poor in nutritive value andgenerally provide bulk to the animals, most of the nutrient requirements aremet from green fodder and concentrate mixture. In Goa, limited green foddersare cultivated or available for feeding of the dairy animals because of one orother reasons like small land holding size of the farmer and labour problem.



Further; the road side grasses and karad grass are available only during themonsoon season. However, in Goa fodders can be grown in the widerinterspaces of the cashew or coconut plantations with intercrop approach forproper utilization of the land. The concentrate mixture can be fed both in mashand pellet form. The pellet form of concentrates reduces the wastage duringfeeding of the animals. If the concentrate mixtures are purchased from thelocal market, it must be tested for its quality. However, the feed ingredientscan be purchased from the local market and the concentrate mixture can beprepared by the dairy farmer himself. The maize grain must be ground to about1.0-1.5 mm particle size for proper utilization by the animals; otherwise, mostof them are excreted in the faeces undigested.

Based on the physiological stage and productivity of the animals, varioustypes of concentrate mixtures are prepared or available with dif ferentspecifications. The specific concentrate mixture for feeding dairy calf is knownas �calf starter �. Calf starter is a balanced concentrate mixture and is fed to

the calves from 10th day of age to supplement the nutrients, when they areraised on limited milk intake. The Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) recommendstwo types of concentrate mixture or cattle feed (Type I and Type II) for dairyanimals. Feeding of Type-I (22% crude protein) concentrate mixture isrecommended with non-leguminous fodder; while feeding of Type-II (20% crudeprotein) concentrate mixture is recommended with leguminous fodder. As inGoa, the fodders available are mostly non-leguminous; feeding of Type-I (22%CP) concentrate mixture is recommended.

Specifications of calf starter and concentrate mixture (cattle feed)The specifications of the calf starter and two types cattle feed are provided inTable 1.Table 1: Specifications of the calf starter and two types cattle feed.

Nutrients (%) Calf Starter Cattle Feed

Type-I Type-II

Moisture (Max) 10 11 11Crude Protein (Min) 23-26 22 20Ether Extract (Min) 4.0 3.0 2.5Crude Fiber (Max) 7.0 07 12Acid Insoluble Ash (Max) 2.5 3.0 4.0Salt as NaCl (Max) 2.0 2.0Calcium (Min) 0.5 0.5Available Phosphorus 0.5 0.5Vit A (IU/kg) 5000 5000

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Examples of calf starter and concentrate mixture (cattle feed)Examples of physical composition of calf starter and concentrate mixture (TypeI) are provided in Table 2 and table 3, respectively. Table 2 Composition of calf starter

Ingredients Parts (kg/100 kg)

Maize grain 50Groundnut cake/ soybean meal 30Skimmed milk powder 07Wheat bran/ rice bran 10Mineral mixture 02Common salt 01Vitamin A and D supplement (g/q) 10

Table 3 Compositions of concentrate mixtures (Type-I)

Feed Ingredients Parts by Weight (kg)Example - 1 Example - 2 Example - 3

Maize grain (ground) 35 35 35Soybean meal 15 22 ---Groundnut cake 15 --- 24Cotton seed cake --- 23 24Rice polish 32 17 14Mineral mixture 02 `02 02Common salt 01 01 01

Feeding of dairy calfThe feeding of dairy calf is very important because there will be earlier

unset of puberty and thus quicker return of the capital only with the goodnutrition. The dairy calves up to 3 months of age are fed with whole milk, calfstarter and green fodder. The feeding schedule for dairy calf is provided inTable 4.Table 4 Feeding schedule for dairy calf

Age Whole milk (liters) Calf starter (kg) Legume green fodder (kg)

1-3 days 3.0 (colostrums) --- ---4-15 days 3.0 --- ---16-30 days 3.5 Ad lib. Ad lib.1-2 months 2.5 0.25 Ad lib.2-3 months 2.0 0.50 2-33-4 months 1.0 0.75 5-7



Feeding of heifersThe ration of the heifers contains concentrate mixture, green fodder and

dry roughages. The daily feeding schedule of growing dairy heifers from fourmonths to 30 months or pregnancy is provided in Table 5.Table 5. Daily feeding schedule of growing dairy heifers (kg/day)

Age Green fodder (kg) Concentrate mixture (22% CP)

4-6 months 5-10 1.56-12 months 10-20 1.512-18 months 20-25 1.018-30 months 25-30 1.0Pregnant (last quarter) 30-35 2.0

Feeding of low and medium yielding dairy animalsIn Goa, the dairy animals are of around 300-500 kg body weight with daily

milk production of approximately five liters per animal. However, there are fewnumbers of dairy animals with daily milk production up to 15 litres in cows andeight liters in buffaloes. The maintenance requirement of a dairy animal isdependant upon the body weight of the animal, while the requirement for milkproduction varies as per the quantity of milk production and fat content of themilk. The feeding schedule of low (cow up to seven liters/ day and buffalo upto five liters per day) and medium (cow up to 15 liters/ day and buffalo up toeight liters per day) yielding dairy animals can be made with the followingguidelines.(i) Do not feed exclusively succulent green leguminous fodder to the dairy

animals, as it may cause digestive problems. The succulent greenleguminous fodder should be mixed with dry roughages (chopped strawsor stovers) in 10:1 ratio on fresh basis or with the non-leguminous fodderin 1:1 ratio on fresh basis. However, the non-leguminous green foddercan be fed exclusively to the dairy animals. About 20-25 kg good qualitygreen fodder is sufficient for the daily maintenance requirement of about350-500 kg body weight dairy animal.

(ii) About 25-30 kg good quality green fodder will take care of the dailyproduction requirement of a dairy animal (cows producing up to sevenliters milk with 4% fat content and buffaloes producing up to five litersmilk with 7% fat content per day)

(iii) In addition to the concentrate mixture and green fodder, provide dryroughages (paddy straw, jowar straw, dried karad grass etc) ad lib (freeof choice) to fulfill the bulk of the animal.

(iv) That means daily feeding of about 45-55 kg good quality green fodderalong with ad l ib ( free choice) straw will take care of the bulk,maintenance (300-500 kg body weight) and production (cows producing

Prafulla Kumar Naik


up to seven liters milk with 4% fat content and buffaloes producing upto five liters milk with 7% fat content per day) requirement of a dairyanimal.

(v) When green fodder is not available sufficiently, then we have to dependupon the concentrate mixture (mash or pellet) for the nutr ientrequirement of the dairy animal. The more you depend up on theconcentrate mixture, the higher will be the cost of production.

(vi) As a Thumb rule, according to the availability of the green fodder, replace10 kg good quality green fodder by one kg concentrate mixture (20-22%crude protein).

(vii) That means daily feeding of 4.5-5.5 kg concentrate mixture along withad lib. (free choice) straw will take care of the bulk, maintenance (300-500 kg body weight) and production requirement of a dairy animal (cowsproducing up to seven liters milk with 4% fat content and buffaloesproducing up to five liters milk with 7% fat content per day).

(viii) If the dairy animal i.e. cows producing less or more than seven kg milkand buffaloes producing less or more than five kg milk per day, than,respectively reduce or increase the amount of concentrate mixture @400g for every one kg of cow milk and 500 g for every one kg of buffalomilk.

(ix) If the dairy animal is pregnant, then besides the maintenance andproduction requirement, one kg concentrate mixture as pregnancyallowance should be offered extra only in the last three months of thepregnancy.

Feeding of high yielding dairy animalsSpecial care should be taken during the feeding of high yielding dairy animals

i.e. cows yielding more than 15 litres of milk per day and buffaloes yieldingmore than eight litres of milk per day. Fillers like straws and stovers have nosignificant place in their daily ration. It is better to make their total ration onlyfrom concentrate mixture and non-leguminous green fodder. If leguminousgreen fodder is fed in sufficient quantity, then only 1-2 kg straws can be includedin the diet. The concentrate mixtures of high yielding dairy animals must containat least 35-40% maize grain. As the soybean meal and cotton seed cake aregood sources of by-pass protein, these must be included in the concentratemixture. Common salt @ 1.5-2% of the diet has positive effect during summerseason. Daily feeding of by-pass fat @200-300 g per animal has beneficialeffect only in the early lactation i.e. first 90 days of parturition. If the amount ofconcentrate mixture given is more than 7-8 kg per day per animal, then 1-2 kgsodium bicarbonate (mitha soda) should be added in the concentrate mixtureas buffer.



General guidelines for feeding of dairy animals(i) The green fodder must be chopped before feeding to the dairy cows for

better utilization.(ii) If possible, soak the concentrate mixture in water for 6-8 hours and then

feed to the animals.(iii) The required concentrate mixture, green fodder and straw may be offered

either separately or mixing together as total mixed ration (TMR).(iv) The total ration to be offered daily should be divided and offered twice

(morning and afternoon) for better utilization.(v) Do not feed calcium rich feed ingredients or mineral mixture to the dairy

cows 15 days before parturition, as high calcium intake during this periodincreases the chances of milk fever.

(vi) Provide clean fresh water free of choice to the dairy cows. For easyaccessibility, a cemented water tank should be constructed near to thecow shed and the tank should be painted with lime at frequent intervalsto make the water clean.

ConclusionAdaptation of scientific feeding strategies for the dairy animals is highly

essential for optimum productivity and profitability from the dairy farming.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Reproductive Problems and Their Remedies inDairy Animals vis-à-vis Nutritional Deficiencies

Eaknath B [email protected]


Along with the agricultural activities livestock rising is one of the importantoccupations of many farmers and landless poor in Goa. State has sizeablecattle population (about 150000), 80000 buffaloes, 100000 pigs and 40000goats. Production aspects are closely related with reproduction and nutrition.Therefore, in the economics of livestock industry great importance is attachedto the maintenance of fertility in animals. Capacity to deliver normal healthyyoung one per unit time is fertility and reduction in normal fertility is infertilityand inability to reproduce is sterility. If a cow or buffalo fails to get conceivedeven one time there is production loss of 21 days which is quite huge. Forthis reason, each cause must be accurately diagnosed and treated accordingto conditions found in examination. By only thorough investigations ofmanagement and health examination, it is possible to detect infertile, sub fertile& sterile animals. There are different aspects as nutrition, management,infectious agents that affect the infertility. Important infertility cases includeanoestrous, silent oestrous, and repeat breeding cases. Anoestrous is mostlydue to nutritional problems as underfeeding or mineral deficiency. Maximumreproductive efficiency from dairy animals is necessary to get more milkproduction because milk production comes after reproduction. It is necessaryto understand the partitioning of nutrients in dairy animals during differentstages of a lactation cycle and accordingly the physiological need of thenutrients as per the stage of lactation is important to achieve maximum geneticpotential for milk production and reproduction in dairy animals.

The reproductive performance of crossbred cattle is influenced by the waycows are fed during the dry period and early lactation. After parturition, cowsshould be fed balanced ration so that body weight losses are minimum. Thiswill allow the cow to attain a positive energy balance in a shorter period oftime. In addition to feeding more energy during early lactation, perhaps morebypass protein is required. Hence, farmers are advised to feed dairy cowcarefully so that maximum reproductive efficiency can be obtained. The levelof feeding and the bodyweight of the animal affect fertility. The effects ofunderfeeding are greatest on pre-pubertal animals and lactating cows. Theloss in body weight occurred after parturition due to either underfeeding orhigh lactation demands prolongs the postpartum anoestrous period. At thesame time, the adverse effect of poor nutrition varies depending on whether



the main deficiency is in energy, protein, vitamins, minerals or trace elements.Under traditional management practices in India, usually more than onecomponent is deficient. Since, cattle population is poorly fed due to shortageof feed and fodder and improving their feeding practices may improve theirreproductive performance. In fact, the nutritional status of animals is difficultto measure and this complicates interpretation of nutrition and reproductioninteractions. Generally, an animal's nutritional status is usually assessed onchanges in its live weight and production.

The nutritional quality of feeds and forage can have a tremendous influenceon the reproductive performance of cattle. Although reproductive failure mayoccur for several reasons, management and the environment are oftenimportant contributing factors. Part of the environment and management ofany animal is nutrition. Producers must be aware of daily changes in a cow�sfeed requirements if they want to wean calves from at least 90 per cent ofcows exposed to the bull. For instance, cows in the last third of pregnancy orthose producing milk have special needs. If these needs are not met,reproduction is the first body function that is sacrif iced. The effects ofunderfeeding are greatest on pre-pubertal animals and lactating cows. Weightloss postpartum, due to underfeeding or high lactation demands, extends thepostpartum anoestrous period. The effects of poor nutrition differ dependingon whether the main deficiency is in energy, protein, vitamins, minerals ortrace elements. Inadequate nutrition delays puberty and sexual maturity inheifers and resumption of ovarian activity and oestrus in postpartum cows. Ifa cow is underfed, when pregnant it will be in poor condition at calving, andwill be slow to resume cycling and reconceived. Ideally, the cow's bodycondition should improve gradually through pregnancy, but excessive fatnessshould be avoided. Cows will probably lose weight after calving, but weightloss should be minimised through good feeding to allow them to start cyclingagain as soon as possible. More studies are needed to determine thephysiological basis of the nutrition/reproduction interaction in zebu cattle.

It is observed traditionally raised zebu cattle in the Ethiopian highlandsneeded eight months after they stopped lactating to attain a bodyweight andcondition that allowed them to reconceive successfully. The average calvinginterval was 26 months despite a lactation length of only eight months. Fertilityof grazing cows is therefore closely related to the live weight change duringthe calving-to-service interval. The animal is likely to become sexually activeonly after it has regained much of its pre-calving weight. Gir cows that gainedweight in the first three months after parturition showed heat during that period,while those that lost weight remained anoestrous. Resumption of ovulatorycycles is associated with energy balance, but seems to be mediated by a risein plasma IGF-I; which is linked to nutritional status and concentrations ofinsulin in blood. Feeding diets that promote higher plasma glucose and insulin

Eaknath B Chakurkar


may improve the metabolic and endocrine status of cows. Feeding behaviourof dairy cows during the transition period, particularly a decline in feed intakeprior to calving is associated with risk of postpartum uterine disease, such asmetritis. Because metritis has a profound negative effect on risk of pregnancyin dairy cows, providing adequate bunk space and environment to maximizefeed intake is expected to minimize the risk of uterine diseases and improvefertility. Addition of supplemental fat to the diet improves energy intake,modulates PGF2á secretion by the uterus, affects ovarian dynamics, enhances

luteal function, and improves fertility. More specifically, some fatty acids (FA)might impact fertilization rate and embryo quality in dairy cows. Althoughgossypol intake seems to not affect lactation performance of dairy cows, itmay affect fertility, when the resulting plasma gossypol concentrations areexcessive.

EnergyAnimals require energy to grow and to keep the body functioning. Cows

need energy to maintain milk production as well as to initiate and maintainpregnancy. Carbohydrates and fats are the primary source of energy in thediet. Besides being a source of energy, carbohydrates are building blocks forother nutrients. The excess energy in a diet is deposited as fat. Energy in thediet must meet the needs of production, and in all animals, there is a priorityfor nutrient use. The most economically important function of the cow,reproduction and the initiation of pregnancy is the last function to be suppliedwith energy. In addition, energy requirements increase significantly during thelast third of pregnancy and while the cow is producing milk.

Low energy intake during late pregnancy can result in the following(i) Slightly lowered birth weights

(ii) Higher death rates in newborn calves

(iii) Lower milk production

(iv) Lower weaning weights

(v) Increased days to first heat

(vi) Reduced conception rates

Over conditioning due to high energy intake over a long period can alsoaffect reproduction. Animals with "fat cow syndrome" have reduced fertility,which contributes to long calving periods. Body condition scoring is a goodmethod for assessing energy requirements and should be used for adjustingdiets throughout the year.

Reproductive Problems and Their Remedies in Dairy Animals vis-à-vis Nutritional Deficiencies


ProteinProtein is the second limiting nutrient in most rations. It is the principal

building block of most tissues. The amount of crude protein in an energy-sufficient diet ranges from 8 to 12 per cent. If dietary energy is not adequateto meet demands, it can be supplied by the breakdown of body fat and muscle.However, there is no way for the body to compensate for prolonged low levelsof dietary protein. Therefore, diets deficient in energy, protein or both can resultin a protein deficiency and a loss of body condition. Without adequate amountsof protein in the diet, daily feed consumption drops off, feed passage ratesdecrease and overall digestive efficiency declines. Reduced feed intake resultsin both a protein and energy deficiency; therefore, the clinical signs that areseen are those of an energy deficiency. Large excesses of protein in the dietmay also depress fertility. The process by which this happens is still unclear,but recent research has shown that dairy heifers have lower conception rateswhen fed rations with extremely high protein levels.

MineralsMinerals are loosely classified as macro or micro minerals depending on

the relative amounts needed or present in the body. Macro minerals includecalcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sulphur, sodium and chloride.Cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc areconsidered micro or trace minerals. Rations that contain a high percentage offorage usually supply adequate amounts of calcium but may be low inphosphorus. However, rations high in grain contain adequate phosphorus butmay be deficient in calcium and other minerals. Micro or trace mineraldeficiencies are associated with soil type and are usually geographicallyrelated. Abnormal levels of some minerals such as iron and cobalt do notusually cause a problem with reproduction. Other minerals, including thosethat follow, can significantly affect reproduction.

CalciumCattle need calcium for skeletal growth and milk production. From mid to

late pregnancy, a bred cow�s requirement for calcium increases by 22 per

cent and after calving, by an additional 40 per cent. A deficiency can lead to"milk fever" around the time of calving, particularly in high milk-producing beefbreeds. A greater incidence of calving diff iculty, retained placenta andprolapsed uterus may also occur.

Calcium interacts directly with phosphorus and Vitamin D. If dietary calciumlevels are extremely high, phosphorus availability is reduced. Conversely, highlevels of phosphorus impair calcium absorption. In addition, other complexmacro and micro mineral interactions occur: high levels of phosphorus andmagnesium reduce calcium absorption while high levels of calcium reducethe absorption of iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, zinc and iodine.

Eaknath B Chakurkar


PhosphorusPhosphorus has more known functions in the animal body than any other

mineral. It is required for bone and tissue development, energy utilization andmilk production. Phosphorus requirements increase by 12 per cent from midpregnancy to the last month of gestat ion. After calving, phosphorusrequirements increase by 50%. Phosphorus is commonly referred to as the"fertility" mineral. A deficiency can severely affect reproductive performanceand may be expressed as delayed puberty (associated with poor appetite andgrowth rate) and increased number of services required per conception.Insufficient amounts of phosphorus in the ration results in reduced milkproduction and consequently lower calf weaning weights.

SeleniumSelenium is an important component of enzyme systems and interacts with

vitamin E to prevent tissue damage. Selenium deficiency has been associatedwith significantly reduced fertility in affected cattle, a higher than expectednumber of retained placentas, occasional abortions, premature or weak calves,reduced ability to resist disease and "white muscle disease" in calves. Thelevels at which selenium can be added to feeds are regulated due to the narrowrange between deficiency and toxicity.

CopperConnective tissues, red blood cells and key enzymes in the body need

copper. The most important reproductive effects of copper deficiency aresimilar to deficiencies of other minerals and include delayed puberty and poorfertility. Other signs of copper deficiency include repeat breeding and a higherthan expected number of retained placentas. Bulls may have reduced libidoand poor semen quality. Both high sulphate levels in water and highmolybdenum levels in feeds reduce the availability of copper.

ManganeseThe amount of manganese required for reproduction is at least 30 per cent

higher than the requirement for growth. Manganese plays an important role inthe process of energy metabolism and enzyme activation. A deficiency seriouslyaffects reproductive performance. Cows with a manganese deficiency do notshow heat, have decreased conception rates, higher abortion rates and lowbirth weight calves. Calves are generally born weak and may be deformedwith twisted legs and enlarged joints.

ZincLow zinc diets affect the testicular development of bulls and therefore can

affect fertility in a herd. A zinc deficiency results in reduced sperm production



and delays maturation of sperm. in addition, cows may have low conceptionrates even though the bulls are normal. Calves grow slowly and reach pubertyat a later age than normal. Zinc deficiency also results in reduced Vitamin Autilization and signs of a Vitamin A deficiency may be seen. In addition, highcalcium and phosphorus levels decrease zinc absorption from the intestine.

IodineCattle need iodine for the formation of two hormones that are produced by

the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is responsible for controlling the metabolicrate of the body. A lack of iodine indirectly influences growth rate, milkproduction and feed consumption. Iodine-deficient animals may have delayedpuberty and frequently do not show signs of heat. Other deficiency symptomsinclude poor conception rates, abortions, longer gestation periods and thebirth of dead, weak or hairless calves. Goitres develop when an iodinedeficiency is severe. High nitrate feeds reduce the uptake of iodine in thedigestive tract.

CobaltCobalt is required for the synthesis of Vitamin B12, which, in turn, is required

for energy metabolism. Animals deficient in cobalt are weak, lose body conditionand have a poor appetite. The conception rate of cows in an affected herdmay reduce fertility. Low cobalt levels reduce the storage of copper in theliver and can interfere with the activity of manganese, zinc and iodine.

Sodium and ChlorideSodium and chloride, the components of salt, are essential nutrients. Salt

is required to regulate body fluid levels. In addition, sodium affects theabsorption of sugar and proteins from the digestive tract. Salt deficienciescan af fect the ef f iciency of digestion and indirect ly the reproduct ionperformance of cows.

Vitamins

Vitamin AVitamin A is found in actively growing green plants. When forages are cut

for hay or green feed, vitamin A precursors are oxidized, and levels reduceswith time. Approximately 90 days after cutting forages, all vitamin precursorsare considered to be oxidized and not available to animals, Vitamin A is involvedin the maintenance of body tissue, so requirements of the pregnant cow arehigher in the last third of pregnancy and immediately after calving. Cows thathave a vitamin A deficiency may have night blindness, excessive tear productionand problems walking or moving around. Pregnant animals may abort, retain

Eaknath B Chakurkar


their placenta or develop uterine infections after calving. Calves may be bornweak or blind, or dead. Cows with a vitamin A deficiency conceive normallybut return to heat due to the early death of the embryo. Bulls affected by avitamin A deficiency produce fewer and abnormal sperm that contribute toinfertility problems.

Vitamin DCattle usually form adequate amounts of vitamin D through exposure to the

sun and the consumption of fresh forages. This vitamin interacts with calciumand phosphorus in bone development and maintenance. Deficiencies of vitaminD are diagnosed more frequently in animals that are either housed indoors orin areas, where sunlight hours are minimal in the winter. Animals with vitaminD deficiency symptoms have a stiff gait, laboured breathing, weakness andpossibly convulsions. Swollen knees and hocks can also occur. Bones maybe soft (rickets) or be re-absorbed in older animals. Calves may be born dead,weak or deformed. Cows may not show heat when exposed. In areas wheresunlight is limited or on operations where animals are housed indoors,supplemental vitamin D is required.

Vitamin EVitamin E interacts with selenium, and the two nutrients work together to

prevent damage to body tissue. In mature animals, reproductive performancecan be impaired. A vitamin E deficient ration causes the incidence of retainedplacentas and mastitis while colostrums and milk quality are reduced. Thebest source of vitamin E is fresh, green forage. Unfortunately, vitamin E contentreduces if forage is stored for longer period. With silages, either round balesilage or chopped silage, 40 to 50 per cent of the vitamin E precursors presentare lost after 6 months of storage. Supplemental vitamin E should be providedin the ration when animals are not grazing fresh growing forages.

Reproductive status of the dairy animals in GoaAs per the studies conducted by ICAR Research complex for Goa, every

herd has at least 30 percent infertile animals. Etiology of infertility includesmanagemental, physiological, nutritional and infectious causes of infertility.Total 742 animals were examined from different parts of Goa and 50 infertilitycamps were conducted for this purpose. During investigations, informationwas also collected regarding previous history of the case, treatment alreadyattempted and opinion of the local veterinarian. Infertil ity cases werecategorized broadly in to infectious and noninfectious (nutrit ional andhormonal) infertility. These infertility cases include anoestrous, silent estrous,and repeat breeding cases. Out of these cases anoestrous cases were 201,nutritional anoestrous was 146, true anoestrous 55. In anoestrous cases, 73%



were due to nutrit ional problems and 27% were true anoestrus cases.Anoestrous was mostly due to nutritional problems as underfeeding or mineraldeficiency and farmers were advised for balanced feeding as well as use ofmineral mixture in the feed particularly during last trimester of pregnancy andpeak of lactation. Silent estrous cases were also mostly in underfeeding orfeeding without greens, these cases were treated with vitamin A andphosphorous preparations. Therefore farmers were advised for balancedfeeding as well as use of mineral mixture in the feed particularly during lasttrimester of pregnancy and peak of lactation. Silent oestrous cases were alsomostly in underfeeding or feeding without greens, these cases were treatedwith vitamin A and phosphorous preparations.

ConclusionsMost of the reproductive problems in dairy animals of Goa are of nutritional

origin, which will be alleviated by feeding balanced ration along with qualitygreen fodder and supplemental mineral mixture.

Eaknath B Chakurkar


One Day Packed Ration (Complete Feed Block)� The Solution for Nutritional Management of Dairy Animals in Goa



Goa is a very small state and the animal husbandry has remained as asubsidiary occupation, which is in developing stage. Most of the dairy farmsare small having around 2-5 low to medium yielding dairy animals. However,there is increase in the number of high yielding dairy animals in the state duringthe period between 16th and 17th census, which indicates the growing interestand better scope of animal husbandry in Goa. The major constraints in thedevelopment of animal husbandry is unavailability of quality feed stuffs. Onlypaddy straw and karad grass is available as dry roughages (crop residues)for livestock feeding in Goa and most of the feeds and feed ingredients areimported from the neighbouring sates Karnataka and Maharastra. Further, thefeeds and feed ingredients are not properly used for the feeding of the dairyanimals, as most of the dairy farmers are not aware of the feeding practicesaccording to their productive (level of milk production and stage of lactation)and reproductive performances of their animals. In this critical situation,development and feeding of �one day packed ration (complete feed block)� to

the dairy animals as per their productive performances seems to be the needof the hour.

What is �one day packed ration (complete feed block)�

In the conventional feeding practices of dairy animals, the concentratemixture, green fodder and dry roughages (paddy straw or kadaba kutti) is fedseparately. In this method of feeding practices, skill is required for quantificationof the amount of feed required and as the animals get a chance for selectivefeeding, lots of feedstuffs are spoiled. Complete feeding system is the bestway to avoid some of the problems associated with the conventional systemof feeding practices. In complete feeding system, all the feed ingredientsinclusive of roughages (chopped) and concentrates are blended into acomplete mixture and fed to the animals. When the complete feed is fed inmash form, then still some of the problems exist like daily quantification of theamount of total feed to be offered daily, settling of some concentrate mixturein the bottom of the manager, no reduction in the volume of the feed etc. Toavoid all these problems, the one day feed allowance of the animal can beprepared as densified feed block and fed to the animal, which is known as�one day packed ration (complete feed block)�.



Preparation of �one day packed ration (complete feed block)�

The daily requirements of a particular group of animals are determined andcomplete feed having suitable roughage: concentrate ratio for one day isprepared, which is then compressed into various shapes and sizes by feedblock formation machine to make them one day packed ration (complete feedblock)�.

Advantage of feeding �one

day packed ration� in Goa

(i) There is scope for rationmanipulation as per thenutrient requirement basedon the phys io log ica lconditions of the animals

(ii) Proper propor t ions o froughage andconcentrates in the totalration can be maintainedfor optimum performance

(iii) It is possible to formulate complete feed blocks using some un-conventional feed ingredients and tree leaves

(iv) As the feed material becomes soft under compression, the palatabilityis increased

(v) Prevents selective eating by the animals(vi) Reduction in wastage of feed stuffs, particularly the crop residues(vii) The milk yield and fat content is increased(viii) It is compact (bulk density of the roughages can be reduced about three

times)(ix) The feed blocks can be made into specific sizes and shapes(x) Large quantity feed can be stored in less space.(xi) The feed blocks can be stored for a long period of time and transported

economically over long distances.(xii) Easy in handling of the feed material(xiii) Labour saving feeding management

ConclusionIn the modern dairy farming system, the �one day packed ration� or �complete

feed block� feeding system will not only enhance the productivity of the animals

but will also save time, labour and feed wastage as the best nutritionalmanagement.

Prafulla Kumar Naik


Importance of Feed Quality Testing ForImproving Dairy Production

Bijaya Kumar [email protected]

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Goa-403 402

Feed testing is an important component of dairy feeding programme. Testingof feed for its nutrient will help the farmer to plan for a feeding programme atdifferent times. Feed testing also provides an opportunity to check for anti-nutritional factors, proximate composition, calcium, phosphorous and moulds/toxins. Feeding forages is very important for dairy production. Forages containvarying amounts of protein, energy and minerals, depending on their stage ofgrowth, environment, harvesting conditions and variety. Physical examinationhelps for procurement of good quality feed ingredients with better nutritionalvalue. Feed analysis will help the producer to effectively balance the rationsthat will meet the cow�s daily requirements. Using average values often results

in average results. Therefore, knowledge of actual values can be effective inproviding smart feeding choices and eliminating unwanted costs.

Procurement of Feeds The common cereal grains and beans procured for the manufacturing oflivestock feeds are yellow maize, white maize, barley, oat, wheat and sorghumand beans like grams, peas and soybean. Yellow maize and barley aregenerally procured in large quantity as these are the most acceptable feedsfor livestock. These feeds are preferably purchased in the cropping seasonand stored for subsequent use. The storage period ranges from 3-12 months,depending up on the situation. The feed ingredients are carefully inspected atthe time of purchase and the following points are generally considered for theon spot appraisal of the food grains.(i) Inspection for dryness(ii) Presence of impurity(iii) Presence of extraneous materials(iv) Insect infestation(v) Presence of harmful and toxic seeds of weeds etc.

Appraisal of grains for drynessThe sound and dry grains possess characteristic bright colour. The grainseasily scatter in larger area on throwing on a dry surface. It is hard to crack adry kernel or seed between the molars and on crack ing i t producescharacteristic sound and splits into two or more particles without any flakingor flattening.



Detection of ImpuritySometimes a food grain may contain a related edible grain and its presence

may be intentional/ unintentional. The presence of such grain in the bulk iscalled impurity and it is intentional only when impurity is reasonably cheaperthan the food grain. Presence of barley or oat grain in wheat is commonimpurity in most of the cases, because it is normally difficult to separate duringcommon screening procedure. An impurity of barley or oat up to one per centmay be ignored, but higher content may require consideration for rejection.

Detection of weed seedsPresence of seeds of beans and peas in cereals is an impurity but not toxic

for livestock feeding. At the same price cereals containing leguminous seedsare generally more nutritious and may be accepted. If contains some harmfullegumes like lathyrus (khesari), wild pea and lupins in less than 1%, the lotmay be accepted for purchase. The presence of even a few seeds i.e. dhaturaseed, castor seed; croton seed may be highly detrimental for the animals.

Determination of extraneous particlesGrits of stone and gravels are not uncommon in grains produced in the hilly

areas. Some times considerable amount of stone grits remain unscreened inthe grain lot. As such grits may not be very harmful for the animals but causeproblems in feed grinding.

Detection of insects and weevilingGrains selected for purchase should be free from live or dead insects and

their eggs. There should not be any weeviled touched or germ eaten grain inthe bulk. The grain godowns and stores should be made insect free by suitabletreatments before storage. The grain stored in godowns and bins should beperiodically inspected for appearance of insects. Various degrees and levelsof insect damage of food grains have been accepted for feeding of thelivestock. For determination of the extent of damage, three touched and germeaten grains are equated with one weeviled grain. On the basis of thepercentage of discoloured and weeviled grains, maize may be classified in to5 groups for the purpose of physical quality assessment.

Grading of maize and other grains on the basis of insect damage

Grade No. Percentage of discolored, damaged and touched grains

A. less than 5B. 5.1 to 10C. 10.1 to 15D. 15.1 to 20Rejected More than 20 per cent

Bijaya Kumar Swain


Physical Examination of extracted concentratesThe residue left after extraction of flour, polishing of rice, screening of milled

pulses and extraction of oil may be called extracted concentrates. Since duringthe processing or milling for extraction of human foods the original shape andsize of cereals, pulses and oil seeds are drastically changed due to whichspecial skill and experience is necessary for the physical appraisal of suchconcentrates. The various methods used for the visual examination of suchextracted feeds are listed below.(i) Physical appearance may be characteristic of the material examined for

example wheat bran is flaked, bulky and pinkish grey with invariablepresence of some amount of flour. Rice bran is identified by the presenceof rice grits, polish and small particles of germ and hull. Deoiled rice branis dusty. Decorticated ground nut cake is grey and smooth while corticatedone is pinkish. Mustard cake appears greenish brown or dark greendepending on the variety. Till cake from whole seed extraction is black.Solvent extracted oil cakes are almost devoid of ether extractable lipids.

(ii) Odour should be characteristic of the material like ground nut cakesomewhat sweet and mustard cake with pungent odour.

(iii) Texture: Ghani and expeller pressed cakes are lustrous and solventextracted cakes are generally dull.

(iv) Presence of extraneous material: Presence of castor seed is identifiedmicroscopically.

Physical Evaluation of dry roughagesDry roughages generally procured for the feeding of farm animals include

wheat bhusa, paddy straw, sorghum kadbi, pearl millet kadbi and maize stoveretc.

Wheat BhoosaIn India production of long straw of wheat is rare and bulk is available as

bhoosa. Wheat straw is golden yellow colour and bright in appearance. Dustcontent should be less than 1%. It should be free from caking and fungalinfestation.

Paddy strawIt is generally available in long form with highly variable size and colour.

The straw of fine varieties is better than course varieties. The colour rangesfrom pale yellow to golden yellow. It should be free from lumps of clay andfungal infestation.

Sorghum stover or KadbiDry sorghum stover is light green to light brown in colour and free from

fungal infestation

Importance of Feed Quality Testing For Improving Dairy Production


Maize stoverTwo kinds of maize stovers are available. One is produced after sun drying

the plants f rom which ears are removed before r ipening for humanconsumption. It is greenish yellow and bright as well as more nutritious. Theother one obtained from matured crop is brown in colour. As usual it should befrom fungal infestation and clay clumps.

Quality control of feed ingredientsThe quality of feed ingredients determines the quality of compounded feed

or finished products. Therefore, it is essential to have a standard for everyfeed ingredient including the supplements and additives. For determination ofquality of feed ingredients following aspects are taken in to consideration

Physical characteristics of feed ingredientsThe evaluation of physical form of feed is made on the basis of following

observations by examination of the representative samples.(i) Soundness of the grains and seeds(ii) Dampness or moisture content of the feed(iii) Colour of the feed ingredient(iv) Odour of the feed ingredient(v) Texture of the feed ingredient(vi) Presence of cake formation and extent of caking(vii) Presence of extraneous materials in the feed(viii) Infestation (insect and/or fungal)

Soundness of grainsThe feed grains should be free from cut, touched and heat damaged grains,

thin grains and extraneous material. The grading is based on the weight ofgrains in standard measure (bushel), moisture content, percentage of soundgrains and percentage of different deformed grains and/or impurities whichare non toxic.

Dampness or moistnessThis is determined by taking random samples from different parts by hand

picking. When a hand is put deep in to a bag of grains, if the moisture level inthe grains is below 12 %, no difference in temperature between inside andoutside the bag is felt. But when the moisture level is high, the grains insidethe bag will be cooler during winter and during summer. Clumps in the feedbag can be due to high moisture content which is hard.

ColourWholesome grains are sound with characteristic bright colour, viz., yellow

to golden yellow for yellow maize, grey white for sorghum, tan red for milo,yellow for barley etc.

Bijaya Kumar Swain


OdourFeed ingredients impart characteristic odour which is very light in food grains

but sensible in most of the oilcakes and leaf meals. Odour of rape and mustardcake is pungent, sesame cake is slightly off, groundnut cake is acceptable.

TextureThe whole grains should be sound and free from impurities, dampness and

caking.

Extent of cakingThe presence of few lumps or cakes in pulverized or other feeds may be

due to accidental dampening and may not cause a serious quality problem,but extensive lumping with or without fungal infestation must be tested formycotoxins before acceptance or approval.

Presence of extraneous materialsThe percentage of foreign material is determined by screening and

accordingly feeds are graded. However, presence of toxic weeds and othermaterials should be examined carefully and in case any relaxation should beallowed.

InfestationInsect infestation has been made acceptable to a greater degree but fungal

infestation resulting in higher than 25 ppb of aflatoxins are not acceptable.

Chemical composition of feed ingredientsIn routine analysis of feed quality determinations, the feed samples are

analyzed for the moisture percentage, proximate composition (crude protein,ether extract, crude fiber, total ash and acid insoluble ash) on dry matter basis.However, for certain feeds some specif ic analysis are required viz.,determination of urea content in protein supplements, turmeric in vitamin Asupplement, sand in mineral mixture etc. The determined values of proximateprinciples are compared with the standard values and accordingly reports ofquality are prepared. The samples for mineral mixtures are analyzed for thecontents of calcium, phosphorous, copper, cobalt, manganese, iron andsulphur as minimum levels of most of these elements have been fixed in astandard mineral mixture. Similarly, maximum levels of fluorine, selenium,copper and iron are fixed in the mineral mixture.

Feed microscopyThis is normally a physical method of inspection of feed (both ingredients

and compounded feeds) but often use of colour and other reactions likebleaching etc is also required.



Sampling of feeds

ObjectivesThe main object ives of feed sampling are to draw small amount of

representative feed from bulk display in open market or stored in godowns.Sampling of grains from open bulk is easier because of easy mixing. It alsohelps in visual inspection regarding the presence of foreign materials like dust,straw particles, weed seeds and cut or broken grains. However, for thecollection of samples from bagged or stored feeds sampling device is required.

SamplerThe appliance used for the collection of samples is known as sampler. It

may be simple sampler known as "parchayee" which is made of up pointedsemicircular iron or other metallic structure of about 25-30 cm length and 2-3m internal diameter. It is normally spindle shaped and fitted with a smoothhandle. This is considered as crude sampler and sample from deep sack cannot be collected by use of parchayee. Vacuum type sampler is used to collectsamples from deep sack. At the time of sampling the sampler must be alert todetect any abnormal appearance of commodity from any bag or any part ofthe bulk or stack. Such events may be more common with sampling ofprocessed products. Bagged materials are best sampled by probing the bagsin diagonal order starting from left corner and ending at the right corner. Theapparent quality of finished feed is normally checked randomly at intervals forappearance, colour and consistency. The sample is collected during fillingthe bags with the help of a scoop or dipper. Experienced personnel occasionallycheck the product by picking a handful during falling from the vent of the millor direct collection in the bag.

Sampling proceduresIt is important to take representative sample for the feed testing and nutrient

analysis. Number of samples to be taken for each lot is mentioned below inTable

Sample Procedure

Grains ( i ) 3 samples/truck load( i i ) 10-12 probes per bin

Silage (i) Probed 15-20 locations in silo/pit(iii) Grab sample: 5-6/feeding for 3 feedings

Hay/Forages (i) 15-20 locations in stack(ii) Greater than 20 bales: Sample 10 per cent no. of bales(iii) Less than 20 bales: sample all the bales

Bijaya Kumar Swain


Processing of samples for dispatch to laboratory for analysisThe samples collected from a lot or batch of an ingredient or feed are pooled

together and mixed thoroughly. If the total quantity is more than one kilogramthen it is further sampled after thorough mixing. Out of the mixed samplepackets of about 100 g are filled in duplicate and sealed. Signature of allmembers is recorded on the packets and also on the proceedings. Each packetof sample contains the following informations(i) Name of the ingredient or feed(ii) Code number of the sample(iii) Date of supply/procurement(iv) Date of sampling(v) batch number of the product, if it is processed feed(vi) Signature with date of the committee members and also the supplier

with date.

Sampling of ingredients should always be done in the presence of thesupplier or his representative. Out of the two sealed packets one packet ofeach ingredient is sent to quality control laboratory for analysis and its duplicateis kept under security so that the same may be used, if there is any dispute inquality.

A letter is also sent to the laboratory giving details of the analysis required.

Processing of samples in the laboratory for AnalysisThe samples received in the laboratory are stored well protected against

changes in composition, particularly the moisture content in the ingredient.For this purpose now a days samples are first filled in a polythene bag andsealed airtight. During collection and mixing care is taken to avoid exposureto dry air or heat, moisture and humidity. The sample should be processed foranalysis in a short time.

Before opening the sample arrangements should be made for quick handling.The packet is opened and transferred to a clean and dry container or on asheet of glazed paper and mixed thoroughly. After this 5-10 g accuratelyweighed representative sample is put in a hot air oven at 100 0C for at least 8hours for the determination of moisture content (%) in the sample. Theremaining sample is ground in a laboratory mill to about 1 mm particle size.This sample is used for the analysis of proximate constituents, minerals andany other constituent asked for. Standard methods of chemical analysis areavailable in all the feed testing laboratories.

Recording and ReportingThe details of sample and results of analysis are recorded in a permanent

record book with date. A copy of the results is prepared on a standard proforma



of the testing laboratory signed by the technician responsible for the analysisand countersigned by the laboratory in charge before delivering.

Precautions(i) The sample should be kept carefully.(ii) It should be analyzed as early as possible(iii) Sufficient amount of sample should be retained and preserved protected

for a definite time which is normally declared by the laboratory. About 3months time is given under normal conditions provided the feeds oringredients contain less than 12 % moisture, free from live insect andfungal infestation and do not contain high level of fat.

Bijaya Kumar Swain


Vegetable Waste as Animal Feed

M [email protected]

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Goa- 403 402

Vegetables constitute an important component of a balanced diet for man.They supply important vitamins and minerals that the human body needs for ahealthy and active life. Vegetables are also rich sources of minerals. Many ofthe vegetables are of the nature of roughage aiding in digestion. Vegetableproduction in India before 1947 was only 15 million tonnes. At present, India isthe second largest producer of vegetables in the world after People Republicof China with an annual production of 101.43 million tonnes from an area of6.76 million ha. Immediately after independence, growth rate in value of fruitsand vegetable production was only 0.6 per cent which remained for manydecades and rose to 2.50 per cent during 2000-2006. Vegetables are highlyperishable due to high water content and high metabolic activities. It isestimated that 20-30 per cent of vegetable produced in India, worth 10 billionannually are lost due to improper post harvest handling, transportation andstorage methods. In most areas of the country, using food by-products and/orvegetables that do not meet market standards as food for ruminants is apractice that has been used with some success for many years. Long beforeany research was done on the value of by-products and unusual feedstuffs aspart of the livestock ration on ruminants, farmers were feeding their cattle andsheep vegetable waste such as over-ripe apples or substandard vegetables.Carrots and cantaloupes that do not make the vegetable packers grade havebeen used as successful part of the diet of cattle in many parts of the country.The high moisture content in these vegetables helps keep cattle fromdehydrating in the dry climate and cattle accept the new feed well becausethey enjoy the sweetness of the vegetables. However, because of seasonality,the carrots and cantaloupes are available only during specific seasons.

Utilization of vegetable and other crop waste as animal feedIn general, when vegetables are harvested, as much of the human non food

plant material as possible including leaves, stalks, stems and pods is left inthe field. Some of these are unavoidably brought into the packing or processingplant and become part of the waste residual along with cull, broken orunacceptable vegetables. Also included in vegetable wastes are stems fromleaf vegetables, cobs and husks from corn (Zea mays), and cores fromcabbage (Brassica oeleracea var. capitata). Most vegetable wastes aredisposed of and not dried because the moisture content is too high to enable



the wastes to be burned. The main value of leaf meals appears to be as apigment and vitamin source for poultry. Of the wastes discussed only pimento(Pimento officinalis) wastes and possible artichoke (Cynara scolymus) wastesare currently being dried. The following is a review of information on dehydratedvegetable wastes. Although many of these wastes are fed to livestock,information is not readily available on their feeding value.

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) waste includes butt ends and brokenspears. Most wastes are carded by water, and the screened wastes are usedfor animal feed. Asparagus waste was dehydrated ground in a hammermilland fed to sheep and dairy cows. The composition of the mean was 17.2percent crude protein, 39 per cent nitrogen-free extract, 1.1 per cent etherextract, and 35.1 crude fiber on a dry matter basis. The dried waste could besubstituted for fair quality roughage. It was palatable to sheep but less palatableto dairy cows.

Lima beans (Phaseolus limensis) are threshed either by mobile field vinersor by stationary viners. Vines and pods from field viners are plowed under, butat stationary viners these may be collected for feed use. Many agriculturalcrops have potential use as animal feeds. Most farmers in developing countriesrely for their food security on the cultivation of cereals, root crops and highvalue crops such as fruits and vegetables, and these may take priority in theallocation of land.

Fruit, vegetables and root crops play an important role as staples in thehuman diet in most developing countries. As a result, there is a wide range ofpotential by-products and residues from food crops which are often under-utilized or wasted. Much of the crop, and therefore the majority of the by-products from these crops, may only be available for short periods - but inrelatively large volumes, and under normal situations a significant portion ofthe crop may be unused (e.g. large quantities of mangoes may be wastedduring the fruiting season). The ensiling of many of these crop by-products is

One way of preserving their value as sources of feed for livestock.Bananas are picked green and ripened in storage, but in banana exportingcountries, large quantities of rejected bananas are often available for use inanimal feed. Consisting largely of starch, they are low in fibre, protein andmineral content and need to be fed together with grass or other roughage aswell as a protein supplement and mineral mix. Cattle will eat bananas they areless palatable to sheep and goats. Bananas can also be fed to pigs. The seedsfrom the pods of ripe okra can be used for chicken feed, and can be used asa protein supplement for monogastric livestock. The fruits are enjoyed by bothcattle and pigs. The kernels or seeds can be used as an ingredient inconcentrates for ruminants. Gluts of mangoes can be preserved when unripeby ensiling.

M Thangam


Kitchen waste as feed for small stockKitchen waste is often fed to livestock as a supplement to their diet.

Depending on the nature of the waste, it can make a valuable contribution tothe animals' diet. Care must be taken when feeding kitchen waste it as it canbe a source of infection for the animals. In extreme cases, this can result incontamination of the meat or eggs produced and cause illness in peopleconsuming the livestock products. In some countries, certain types of kitchenor catering waste are banned from entering livestock feed. By its nature, kitchenwaste is very variable and it is difficult to make any kind of estimate as to itsnutritive value. However, it has the advantage that it is a feed resource thatlivestock are likely to find palatable and will derive some benefit from. It isalso a resource that would otherwise go to waste. What it is made up of will ofcourse be largely governed by the livestock keepers' own diet (for example,whether it is made up of leftover rice or tortillas will depend on what is thestaple food of the livestock keeper). These leftover staples are likely to bestarchy, and so will be a good source of digestible energy to the livestock.Care should be taken when feeding sheep and goats, however, because feedinglarge quantities of cooked cereal to sheep and goats that are not accustomedto it can cause bloat. Vegetable waste, especially green vegetable waste,provides vitamins that are of particular value to pigs and poultry. Pulses andbeans will also provide protein, just as they do for humans.

Hazards from kitchen waste as a feed sourceThe greatest hazard associated with feeding kitchen waste to livestock

comes from feeding animal waste. Although this is likely to be an excellentsource of high quality protein, the risks of transmitting disease are muchgreater when feeding animal waste. Where is used it must be cookedthoroughly and should be fed fresh, as the risk of infection will increasesignificantly with storage.

Estimated loss of fruits & vegetables in developing countriesCommodity Estimated loss (%) Commodity Estimated loss (%)

Fruits VegetablesBanana 20-80 Onions 16-35Papaya 40-100 Tomato 5-50Avocado 43 Plantain 36-100Apricot 28 Cabbage 37Citrus 20-95 Cauliflower 49

Grapes 27 Lettuce 62Raisins 20-45 Roots/Tubers 15Apples 14 Carrots 44

Potatoes 5-40Sweet potatoes 35-95



Waste utilization(i) Fruits and vegetable wastes are a rich source of vital constituents like

carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, fibres etc.(ii) Mango seed kernel is rich in carbohydrates, fats, proteins and minerals,

orange melon and pumpkin seeds can provide fats and mineral matters.(iii) Most of these wastes are nutritionally rich. Fruits and vegetables are grown

all over the country incurring wastes everywhere.(iv) Estimated loss of fruits and vegetables in developing countries range from

14% in apple to 40-100% in papaya in case of fruits and as high as 35-100% in plantain and 35-95% in sweet potato in case of vegetables andthe nature of some of these wastes, value added by products which couldbe recovered for their use as animal feed.

Possible by-products from solid wastes in processing units(i) Apple: 20-30% waste, mostly pomace and possible by products are Juice,

wine, vinegar, pectin, cattle feed Essential oil, pectin.(ii) Mango: 40-60% waste and mostly peel, pulp waste, hull and kernels can

be utilized for making pectin, cattle feed, alcohol/Wine, vinegar, juice-fat,tannins, starch

(iii) Citrus: 50-60% waste consisting Peels, seeds and pulp. Mostly convertedin to cattle feed, peel candy etc. Essential oil, pectin, cattle feed, peelcandy etc.

(iv) Pineapple: 30-60% waste can be utilized for Juice, wine, syrup, bromeline, cattle feed, biogas

(v) Tomato: 20-30 waste consisting core, peel and seeds can be utilized formaking animal feed, seed oil and meal.

(vi) Potato: Peel and coarse solids is converted in to animal feed, single cellprotein.

(vii) Banana: Major waste consists of Pseudostems, leave, suckers etc.(viii) Oil palm: Trunk/Fronds, Empty bunches, fibre and shell Palm kernel cake/

pellet can be used in many ways.(ix) Pomegranate: Rind powder, leaves and flowers can be processed/utilized

in many useful products

Sources of animal feed(i) Orange waste in the form of peels, rags and seeds are dried in Florida

and California for use as a livestock feed. Its use is similar to canemolasses and is widely used for feeding dairy and beef cattle.

(ii) Ripe banana peels are found littered all around the streets, causingpollution and skidding risks. In Vietnam, these peels are sun dried foruse as poultry feed.

(iii) Pineapple bran has a great demand as a cattle feed in the Hawaii Island.

M Thangam


(iv) Cannery wastes are also being fed to the dairy cattle in Hawaii afterensiling.

(v) Proximate composition of the silage made out of pineapple tops andleaves with molasses and urea is almost comparable to any of thecommonly used grass silage.

(vi) Major waste like mango seed kernel is a good source of carbohydrateand can replace around 20% of corn in growing and egg laying chickenrations.

(vii) Drying of mango kernels and peel can make high class energy food foranimal feed.

ConclusionsSelf-sufficiency of food in India is only 80 percent. The very low self

sufficiency of animal feed (only 60 percent) is one of the major reasons forthis and the poorly balanced feed supply makes the l ivestock sectorunsustainable. The use of recycled food waste for feed is an effective methodof improving feed self-sufficiency and reducing the environmental burden fromfood waste. In many Asian countries, urbanization induces an imbalance ofnutrient accumulation. While large amounts of nutrient accumulate in urbanareas as food waste, livestock in the countryside are suffering from malnutrition.Technological development in the use of food waste for animal feed willcontribute to the improvement of self-sufficiency of food. This will help correctthe imbalance in nutrient accumulation and make animal-agriculture moresustainable.



Role and Activities of Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union

Limited for Enhancement of Milk Production

R B [email protected]

Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited, Curti, Ponda, Goa � 403 401

Goa state has 3702 sq km area with approximately 16 lakh human population.Demand for milk of the state is about four lakhs liters per day (LLPD). However,this state is producing only 1.40 LLPD milk, thus there is deficit of 2.60 lakhliters milk per day. This deficit predicts huge demand for milk production andmarketing in the state. Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited

was established with major objectives for procurement of surplus milk fromthe dairy co-operative societies and there by processing and distribution ofthe same in the state, where as the Department of Animal Husbandry wouldsupport for milk production as per the demand and make available inputservices as animal health cover, extension activities, technical assistance inthe dairy enterprise.

The Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited is having affiliation

of 175 Dairy Co-operative Societies with 18000 milk producing membersproviding average 46000 liters milk per day round the year. Beside local milk,average 25000 liters milk is procured from neighboring state to fillful thedemand of the Goan consumers. Considering the huge demand for milk, MilkUnion has shouldered the responsibilities as resource agency for enhancementof milk production by providing services like animal health cover, breeding,feeding, technical input services, and infrastructures beside the procurementand processing of the milk. In spite of various milk enhancement schemesimplemented by the State Govt. agencies, there is no substantial growthobserved in the milk production, thus creating huge gap between the demandand supply of milk in the state. Many reasons are attributed for this and feware enlisted below.(i) Milk producers with small land holdings(ii) Rapid urbanization leading to decrease in grazing and fodder lands(iii) Coastal, mining and hilly areas(iv) Low availability of land for green and dry fodder production(v) Non availability of feed ingredients in Goa for cattle feed production

The above reasons have attributed for higher milk production cost in Goastate in comparison to neighboring states. Animal feeding cost contributesabout 70% of the expenditure in dairying. It is the need of the hour to bringdown the cost of feeding there by contributing directly for cost of milk production

R B Dhuri



and increasing profitability in dairy business. In the above circumstances, ourmilk producers are trying to survive by continuing milk production with thehelp of concentrate feed produced and distributed by the Goa Milk Union. MilkUnion is also involved in supply of dry fodder like kadaba kutti and maize chunnialong with the concentrates at subsidized rates to the milk producers in thestate. Various feed products as per the need of the milch animals aremanufactured as below.(i) High protein concentrate(ii) High energy concentrate(iii) Calf ration(iv) Pregnancy Ration(v) Maize chunni(vi) Kadaba kutti (procured and sold)

Most of the ingredients required for manufacturing of cattle feed are procuredfrom outside state, hence feed manufacturing cost is more as compared tothe rates in neighboring states . Milk Union as a policy matter has been sellingquality feed to the milk producers at subsiderised rates to minimize the costof milk production at milk producer level. This has encouraged the milkproducers to take-up dairying to some extent, but the milk Union has beenloosing up to one crore rupees annually. This amount is compensated throughmilk business but the ultimate looser is the milk producer by affecting the milkprocurement rates at Dairy Co-operative level, based on the profitability of theMilk Union. In future milk producers may continue to feed their animals largelyon the subsidized concentrate feeds and this policy would be highly fatal forthe Milk Union and Milk produces� survival. To overcome this, the best possible

proposition is to explore the possibility of making availability of green and dryfodder for milch animals to cut down the production cost.

Goan geographical topography dose not provide much suitable plain areasfor taking up crop cultivation on mass scale including mass scale green foddercultivation. However, the urgent need is to increase the local milk productionat drastic pace to meet the demand of milk. Need based co-coordinated effortsare required from different Departments like Agriculture, Animal Husbandry,PWD, Forest, ICAR, Banks to facilitate green fodder production at mass scalethere by reducing the cost of milk production by ` 2/ liter milk. The massscale green fodder Cultivation will support for(i) Minimizing feeding cost by ` 2/ lite milk(ii) As a source of natural and major part of feed(iii) Optimization of growth and to enhance milk production(iv) Cheaper source of nutritious feed(v) Minimize fertility related problems.

Economics of green fodder feeding

Role and Activities of Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited for Enhancement of Milk Production


The cost of production of green fodder works out to be apprxt `1/- per kg inGoa conditions. Generally, feeding 10 kg good quality green fodder providesbasic nutrients of one kg concentrates for milk production. When animal issubjected for green fodder feeding up to 20 kg per day, milk producers� can

easily reduce two kg concentrate feed. Considering the present concentratefeed cost as `10/ kg, the farmer is directly benefited by ` 20/ day/ animal byreplacing two kg concentrate feed in addition to other enlisted benefits.

In the present scenario in Goa, the amount of available green fodder anddry fodder availability is approximately 500 MT and 240 MT per day, againstthe requirement of 2000 MT of green fodder and 450 MT of dry fodders perday. This has created challenge before the milk producing community to acceptthe need based requirement of fodder production as prime motive to enhancemilk production through sustainable dairy business in the state. Goa Milk Unionhas accepted the challenges to enhance the green fodder production byproposing 100 ha land for mass scale green fodder cultivation at initial phaseand to serve this cultivated land as fodder seed bank for future mass scalefodder production. Fodder seed bank will meet the demand of good qualityroot slips required for the further cultivation. By considering past experienceof non availability of green fodder root slips on large scale in Goa and otherplaces, it is proposed to establish green fodder seed bank in state only. This100 ha fodder seed bank will enable to provide root slips for bringing 2000 haof land under mass scale green fodder cultivation for next five years. Thisfodder seed bank in Goa will save huge amount on purchase, transportationcost of procuring fodder seed material from other states. It is proposed tocover 400 ha land every year by way of utilization of seedlings from this bank.Total land under green fodder production will be able to support for day to dayrequirement of fodder to 40000 cattle and buffaloes population including theyoung and adult stock population of the state. This project would support ruraleconomy by providing indirect employment to six lakh lobour days. Benefitsfrom reduced cost of milk production by utilizing fodder from these lands areexpected to be ` 11 crore annually. It will also provide indirect help to reducethe cost of feed by ` 2/ liter milk, in addition to the cost of annual total fodderyield. However, coordinated support is required for successful implementationof the project.

Irrigation facilityIdentification of non irrigated land and to provide irrigation facility like pump

sets, recharging of open/ bore wells, sprinklers, etc. by the Department ofAgriculture, PWD and allied Departments. Special provision for availing thesefacilities with subsidy linked components is to be created from these agencies.

Land availability

R B Dhuri


Most of the large available lands are kept barren due to Tenancy Act byGovt of Goa. Necessary efforts are expected from the Govt. end to passlegislation for lands allowed on lease for fodder cultivation and should beexcluded from Tenancy Act.

Provision for good quality fodder planting materialMost of green fodder varieties available in state do not generate higher

biomass, hence quality fodder like CO4 variety seed material to be madeavailable at free of cost to have parent seed material in the fodder bank. Fortimely supply of fodder planting material agencies like ICAR, Dept of AnimalHusbandry, Agriculture and Forest can play valuable role to achieve desirableresults.

Technical guidance for cultivation practicesIn order to create mass awareness among milk producers a need based

module for scientific ways of cultivation of green fodder requires to be initiatedby the related institutes.

Financial assistanceThe Co-operative Banks, NABARD, Agricultural Development Banks and

Govt of Goa should come forward to support for easy f inance to thebeneficiaries.

Enrichment of agro industrial by-productsThe state generates large quantity of agro industrial by-products every day

which can be converted to livestock feed as cheap source of nutritionallyenriched dietary feed. The commonly available by-products are paddy straw,brewery waste grain, sugarcane bagas, cashew apple waste, areca nut dryleaves, which can be easily enriched to enhance its nutritive value andpalatability. As by-products are available in bulk with lower price its enrichmentwould serve as bulk filler feed for milking and dry animals. It is proposed toset up such enrichment plant by Goa Milk Union at cattle feed plant so asproper utilization of the available by-product can be converted to nutritive feedconveniently on commercial base. Enrichment of the by products will definitelylower the deficit of dry fodder and reduce the cost of feeding in milch animalsand non productive animals.

Role and Activities of Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited for Enhancement of Milk Production


Role and Activities of Department of Animal Husbandry andVeterinary Services, Goa for Enhancement of Milk Production

UVT PednekarDirectorate of AH & VS, Patto, Goa

The Department of Animal Husbandry plays a major role in providingveterinary health care and improving the genetic production potentialities oflivestock and poultry reared in the State. Apart from this, various beneficiaryoriented schemes are also being implemented for the economic upliftmentand welfare of the poor, downtrodden and weaker sections of the society.Various veterinary Institutions spread throughout the State provide the aboveservices.

Aims(i) Augmenting the production potentialit ies of l ivestock and thereby

increasing the production of Milk.(ii) Providing necessary and timely Veterinary assistance and health cover

to the livestock.(iii) Implementing various Central and State Government schemes for the

upliftment of rural poor.(iv) Providing information and training on basic and latest Animal Husbandry

practices.

InfrastructureThe Veterinary Health Cover is provided through a network of 5 Veterinary

Hospitals, 21 Dispensaries and 52 Sub-Centres. Also, the Department is havingDisease Investigation Unit located at Tonca Caranzalem, Key Village Scheme,Farmers Training Centre and Government Piggery Farm at Curti Ponda,Government Livestock Farm at Dhat Mollem, Cattle Breeding Farm atCopardem Sattari, Fodder Seed Production Farm at Kalay Sanguem,Government Poultry Farm at Ela Old Goa and Egg Markating Centre at PanajiMarket Goa.

Schemes of the Department of AH & VS, Goa

1. Modified Kamdhenu SchemeThis scheme is divided into 2 parts


1st Part

ObjectivesThe main objectives are

(i) To help the farmers to get financial assistance for the purchase of CrossBred Cows and Improved She Buffaloes for his Dairy Unit

(ii) To promote self employment in the Dairy sector(iii) To boost the milk production in the State(iv) To strengthen the Dairy Co-operative movement in the State.(v) To ensure sustainability and provide improved income and livelihood.(vi) To also encourage the schedule tribe and schedule caste communities

Eligibility(i) Any person residing in Goa for at least 15 years or more(ii) Knowledge or experience in Cattle or Buffaloes farming(iii) The applicant should be below 60 yrs of age.(iv) Only one member per household (as shown in the ration-card) is eligible(v) He should posses pucca cattle shed with proper drainage facilities &

facilities for storage of feed(vi) land for green fodder cultivation desirable(vii) Non Defaulter in the Financial Institutions(viii) Non- defaulter for the Department, with no back log of repayment under

any other Departmental scheme(ix) Any person who has availed Modern Dairy Scheme can avail the benefit

of Modified Kamdhenu Scheme only after five years.(x) Any farmer who has availed the purchase of animals under the Revised

Kamdhenu Scheme can purchase the balance of animals.(xi) Training Certificate from FTC will be mandatory in case of farmers having

no crossbred animals and no knowledge of dairy farming.

Documents to be produced(i) Residence Certificate from Mamlatdar/ Certificate from Chairman of

Dairy Society stating that he is a member of the society for last 10 yearsverified & attested by the Veterinary Officer or Assistant Director in-charge of the area.

(ii) Ownership papers of the land or any other documents to prove ownershipor NOC from owner of land in case of tenanted land or Undertaking bythe owner that he has been rearing animals since last 15 years, thesame should be verified and certified by local Veterinary Officer.

(iii) Certif icate of being schedule caste /schedule tribe issued by theCompetent Authority

(iv) Letter from Bank willing to finance the beneficiary.

Role and Activities of Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, Goa for Enhancement of Milk Production


(v) Certificate of Training in Dairy from Farmers Training Centre, if newfarmer.

(vi) Passport size photograph of the applicant.

2nd Part

ObjectivesThe main objectives are

(i) To facilitate the farmers in Goa to construct their own pucca cattle shedwith bank finance and Government subsidy

(ii) To assist farmers in extension of pucca cattle shed.

Eligibility(i) All farmer residing in Goa(ii) He should have a minimum of 10 animals of his own or should have

applied for loan under Kamdhenu scheme for 20 animals.(iii) Unemployed youth will be given preference.

Documents to be produced(i) Ownership documents and Form I & XIV or copy of lease deed or NOC

from the property owner incase of a tenant.(ii) Construction License from Panchayat(iii) Letter from Bank financing the construction of shed.(iv) In case he has no animals he has to submit all documents as required

under Kamdhenu scheme.(v) Passport size photograph duly attested by a Gazetted officer, MLA/MP.

2. Modern dairy unitFinancial assistance for establishment of modern dairy farm and purchase

of dairy farm equipments

Objectives(i) To enhance productivity, profitability, stability and sustainability and to

create self employment to educated and unemployed rural youth.(ii) To reach self sufficiency in milk production

Subsidy(i) 25% of the cost of plant and machinery will be granted as subsidy subject

to a maximum of Rs.3.00 lakhs to any individual for setting up of a newDairy farm, expansion of existing dairy unit, and purchase of moderndairy equipment for existing dairy units and renovation of existing cattleshed.

UVT Pednekar


(ii) The beneficiary can start the unit with his own finance or by taking loanfrom financing Institution.

(iii) For Milking Machine subsidy is @ 30% of the cost of the Milking Machine.

Condition for release of subsidy(i) The minimum unit size is of 10 cross-bred Cows or 10 adult improved

she-buffaloes.(ii) The unit should be located in Goa.(iii) The unit should be maintained for a minimum period of 10 years.(iv) The animals should be purchased from outside Goa.(v) The subsidy will be released only after completion of the unit in all

respects.(vi) The project report of the proposed units is to be submitted to the Director

of Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Services through the AreaGovernment Veterinary Officer/Assistant Director, along with the followingdocuments.

(vii) Documents indicating the ownership of land in Form No. 1 and XIV orcopy of lease deed or NOC from Land Lord in case of tenants. In caseof lease, the same should be for a minimum period of 10 years from thedate of starting the unit. In case of tenants, NOC from Land Lord shouldbe, to run the Unit for a minimum period of 10 years.

(viii) NOC from Municipality/ Panchayat should be submitted

Plant and Machinery includes

1. Cattle Shed 54 sq.mts. Carpet area for 10 animals. Proportionateincrease is allowed depending upon the number ofanimals. Maximum cost limit for the purpose of subsidyis Rs.2,800/- per sq.mt.

2. Cow dung pit (18 cu.mts. for 10 Animals, proportionate increase in sizeis allowed depending upon the number of animals).Maximum cost limit is Rs.200/- per cu.mt.

3. Store Room (4 x 4mts. Carpet area for 10 animals, proportionateincrease is allowed depending upon the number ofanimals) Maximum cost limit is Rs.2800/- per sq.mt.

4. First batch of Milch Maximum cost limit is Rs.12,000/- per Milch Animal5. Milking Machine Maximum cost limit Rs.52,000/- including installation

charges6. Water pump with otheraccessories and plumbing Rs.12,000/-7. A.I. Crate Maximum cost limit is 4000/-8. Other items Maximum cost limit Rs.8000/- for 10 animalsI. Cow ChainsII. Ghamelas Proportionate increase is allowed depending upon the

number of animals



III. BucketsIV. Milk CansV. Milking pailsVI. Spades

Subsidy(i) Bills/Vouchers pertaining to construction of cattle shed, cow dung pit,

store room.(ii) Purchase of receipts of milch animals along with Health Certificate from

Government Veterinary Officer/Assistant Director.(iii) Cash receipts in original of the equipments, machinery purchased,

Subsidy is admissible only for purchase of New Equipment Machinery.(iv) Documents showing Insurance of milch animals.(v) The above documents are to be submitted to Area Veterinary Officer/

Assistant Director.(vi) The beneficiary should run the Unit for a minimum period of ten years.

An Agreement in this regards is to be signed by the beneficiary with theDepartment.

(vii) The beneficiary can start unit with his own finance or by availing loanfrom Financial Institutions. In case, where the beneficiary avails loanfrom Financial Institutions, subsidy will be released through the concernedFinancing Institutions.

Farm equipment for existing unit

Milking machineAny farmer having 10 adult milch animals can purchase a milking machine

(electrically operated). The subsidy admissible is 30% of the cost subject tomaximum of Rs. 15, 600/-.

Chaff cutterAny farmer having 10 adult milch animals can purchase a chaff cutter

(electrically operated). The subsidy admissible is 25% of the cost subject tomaximum of Rs. 3, 000/-.

How to applyIn case of purchase of milking machine and chaff cutter, the farmer can

apply in a plain paper to the area Veterinary Officer/ Assistant Director

Documents for subsidyOriginal bill of milking machine/ chaff cutter

UVT Pednekar


3. Assistance for Cattle and Buffalo Development

3.1. Key Village SchemeUnder this Scheme Artif icial Insemination service is provided at the

doorstep of the farmer. Instead of farmer bringing the animals to a centrallocation, the official goes to the farmers place, which results in betterunderstanding with farmers. Support services like treatment of infertility case,vaccination and nutritional advice are available at all Hospitals, Dispensariesand Sub-Centers.

3.2. Cattle FarmsThere are two Cattle Farms

(i) Cattle Breeding Farm, Copardem, Valpoi Sattari.(ii) Livestock Farm, Dhat, Mollem Sanguem

Services available(i) Centers of demonstration of Modern Dairy Management and practical

training to the farmers and students.(ii) To sell quality cross-bred heifers to the progressive farmers.(iii) Supply of Fodder Seed material to the farmers free of cost.(iv) Sale of male calves and bulls for breeding purpose(v) Produce Milk.

4. Special Calf Rearing Scheme

ObjectiveTo assist the farmers to rear their cross-bred cows into healthy heifers

within the prescribed time.

Guidelines of the scheme(i) Produce Milk.(ii) The farmer must register the birth of the cross-bred calf within 1 to 15

days of its birth, so that proper birth weight is recorded along with detailsof a) Mother cow b) A.I. etc as recorded on the registration form c)Veterinary Officer or inseminator who has performed the A.I. Theregistration will be made primarily by local Key Village Sub Centre andthen passed on to the office of Area Veterinary Officer/Assistant Directorof the Taluka.

(iii) As the calf is fed on colostrums and then milk the case paper of the calfwill be prepared for feeding the calf on concentrates starting aftercompletion of 3 months of age. At 3 months the calf should weigh atleast 60 kg.

(iv) The farmers will be entitled to get 4 installments of feed on quarterlybasis (i) 1st quarter at 3-6 (ii) 2nd quarter at 6-9 months, (iii) 3rd quarter 9-



12 months, (iv) 4th quarter 12-15 months. Each farmer family will be entitledto avail benefit of 10 calves only. Hence a household will be able to have 10good quality cows to sustain his dairy farm at the end of the scheme.

(v) All calves will be identified by microchiping at the time of registration besidenatural identification marks.

(vi) The calves should attain weight gain of at least 40 kgs during every threemonths interval after registration for feed so as to be considered for the nextfeed quarter. In case there is weight gain less than 40 kgs, but above 25kgs, a certificate may be issued by the area Veterinary Officer who may citevalid reasons for a lower weight gain. In such cases, further quarter of feedwill either be released or else discontinued at the discretion of theDepartment.

(vii) 100 kgs of feed will be supplied to farmer per quarter (3 months) and feedwill be supplied either to farmers at their door step or to the nearest KeyVillage Sub Centre/Dairy Society as the case may be after due intimation tothe farmers in advance by the area Veterinary Officer/Assistant Director.

(viii) The Director of Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Services will be the Authorityto sanction the feed quarters

5. Incentive to Dairy Farmers for Renovation /Repair of Cattle Shed

ObjectiveTo assist farmers to construct/repair existing cattle shed and thereby adopt

modern animal husbandry practices and rear healthy animals.

Eligibility(i) All farmers in the Western Ghats Area having minimum of five milk animals

irrespective of income status are eligible.(ii) Farmers who have availed such benefits in the past shall not be eligible for

the scheme.(iii) The farmer need not apply for Bank Finance and can utilize money from his

own resource.

Guidelines(i) The farmer must necessarily produce Form 1 & 14 or N.O.C. from the land

lord of at least 5 years.(ii) The farmer should apply for the scheme in the prescribed format given by

the Department.

6. Incentive to green fodder cultivation for perennial and seasonal fodderdevelopment in the state.

The major constraint in the field of dairy development in the state of Goais the lack of green fodder and under-feeding of the milch animals. It is said inthe true sense that by incorporating good quality feed combined with feeding

UVT Pednekar


of green fodder reduces the incidences of delayed breeding in both Cattle andBuffaloes and thereby reduces the inter calving period resulting in increasedmilk production. As such a provision of green fodder for feeding milch animalsis very essential.

Objectives(i) To increase green fodder production and make available the various

varieties of green fodder to the farmers for feeding to milch animals inorder to increase the milk production and make the State self sufficientin milk production.

(ii) To stress upon the farmers the importance of feeding nutritive greengrass and encourage them to stop the primitive practices of feeding onlydry paddy straw.

(iii) To create the importance in the minds of farmers of feeding the additionalgreen fodder to milch animals and vis-à-vis to reduce the cost of feeding

thereby reducing cost of milk production.(iv) Feeding green grass to milch animals makes available the salient nutritive

feed ingredients like vitamins, proteins, minerals etc and helps inmaintaining and increasing the fertil ity which is very essential formaintaining the productive status of animals and to reduce the intercalving period in order to promote calf a year programme which isinevitable for successful dairy farming in the State.

(v) To encourage the farmers/individuals to bring surplus barren lands/unused Agricultural land under cultivation, thereby giving them a sourceof income and helping them to reduce the unemployment problem in theState.

(vi) To encourage utilization of land mass by farmer who do not own animalsbut could grow fodder as a cash crop.

Perennial fodderIncentive under Perennial Fodder Cultivation @ Rs. 20,000/- per hectare

area of land for the 1st year, Rs. 10,000/- each per hectare area of land for 2nd

& 3rd year. The Incentive for Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe farmersshall be @ Rs. 25,000/- per hectare area of the land for 1st year and Rs.15,000/- each for 2nd & 3rd year. Minimum area for fodder cultivation is 1000sq. mts. and maximum area is 10 hectars.

Seasonal fodderIncase of seasonal fodder incentive will be given @ Rs. 5,000/- per hectare

of land for a maximum area of 10 hectares and minimum area of 1000 sq.mts. Incentive of Rs. 6,000/- per hectar area of fodder cultivation will be givento scheduled caste & scheduled tribe beneficiaries



7. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas YojanaThis is a scheme for breeding of local cows in the state of Goa.

Objectives(i) To improve & sustain the productivity of local livestock through use of

Artificial Insemination practices.(ii) To compensate the farmer for the man-hours lost in approaching the

local Veterinarian.(iii) To assist the farmer financially in stall feeding the local animals.(iv) To indirectly reduce the menace of stray animals.

8. Farmers Training & Education

Farmers Training CentreIt is located at Curti � Ponda with hostel facilities.

Services available(i) Short term courses for dairy farmers.(ii) One day field training for farmers in the field of dairy production.(iii) Interested persons may contact nearest Government Veterinary Doctor

or Extension Officers(AH)(iv) Rs.75/- Stipend paid to dairy farmers who attends the training

9. Milk Incentives to Dairy FarmerMilk Incentives are paid to dairy farmers as a support Price @ Rs. 1.8/-

per liter of milk produced in Goa through Milk societies.

10. Department of AH & VS support for enhancement of milk production at a glance

Cross bred cow 50 % Rs. 8000/-Calf ration 400 KGS @10/-

(subject to revision) Rs. 4000/-Milk incentives 1.8/- per liter for 3000 lit./

lactation(subject to revision) Rs. 5400/-Cattle shed (Infrastructure) Per animal Rs. 5000/-Milking Machine Rs. 15600/-Chaff cutter Rs. 3000/-Fodder Rs. 40000/- (for 3yrs)Vaccination FreeArtificial Insemination Services FreeLab charges Free

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List of Verious Organizations

List of State Seeds Corporation

1 Managing Director, Maharastra State Seeds Corporation Limited,Mahabeej Bhawan, Amravati Road, PB No 119, Akola - 444004

2 Managing Director, Karnataka State Seeds Corporation Limited, BellaryRoad, Hebbal, Bangalore - 560024

3 Managing Director, MP State Seeds Corporation Limited, Arera Hills,Bhopal - 462016

4 Managing Director, Orissa State Seeds Corporation Limited, Santrapur,Bhubaneswar - 751002

5 Managing Director, Punjab State Seeds Corporation Limited, SCO No35-36, Sector 22A, Chandigarh - 160002

6 Managing Director, Gujrat State Seeds Corporation Limited, Beej Bhawan,Sector 10-A, Gandhinagar - 382043

7 Managing Director, Assam State Seeds Corporation Limited, Kanapara,Guwahati � 781022

8 Managing Director, Andhra Pradesh State Seeds Corporation Limited, 5-10-193 (2nd Floor), HACA Bhawan, Opposite Public Gardens, Hyderabad- 500004

9 Managing Director, Rajasthan State Seeds Corporation Limited, PantKrishi Bhawan, Jaipur

10 Managing Director, West Bengal State Seeds Corporation Limited, 4,Gangadhar Babu Lane, Kolkata - 700012

11 Managing Director, Uttar Pradesh Seeds Development CorporationLimited, C-973-974B, Faizabad Road, Mahanagar, Lucknow

12 Managing Director, US & TDC Limited, Pantnagar, Haldi, Nainital,Uttarakhand

13 Managing Director, Haryana Seeds Development Corporation Limited,Bay No 2-3, Sector 22-A, Panchkula

14 Managing Director, Bihar Rajya Beej Nigam Limited, Mithapur FarmCampus, Mithapur, Patna - 800001

15 Managing Director, Chhattisgarh Rajya Beej Avum Krishi Vikas Nigam,Raipur - 492001



List of State Agricultural Universities

1 Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Administrative Office, RajendraNagar, Hyderabad-500030, Andhra Pradesh

2 Anand Agricultural University, Anand 388110, Gujarat3 Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat 785013, Assam4 Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia-741252, West

Bengal5 Birsa Agricultural University, Kanke, Ranchi-834006, Jharkhand6 Central Agricultural University, P.O. Box 23, Imphal-795004, Manipur7 Chandra Shekar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur-

208002, Uttar Pradesh8 Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004,

Haryana9 CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur-176062,

Himachal Pradesh10 Dr Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli Distt, Ratnagiri

415 712, Maharashtra11 Dr Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Krishinagar,Akola-444104,

Maharashtra12 Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Solan,

Nauni-173230, Himachal Pradesh13 Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-

263145,Distt Udham Singh , Nagar , Uttaranchal14 Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University, Ludhiana -

141004, Punjab15 Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Krishak Nagar, Raipur-492012,

Chhattisgarh16 Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Jabalpur-482004, Madhya

Pradesh17 Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadg-362001, Gujarat18 Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikara, Trichur - 680656, Kerala19 Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur,

Rajasthan 31300120 Maharashtra Animal Science & Fishery University, Seminary Hills, Nagpur-

440006, Maharashtra21 Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413722, Maharashtra22 Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani-431402, Maharashtra23 Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj,

Faizabad -224229, Uttar Pradesh24 Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari-396450 Gujarat25 Orissa Univ. of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneshwar-751003, Orissa

List of State Agricultural Universities


26 Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab27 Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner-334006,Rajasthan28 Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur 848125, Bihar29 Sardark rush inagar -Dant iwada Agr icu l tu ra l Un ivers i t y, Sardar

Krushinagar, Distt Banaskantha, Gujarat-38550630 Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology,

Modipuram, Meerut - 250110 Uttar Pradesh31 Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, Railway

Road, Jammu 180012, J&K32 Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of

Kashmir, Shalimar Campus, Shrinagar-191121, Jammu & Kashmir33 Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, Administrative Office, Regional

Library Building, Tirupati-51750234 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003, Tamil Nadu35 Tamil Nadu Veterinary & Animal Science University, Chennai-600051,

Tamil Nadu36 University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, GKVK,Bangalore-560065,

Karnataka37 Universi ty of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Dharwad-580005,

Karnataka38 UP Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwa

Vidhyalaya evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura-281001 , UttarPradesh

39 Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, P.O. Pundibari, Dist. Coach Bihar-736165, West Bengal

40 West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences, 68 KB Sarani,Kolkata-700037, West Bengal

41 Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University,Nandinagar, PB No 6, BIDAR 585401, Karnataka

42 University of Agricultural Sciences, Lingasugur Road, Raichur � 584101

Karnataka43 University of Horticultural Sciences, Sector No 60 Navanagar Bagalkot

587102 Karnataka44 Andhra Pradesh Horticultural University, DCC Bank Buildings, PB No 7

Tadepalligudem 534101 West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh45 Rajmata Vijayraje Sciendia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Race Cource Road,

Gwalior 474002 Madhya Pradesh



List of ICAR Institutes

Deemed Universities - 41 Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi2 National dairy Research Institute, Karnal3 Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar4 Central Institute on Fisheries education, Mumbai

Institutions - 451 Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack2 Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora3 Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur4 Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry5 Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow6 Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore7 Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur8 Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore9 Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi10 Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore11 Central Institute of Sub Tropical Horticulture, Lucknow12 Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Srinagar13 Central Institute of Arid Horticulture, Bikaner14 Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi15 Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla16 Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum17 Central Plantation Crops research Institute, Kasargod18 Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair19 Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut20 Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun21 Indian Institute of Soil Sciences, Bhopal22 Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal23 ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region Including Centre of Makhana, Patna24 Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad25 Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur26 ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Goa27 ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani28 National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management, Malegaon, Maharastra29 Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal30 Central Institute on Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana31 Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Ranchi32 Central Institute of Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai33 National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fiber Technology, Kolkata

List of ICAR Institutes


34 Indian Agricultural Statistical Research Institute, New Delhi35 Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan36 Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom37 Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar38 National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore39 Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar40 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi41 Central Institute of Brackish Water Aquaculture, Chennai42 Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore43 Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin44 Central Institute of Fresh Water Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar45 National Academy of Agricultural Research & Management, Hyderabad

National Research Centres - 171 National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi2 National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi3 National Research Centre for Litchi, Muzaffarpur4 National Research Centre for Citrus, Nagpur5 National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune6 National Research Centre for Banana, Trichi7 National Research Centre for Seed Spices, Ajmer8 National Research Centre for Pomegranate, Solapur9 National Research Centre on Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim10 National Research Centre on Agroforestry, Jhansi11 National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner12 National Research Centre on Equines, Hissar13 National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad14 National Research Centre on Pig, Guwahati15 National Research Centre on Yak, West Kamang16 National Research Centre on Mithun, Medziphema, Nagaland17 National Research Centre for Agricultural Economics & Policy Research, New Delhi

National Bureaux - 61 National Bureau of Plant Genetics resources, New Delhi2 National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Micro-organisms, Mau, Uttar Pradesh3 National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects, Bangalore4 National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur5 National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal6 National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow

Directorates/ Project Directorates - 251 Directorate of Maize Research, New Delhi2 Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad



3 Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal4 Directorate of Oilseed Research, Hyderabad5 Directorate of Seed Research, Mau6 Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad7 Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagarh8 Directorate of Soybean Research, Indore9 Directorate of Rapeseed and Mustard Research, Bharatpur10 Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan11 Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research, Pune12 Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur13 Directorate of Oil Palm Research, Pedavegi, West Godawari14 Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Anand15 Directorate of Floriculture Research, Pusa, New Delhi16 Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research, Modipuram17 Directorate of Water Management Research, Bhubaneswar18 Directorate of Weed Science Research, Jabalpur19 Project Directorate on Cattle, Meerut20 Project Directorate on Foot & Mouth Disease, Mukteshwar21 Project Directorate on Poultry, Hyderabad22 Project Directorate on Animal Disease Monitoring and Surveillance,

Hebbal, Bangalore23 Directorate of Information & Publication in Agriculture, New Delhi24 Directorate of Cold Water Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, Nainital25 Directorate of Research on Women in Agriculture, Bhubaneswar

List of Regional Research Institutes in Adjacent States of GoaKarnataka1 National Dairy Research Institute Southern Campus, Adugodi, Bangalore,

Karnataka2 Regional campus, Indian Veterinary Research Inst i tute, Hebbal,

Bangalore, Karnataka3 Regional Research Station, Indian Grassland and Fodder Research

Institute, Dharwad, Karnataka4 Regional Station, Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Vittal,

Karnataka5 Regional Station, Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kidu,

Karnataka6 Cardamom Research Centre, Appangala, Karnataka

Maharastra1 Centre for Rabi Sorghum, Solapur, Maharastra

List of Regional Research Institutes in Adjacent States of Goa


Phone Numbers of Various Organizations of GoaGoa State Code: 0832

ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Ela, Old Goa, Goa

Phone Numbers 2284678, 2284679,2285381 Fax 2285649

Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, GoaDirector 2437244, Fax 2437244Deputy Directors 2437245, 247840Veterinary Hospital, Tonca Caranzalem 2462423Disease Investigation Laboratory Tonca Caranzalem 2462919Veterinary Hospital Mapusa 2257237Veterinary Hospital Sonsodo, Margao 2759392Veterinary Dispensary Sanguem 2604852Veterinary Dispensary Quepem 2662243Veterinary Dispensary Vasco 2513259Veterinary Dispensary Bicholim 2313027Veterinary Dispensary Cuncolim 2865269Veterinary Dispensary Pernem 2201832Key Village Scheme, Curti Ponda 2312931Farmers Training Centre, Curti Ponda 2312479Veterinary Dispensary Valpoi 2374682Government Livestock Farm, Dhat 2612290Cattle Breeding Farm, Copardem 2379273Government Poultry Farm, Ela Old Goa 2284506

Goa State Co-operative Milk Producers� Union Limited, Curti, Ponda, Goa

Chairman 2312403Fax 2313790, 2315254

Managing Director 2313790Procurement Section 2312247Veterinary Section 2312247Cattle Feed Plant, Usgao 2344258Dairy Plant 2312637Marketing Section 2312521Security Gate 2318154Purchase 2315254Zonal Veterinary Dispensary, Curchorem 2651046Zonal Veterinary Dispensary, Colvale 2299172Zonal Veterinary Dispensary, Sanquelim 9420689646

Phone Numbers of Various Organizations of Goa

Nutritional interventions for sustainable dairy production in Goa

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