'MUSIC IS THE BEST MEANS WE HAVE OF DIGESTING TIME': A STUDY OF TEMPORAL PERCEPTION 'MUSIC IS THE...

Billy Joe Spinks K1124855

The Psychology of Music

MU6006

Dr. Oded Ben-Tal

Dr. Jane Masters

‘MUSIC IS THE BEST MEANS WE HAVE OF DIGESTING TIME’: A STUDY OF TEMPORAL PERCEPTION

‘MUSIC IS THE BEST MEANS WE HAVE OF DIGESTING TIME’: A STUDY OF TEMPORAL

PERCEPTION’ (HOLLOWAY, R. 2003, P.316)

BILLY JOE SPINKS K1124855

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1

METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................. 3

DESIGN ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3

PARTICIPANTS .................................................................................................................................................................... 3

PROCEDURES ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Apparatus and measurement: ................................................................................................................................. 4

Test Design: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4

RESULTS ........................................................................................................................................................... 7

DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................................... 11

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................. 11

APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................................... 13

Billy Joe Spinks K1124855 ‘Music is the Best Means We Have of Digesting Time’: A Study of Temporal Perception

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ABSTRACT

The primary objective of this study is to investigate whether musicians and non-

musicians are hindered in the performance of keeping a steady pulse when

subjected to a 30 second distraction via independent variables (IV) of music or white

noise, caused by beat induction towards the IV. This is investigated by analyzing the

deviation from the original tempo 30 seconds after the Pulse Period. 16 participants

both male and female; musician or non-musician were studied; 31.25% of

participants were music students at Kingston University; 87.5% of participants have

undertaken or are currently undergoing undergraduate studies. The results collected

show evidence of a much higher level of deviation

INTRODUCTION

To be able to Tap to a beat would be perceived as a relatively undemanding task,

however in actual fact, this activity is created by a ‘wide-ranging network of auditory,

motor and prefrontal areas (Kraus, N & Tierney, A. 2013). This study will investigate

whether the performance of a 60bpm pulse will be affected by a series of sonic

interruptions, as opposed to the speech related interruptions expressed by Patel and

Paretz (1997 p.202); and will establish the distinctions in deviation between

musically trained and non-musically trained participants and provides discourse into

which instrumentalists are best at keeping time. Knoll and Sternberg (1994 p.242)

declares active listening, with regards to music, as being defined in three tasks of

temporal psychophysics – Imitation, Perception and Production, and this study


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utilises all three in conjunction, to enable the participant to synchronise with the

Pulse Period; using beat induction and ‘metric encoding’, which Jones (2009, p.83)

declares ‘temporal acuity’

Snyder (2000 p.162) discloses that events outside of the 3-5 second window are

subject to long-term memory and that it is ‘very difficult to make accurate judgments

about the time intervals between events’, negating the ability to ‘directly perceive

their rhythm’. Therefore by exposing subjects to a 30 second excerpt of music,

following on from the pulse they are synchronising with, Honing (2012 p.85) refers to

this as Beat Induction and considers it a ‘fundamental human trait’, the discernment

of periodicity will be obscured to a level that is quantifiable.

No studies were found which compared the ability to maintain a constant pulse whilst

being interrupted by auditory stimuli of differing tempi.

Prior to the study’s commencement, four predictions were given:

a) Musicians would have a lower level of deviation from the target;

b) There would be a positive correlation between the amount of formal musical

training and the level of deviation from the target as a ‘musical ear’ is

developed over time;

c) Musicians who play a predominantly rhythm based instrument (i.e. drums),

would show a lower level of deviation than musicians who play a

predominantly melody based instrument (i.e. voice) as keeping time is a

primary function of their role within an ensemble;


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d) Musicians who immerse themselves in classical music genres will have a

higher level of deviation from the target than musicians who immerse

themselves in popular music as classical music is less commonly performed

in a strict tempo. Honing (2013, p.383) justifies this as Expressive Timing.

METHODOLOGY

Design

This experimental study was achieved within the structure of a two factorial design.

One factor separated participants; ‘Musically Trained’ (yes/no). The independent

variable IV (the extracts of music or white noise) are intended to affect the

dependent variable DV; the deviation in results from 60bpm.

Participants

This study used 16 participants (12 male, 4 female) with an age range of 22 to 55

(M=26.56; SD=11.25). 50% of participants are musically trained with a range of 10 to

21 years of formal music training (M=14.5; SD=4.63).

Figure 1.1 – Cross Tabulation of Distribution of male vs. female ; Musician vs Non-

Musician

Male Female TOTAL

Musically Trained 7 1 8

Non-Musically Trained 5 3 8

TOTAL 12 4 16


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Procedures

APPARATUS AND MEASUREMENT: A means to play audio from Soundcloud (nominally a Computer or Smartphone) was

needed to play the relevant stimulus sequence, which was prepared using industry

software. The subject performance of the task was recorded via smartphones and

computers. Soundcloud was utilised to enable the study to be carried out remotely,

recorded by the subject and emailed to the analyst. The results were analysed using

industry software to be beat-mapped, and an average tempo (BPM) determined,

contrary to the data collection method used by Tiffin-Richards et al (2004 pp.306-

307)

TEST DESIGN: The Participants were divided into 4 groups comprised of 2 musicians and 2 non-

musicians. Each group was given a different order of the Independent variables,

which were (approximate tempi):

• White Noise – no tempo

• Adios – Glen Miller 105BPM

• Concerto for Mandolin in C Major – Antonio Vivaldi 100BPM

• Firestarter - Prodigy 150BPM

• Knee Play no. 2 – Philip Glass 160BPM

• Vox Balanae (Paleozoic) – George Crumb 150BPM

IVs were chosen to represent different genres and have differing tempi that do not

closely correspond to the target pulse of 60BPM by closeness or multiplicty.


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The study began with a control of no intended disruption whereby a participant hears

a 15 second 60BPM pulse (Pulse Period) which the subject should synchronise with

and tap in time with; this is followed by 15 seconds of silence (Response Period) in

which they should continue to tap the 60BPM pulse; the control data is collected

from this. This is consequently followed by the pulse period which the subject should

again synchronise with and tap in time with, after this, the independent variable, a

excerpt of music or white noise is played for 30 seconds (Disruption Period) and the

subject should avoid synchronising with this and continue to tap the 60BPM Pulse

and persist through the Response Period also. The sequence of Pulse Period,

Disruption Period, Response Period is repeated a total of six times. (See figure 1.2.;

figure 1.3.)

Figure 1.2 – Depiction of study (Sectional)

Control

Pulse

Period

Response

Period

Test

Pulse

Period

Disruption

Period

Response

Period


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Figure 1.3 – Example Depiction of Study (Group 1)

Control

Test 1 – Concerto for Mandolin in C Major – Antonio Vivaldi (La

Stravaganza 2009)

Test 2 – Adios – Glenn Miller (Nelson Doroso, 2011)

Test 3 – Firestarter – Prodigy (The Prodigy, 2008)

Test 4 – Knee Play no.2 – Philip Glass (Jonathan Pillow, 2012)

Test 5 – Vox Balanae (Paleozoic) – George Crumb (incipitsify,

2013)

Test 6 – White Noise

The study was carried out at different times of day in different locations, to make the

study more accessible and to enable it to be carried out remotely, without the need

for the analyst to be present.


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RESULTS

In relation to the primary hypothesis, it is clear from the results that music has an

affect on the ability to be able to continue a pulse of a different tempo. Figure 2.1

illustrates the affect of task performance in relation to each IV. There is no obvious

track tempo that has a diminished effect and none that have an extreme effect,

however it must be noted that responses to White noise are the lowest, which proves

that music has a larger distraction level than silence, or constant non-rhythmic

sound.

Figure 2.1 – Deviation from target of 60BPM Musicians vs. non-musicians.

White Noise N/A 60.94 0.94 3.18 60.56 0.56 3.26

Adios - Glen Miller 105 61.19 1.19 2.33 58.5 1.5 3.06

Concerto for Mandolin in C Major – Antonio Vivaldi

100 61.25 1.25 3.8 59.94 0.06 0.78

Firestarter – Prodigy 150 61.93 1.93 2.9 58.7 1.3 3.6

Knee Play no.1 – Philip Glass

160 59.43 0.57 2.78 60.25 0.25 2.3

Vox Balanae (Paleozoic) – George Crumb

150 59.88 0.12 3.88 60.44 0.44 1.7

Independent Variable (IV)

Tem

po (B

PM

)

M N

on-M

usic

ians

M D

evia

tion

from

Tar

get

SD

Non

Mus

icia

ns

M M

usic

ians

M D

evia

tion

from

Tar

get

SD

Mus

icia

ns


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With regards to sub-hypothesis a) there is minor evidence to reinforce this (see

figure 2.2), as the standard deviation decreases as the years of musical training

increases, however the mean is not significantly correlated to support this theorem.

Figure 2.2 – A graph to illustrate the correlation between task performance and years

of musical training.

With the exception of one IV (Prodigy), Rhythmic musicians appear to have less

deviation from the target BPM of 60, and a lower Standard Deviation. Figure 2.3

displays the data to prove hypothesis c’s validity, however, as the study only


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measured the results of 2 rhythmic musicians and 6 melodic musicians, it isn’t

possible at this stage to base a concrete resolution to this hypothesis.

Figure 2.3 – Deviation from target of 60BPM rhythmic musicians vs. melodic

musicians.

White

Noise Miller Vivaldi Prodigy Glass Crumb

M Rhythmic 59.25 59 59.75 60 60 60.5

M Deviation

from Target 0.75 1 0.25 0 0 0.5

SD Rhythmic 1.06 2.83 0.35 4.95 2.12 1.41

M Melodic 61 58.33 60 58.25 60.33 60.5

M Deviation

from Target 1 1.67 0 1.75 0.33 0.5

SD Melodic 3.7 3.37 0.89 3.45 2.54 1.84

There is no data to support hypothesis d, however the group that provided the

smallest level of deviation to the Vivaldi extract was classical musicians, measuring a

deviation of 0.25BPM. (see figure 2.4)


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Figure 2.4 – Deviation from target of 60BPM classical musicians vs. popular

musicians.

White

Noise Miller Vivaldi Prodigy Glass Crumb

M Classical 62.5 58.13 60.25 58.88 61.13 60.38

M Deviation

from Target 2.5 1.88 0.25 1.13 1.13 0.38

SD Classical 3.11 3.07 0.96 3.95 1.78 2.14

M Popular 58.63 58.88 59.63 58.5 59.38 60.5

M Deviation

from Target 1.38 1.13 0.38 1.5 0.63 0.5

SD Popular 2.25 3.47 0.48 3.72 2.66 1.47


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DISCUSSION

Ordering effects were reduced as each testing group undertook the test with the

extracts played in differing orders, however a fully interactive online system whereby

the respondents could answer a short questionnaire to establish age, gender,

musical training and tested in a random order, with the results recorded straight from

the test could have enabled a much larger response rate, to be able to better discern

results.

Upon post study discussion with participants, a common grievance is that of fatigue,

as the task is continuous for 6m30s. Gooddy (1980, p.131) provides discourse to the

factors that influences our perception of Personal Time (PT), To rebuild this study to

better discern results, all test sections should be performed with a significant gap

between them, to allow subjects to regain concentration; energy and willing.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study has provided a level of evidence towards beat induction

affecting the level of ability to maintain a steady 60BPM pulse whilst listening to a

variety of music of differing tempi or White Noise. There was no direct correlation to

faster tempi having a larger effect on deviation from the target; however with further

more rigorous testing with a larger group of participants and a larger array of


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independent variables, as per the discussion, further research could reveal a more

direct correlation with other factors such as age; lingual aptitude or memory capacity.


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APPENDIX APPENDIX 1.1 TABLE OF RESULTS


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gooddy, W. (1977). The Timing and Time of Musicians. In: Critchley, M. and

Henson, R. A., ed. 1977. Music and the Brain. Southampton: The Camelot Press.

Ch.8.

Honing, H. (2012). Without it no music: beat induction as a fundamental musical trait.

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1252 (1) p.85-91

Holloway, R. (2005). On Music: Essays and Diversions 1963-2003. London:

Bloomsbury Publishing.

Honing, H. (2013). Structure and Interpretation of Rhythm in Music. In: Deutsch, D.,

ed. 2013. The Psychology of Music, 3rd ed. London, Academic Press. Ch.9.

Incipitify (2013). George Crumb – Vox Balaenae [w/score]. [Online]. [Accessed 27

Feb 2014]. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8zxHNG1dWo

Jonathan Pillow, (2012). Knee Play 2 (live) – Philip Glass, “Einstein on the Beach”.

[Online]. [Accessed 27 Feb 2014]. Available from:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VubAGXel_kE

Jones, M. (2009). Musical Time. In: Hallam, S., Cross, I. and Thaut, M., ed. 2009.

The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Ch.8.

Knoll, R. and Sternberg, S. (1994).Perception, Production and Imitation of Time

Ratios by Skilled Musicians. In: Aiello, R and Sloboda, J. A., ed. 1994. Musical

Perceptions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ch.12.

Kraus, N. and Tierney, A. (2013). The ability to tap to a beat relates to cognitive,

linguistic, and perceptual skills. Brain & Language. 124 (3), p.225-231.


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La Stravaganza. (2009). Vivaldi Mandolin Concerto in C RV 425. [Online]. [Accessed

27 Feb 2014]. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ikHCVWv1uvg

Nelson Doroso. (2011). The GLENN MILLER ORCHESTRA – Adios. [Online].

[Accessed 27 Feb 2014]. Available from:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vj21E6fvbng

Patel, A. D. and Peretz, I. (1997) Is music autonomous from language? A

neuropsychological appraisal. In: Deliège, I. and Sloboda, J., ed. 1997. Perception

and Cognition of Music. USA: Psychology Press. Ch.10.

Snyder, B. (2000). Music and Memory. USA, The MIT Press.

The Prodigy. (2008). The Prodigy - Firestarter. [Online]. [Accessed 27 Feb 2014].

Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wmin5WkOuPw

Tiffin-Richards, M. et al. (2004). Time reproduction in finger tapping tasks by children

with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and/or dyslexia.. DYSLEXIA. 10 (4), 299-

315.

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