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‘Moved by God’s compassion’ demonstrates the foundation of many Christian development aid organizations, but how does it become manifest in governmentally financed development aid? Four Prisma members are investigated in order to add valuable insights to the debates that revolve around the manifestation of Christian identity in development aid. Moved by God’s compassion with this world A study on the distinctive character of Christian development aid Westerveld, Hendrik Sander
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Transcript of Moved by God's compassion with this world - http
‘Moved by God’s compassion’
demonstrates the foundation of many Christian development aid organizations,
but how does it become manifest in governmentally financed development
aid? Four Prisma members are investigated in order to add valuable insights to the debates that revolve
around the manifestation of Christian identity in development aid.
Moved by God’s compassion with this world A study on the distinctive character of Christian development aid
Westerveld, Hendrik Sander
1
‘Moved by God’s compassion with this world: a study on the distinctive
character of Christian development aid.’
Information
Name: Hendrik Sander (Jan Willem) Westerveld
Student number: u1242487
ANR: 956582
University: University of Tilburg (UvT)
Faculty: School of Theology
Master: Master Christianity and Society (MaCS)
Course: Master Thesis
Supervisors: Prof. dr. Staf Hellemans and Prof. dr. Henk Jochemsen
Year and date: 2011, September 23rd
Place: Tilburg
2
Preface
This page just forms the start of many more pages that are yet to come and I hope that
it may offer you a pleasant reading. Before you start reading, I would like to let you
know that I really worked hard on this piece. Because of that very fact, I hope that the
effort also becomes visible in the sense that it may provide useful and interesting
insights. During the research I experienced that exploring the subject of my thesis is very
interesting and I am grateful that I had the possibility to investigate and obtain more
insight in it. I also hope that the result is experienced as “reader-friendly”, as I always
find it difficult to not be too elaborate. It forms a challenge to write neat, straightforward
sentences that cover the point that needs to be made. I tried to pay attention to this and
when I reflect on it; I think that I managed to a considerable extent. But of course
judging the thesis is not up to me, it is up to you and more specifically, it is a
responsibility of my supervisors.
My supervisors are also the people that I would like to thank most. Henk
Jochemsen supervised me as director of Prisma and he helped me out a lot. Although he
is a very occupied man, he managed to always read the parts that I sent him and, more
importantly, to provide useful feedback. Even more, he lent me books and articles that
proved their worth and often put me on the right track.
Staf Hellemans, the supervisor of the university, also made a considerable amount
of his time available. He particularly offered feedback on the methodology and he
assessed the outcomes of the research extensively. He helped to better structure my
conclusions and to build up the main point I wanted to make. As he is a sociologist, he
also greatly contributed to the content of the “social developments” chapter.
A third “supervisor” is Harm Goris. Although he is a rather unofficial supervisor he
particularly assessed the first three chapters of my thesis, as it was his task in the
colloquium course to guide students through the start-up phase of their thesis. I however
think that he offered me more help than he was expected to and especially in the
beginning of my thesis, he helped to get on the right track.
The thesis is a result of approximately six months research on four development
aid projects. I would not have been able to arrive at this result without the help of four
organizations and specifically without the help of: Leen Stok (Woord en Daad), Tim
Verduijn (Gereformeerde Zendingsbond), Henno Couprie (Leprazending) and Leen van
der Maas (Bijzondere Noden). They were willing to offer me the possibility to conduct an
interview and they answered my questions.
Last but not least I want to give special thanks to my family and friends who
motivated me during the whole process. Support can sometimes come in very handy.
3
Contents
- Abstract p.5
- Samenvatting p.6
- List of figures p.7
- List of tables p.8
Chapter 1: Introduction. p.9
Part I: Theoretical Background
Chapter 2: History of (Christian) development aid in the Netherlands p.14
§ 2.1 Missionary work, (world)diaconate and development cooperation p.14
Chapter 3: The impact of societal developments p.18
§ 3.1 A broad perspective: the influence of time-periods p.18
Chapter 4: Prisma and Christian development aid p.21
§ 4.1 Prisma and its members p.21
§ 4.2 The Christian identity of Prisma(-members) p.22
§ 4.3 Prisma vision papers p.26
Chapter 5: Rules and regulations of MFS-I p.30
§ 5.1 ICCO-Alliance p.30
§ 5.2 The distribution of funds among Prisma-members p.31
§ 5.3 Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation (PME) p.33
Chapter 6: Models for investigating identity dynamics p.34
§ 6.1 Identity building blocks p.34
§ 6.2 Operationalization p.37
4
Part II: Results
Chapter 7: Methodology p.41
§ 7.1 Answering the main question p.41
Chapter 8: Empirical results p.44
§ 8.1 Bijzondere Noden p.44
§ 8.2 Leprazending p.51
§ 8.3 Woord en Daad p.56 § 8.3 Gereformeerde Zendingsbond p.62
Chapter 9: Discussion p.68
§ 9.1 A theoretical contribution p.68
§ 9.2 Comparing constituencies p.71
§ 9.3 Comparing content p.72 § 9.4 Comparing partnerships p.74
§ 9.5 Comparing personnel p.76
Chapter 10: Conclusions p.77
§ 10.1 Main conclusions p.77
Bibliography p.82
Appendices p.85
Appendix A: Interviewguide p.85
Appendix B: Letter to organizations p.86
5
Abstract
Two years ago The Netherlands celebrated its 60th birthday of coordinated development
aid. Ever since 1949, The Netherlands have been active in development aid and
particularly in the first decades of that time-period, a great presence of Christian
development aid became visible. This transformed over the course of years as
secularization developments increasingly influenced Christian organizations and the
Christian ethos.
In contrast with secularization developments, contemporary times still provide a
relatively fruitful soil for the existence of many Christian organizations as Christian
organizations are still very active in many of the same work fields as non-Christian
organizations. It is sometimes even mentioned that it does not, or should not make a
difference whether a Christian- or a non-Christian development aid organization is
sponsored for they both offer aid that is aimed at providing means to disadvantaged
people to enjoy better living standards. A presence of a Christian autograph does not
straightforwardly resemble a clear manifestation of Christian identity and the topic of
Christian identity manifestation is therefore investigated in this research.
The focus on pure humanitarian aid is particularly created through the model of
co-financing; a model where the government accounts for a part of the funds. It provides
the government a share in aid, but the correspondent focus on pure humanitarian aid
does not prevent Christian organizations from applying for it and from participation. As
the title of this research makes clear, I assume that the strong Christian foundation
(Moved by God’s compassion) even creates a difference with other non-Christian
organizations. I wonder how the distinct background may become manifest in the field of
development aid, especially in projects where the government has a share in aid
programs. The outcomes of this research therefore direct attention to sets of Christian
identity elements and the process of identity manifestation of four Christian organizations
that are active in co-financed development aid projects.
6
Samenvatting
Twee jaar geleden vierde Nederland haar 60-jarige ontwikkelingshulp-verjaardag.
Nederland is actief in ontwikkelingshulp sinds 1949 en vooral in de eerste decennia van
die periode was de aanwezigheid van Christelijke ontwikkelingshulp duidelijk zichtbaar.
In de loop der jaren veranderde dit doordat ontwikkelingen van secularisatie in
toenemende mate invloed uitoefenden op Christelijke organisaties en het Christelijke
karakter (ethos) van organisaties.
In contrast met ontwikkelingen van secularisatie biedt de hedendaagse tijd echter
nog steeds een vruchtbare bodem voor het bestaan van vele Christelijke organisaties
met als gevolg dat Christelijke organisaties nog erg actief zijn in veel van dezelfde
werkvelden als niet-Christelijke organisaties. Er wordt soms gezegd dat het niet
uitmaakt, of niet uit zou moeten maken of een Christelijke of niet-Christelijke
ontwikkelingshulp organisatie ondersteuning ontvangt aangezien ze beide hulp bieden die
gericht is op het voorzien in middelen om kansarmen aan een beter bestaan te helpen.
Een aanwezigheid van een Christelijke signatuur staat niet altijd gelijk aan een duidelijke
manifestatie van Christelijke identiteit en het onderwerp “Christelijke identiteit
manifestatie” is daarom onderzocht in dit onderzoek.
Een focus op pure humanitaire hulp wordt vooral gecreëerd door het model van
medefinanciering; een model waarbij de overheid een deel van de fondsen voorziet. Het
biedt de overheid een belang in de hulp, maar een daarmee samenhangede focus op
pure humanitaire hulp houdt de Christelijke organisaties niet tegen om fondsen aan te
vragen en mee te doen. Zoals de titel van dit onderzoek al laat zien vermoed ik dat het
sterke Christelijke fundament (Gedreven door Gods bewogenheid) zelfs een onderscheid
creëert met andere, niet-Christelijke organisaties. Ik vraag me af hoe deze
onderscheidende achtergrond zich tentoonspreidt in het werkveld van ontwikkelingshulp,
vooral in projecten waar de overheid een belang heeft in de hulpprogramma’s. De
uitkomsten van dit onderzoek zijn daarom gericht op verzamelingen van Christelijke
identiteitselementen, en op het proces van identiteit-tentoonspreiding van vier
Christelijke organisaties die actief zijn in medefinanciering ontwikkelingshulpprojecten.
7
List of Figures
Figure 1: formal and factual correspondence at two levels p.38
Figure 2: operationalized formal-factual correspondence p.39
Figure 3: partnership preferences p.69
Figure 4: a recap of Christian identity manifestation p.79
8
List of tables
Table 1: abstraction levels for reflection on development aid and identity p.22
Table 2: important values for Christian development aid p.25
Table 3: member organizations divided into MFS theme programs p.31
Table 4: a representation of Christian identity p.35
Table 5: prior operationalization table p.38
Table 6: final operationalization for investigating Christian identity manifestations p.39
Table 7: compositions of organizational backgrounds p.68
9
Introduction
Pluralism has become an important characteristic of contemporary postmodern society. It
has impacted religious organizations to a great extent, especially when such
organizations have been founded before the 1960’s. From the 1960’s onwards,
Christianity’s role in Dutch society started to decrease. People became increasingly
secularized as a result of advanced modernity, whereby meaning giving topics were
moved to the private domain as a mere personal matter (Van Bijsterveld, 2010). Some
religious organizations have therefore even cut the ties with their religious backgrounds.
As a consequence, it has become less self-evident that Christian identities and
approaches exist. This can also be noticed in development aid where visions and works
have become increasingly “soulless” (Lock, 2009).
In contrast, Christian visions on development aid remain present and some
Christian development aid organizations even combine strengths, both to safeguard
Christian visions on development aid, and to prevent development aid from becoming
soulless (Lock, 2009). The platform organization ‘Prisma’ is such an example. As a
reaction to developments in the 60’s and 70’s of the last century, it was established by
several (currently 18) Protestant-Christian development aid organizations in order to
reflect on the content of a Christian approach and to emphasize the importance of
Christian development aid. As a binding factor, Prisma upholds the following mission
statement:
‘Moved by God’s compassion with this world, Prisma works to promote
1. improvement of the situation of people in poor(er) countries who suffer poverty and
marginalization and
2. improvement of justice in power relations and access to possibilities of existence in
global perspective.’1 (Prisma et al, 2010, 8-9)
As becomes visible in the mission statement, Prisma and its members are moved by a
Christian motivation and perceive their works as an answer to the Christian exhortation
to be compassionate and just towards our fellow people. However, as the brief overview
of contemporary developments also makes clear, it is not self-evident that a Christian
identity is uphold in development aid and the issue is emphasized when the Dutch
government becomes involved.
1 Original (in Dutch): Gedreven door Gods bewogenheid met deze wereld, werkt Prisma aan bevordering; van verbetering van de situatie van mensen in arme(re) landen die lijden aan armoede en marginalisering en; van gerechtigheid in machtsverhoudingen en toegang tot bestaansmogelijkheden in mondiaal perspectief.
1
10
The label under which the Dutch governmental funds were distributed from 2006
until 2010 is called MFS-I2. It is worthwhile to have a look at the projects that were
performed in MFS-I by Prisma member-organizations. It is namely in these projects that
the Christian development aid organizations have to comply with governmental
prescriptions that demand a certain amount of religious neutrality. Even so, the Christian
development aid organizations apply for these MFS-I funds themselves and since their
core identity is to be found in Christianity, it is reasonable to expect that the Christian
organizations also (strive to) realize projects with MFS-I funds in a Christian manner. In
order to investigate how a Christian identity is performed in development aid, projects
that receive MFS-I funds are therefore investigated.
Aim of the study
The aim of this research is to gain insight in the way a Christian identity becomes
manifest in practical cases where a tension comes to being because of secular
“prescriptions”, in order to assess the strength and content of a Christian identity in a
work-field that is approached by the government in a rather religiously neutral manner.
Central research question
The central question of this research is based on a tension. On the one hand a
development of increased secularity in the public domain has emerged from the 1960’s
onwards and this development also becomes visible in the MFS-I fund prescriptions. On
the other hand, Christianity remains very present in the public domain where the
existence of Prisma can be reckoned as a clear example. It raises the question how
Christian identities become manifest in projects that are to be performed in conformity
with governmental prescriptions. Therefore the following question is investigated:
How does the Christian identity of Prisma member-organizations become
manifest in MFS-I financed development aid projects?
Sub research questions
For answering the main question there are several questions that need to be addressed.
First of all, visions on Christian development aid need to be described in order to obtain
an understanding of Christian inspired development aid. In the ICCO alliance (where
Prisma receives the MFS-I funds) Prisma executes three specific programs: basic
healthcare and Hiv/Aids, education, and food security. Concerning the first program,
visions are developed by Prisma and its members that form a clear Christian approach.
2 MFS stands for ‘Medefinancieringsstelsel’, which can be translated as: ‘Associate/ co- financing system’.
11
Secondly, an overview of MFS-I prescriptions needs to be provided in order to
gain insight in the guidelines, possibilities and difficulties of the MFS-I prescriptions.
Thirdly, it is important to investigate how the particular organizations put their work into
practice within the MFS-I frameworks and to investigate where problems arise and where
concessions need to be made, in order to address the tensions between Christian and
secular visions and expectations.
All together this leads to the following sub-questions:
1) What does a Christian identity exist of?
2) What does a Christian vision, as described in Prisma documents, entail?
3) How are these visions put into practice by the member organizations?
4) What is the implementation and reporting framework of MFS-I?
5) Which restrictions does MFS-I bring to the fore for Prisma member-organizations?
6) How are the MFS-I prescriptions dealt with in practice (in the field)?
Method of investigation
For obtaining the relevant information, Prisma and four of its members form the main
object of investigation. Firstly it is important to obtain insight in Christian approaches and
visions. Prisma itself published a book called ‘Development aid cooperation – Towards a
Christian vision’ in 2010 (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010). Furthermore, the Prisma
director (Henk Jochemsen, 2009) held an inaugural address on the topic of development
aid cooperation and the influence of Christian philosophies, making it a relevant
document for deriving a general Prisma vision on Christian development aid. These
documents provide means to obtain an overview of Prisma visions on Christian
development aid. In order to more specifically describe Christian identities as they
becomes manifest among Prisma-members, the book of Buijs et al (2003) can be used.
It provides an overview of different Christian identity elements in the broad field of
development aid.
Secondly, for the description of visions on the MFS-I programs, Prisma visions
papers on HIV & Aids and Basic Healthcare are used. The papers are endorsed by all
Prisma-members. For the specific description of the projects and the member-
organizations, the websites and documents of the member-organizations form important
sources. Prisma also has specific project reports at its disposal that can used for
describing the projects of the Prisma-members.
Thirdly, the MFS-I framework needs to be investigated. It implies that official
government documents, just as specific Prisma reports, have to be investigated. A book
12
that might be worthwhile is a book that has been published under the label of ICCO:
‘Ontwikkeling in internationale samenwerking’3 (Jochemsen et al, 2010).
Concluding; for obtaining information on: Prisma and its members, Christian
identity elements, the researched MFS-I programs and projects and the MFS-I
framework, mainly document (and website) analysis is used. Since information from
solely written documents can be incomplete and needs to be enriched, interviews are
conducted in order to obtain extra information on the above topics. People from member-
organizations are interviewed in order to obtain information on problems and possibilities
that arise because of the MFS-I prescriptions. Interviews are thereby used to create
insight in the subject from the participant’s perspective.
Relevance
Christian development aid organizations (can) experience pressures on their Christian
identities while for them it is most important to uphold Christian identities. As
development aid is also rather dynamic and complex (Prisma, 2010), a straightforward
demonstration of Christian identity becomes difficult. Conveying identity therefore
becomes a challenge. Hence it is worthwhile to explore what a Christian identity
comprises in practice and to obtain a clearer picture of the correspondence between
original and performed Christian identity. The likelihood of pressures because of MFS-I
prescriptions might enforce decisions and put Christian identities to the test.
With the new information it can become possible to pinpoint both difficulties and
possibilities, such that the organizations can reflect on the performance and
distinctiveness of their Christian identities. Also for Prisma the outcomes are worthwhile,
as it adds new information about the impacts of faith based organizations in development
aid abroad: a topic that they extensively stress and emphasize in their lobby and
advocacy role towards the government.
3 In English: ‘development in international cooperation’.
13
Part I: Theoretical Background
14
History of (Christian) development aid in the Netherlands
Christian development aid has a rich history in the Netherlands. Because of the societal
changes in the late 20th century the relatedness of development aid organizations to
particular churches and denominations has transformed. To provide an insight into
Christian development aid, a brief overview of historical developments is provided in this
chapter.
§2.1. Missionary work, (world)diaconate and development cooperation
The history and background of Christian development aid can be made clear by stressing
the interrelationship of three “components”: missionary works, (world)diaconate and
development cooperation (Boersema in Buijs et al, 2003). Using Boersema’s descriptions,
these components are defined as follows (Boersema in Buijs et al, 2003, 87):
Missionary works are understood as: ‘the sending of people to tell about the
gospel of the death on the cross and the resurrection of Jesus Christ and,
because of these, the possible reconciliation between humans and God, to
people who have not yet heard it.’
(World)diaconate is defined as: ‘the Christian servitude to people that are in
(material) need. This is more focused on the deed component of the gospel.’
‘World-diaconate specifically perceives the worldwide character that the diaconal
help to poor often receives.’
Development cooperation is understood as: ‘structural combat against
poverty and reinforcement of the development possibilities of marginalized
population groups.’
Before the Second World War
The character and interrelatedness of the three emphasized components can be divided
into two periods: before- and after the Second World War, with the addition that
development cooperation did not really exist before the Second World War and mainly
came into being after the Second World War (Boersema in Buijs et al, 2003).
Before the Second World War, word and deed (mission and diaconate) were
mostly linked because of the sheer fact that people were sent as missionaries but were
confronted with poverty and needs. Diaconate and missionary works hence became
mutually integrated and diaconate became to belong to the services that were provided
by the church missionaries. Even so, missionary works remained the core service while
2
15
diaconate was an additional service that served and accompanied the bringing of the
good news (the gospel).
After the Second World War
After the Second World War, things changed. Development cooperation (that was
detached from churches) firstly entered the stage in 1949 when the Netherlands spent
1,5 million guilders on a UN program, focusing development aid on pure humanitarian
needs (van Gennip, 2009). Furthermore, a (ecumenical) movement came into being that
advocated ‘a comprehensive approach’ and/or the bringing of ‘social gospel’ (Boersema
in Buijs et al, 2003, 90). Also people outside the local churches had to be served, putting
emphasis on (world)diaconate. A main implication of this movement was that
organizations came into existence that were detached from churches; churches were,
until then, the only ones that were active in bringing the gospel and in providing diaconal
works.
Development cooperation further evolved out of the (world)diaconal works and
civil society initiatives and put strong emphasis on combining (international) forces in
order to address humanitarian needs and to create structural improvements (Velema in
Buijs et al, 2003). This made missionary works merely an element of aid, or even totally
absent. As Velema (in Buijs et al, 2003) mentions; people mainly wanted to help and
therefore they started to put stronger emphasis on providing coordinated aid instead of
Christian aid such that people’s conditions in the South could be improved. Development
cooperation thereby became more secularized and general. In Christian communities
however, it was emphasized that development cooperation had to serve the gospel and
was still strongly linked to the gospel. It is therefore also argued that development aid
initiatives have to be related to a church in order to consider it a form of diaconal works
(Velema in Buijs et al, 2003).4
In the years that followed (after the 1960’s/ 1970’s) on the one hand, ecumenical
and on the other hand, Reformed and Evangelical movements started to grow apart. The
latter held against the ecumenical movement that they were giving a purely
humanitarian content to the gospel, while the ecumenical movement held against the
Evangelical and Reformed movements that they were only providing the sight of heaven
as redemption from current poverty (Boersema in Buijs et al, 2003). This is
demonstrated in two schemes: the Evangelical/Reformed paradigm is characterized as a
linear process with missionary works as foundation and motivation, and the ecumenical
paradigm is characterized as a ‘relay’ with a strong focus on development cooperation
4 Velema (in Buijs et al, 2003) himself makes this distinction but he is also willing to call development aid that does not relate to churches, ‘civil society initiative diaconate’.
16
and an absorption of both missionary- and diaconal works into development cooperation
(Boersema in Buijs et al, 2003, 98):
‘Evangelical/Reformed paradigm: Missionary works (identity) Diaconate
(identity) Development cooperation (identity).
Ecumenical paradigm: Missionary works (identity) = Diaconate (identity) =
Development cooperation (identity).’
A current representation
During the last decennia, the two schemes and Christian development aid in general
evolved. Some organizations maintained strong relations with particular churches and
perceive the missionary element as their core motivation and responsibility. Other
organizations formed civil society initiatives with a strong Christian inspiration but do not
maintain relations with specific churches. Again other organizations have become more
secularized and have cut or minimized the ties with the churches where they stem from
and even other organizations were founded as totally not related to a religion and are
civil, purely focused on humanitarian needs and thereby not involved in missionary works
and (world)diaconate (Buijs et al, 2003).
For the organizations that continue to draw from Christian inspirations and
traditions, the interrelatedness of all the three components is still characteristic for their
works. It is expected that the respective composition of the three components forms a
main source of information for the way identity of the member-organizations becomes
manifest. As an anticipation for Christian identity descriptions, the interactive paradigm
of Boersema (in Buijs et al, 2003) can be used. He advocates an interactive paradigm for
Christian organizations that stresses both the importance of missionary works and of
structural changes (development cooperation). According to Boersema’s (2003, 97)
description, it entails a scheme where: ‘structural change is needed (development
cooperation), but is not all; humanitarian aid is needed (diaconate), but is not all;
eventually the inner change of the rich and poor appears to be needed (missionary
works). Inner change however is not restricted to one’s inner self, but motivates to
compassion for concrete others (diaconate) and to commitment for better structures for
all (development cooperation).’ The description makes clear that in the evolution of
Christian development aid, the gospel can have priority while diaconate and development
cooperation are of equal importance for they are interrelated. The interactive paradigm
can hence be represented as follows:
Interactive paradigm: Missionary works (identity) Diaconate (identity)
Development cooperation (identity).
17
In recent times, the differences between Christian and “secular” development aid have
also smoothened a bit because of an increase in governmental influence and support
(Velema in Buijs et al, 2003). The figure of governmental co-financing has come to the
fore and all organizations (both Christian and secular) apply for these funds. As a
consequence, all organizations are stimulated to be active in development cooperation
such that efforts can be coordinated and forces are combined. However, as according to
Velema (in Buijs et al, 2003, 118), it can also form a threat: ‘in such a case a
development cooperation project mainly has the character of a civil society initiative. It is
then a prolonged form of the just elaborated form of civil society diaconate.’5 This matter
is discussed at length in this research, starting with an elaboration of the influence of
societal changes on the identity of (Christian) organizations in the next chapter.
5 See footnote 4.
18
The impact of societal developments
Societal impacts on identity can be made clear by stressing societal developments that
took place during the last sixty years. These developments have had, and continue to
have a great impact on development aid and particularly help to explain how Christian
identities have been, and are being influenced. The chapter starts with an elaboration of
societal changes and results in a description of its influence on (Christian) identities.
§ 3.1. A broad perspective: the influence of time-periods
From the 1960 onwards the time-period of advanced modernity set in6. Advanced
modernity is important as it contains the cultural revolution that transformed the
societies that were built up during the modernity time-period from 1800 until 1960
(Hellemans, 2007). The cultural revolution that caused a breach with modernity is firstly
described and subsequently relevant outcomes of these developments for contemporary
societies are stressed.
Advanced modernity: a break with compartmentalization
When development aid firstly entered the stage in 1949, the Netherlands and the whole
of Europe stood at the brink of a new period of time, often referred to as advanced
modernity (Hellemans, 2007). This time-period that really started from the 1960’s
onwards is important because before it set in, the Netherlands used to be greatly
compartmentalized meaning that strong independent Protestant, Catholic, socialist and
liberal pillars existed (Hellemans, 2007). Moreover, many denominations within
Protestantism had come into being from 1834 onwards7. Many of these different
churches were active in missionary activities until “the cultural revolution” (1958-1973)
that implied the start of advanced modernity caused a breach (Hellemans, 2007). Four
major trends accompanied the cultural revolution (Hellemans, 2007, paragraph 15.2):
1) ‘The decline of the main churches, usually coupled with secularization.
2) The normalization and the growth of sects and new religious movements.
3) The individualization of personal religiosity.
4) The reconstruction of the old, main – although weakened – churches on a new
basis.’ 6 Advanced modernity is also referred to as late modernity, post-modernity and liquid modernity (Bauman, 2001). These concepts show much overlap and are therefore not separately stressed. 7 1834 was the year of the Separation (Afscheiding). In 1886 the Doleantie (Sorrow) implied a new split and in the years that followed several new denominations came into being.
3
19
These four trends strongly impacted upon Christian development aid. The strong
Christian backgrounds of many organizations started to fade, and the backgrounds that
once tied people to particular churches and their respective development aid
organizations started to become more fragile, with a shrinking amount of support as a
main consequence. People were now free to choose instead of belonging “automatically”
to a particular church and a consecutive development aid organization. As an implication
of these developments, people became more individualized and main churches declined
(Hellemans, 2007). In spite of the advanced modernity developments, some Christian
development aid organizations remained loyal to their original Christian foundations and
remained attached to their original constituencies, bearing the consequence that they
became rather marginalized within society (Lock, 2009).
Contemporary advanced-modern society
When advanced modernity gained momentum, the development of secularization
progressed and as a result, societal developments continue to pose problems for
Christian development aid. In contemporary society, the civil society, the state and the
market transformed into a hybrid, while the three used to be separated into different
areas (Kamsteeg, 2005). As a result, development aid also started to be influenced by
the state and the market. Development aid became more business-like and it became
more top down focused, mainly implementing planned solutions in the South (Jochemsen
and Van Dijk, 2010).
As a second outcome, an issue of public responsibility and public positioning has
come to the fore. ‘In a society that is dominated by the market and the state, civilians
increasingly feel less involved and they subsequently take less responsibility for each
other and for society.’ (Kamsteeg, 2003, 15) This process is also known as a weakening
of social cohesion, something that is very much present in contemporary advanced-
modern societies. An important question therefore becomes: ‘what is the role and
function of civil society, and especially of the Christian part of it?’ Kamsteeg (2003)
addresses this question and states that the emphasized processes have compelled
Christian organizations to reposition and contemplate their identity.
As a consequence of repositioning, the danger of fragmentation has become
looming. An aspect of advanced-modern societies is that meaning has to be given to a
Christian identity, something that remains to take place through people (volunteers) and
applies for organizations as well; repositioning demands that organizations rethink and
(re)form cultures and profile their identities. The result is not an unambiguous Christian
identity. According to Kamsteeg (2003) this, however, has mainly become a problem of
20
organizations since individuals in advanced-modern societies can freely shape the
meaning they give to Christian philosophies and practices.
As a general result it can hence be stated that on the one hand, Christian
identities have remained present but have become more fragmented in contemporary
advanced-modern societies, while on the other hand reflection on the topic of Christian
development aid has also increased and started to take place among different Christian
development aid organizations and denominations as a reaction to secularization and as
a result of the weakening of compartmentalization among (mainly Protestant) churches.
These developments also underlie the foundation of Prisma in 2000: a platform where
the Christian identity within development aid could be safeguarded and where Christian
morals and values could be brought back to the field of development aid with combined
forces (Lock, 2009).
21
Prisma and Christian development aid
In this chapter, an overview of Prisma is provided in order to gain an insight into
Christian development aid as it is performed among Prisma-members. Prisma thereby
forms the object as it forms the platform where general Christian visions come together.
Prisma performs activities for its members: it distributes MFS-I funds, it reflects on
Christian identity together with its members and it also (mutually) develops vision papers
on specific issues that are endorsed and shared among its members. This chapter
therefore includes a brief description of Prisma and its member organizations; the
approach and identity of Christian development aid both from a Prisma- and a Prisma-
member perspective; and an elaboration of visions on specific development aid issues
that are addressed in MFS-I.
§ 4.1. Prisma and its members
Prisma is a Dutch organization that unites several Christian (inspired) development aid
organizations in order to combine strengths and look after common objectives. As a
platform organization, Prisma’s main contribution lies in the realization of two main
“execution perspectives” or activities:
1) ‘Reflection, lobby and advocacy
2) Financing’ (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010, 49)
Reflection concerns Christian development aid in general and specific issues that come to
the fore in specific projects. Lobby and advocacy contain activities that aim for the
development of a balanced Dutch development aid policy. This includes lobbies for policy
influence especially aimed at topics for which Prisma members receive funds and it also
includes emphasizing the importance of cooperation with churches and faith based
organizations. Prisma also facilitates fundraising for its members. It receives finances
through two channels: EO-metterdaad8 and MFS9. These finances add to the funds that
members receive from their personal constituencies. The MFS funds are directly received
from the ministry of foreign affairs. For receiving these funds, Prisma joins in the so-
called ICCO-alliance.
8 The EO-metterdaad finances are received through radio and television funds that are raised for specific topics and countries. 9 Stands for “Medefinancieringssysteem”, which is the system of co-financing.
4
22
In total, eighteen organizations are reckoned as member of Prisma. The four that
are researched are:
1. Deputaatschap Hulpverlening in Bijzondere Noden Gereformeerde Gemeenten
(hereafter Bijzondere Noden) (Deputy Relief aid in Special Needs Reformed
Congregations)
2. Leprazending (Leprosy Mission)
3. Woord en Daad (Word and Deed)
4. Gereformeerde Zendingsbond (hereafter GZB) (Reformed Missionary Union)
§ 4.2. The Christian identity of Prisma(-members)
For reflecting on identity, Prisma utilizes a “representation of abstraction levels” (Table
1). It can administer as a useful instrument for looking at how Christian identity becomes
manifest, both in Prisma and among its members. By describing Prisma and its members
along the four abstraction levels, insight can be provided into how Christian identity
generally becomes visible among the member-organizations.
Abstraction levels
Levels/ forms of contemplation
Theory
Basis (assumption)
Rule
Concrete practice
(factual identity)
Faith, philosophy/ culture- and human-view; ethical streams
From faith/ philosophy and human-view derived value-
orientations and development visions
Program and project objectives, competences (knowledge,
skills and attitudes) in concrete development-work
The concrete development-work as the ‘recipient’
experiences it
Table 1: abstraction levels for reflection on development aid and identity (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010,
29, edited into English)
A Christian approach: Theory
Prisma finds its foundation in the bible as the word of God and the common profession as
described in the Apostolic Creed. It is placed in the tradition of historical Christendom
and represents the Reformed and Evangelic traditions that can be found among its
23
members (Prisma et al, 2010). Subsequently, Prisma’s mission statement10 shows a
focus on improvement of people’s situation and of justice in an international perspective,
out of a motivation that finds its origin in God’s compassion for this world. The
consecutive works, undertaken by Prisma members, are therefore an utterance of Gods
exhortation to be compassionate and need to be perceived in the broad frame of His
intentions to make the world and humans whole. In line with OESO/DAC11, Prisma (
Prisma et al, 2010, 9) refers to five dimensions of poverty and adds a spiritual
dimension, resulting in six dimensions of poverty where the world and humans need to
be made whole:
1) Economic capabilities: ‘ability to earn an income and to consume and to have
assets which are all key to food security, material well-being and social status.’
(OECD, 2001, 38)
2) Human capabilities: ‘are based on health, education, nutrition, clean water and
shelter. These are core elements of well-being as well as crucial means to
improving livelihoods.’ (OECD, 2001, 38)
3) Political capabilities: ‘include human rights, a voice and some influence over
public policies and political priorities. Deprivation of basic political freedoms or
human rights is a major aspect of poverty.’ (OECD, 2001, 38)
4) Socio-cultural capabilities: ‘ability to participate as a valued member of a
community. They refer to social status, dignity and other cultural conditions for
belonging to a society which are highly valued by the poor themselves.’ (OECD,
2001, 38)
5) Protective capabilities: ‘enable people to withstand economic and external
shocks. Insecurity and vulnerability are crucial dimensions of poverty with strong
links to all other dimensions.’ (OECD, 2001, 38)
6) Spiritual capabilities12: ‘relates to the knowledge of, and relationship with the
God who reveals Himself in the bible.’ (Prisma et al, 2010, 9)
The combination of the six dimensions also demonstrates the interactive paradigm
Boersema (in Buijs et al, 2003) was writing about13. The addition of the spiritual
capability is of utmost importance and shows the Christian foundation but it cannot stand
on its own; it is related to the other five dimensions since ‘inner change motivates to
compassion for others and for better structures’ (Boersema in Buijs et al, 2003).
10 The mission statement is shown in chapter 1, the introduction, on page 9. 11 OECD stands for ‘Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’ and DAC stands for ‘Development Assistance Committee’. 12 In line with the other dimensions I also called this a capability. In Dutch the description of this dimension, as described in Prisma’s ‘strategic long term policy plan’ (Prisma et al, 2010), is as follows: ‘geestelijke armoede die betrekking heeft op de kennis van en de relatie met de God die Zich in de bijbel openbaart.’ 13 See chapter 2.
24
A Christian approach: Basis (assumption)
In the SMB14 (Prisma et al, 2010), Prisma’s core values are shown in the following
sentence: ‘Justice, charity, stewardship, in dependence and imitation of Christ.’15 The
addition ‘in dependence and imitation of Christ’ is important as it demonstrates Prisma’s
viewpoint that humans are relational creatures that are called to communion with God
(Prisma et al, 2010). The core values are translated into working values and together
form the values where Prisma stands for16:
3. Loyal & transparent justice and stewardship.
4. Holistic & healing charity/ compassion.
5. Professional & participative stewardship.
6. Responsible & renewing justice.
In general, according to van Dijk (in Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010, 37), development
policies are aimed at “systematic innovation in society”. In line with the values above, it
implies that the societal structure of development countries have to be drastically
reshaped. Through the development of a civil society, citizens acquire the possibility to
make themselves heard and to participate in the public debate about topics that concern
everyone (Kamsteeg, 2005, and Biekart and Fowler, 2009). But, according to van Dijk (in
Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010), structural change goes together with behavioural
change. He states that for altering behaviour, Christian churches play a crucial role
because: ‘in the gospel that is carried out by them the vocation and power to do good is
apparent. The gospel thereby carries essential meaning for ordering the economy and is
leading for economic behaviour.’ (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010, 46) Christian
development aid thereby departs from a place in society that aims to bring low-trust
societies to high-trust societies by empowering and supporting local people
(organizations) and communities to bring about justice, protection and stewardship,
inspired by the gospel.
Such values are supported by Prisma-members but a small research among
Prisma members in April 2009 (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010) also demonstrates
different translations and accentuations. It sheds a positive light on the content of
Christian development aid as it is being perceived by Prisma-members and it shows that
Christian development aid is rich in diversity for members have different foci:
14 Stands for: ‘Strategisch Meerjaren Beleid’. Translated: ‘Strategic long term policy plan’. 15 Original (in Dutch): Gerechtigheid, Naastenliefde, Rentmeesterschap, in afhankelijkheid en navolging van Christus (Prisma et al, 2010, 9). 16 Original (in Dutch): Trouw & transparant, holistisch & helend, professioneel & participatief, verantwoordelijk & vernieuwend (Prisma et al, 2010, 9).
25
Theological – spiritual
values:
Ethical values: Organizational/ operational
values:
7. Following/imitating
Christ (3)
8. Acknowledging Gods
word (3)
9. Witness/spread the
gospel (3)
10. Gods kingdom/Gods
honour (3)
11. Prayer (2)
12. Converting to Christian
faith
13. Compassion (6)
14. Involvement/
solidarity/ reciprocity
(6)
15. Servitude (5)
16. Stewardship (4)
17. Justice (4)
18. Loyalty (2)
19. Responsibility (2)
20. Human dignity (2)
21. Holistic human view
(2)
22. Respect
23. Inclusiveness
24. Healing
25. Community formation
26. Collaboration/
partnership (6)
27. Professionalism (4)
28. Integrity (3)
29. Quality (3)
30. Transparency (2)
31. Sustainability (2)
32. Aimed at the poorest
(2)
33. Aimed at fellow
Christians/ churches
(2)
34. Aimed at self
sufficiency
35. Aimed at (mutual)
equipment
36. Integral approach
37. Innovative
Table 2: important values for Christian development aid (Jochemsen, 2010, 31, edited into English).
The first column of table 2 relates to the abstraction level of theory and shows the strong
Christian ties and exhortation. The missionary element is still of utmost importance and
goes hand in hand with changes that need to be achieved, as becomes visible in the third
column. The ‘ethical’- and ‘organizational values’ can respectively be reckoned as ‘core’-
and ‘working values’, just as it is maintained in the SMB of Prisma (Prisma et al, 2010).
A Christian approach: rule
In the SMB the following core activities (of Prisma) are depicted: ‘reflection
(contemplation), policy influencing, awareness-creation/raising and advocacy on the
basis of cooperation.’17 These core-activities characterize the activities of Prisma at a
policy-strategic level and form the means to fulfil the mission (Prisma et al, 2010, 9). The
activities do not completely resemble with the activities of the member-organizations as
members are directly active in development aid in the field. Jochemsen (in Jochemsen
17 Original (in Dutch): ‘Bezinning, beleidsbeïnvloeding, bewustwording en belangenbehartiging op basis van samenwerking.’ (Prisma et al, 2010, 9)
26
and Van Dijk, 2010, 48) provides five main functions that summarize the activities of the
members:
‘Members form an expression of solidarity and connection of the constituencies to
the target group abroad (the basis)
Members offer funds for the societal midfield in the South, that is the southern
NGO’s
Members put directed effort in capacity building (hrm/od/id) of southern NGO’s
Members influence policy making processes in North and South, offering so-called
‘counter veiling power’ both in governmental and non-governmental organizations
Members connect traditional and non-traditional actors in northern and southern
countries with the objective to build strategic alliances to more effectively put effort
in worldwide change processes’
A Christian approach: concrete practice
The concrete practice concerns the implications of the previously stressed levels as it is
experienced in the field. With respect to Prisma, there are five pairs of themes that are
mentioned in the SMB: ‘Meet & deliberate, positioning & lobby, evaluate & learn,
brokering & mediate, inspire & innovate.’ (Prisma et al, 2010, 11) The work (concrete
practice) of the members is more difficult to summarize as the work is diverse and differs
per member. But with respect to the two programs of HIV/Aids and Basic Healthcare,
some concrete practices of the members can be described in the following paragraph.
§ 4.3. Prisma vision papers
In MFS-I there are three programs where Prisma receives funds for: Basic Healthcare,
HIV/Aids and Education. For two of these programs, Prisma has developed vision papers
that contain Christian view- and standpoints. These vision papers also elaborate some of
the practical activities that are performed by Prisma-members.
Basic Healthcare
There is no vision paper that is straightforwardly focussed on basic healthcare but a
vision paper on ‘sexual and reproductive health and rights’ is available, touching upon
many topics that are important in basic healthcare projects:
Value of human life: ‘God values human life not on the basis of human
accomplishments or contributions but because we are His creation and the object of
His redeeming love.’ (Prisma et al, Nov. 2009, 10) This view makes all forms of
killing of humans problematic. Humans are called to protect and nurture life, with an
27
emphasis on the protection of the weak, defenceless and the oppressed. Decisions
about human life are best made within the context of healthy family relationships,
with the support of the community of the faithful.
Adolescents and sexuality: young people need understanding and support in
their task to integrate the sexual dimension into their personality and their relational
behaviour. Parents and communities play an important role in this process. In their
teachings it should be made clear that sex is a holy gift that is to be blessed if it is
enjoyed in a proper context.
Sexuality and marriage: derived from the bible, Prisma upholds several principles
concerning sexuality and relationships (Prisma et al, Nov. 2009, 10-11)18:
o ‘Sexuality is a fundamental human characteristic and given by God to be
enjoyed within the protection of His norms.
o Gender relations are characterized by mutual respect and equality and by
functional diversity.
o The context for intimate sexual relationships is a monogamous heterosexual
relationship, based on love and fidelity, with mutual promises and duties.
o In the sexual relationship within marriage we can distinguish the functions of
unification (unity between husband and wife), recreation (playfulness) and
procreation. Sexuality, procreation and family planning are part of human
responsibility.
o This implies sexual abstinence before marriage and faithfulness within
marriage.
o Both father and mother are actively involved in, and responsible for bringing
up their children.
o The importance of strong relationships in the extended family shown in loving
support for widows, orphans and single mothers who are in special need as
well as care for any relative.’
Family planning: procreation is a biblical instruction and a responsibility of both
partners. Therefore, ‘husbands and wives should discuss the raising of a family and
the spacing of children in the light of the circumstances and of their own personal
lives.’ (Prisma et al, Nov. 2009, 12) Ideas about family planning differ among
Christians and this mostly revolves around the use of contraceptive measures.
Prisma therefore advocates a balanced approach, reflecting general Christian
principles (like protection of life of mother and child, responsibility for family and its
environment), as well as at the role of couples in being responsible for the size of
their own family and the fit of a planning method (contraceptive means).
18 These principles also play an important role in the thoughts regarding HIV/Aids.
28
Unborn children: ‘unborn human life is a gift of God. God's ideal for human beings
requires respect for unborn or prenatal life. Abortion is never an action of little
moral consequence. Thus prenatal life must certainly not thoughtlessly be destroyed
and if at all possible, not at all!’ (Prisma et al, Nov. 2009, 12) Alternatives for
abortion have to be offered and made available, and circumstances that lead to
(mostly unsafe) abortions need to be addressed.
In another vision paper that concerns healthcare, special attention is paid to the disabled
people (Prisma et al, August 2010). Here Prisma addresses the actors and their
respective responsibilities. People with disabilities first of all need to be enabled to take
responsibility for their decisions themselves and as much as possible. Subsequently, the
family and the wider community have an important role: they need to have access to
psychological and social support in order to help the disabled person to grow in
development. Then the church has an important role, especially with respect to
acceptation: ‘the church is the place where people should be able to live with each other
in love and to value each other.’ (Prisma et al, August 2010, 17) The church has to
include disabled people into the (works of the) community and the church can also pray
for healing. Lastly the government plays an important role with respect to the
enforcement of laws concerning the human rights of people with a disability.
HIV & Aids
Human beings are created in God’s image and the relationships that become visible
between man and woman reflect the relationality of the Trinity. Meanwhile, the world we
live in is suffering from all sorts of pain, illnesses and evil and people and the whole of
creation are therefore longing for a sense of whole-making. By serving others with gifts,
people anticipate Gods intention of restoration for creation and humans to be full image
bearers of God. It contains an attitude of compassion for the poor and marginalized and
it includes rejecting and decreasing stigma and discrimination, and furthering caring
attitudes towards people living with HIV/Aids. Moreover, promotion of Christ-like
behaviour (discipleship) is important, putting emphasis on the promotion of positive
behaviour in all areas of life including sexuality and gender relationships. An important
element is a focus on family life and healthy relationships, as families are perceived as
the basic entity within society and as long-term response to HIV/Aids problems (Prisma
et al, July 2009).
Churches and Christian NGO’s also have a stake in dealing with the issue of
HIV/Aids. Their role is to openly and transparently deal with the issue of sexuality,
gender relationships, respect (boy-girl), and cultural norms vs. biblical norms in order to
stimulate Christ-like lifestyles. Indigenous leadership is hereby of vital importance such
29
that encouragement and renewal of communities can take place. Moreover, advocacy for
people infected with, and affected by HIV has to be stimulated such that they are (or can
be) protected (Prisma et al, July 2009). Drawn from the above principles, Prisma
describes an approach that consists of the following elements:
- Comprehensive approach implies a strategy where the following elements are
addressed simultaneously (Prisma et al, July 2009, 5-6):
o “Prevention” implies that Prisma promotes sexual abstinence outside of
marriage and fidelity within marriage and relationships. Family-oriented
interventions are hereby promoted, where attention is paid to all members of
the family.
o Prisma subsequently stimulates, strengthens and supports community styled
care initiatives for orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) and people living
with HIV, working for universal access to anti-retroviral therapy and drugs
(“care and support”).
o “Impact mitigation and multi-sectoral approach” include that attention should
be given to other sectors such as healthcare, education, food security,
resilience counselling, economic development and microfinance, such that
people and especially OVC’s develop into responsible adult citizens that
become change agents for their communities.
o Attention has to be given to “destigmatization” through encouragement of
churches, religious leaders and religious organizations to promote a supportive
environment where everyone feels welcome and valued.
o With respect to “advocacy”, Prisma advocates for: social protection and care
for orphans and vulnerable children, reducing gender-based vulnerability to
HIV, increased access to care and treatment and mobilization of resources.
o Lastly, “the involvement of People Living with HIV/Aids (PLWH)” in the
development, implementation and evaluation of programs helps to empower
the PLWH and to increase effectiveness of the program.
- Partnerships with churches and faith communities: ‘Prisma works with
networks of churches and faith communities, groups from other faiths and
traditions, and individual religious leaders to reduce stigma towards PLWH and
OVC’s, and to further mobilise and enhance congregations’ positive responses to
the AIDS pandemic.’ (Prisma et al, July 2009, 7)
- Addressing underlying vulnerability: ‘Prisma acknowledges that the spread of
HIV is to a large extent determined by the social, economic, political and cultural
context and wants to address underlying causes of vulnerability to HIV, including
poverty, gender disparities, disability, repression, violence and food insecurity.’
(Prisma et al, July 2009, 7)
30
Rules and regulations of MFS-I
In this chapter more insight is provided into the MFS-I framework. The internal
arrangements of Prisma concerning MFS-I are described and application procedures and
monitoring arrangements are touched upon. The MFS-I funds are received via the ICCO-
Alliance and add to the funds that are contributed by the Prisma-members themselves. It
is important to describe the MFS-I regulations as it determines the room for manoeuvre
for Prisma-members to make Christian identities visible into their respective MFS-I
projects.
§ 5.1. ICCO-Alliance
The ICCO-Alliance forms an independent alliance of which ICCO itself is a member as
well. Prisma participates in the ICCO-Alliance together with five partners:
ICCO
Kerk in Actie
Edukans
Oikocredit
Share People
The alliance is named after ICCO, an organization that was established in 1965 with the
main task to develop the co-financing program with funds from the Dutch government
(ICCO, 2007). This task is still a core responsibility and in order to structure co-financing
within the alliance, a procedure for performing projects with MFS-I funds has been
developed. Application comprises several steps: first of all, per country, themes are
chosen that require attention (for example HIV/Aids). Members of the ICCO-Alliance have
to make an analysis within a chosen theme to gain insight into the main players, issues,
drivers of change etc. Then a program is formulated that is based on (one of the) three
following intervention strategies:
1) Directly fighting poverty, through for example: prevention, and care and support.
2) (building) Societal structure, through for example: capacity reinforcement of local
partner organizations, building local structures, community involvement and
network creation.
3) Influencing policy, through for example: lobby and advocacy, improving people’s
legal status, awareness creation and improving access to services.
5
31
Finally, agreements are made with all parties involved concerning processes of planning,
monitoring and evaluation (PME) (ICCO-Alliance, 2009).
Since the ICCO-alliance receives its funds from the government, the alliance also
has to report to the government. Every ICCO-Alliance member accounts for its own part
in the alliance and every (Prisma-) member also has to account for a personal financial
contribution to the alliance in order to execute a project. This amounts to minimally 25%
of the total funds for a program or project.
Prisma’s internal MFS-I structure
For each of the themes where Prisma is involved, there is a program coordinator at
Prisma. Within the respective themes, work-groups have been established consisting of
participating member organizations and of Prisma staff. The division is shown in table 3:
Education HIV & Aids Basic Healthcare
Red een Kind Dep. Hulpverlening in
Bijzondere Noden Ger. Gem.
Dark & Light Blind Care
Kom over en help Dep. Diaconaat CGK De Verre Naasten
Oikonomos Foundation Dorcas Dorcas
World Servants De Verre Naasten LEPRAzending
ZOA Vluchtelingenzorg GZB Tear
Wycliffe Oikonomos Foundation Woord en Daad
Red een Kind World Servants
Tear
Trans World Radio
Woord en Daad
Table 3: member organizations divided into MFS theme programs (Prisma, 2009, 23).
§ 5.2. The distribution of funds among Prisma-members
In order to receive funds, an application of a Prisma-member has to satisfy particular
criteria. Firstly the member-organization has to provide insight into its own financial
contribution in order to specify where the funds are needed for. Secondly, specific
documents have to be submitted. These documents consist of the following:
A “project summary sheet” consisting of general information, a project description
and a partner description (Prisma, 2010, 7).
A “project proposal” containing: 1) information leading to problem definition, 2) a
project description, 3) in depth information concerning contextual issues, 4)
32
organisational information on how the organization will implement the project, 5) an
outline of planning, monitoring and evaluation processes, 6) a ‘logframe’ with
indicators, activities and assumptions, 7) a budget (Prisma, 2010, 7).
A “personal assessment” of the project that addresses: ‘a) evaluation of the problem
and objective, and alignment with the policy framework – targets, means and
result-agreements, b) further content assessment – innovation, lobby & advocacy,
gender, HIV/Aids mainstreaming, sustainability, collaboration relations with other
organizations and government.’ (Prisma, 2010, 7) Further, the qualitative
measurement has to be made comprehensible at a quantitative manner, such that
measurement of sufficient progress and results can take place. The indicators are
mutually agreed upon with the Prisma-member.
A “short characterization” for the interested Dutch reader, offering an outline of the
project (Prisma, 2010, 7).
Project assessment
Assessment of the application by Prisma takes place in phases. Initially there is an
assessment to determine: the quality of the project, the region of implementation, and
whether the project objectives are aligned with the MFS objective. For the in-depth
appraisal, Prisma writes an assessment memo that reckons with the following criteria:
‘Alignment with MFS-objectives; Innovative elements; (Participation of) target
groups; Gender-policy; HIV/Aids analysis; Lobby & advocacy; Policy and role
government with respect to program; Collaboration with other organizations;
Organization development; Capacity building on project level; Description PME19
system; Self-dependancing; Sustainability; Division of evangelization and
development cooperation; Deepening information/ general remarks; Risk with
regard to financing; Result expectation; Evaluation budget; Conditions/ remarks.’
(Prisma, 2010, 9)
From the second year onwards, successive funds can be applied for. In order to receive
these successive funds an organization has to show ‘ownership’, both trough the
submission of personal reflections and assessments, and through progress reports
(Prisma, 2010). The progress reports make reference to the indicators that were agreed
upon during the application phase. The new application also has to include a new year
plan, a new budget and result agreements (on minimally two intervention strategies)
(Prisma, 2010).
19 PME stands for Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation.
33
§ 5.3. Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation (PME)
PME is performed on two levels: by the ICCO-alliance and by Prisma; in cooperation with
its member-organizations (Prisma, 2009). Subsequent to Prisma’s PME systems, the
ICCO-alliance performs both a general PME of the program and an organizational level
PME to measure the efficiency of the organizations and the effectiveness of the proposed
policies (ICCO-Alliance, 2009).
The monitoring protocol
As was described, the projects that are performed have to align with MFS-objectives.
ICCO-alliance members have determined general objectives for each program. With
respect to the programs “HIV & Aids” and “Basic healthcare” the following objectives
have been established:
HIV & Aids:
In the projects that concern HIV/Aids, Prisma works for a society that can deal with aids,
meaning that:
1) ‘Everybody has knowledge of HIV/Aids
2) Everybody knows how to protect him- or herself against the infection and lives in
an environment that enables him or her to do that
3) HIV-positive people have access to proper healthcare and treatment
4) Stigmatization and discrimination belong to the past
5) The impact of HIV/Aids on individual and society level is minimalized’ (ICCO-
Alliance, 2009, 166)
Basic Healthcare:
In this program, the main objective is to: ‘intensify the healthcare systems on local- and
district level, with special attention for sexual and reproductive health for women,
adolescents and underprivileged groups.’ (ICCO-Alliance, 2009, 150)
The member-organizations have to comply with these objectives. Indicators and key
success factors are described that explicate both the objectives20 and intervention
strategies21, such that progress within the ICCO-Alliance can be measured. Moreover, as
a general prescription, it is described that project funds may not be utilized for
proselitism or missionary activities. Project funds may also not be used for members of
one specific faith community (Prisma, 2010).
20 Relates to the personal PME system. 21 Directly fighting poverty; (building) Societal structure; Influencing policy.
34
Models for investigating identity dynamics
As Kamsteeg (2003) stresses, organizations are called to reposition themselves and to
create a strong identity. This is not an easy task since societal developments pose many
difficulties for Christian organizations (as has been described in chapter 3). Moreover, the
previously described MFS-I framework assigns a clear task to organizations as well:
organizations have to maintain its identity within an outlined governmental framework
and it has to meanwhile account for what it does to its constituencies and partners. It
can be stated that identity is easier described than conveyed. Important dynamics of
(Christian) identities are therefore outlined in this chapter. The outline is provided along
several identity building blocks and ends with an operationalization of identity that
suffices this research.
§ 6.1. Identity building blocks
Identity is rather encompassing and therefore several building blocks are described. The
interrelations and translations of these different building blocks are described in the
operationalization that follows in the next paragraph of this chapter.
Formal and factual identity
Jochemsen (in Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010) distinguishes formal (confessed) from
factual (experienced) identity and this distinction is demonstrated in the following two
definitions:
1. Formal identity forms the identity ‘as it is formulated in the formal documents
like regulations, identity documents, visions. This is the identity of the
“structure”.’ (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010, 28)
2. Factual identity ‘is the whole of characterizing manners by which the
institution functions in practice and wherein faith and worldviews are
determining elements.’ (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010, 28)
Ideally these two forms of identity concur, meaning that one performs what one
confesses. However, as Kamsteeg (2003) already mentions, identity is shaped by
employees and culture and as a main implication the correspondence between formal and
factual identity can weaken. This can best be represented with the following table that is
derived from Geuze et al (2009):
6
35
Factual
Formal
Christian Non-christian
Christian christian Formally christian
Non-christian Factually christian Non-christian
Table 4: a representation of Christian identity (Geuze et al, 2009, 29, edited into English).
Christian identity dimensions
Table 4 shows that there can be differences between formal and factual identities but it
does not (yet) make clear where differences in Christian development aid (can) occur.
Four important dimensions for illustrating the correspondence are therefore elaborated.
These dimensions are mainly derived from Buijs et al (2003):
1) Constituency identity: organizations can be connected to a specific group of
people or a denomination that gives them right to exist and also provides an
organization with certain viewpoints (Buijs and Jochemsen in Buijs et al, 2003,
317). The tradition thereby colours the religious resources of an organization but
it does not automatically result in a clear manifestation of religious resources in its
projects.
2) Content identity: ‘the organization, in its approach, tries to give account for that
what drives its founders and its members and employees.’ (Buijs and Jochemsen
in Buijs et al, 2003, 317) With respect to that which drives Christian development
aid in general, Van der Lee (in Buijs et al, 2003, 234) describes that: ‘holistic
world diaconate22 acknowledges that the Christian community forms a sign of the
Kingdom, wherein evangelization, social action and the Holy Spirit are present and
indissolubly connected.’ The composition of these elements can differ per
organization but in general, visions, approaches, strategies and instruments have
to serve a transformation of persons and/or communities: ‘that leads people from
outside the Kingdom inside the sphere of its influence.’ (van der Lee in Buijs et al,
2003). It contains both personal and social transformation since the aim of the
transformation is ‘wholeness of the person and community’, meaning that through
liberation and restoration of what is misshaped, possibilities for a truly significant
existence are created. The way personal and social transformation is achieved,
both formally and factually, differs per organizations and a main influence is
already exerted through differences in the composition of missionary works,
diaconate and development cooperation (Buijs et al, 2003).
3) Target group identity: cooperation with local partners in the South that uphold
comparable views of life can be strived for, giving rise to ‘a mutual search for
22 A term coined by van der Lee (in Buijs et al, 2003) in order to describe Christian development aid works as distinguished from regular development aid.
36
concrete meaning of the through both parties shared Christian belief in this
situation’. (Buijs and Jochemsen, 2003, 317) Hence, partnership choices are or of
importance for upholding and conveying Christian approaches and philosophies.
4) Personnel identity: subsequent to these three factors it is important to notice
that identity is concretised in the actions of people. People give meaning to an
identity from their own spiritual background as perspective (van der Lee in Buijs
et al, 2003). Christian spirituality, according to Van der Lee (in Buijs et al, 2003),
is related to the Holy Spirit and Van der Lee distinguishes an inner and outer
evolvement of people by the Holy Spirit. The inner evolvement resembles the
utterances of the fruit of the Holy Spirit that are stressed in Galatians 5:2223. The
outer evolvements, or ‘charismata’, are described in the first letter to Corinthians,
chapter 1224. Through these two evolvements of the Holy Spirit, God receives a
place in development aid works and, ‘it creates the expectation of God’s active
involvement that has an enormous surplus value compared to ours.’ (van der Lee
in Buijs et al, 2003, 233). The aim of development aid organizations therefore
(should) become(s), ‘to consciously seek these evolvements to be able to provide
the results of it in diaconal services to our fellow people.’ (van der Lee in Buijs et
al, 2003, 233) The extent to which this occurs easily differs per situation and per
organization and also relates to the visions and regulations of an organization.
Identity management
A description of Geuze et al (2009) relates to the previously described elements but it
more clearly directs attention to the possibility to also influence identity. Geuze et al
(2009) describe three areas for influencing and transforming an identity and it can be
considered as an important addition for it clearly shows that organizations can influence
the correspondence of formal and factual identities. Geuze et al (2009, 29) distinguish:
‘Management of identity through ‘culture’
Management of identity through policies (‘structure’)
Management of identity through human resource management (‘personnel’).’
Culture is not yet touched upon specifically although it can also be reckoned under the
previously described label of “content identity”, as culture and content are partly
interrelated (Geuze et al, 2009). Culture refers to the unwritten rules and customs. It
concerns the shared world-views and moral convictions, just as the atmosphere and
behaviours within the organization (Jochemsen and Van Dijk, 2010). It is important that 23 ‘But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control.’ 24 ‘Speaking a message of wisdom, a message of knowledge, gifts of healing, miraculous powers, prophecy, distinguishing between spirits, speaking in different kinds of tongues and the interpretation of tongues, charity and governing’ (van der Lee in Buijs et al, 2003, 233)
37
management itself embodies the preferential culture and, through decisions, guides a
culture into a preferential direction (Geuze et al, 2009). Maintaining and upholding
customs is therefore also very important.
Structure is strongly related to culture. It refers to the regulations, vision
documents, procedures, deliberation structures, committees etc. These structural
arrangements can embody and protect a culture but meanwhile, culture is rather
dynamic and hence cannot be totally grasped in, and protected by a structure (Geuze et
al, 2009). Reflection on visions and approach is important and it also directs attention to
monitoring and evaluation processes. Experiences from the field can alter the content of
a certain approach or vision. Whenever an organization is strongly linked to a particular
church, an identity is also influenced by maintaining good relations with (representatives
of) relevant church congregations and/or the church denominations. It can concern
alignment on a variety of topics, containing examples such as: pastoral care, ethical
dilemmas, recruitment of personnel and education (Jochemsen et al, 2003).
Personnel, lastly, are the people that express the identity that is embodied in
structure and culture. This element was already touched upon in this paragraph with
reference to Van der Lee (in Buijs et al, 2003). However, Geuze et al (2009) and
Jochemsen et al (2003) add some interesting “intervention area’s”. They say that
influencing an identity needs to be performed through making identity part of
appointment criteria and conversations and job evaluation conversations such that an
identity can be properly carried out by employees (Jochemsen et al, 2003). This can be
supported by work supervision, especially aimed at equipment of personnel in the field
such that preferential morals and worldviews are conveyed (Geuze et al, 2009).
§ 6.2. Operationalization
The building blocks that were described in the previous paragraph show overlap. ‘Content
identity’ resembles ‘structure’, with the addition of Geuze et al (2003) that structure is
balanced by ‘culture’ as well. Although culture was not specifically mentioned in the four
dimensions that were derived from Buijs et al (2003), it can be viewed that content
encompasses culture, as an approach concerns both a formal and informal way of doing
(Geuze et al, 2003). The other building blocks: ‘personnel (as described by Van der Ven
in Buijs et al, 2003), target group, constituency and again personnel’ (as described by
Geuze et al, 2003), all form dimensions of stakeholder groups. These stakeholder groups
underlie and shape identity as well. The dimension of ‘target group identity’ is changed
into ‘partnerships identity’ in order to make the content of the dimension more clear.
The above operationalization hence results in two identity dimensions: ‘content
identity’ and ‘stakeholder identity’. These two identity dimensions (can) both have a
38
formal and a factual side of which the correspondence can be investigated, as can be
observed in the following table:
Formal/
factual
Identity
dimensions
Formal identity Factual identity
Stakeholders identity
Constituencies
Personnel
Partnerships
Content identity
Structure
Culture
Table 5: prior operationalization table.
As an addition it needs to be made clear that identity correspondence can be observed at
two levels: both at the formal- and factual level of the organization, and at the formal-
and factual level of the project. As an assumption it can therefore be asserted that the
correspondence can be investigated at both levels, whereby there is a mutual
interrelation. Graphically this can be represented as follows:
Figure 1: formal and factual correspondence at two levels.
Observing Christian identity in practice
The precise interrelations of the correspondence between formal and factual identity at
the levels of both the organization and the project is not exactly known and tested a
priori and might be more complex than the way it is demonstrated in figure 1. This is not
Formal Organization
Identity
Formal Project Identity
Factual Organization
Identity
Factual Project Identity
39
of primary importance for the research for it falls not within the scope of this research to
investigate the relations separately. In this research, a general division of formal and
factual identity is maintained and the influence of both formal organization- and formal
project identity is investigated, without a specific separation. It implies that the
correspondence of both the formal organization- and formal project identity with both the
factual organization- and factual project identity is investigated, leading to the following
table that suffices for this research:
Figure 2: operationalized formal-factual correspondence.
Measuring the above represented correspondence can give rise to a variety of
conclusions along the dimensions of ‘constituency-, partnership-, content- and personnel-
identity’. Due to the scope of the research and the difficulty to operationalize ‘culture’,
the decision is made not to investigate culture specifically. In a research with a greater
scope it is worthwhile to further elaborate on the operationalization of table 5 but in this
research, due to its scope, the decision is made to use the following operationalization of
identity:
Formal/
factual
Identity
dimensions
Formal identity
Organization Project
Factual identity
Organization Project
Constituencies
Content
Partnerships
Personnel
Table 6: final operationalization for investigating Christian identity manifestations.
Formal Organization
Identity
Formal Project Identity
Factual Organization
Identity
Factual Project Identity
40
Part II: Empirical identity analysis
41
Methodology
In order to describe how identity is analysed in practice, it is important to describe the
methodology for collecting and analysing empirical results. In this chapter the
methodological choices are therefore explained and justified, meaning that the applied
research method, the used approach and the manner by which information is gathered
and analysed, are elaborated.
§ 7.1. Answering the main question
The applicability of the chosen research method most of all depends on the main
research question. The methodology has to contribute to formulating an answer to the
following main question:
How does the Christian identity of Prisma member-organizations become
manifest in MFS-I financed development aid projects?
Methodological approach
A qualitative research method is adopted for answering the main question. A research
method is the whole of connected decisions about the way research is performed
(Verschuren and Doorewaard, 1998). According to Boeije (2005), qualitative research
puts a strong emphasis on reality as its point of departure. The eventual objective is to
discover and investigate the elements and properties of a particular phenomenon in
reality (Jonker and Pennink, 2000). Qualitative research strategies are therefore used to
gain insight in the subject from the participant’s perspective. In the case of this research,
the main participants are the organizations and their employees. The eventual goal is to
describe the correspondence between the formal and the factual identity. By using
qualitative research methods, information and opinions from relevant organizations and
people can be derived.
There are no specific quantitative models for investigating the extent of
correspondence and the researched organizations also convey their identities in different
manners. In order to develop knowledge about the correspondence between formal and
factual identities, an exploratory approach has to be adopted that has its point of
departure in the organizations/projects themselves. It is exploratory in the sense that an
overview of identity observations are developed that provide useful insights on how
Christian identities become manifest in practice. The observations of the phenomena are
7
42
normally translated into generalizations. In this research the generalizations are mostly
illustrative because of the small sample size and scope.
Project selection
An important step in the research was the selection of suitable projects for investigation.
This was done in consultation with Henk Jochemsen and the following organizations were
selected:
Dark & Light
Bijzondere Noden
Leprazending
Woord en Daad
Gereformeerde Zendingsbond
These organizations were chosen in order to create variety in the list of organizations
that would be approached. First of all, the list consisted of both organizations that were
active in HIV & Aids and in Basic Healthcare projects. Also, with respect to their
constituencies there are differences, varying from very broad and more loosely connected
to constituencies, to strongly connected to a particular constituency. Bijzondere Noden
for example forms a purely diaconal institution of the Gereformeerde Gemeenten, while
Dark & Light forms a civil initiative organization. Moreover, there are also differences in
foci. Leprazending forms an example of an organization that purely deals with disabled
people while the GZB is a lot more general. Lastly, there is also variety in lifetime and
size of the different organizations. In the process of making interview appointments,
Dark & Light refused to cooperate due to time restrictions. As Summer was approaching
and there were no immediate alternatives, no substitute for Dark & Light was sought.
Operationalization
In the operationalization of the “identity building blocks” choices were made. A division
into two levels (project- and organization identity) was made but it was difficult to
separate these levels in practice. For answering the main question a decision needed to
be made regarding the adoption of a narrow or overall perspective. The first would
enable to separate a particular relation (formal project identity correspondence with
factual project identity) but it seemed necessary to first understand the whole of
interrelations because it was likely that there would be mutual influences. Therefore an
overall perspective was chosen. Moreover, the decision was made to focus on just four
dimensions as the fifth dimension, ‘culture’, would require more operationalization.
Hence, due to its subjective nature, culture is merely implicitly investigated while the
other four dimensions are investigated explicitly.
43
Data collection
The data was extracted from literature, documents and interviews. As mentioned before,
much data was collected via document analysis. This was done by analysing website
information, documents and project reports. With the data it was possible to partly
answer relevant questions concerning the correspondence of formal and factual identity.
The interviews were especially focused on collecting new information and on collecting
more information on particular topics.
The four organizations were approached by sending a letter (Appendix B). The
letter was followed up by a phone call three days afterwards. This eventually resulted in
interview appointments throughout June 2011 and the first week of July 2011. As
preparation for the interviews, interview guides for both HIV & Aids and Basic Healthcare
were created (Appendix A). Moreover, MFS-I reports of representative projects of all of
the organizations involved were received from Prisma.
Interviews
According to Patton (1980) qualitative interviews can be divided into four categories; (1)
informal conversational (2) interview guide (3) standardized open-ended and (4) closed
fixed field response. In this research the interview guide was chosen, meaning that the
interviews were based on an interview guide (topic list) that operated as a guideline
during the interview. The interview guide was standardized and in anticipation of the
interviews, some organization-specific questions were prepared. The interviews were held
face-to-face and rather unstructured, meaning that the interview guide merely operated
as a tool to make sure that all relevant questions would be posed in the interview. After
the data collection phase, all the information had to be analysed.
Data analysis
During the analysis of the data, the most important objective was to extract and
structure the information. The interviews were recorded and based on both the audio
files and the notes that were taken, reports were written; first as draft, subsequently as
structured reports that covered the relevant elements of the interview and documents.
The reports were structured along the four identity dimensions that were used for
measuring the correspondence of Christian identity. These reports form the basis for the
conclusions where a more general viewpoint needs to be adopted in order to perceive the
interrelations of the correspondence of the four identity dimensions and to provide an
answer to the main question.
44
Empirical results
There are four organizations and projects that were researched. Of each of these
organizations, along with the respective MFS-I project, a description is added along the
four dimensions of the operationalization. Specific attention is paid to the correspondence
between formal and factual identity on each of these four dimensions. The formal and
factual descriptions are therefore conveniently arranged next to each other. The MFS-I
projects are constantly described as first and subsequently the formal-factual
correspondence of that particular organization is elaborated.
§ 8.1. Bijzondere Noden
Project: MCDC 2008
MCDC (Mukhanyo Community Development Centre) was built in order to serve the wider
KwaMhlanga area in South Africa. As according to the 2008 report: ‘the HIV/AIDS
Pandemic now even more devastates the wider population within KwaMhlanga and has
already wiped out complete households.’ (MCDC, 2008, 1)
Nakekela25 is the care centre that specifically pays attention to the HIV & Aids
patients. According to the project report, ‘Nakekela plays a very big role in this
community as it is seen as a place of care and hope. At present this is the only centre of
its kind in the area and there are just never enough beds to accommodate the gravely
ill.’ (MCDC, 2008, 2) There is a list of factors that underlie the problems that are present
in the KwaMhlanga region. It are also the factors that need to be addressed:
‘Religion: The symptoms of been bewitched is literally the same as been infected
with HIV e.g.
Stigma: Patients often die at Nakekela without their family members knowing or
acknowledging the fact that they were HIV+.
Poverty: Most patients and extended family networks have little or no income-
therefore no proper healthy meals.
Lack of medical assistance: Hospitals and clinics lack equipment, medicine, beds and
staff.
Housing: Patients live in tiny shacks with often no electricity or running water.
People already weakened by the virus exposed to these conditions (cold at night)
die much more readily.’ (MCDC, 2008, 2)
25 Nakekela care centre is a part of MCDC and forms a main responsibility of ‘De Verre Naasten’ (The Remote Fellow People). Bijzondere Noden is particularly involved in MCDC in general.
8
45
Constituency
Formal constituency identity
The core of Bijzondere Noden is
found in its constituency and can
best be described by the fact
that:
‘all “Gereformeerde Gemeenten”
and the “Netherlands Reformed
congregations”, office-bearers,
and members subscribe to three
Reformed Forms of Unity: the
Belgic Confession of Faith (by
Guido de Bres), the Heidelberg
Catechism (by Zacharias Ursinus
and Caspar Olevianus), and the
Canons of Dordt.’ (Bijzondere
Noden, 2008, 1)
At the centre of the hierarchical
structure of the Gereformeerde
Gemeenten is a general synod,
which is held every three years.
The general synod gives mandate
to Bijzondere Noden to perform
its tasks and it therefore also has
to report to the general synod
every three years.
Factual constituency identity
In the general synod there is a representation of
four regional synods in which together twelve
classes are represented. There is a contact person
for Bijzondere Noden in each of these twelve classes
who distributes information to the churches in his or
her respective region. Bijzondere Noden stays in
touch with its constituencies by sending information
in the form of reports and brochures. The website is
also used as a means for providing information
about projects and progress.
With respect to the influence of the
constituencies on Bijzondere Noden, it is worthwhile
to mention that, just as the Gereformeerde
Gemeenten adhere to the three Reformed Forms of
Unity, it is expected of the personnel of Bijzondere
Noden to also confirm and confess these forms and
to have an active membership of one’s own church.
Bijzondere Noden thereby tries to form a
representation of the constituencies that strives to
integrate the viewpoints and visions that are present
among its constituencies.
Direct interference of the churches with
Bijzondere Noden is restricted. Apart from the
eleven board members that have been assigned by
the synod, there is no direct form of monitoring. The
board members report towards the synod and have
a control function towards Bijzondere Noden. If, for
example, shifts in worldviews occur that give rise to
differences between Bijzondere Noden and the
partner organizations that create dilemmas, these
dilemmas are dealt with by Bijzondere Noden itself.
Possibly, a board member becomes involved in
solving such dilemmas since they are mostly present
at working visits, but no specific contact is sought
with the constituencies to solve dilemmas.
46
Content
Formal content identity
The Gereformeerde Gemeenten
has divided its missionary
activities and diaconal activities
into two organizations/ deputies.
The diaconal tasks of the
Reformed Congregations are a
responsibility of the deputy for
Bijzondere Noden and the
missionary activities are a
responsibility of the Zending
Gereformeerde Gemeenten
(ZGG).
The Christian inspiration of
the work of Bijzondere Noden is
clear. Bijzondere Noden has
described its identity and also
touches upon lifestyles and
values that are deemed
important. The following quoted
text demonstrate its viewpoints:
‘The true Christian’s life is meant
to be a preparation for the life to
come. His godly walk and
tempered concern over the lawful
matters of this world will cause
him to try to be the salt of the
earth and the light on the hill. His
walk, his talk, and even his
withdrawal and silence will also
testify to the living principle of
real Christianity in exercise within
him. Such an approach to daily,
practical life is viewed as biblical
and realistic (not radical!) within
Factual content identity: the role of the gospel
As there is a separation of diaconal- and missionary
works into two deputies, it does not mean that there
is no integration of missionary works into the
diaconal works: ‘although diaconate is directed at
the alleviation of the temporary needs, there must
always be attention for the complete human: soul
and body.’ The message of the Word is therefore
always of equal importance and forms a part of the
diaconal works, as Word and deed cannot be totally
separated.
Within its diaconal task there is a distinction
between structural projects and relief aid projects.
In the structural projects there is a stronger focus
on the integration of the Word and therefore, in
these projects it is more likely that the specific
identity of de Gereformeerde Gemeenten becomes
visible. Another difference with respect to relief aid
projects and structural projects is that if relief aid
projects transform into structural projects
Bijzondere Noden demands, as a requisite, the
presence of a spiritually related church in order to
continue the project and to be able to more
thoroughly integrate the Christian message. Projects
in Darfur are an example where there was no
related church and relief aid projects therefore did
not progress into structural projects and where
brought to an end.
Factual content identity: the HIV/Aids project
MFS-I was not experienced as a restriction with
respect to the transmission of Christian lifestyles.
The MFS-I monitoring protocol does not address all
topics. It monitors whether there is an increase in
risk awareness and knowledge about how one can
become HIV infected. This leaves room for stressing
47
GG and NRC circles… On the one
hand, GG and NRC members
maintain the biblical injunction
that Christians must remain in
but not of the world. On the other
hand, the denominations reject
the imagined notion that the
Christian sanctifies worldly
transactions and happenings by
his/her presence and
intervention.’ (Bijzondere Noden,
2008, 1-2)
Christian viewpoints and opinions. Hence, indicators
that are determined in MFS-I are not exhaustive and
still sufficiently general. Moreover, very Christian
elements within a project can also be financed with
personal funds instead of governmental funds as
projects are based on co-financing.
As a result, the reports that are written to
both MFS-I (the ministry of foreign affairs) and the
constituencies of Bijzondere Noden (and the general
synod) differ. MFS-I protocols do not demand an
address of (the manifestation of) Christian lifestyles,
so while it is present, it is not communicated. The
constituencies and the general synod on the other
hand put much more emphasis on results regarding
manifestations of Christian lifestyles and therefore,
in the reports to these parties, much more emphasis
is put on such topics.
Within the HIV/Aids projects there are issues
that are rather delicate because of the
constituencies and the sensitivity of the dilemmas.
An example is precaution and/or prevention and the
use of contraceptive measures. Because of the
sensitivity, Bijzondere Noden has decided to mainly
pay attention to the aftercare instead of precaution
or prevention, also because its main focus is on the
alleviation of temporary needs.
In its projects, Bijzondere Noden does not
directly emphasize the promotion of sexual
abstinence outside marriages and fidelity within
marriages and relationships. Bijzondere Noden
mainly tries to accomplish an implementation of
such elements through cooperation with spiritually
related partner organizations and through role
models that exhibit a Christian lifestyle. The
possibility to integrate such elements also depends
on the time that is available for treating a patient.
At day care sections for orphans for example, the
orphans receive life skill lessons where important
48
Christian viewpoints concerning sexuality are
addressed, while there is less opportunity for such a
transmission if a patient receives a very regular
treatment in a hospice.
‘Destigmatization´ mostly receives attention
in partner-churches where religious leaders are
encouraged to create a safe environment. The
partner-organization in South Africa for example
equips religious leaders in churches in order to
discuss HIV/Aids issues with the congregation.
Approximately 90 religious leaders have been
equipped in a year time.
Partnerships
Formal partnership identity
In order to convey the identity of
the Gereformeerde Gemeenten,
there are some specific policy
decisions that have to warrant
that the identity of the
organization and its
constituencies is shared in the
projects. First of all, Bijzondere
Noden solely cooperates with
Christian organizations and
churches that have a spiritual
relationship (geestverwantschap)
with the denominational
background of Bijzondere Noden.
Since churches abroad are
founded in different settings, it
does not imply a complete
resemblance. An important
element of spiritual relationship is
the endorsement of the
Westminster Confession26 by
Factual partnership identity
The possibility to freely choose spiritually related
partners is also present within MFS-I. Only the
quality norms within MFS-I are more specific and
more strict and that diminishes the number of
possible partner candidates, also because the
partner organizations have to be able to carry the
administrative load that the MFS-I projects bring
along. However, because a spiritual relationship is
demanded in the mandate of the general synod,
Bijzondere Noden only becomes active in projects if
a suitable partner can be found. So, although the
list of possible candidates is smaller in MFS-I,
Bijzondere Noden warrants its identity by
emphasizing and seeking a spiritual relationship with
its partners as a requirement, also in MFS-I.
Because of the administrative load for both
Bijzondere Noden and the local partners and
because of the greater difficulty to find suitable
partners, Bijzondere Noden has also decided not to
be active in too many MFS-I projects. On forehand
some countries are already left out as there are too
26 The Westminster Confession applies as an international confession that is very related to the Belgic confession of faith.
49
possible partners in the English
speaking countries. Bijzondere
Noden for example often
cooperates with Presbyterian
churches and organizations.
Cooperation with Pentecostal
churches and organizations on
the other hand is out of the
question since differences with
the more ‘charismatic’
movements are too big.
few opportunities to find a suitable partner in some
regions or countries. Moreover, the partners that
Bijzondere Noden works with in MFS-I were mainly
existing partners. No new partners have been
sought for MFS-I. Historical relations have been
mostly important and greatly determine the
database of partners. The network of partnerships is
also expanded by (former) employees of Bijzondere
Noden who have been, or are active abroad.
During the partnership it is important to see
and experience how strong a certain identity is
shared with, and embodied by the partner
organization. Bijzondere Noden therefore maintains
a gradual increase of commitment in the partnership
by which it can get to know its partner and vice
versa. Bijzondere Noden works with year contracts
and it can also occur that during the cooperation, it
becomes visible that differences become bigger, or
are bigger than expected. This can especially
become visible during working visits, which have to
be made once a year in MFS-I projects. If this is the
case and if conversations and possible measures do
not have the desired effect, it can imply that
Bijzondere Noden decides to gradually bring the
partnership to an end. This does not mean that they
immediately pull the plug, it will always go
gradually.
Personnel
Formal personnel identity
An important instrument for
carrying out identity is formed by
the people that embody an
identity. In some (MFS-I)
projects, Bijzondere Noden
demands that 70% of the
employees comes from spiritually
Factual personnel identity
Compliance with a 70% demand is partly based on
trust since it is not strictly and consequently
monitored. A difficulty is namely that organizations
abroad have a rather varying personnel file. This
also impacts the level of equipment and education,
for people in those countries (Africa) rather quickly
change jobs if they grow in skills and experience.
50
related churches. Moreover, there
is a stress on lifestyles that are
deemed important, such that
personnel can act as role models
who exhibiting these lifestyles.
(Intensive) education and equipment is therefore
problematic, for it is difficult to keep well trained
employees in service.
The responsibility for equipment and training
is a main task of the partner organization and
Bijzondere Noden mostly gives hints for acquiring a
proper training. This is achieved by bringing partner
organizations into contact with other training
courses and/or partner organizations such that
sharing (can) take(s) place. Moreover, Bijzondere
Noden asks for the contents of the training such that
it can also think along and control the content. But
mostly, if Bijzondere Noden does not have a good
alternative, trainings are allowed; also if the training
does not totally correspond with the insights of
Bijzondere Noden.
As Bijzondere Noden does not consequently
monitor the partner organization with respect to
their staffing and equipment, there is a risk that
employees do not adequately carry out a preferred
Christian lifestyle. But it is also viewed that the
realization is part of the autonomy of the partner
organizations. Moreover, through a clear autograph,
a spiritual relationship, cooperation requirements,
reports, working visits and contact persons,
Bijzondere Noden hopes to sufficiently influence the
work realizations in a positive way. Influencing
elements of personnel, equipment of personnel and
the realization of policies has a maximum, for it is
rather expensive both in terms of personal effort
and money to strictly control the work in the South.
Moreover, Bijzondere Noden does also not have the
capacity to monitor the processes in the South to
such an extent. In general, working visits provide
one of the most influential opportunities to
exchange viewpoints and influence the work in the
South and on average, all projects receive a minimal
attention of one day.
51
§ 8.2. Leprazending
Project: NLEP 2008
NLEP stands for ‘National Leprosy Eradication Programme’. Together with the ILEP
partners (International Federation of Anti- Leprosy Associations), Leprazending placed
support structures for NLEP in various states of India in the form of Zonal and District
Technical Support Teams until 2007. From 2008 onwards Leprazending is active in
supporting 14 states. The major activities in 2008 were focused on:
i) ‘Training of trainers and refresher course for District Nucleus
ii) Training of DLOs (District Leprosy Officer) in Monitoring and Supervision,
iii) To organize Regional Review meetings, in each state.
iv) Orientation of CMOs (Chief Medical Officers)
v) Orientation of final year medical students
vi) Symposium for Dermatologists
vii) Orientation of Chief Medical superintendents of District Hospital and
Superintendents of Community Health Centers in DPMR (Disability
Prevention and Medical Rehabilitation) and referrals.
viii) Socio- Economic rehabilitation and vocational training activities’ (…)
Constituency
Formal constituency identity
Leprazending Nederland is a foundation that is
founded in 1975, as part of The Leprosy Mission
International (TLMI) that knows a history from
1874 onwards. Leprazending is not connected to a
specific church or denomination. At first the
constituencies of Leprazending were small and
very involved and mainly related to (former)
employees and volunteers and the respective
churches they belonged to. In the last seven years
more general fundraising has been performed
among the general public in Christian magazines.
Constituency files have also been shared with
other (non-Christian) organizations and these
constituencies have been addressed.
The main part of the constituencies of
Factual constituency identity
In the creation of visions and
policies and in the dilemmas that
Leprazending encounters, it does
not really involve its constituencies.
Sometimes volunteers and
employees are involved but
Leprazending does not work with
focus groups to involve different
representations of constituencies.
Obvious ethical dilemmas do
however also not quickly come to
the surface in the treatment of, and
care for leprosy and disabilities.
As Leprazending does not
relate to a particular denomination,
52
Leprazending is (expected to be) Christian, for the
Christian identity and inspiration of Leprazending
is very clear. It therefore mostly attracts
Christians while there may be a small part that is
non-Christian. In general most of the
constituencies originate in the Protestant-Christian
corners. In its communication, Leprazending does
not choose sides for a specific denomination. Its
inspiration, ‘in imitation of Christ’ is very clear and
Leprazending tries to translate its work into
unambiguous communications that are neutral in
terms of denominations.
Leprazending in its network tries to
emphasize that there is a variety of
churches that suit for partnerships.
They find it important that a variety
of churches is addressed and that
cooperation is not limited to only
certain denominations.
Content
Formal content identity
As an organization, Leprazending
is focused on the alleviation of
humanitarian needs. Diaconal
activities thereby has its attention
but it forms an utterance of a
missionary exhortation to make
people more whole. The Word
component is thereby involved
but not stressed extensively.
Factual content identity: general
An important issue that needs to be dealt with in the
eradication of leprosy is the issue of justice and
injustice. There is much stigmatization involved in
the disease and issue of leprosy. People that suffer
from leprosy are often deprived and marginalized
and employees, in their contact with patients, can
approach them with dignity, thereby influencing the
dignity and esteem of patients. This is also called
‘contactual witnessing’ as it conveys a serving
attitude aimed at treating the patient with dignity
and esteem. The logo of Leprazending (Leprosy
Mission International) also shows this attitude and
approach; it shows the parable of Jesus who touches
and heals a leper. Contactual witnessing is very
important in countries such as India for it breaks
down a stigmatization barrier.
Addressing justice and rights is not about
claiming rights but it is about doing right to others
and therefore there is much attention for society.
Stigmatization is rooted in society and needs to be
addressed. This is Christian but not in an explicit
sense. A serving attitude and approach receives
53
much attention. It for instance becomes visible in
signposts that can be seen at the entrance of some
of the TLM hospitals where it is stated that the
hospital exists for people who suffer from leprosy:
‘they are the most important guests and they are
the ones whom the hospital wants to serve (in
imitation of Christ)’. In order to contribute to a
serving attitude, weekly or daily openings (it differs
per hospital) are held such that people can pray and
are equipped to perform their jobs.
Religious leaders also have a stake in
achieving destigmatization. Films that show a priest
who touches a leper already break down a part of
the barrier. Moreover, religious leaders can call up
their congregations to treat lepers with dignity and
therefore they can contribute to destigmatization.
Another role that religious leaders sometimes fulfil is
the role of counsellor. In the cooperation between
churches and TLM hospitals, religious leaders
sometimes offer psycho-social aid in order to
contribute to the revalidation of leprosy patients.
This is mostly aimed at recovery from self-
stigmatization because many patients have been
disadvantaged.
Factual content identity: MFS-I
The difficulty of the NLEP program is that, as it is an
Indian government program, the identity of the
program cannot be directly influenced. The Indian
government is responsible and the only chances for
conveying one’s own identity lie in the tasks that
TLMI performs itself via its employees. Moreover,
the main content of the program concerns training
and equipment. A Christian identity can therefore
mainly become manifest if people that received
training also become stationed in TLM hospitals. This
is not always the case. But there are also MFS-I
funds that are used for projects that find their origin
54
in TLM hospitals and these projects demonstrate a
lot more opportunities for conveying a Christian
identity.
Partnerships
Formal partnership identity
As a member of The Leprosy
Mission International (TLMI),
Leprazending Nederland has
endorsed the Global Fellowship.
The TLM Global Fellowship is a
charter that forms a statement of
the country’s commitment to
other members and to the shared
task of eradicating the causes
and consequences of leprosy.
Members are national entities
that either have a supporting or
implementing function, or a
combination of both. For all
members the Christian inspiration
is important, as their shared
mission statement is formulated
as follows:
‘To minister in the name of Jesus
Christ to the physical, mental,
social and spiritual needs of
individuals and communities
disadvantaged by leprosy;
working with them to uphold
human dignity and eradicate
leprosy.’
Subsequent to its mission, TLMI
describes the following vision,
objective and values:
Factual partnership identity
The Global Fellowship charter has just been signed
whereby the equality of the members is secured and
the mutual commitment towards the eradication of
leprosy is re-emphasized; implying more
independence for the members, more 1 on 1 contact
and less mediation and coordination by the central
office.
Leprazending closely cooperates with the
countries that it supports. India and Bangladesh are
examples of partners and in these countries, the local
Leprosy mission entities have an important stake in
the way the identity of Leprazending and TLMI is
conveyed. The most important partners of
Leprazending are thus already included in the network
and it leaves less room to choose partners for
Leprazending Nederland, as the local partners are
chosen by the countries (the Leprosy Mission
Members) themselves.
There are no prescriptions for creating local
partnerships in the sense that only Christian partners
can be sought. There is a preference for Christian
partners and employees but it is not a requisite.
Partnerships are formed with many different
organizations varying from churches to governments.
In NLEP also non-Christian partners are chosen. The
Indian government is responsible for the performance
of the overall program and the first level care. Leprosy
Mission has an important stake in the program and has
a responsibility for the second and third level care,
something that also requires mere technical elements.
Therefore, general partners and people are needed
55
Vision: ‘a world without
leprosy.’
Objective: ‘to eradicate the
causes and consequences of
leprosy.’
Values:
‘… to be like Jesus
Motivated by the gospel
Compassionate
… to be holistic
Valuing each person, their
families and communities
Working at every level of
need
… to be open
Working for authentic
participation
Promoting dignity
… to be professional
In our attitude, our actions
and management
And appropriate
In our practice’
(Leprazending website)
that also help to perform the more technical elements.
As there are no specific prescriptions, local
partners and also the doctors that treat the patients
can be non-Christian. Moreover, the local partners that
are sought and the considerations that go along are
part of the strategic plans of the respective local
Leprosy Mission member. Leprazending, as a main
partner of for instance India and Bangladesh, is
however involved in the formation and considerations
of the strategic plans. Leprazending is thus also
involved in discussions about possible partners and
criteria and preferences that are deemed important. In
the MFS-I projects, as an addition, partners are mainly
brought forward by other Prisma- and ICCO members
who are involved as well. There is less room for choice
and selection in these cases and partners are mostly
involved by default.
At the moment a tool is being developed by
Leprazending to also ask partners why they cooperate
with churches. Are they mainly cooperating for the
funds that they receive from the local church; does it
have to do with the psycho-sociological aid that is
offered by counsellors; is the cooperation mutually
enriching etc.? In some countries churches fulfil
several social and medical functions and in some cases
a church can even accommodate the care for lepers. A
clear transmission of the Christian message can then
be secured.
Personnel
Formal personnel identity
Because Leprosy Mission works in
many countries and also employs
local people, not all employees
are Christian. Employees can
even be Muslim but there is a
condition for all Leprosy Mission
Factual personnel identity
‘The Leprosy Mission’ (TLM) hospitals form an
important element for offering Christian inspired aid.
The hospitals are owned by Leprosy Mission
International and they provide general medical
services as well as specialised leprosy care and
referral services (second and third level care). The
56
members that the leadership
positions in the respective
organizations need to be
occupied by Christians. This also
applies for the leadership
functions in the TLM hospitals.
hospitals are acknowledged by the government and
can be found all over the world. The identity of the
TLM hospitals is always very clear. At almost every
TLM hospital there is a chapel where services are, or
can be held and many of the employees in these
hospitals are Christian. It is therefore also very
common that employees pray before a medical
surgery is performed. Nurses and doctors also
sometimes pray with patients but this is not
imposed and/or structured, it is just carried out by
employees who happen to be Christian themselves.
§ 8.3. Woord en Daad
Project: Siloam Care center 2008
The Centre Support Siloam was established in August 2006. It is located in Quagadougou
(Burkina Faso) within the precincts of the Evangelical Pentecostal Assembly (EPA) of
Cissin. Its key objective consists of ensuring the integral care of 4200 people infected
and affected by HIV/AIDS and other vulnerable people in Ouagadougou and its environs.
It aims to promote dignity and self-sufficiency for people infected and affected by
HIV/AIDS and the centre provides the following services:
‘Voluntary and anonymous counselling and testing on HIV
Support comprehensive care: Social Care, Support for OVC (orphans and Vulnerable
Children), medical, psychosocial, spiritual and financing of income generating
activities
Advocacy towards the political, religious, administrative, international agencies and
NGOs to take better care of people affected and other vulnerable targets in the
project
Strengthening the operational capacity of Community Based Organizations (CBOs)’
(Credo27 Website)
Constituency
Formal constituency identity
The constituencies of Woord en
Daad can mainly be found in the
reformed churches but it is not
Factual constituency identity
Contact with the constituencies is actively performed
by a specific department of Woord en Daad and it
concerns: awareness creation, education, sharing
27 Partner organization in Burkina Faso.
57
related to a particular church.
Woord en Daad started in the
70’s and the people that started
Woord en Daad mainly came
from the reformed denominations
and this is maintained from the
70’s onwards. The reformed
background is also confirmed in
the articles of association where
reference is made to reformed
confessions of faith. Also for the
employees of Woord en Daad,
endorsement of these document
and visions is demanded.
information, fundraising, evaluation etc. Moreover,
there are committees that are carried by volunteers
that are involved in policy making, and there are
platforms where companies and entrepreneurs meet
and are involved in Woord en Daad policies.
In the work that is executed, the
constituencies are involved. The committees and
platforms form a representation of the
constituencies and are actually involved in policy-
and vision making and are asked to give input on
specific themes and decisions as well. There is also a
specific youth committee in order to involve young
adolescents in the work of Woord en Daad. There is
even a specific young adolescent vision document
and there are youth ambassadors in schools who
have experienced the work of Woord en Daad and
are designated ambassadors.
As possibilities for conveying Christian
principles differ per context, differences can also
become visible in the reports that are provided to
constituencies. Still it can give rise to questions and
doubts among the constituencies. The reasons that
underlie a shortage in manifestations and
possibilities are nevertheless explained as it mostly
has to do with the traditions, culture and
governmental regulations that are present in a
particular country.
Content
Formal content identity
Woord en Daad has as its
mission: ‘to connect people all
over the world in their combat
against poverty, from a biblical
perspective.’ The vision Woord en
Daad adheres to is formulated as
follows:
Factual content identity: separating word and deed
In the project in Siloam, spiritual care is offered. It
does not form a structural practice that is offered by
all partner organizations, as Woord en Daad
stimulates but does not impose. Rather, in
cooperation with the partner, it searches for
practices that suit the program. Spiritual care can
thereby be included but it depends on the context,
58
‘Through its modest work and
mission, Woord en Daad has the
ambition to erect visible signs of
God’s coming Kingdom. In these
signs Woord en Daad has the
ambition to overcome poverty
and suffering and create a view
of a world without suffering and
poverty. From this Biblical
perspective, people may come to
their destination, can live a
decent life and can take and bear
responsibility for themselves and
their fellow men and may
overcome poverty through this
change and transformation. This
vision is reflected in Woord en
Daad’s core values.’ (Woord en
Daad Website)
The five core values Woord en
Daad upholds are:
‘Co-creature’: ‘Every human
being is created to be an
image-bearer of the Creator.
In this they are all equal,
while also diverse and
unique.
‘Co-responsibility’: Every
human being is created as a
responsible creature,
responsible for answering to
God’s call.
Compassion: The context of
a broken world and our
biblical calling demands that
we demonstrate a biblical
the plans of the partner and the plans that are
developed in mutual cooperation.
Poverty must be combatted from an integral,
holistic perspective. Missionary activities, defined as
‘aimed at both conversion and joining a church’ are
no part of that. More broadly defined, missionary
activities can be observed for example at Christian
schools that are supported and where students also
read the bible, or in the practice of a Christian
pastoral worker. In these cases, missionary works
are less specific and form an element of the work to
make people more whole.
The separation between missionary activities
and aid is also visible in MFS-I and the regulations do
not impose extra difficulties with respect to this
separation. Only, since the funds specifically come
from the government, Woord en Daad might
sometimes be a bit more strict in monitoring the
separation. A part that contains a small missionary
element might be changed or deleted while it might
be allowed in a “regular project”. But, generally
speaking, the separation already exists, with or
without governmental funds.
A holistic approach is aimed at serving people
in need in order to help them reach their destination.
This is both spiritual and material and directs to the
good life for all people. Good life in the perspective of
Woord en Daad includes a good relationship with God
but such a thing cannot be imposed and is mainly
conveyed through serving the other and by
demonstrating the inspiration and motivation for
serving the other. If the government would not agree
with such an approach, the approach would also be
secured by the mere fact that a maximum of only
30% may be financed with government funds, such
that Woord en Daad, if necessary, can also cover
that part themselves.
59
compassion to those who
are suffering.
Stewardship: As Christian
organisations, we also take
the element of co-
responsibility and apply it to
our organisation.
Interdependent:
Interdependency means
both independent and
dependent combined.’
(Woord en Daad Website)
Factual content identity: principles
Prisma vision documents form important standards
for the way the work is performed. In 2009 there
was an important international conference where
directors of the partners and the regional
coordinators met and during this conference
important principles of the motivation to perform
development aid where discussed. A Prisma vision
document provides valuable elements for such a
discussion and also partners become aware of that
and endorse and contribute to the outcome. Through
sharing and discussing important principles and
decisions, a shared Christian identity is nurtured.
The topic of destigmatization has an
important place in the HIV/Aids projects and
churches and religious leaders have an important
stake in awareness creation and education, just as it
is mentioned in the Prisma vision document. But the
weight that can be attached to such practices very
much depends on the context. Zambia has a societal
midfield where Christian organizations and churches
have an important stake, giving rise to many
opportunities to achieve destigmatization through
contact and equipment of religious leaders.
Bangladash, an Islamic country, does not have such
abundant possibilities due to the power and place
that churches in this country possess and occupy.
Through churches and religious leaders,
people can be reached and made aware of HIV/Aids
problems and of Christian visions that help to
prevent HIV/Aids problems (fidelity in relationships
and marriage). In line with the Prisma vision there
can be thought of HIV/Aids courses that are offered
in cooperation with religious leaders to church
members. Moreover, psycho-social care is sometimes
offered in cooperation with religious leaders. This
depends on the partnerships of local partner
organizations with churches and/or religious leaders.
60
Partnerships
Formal partnership identity
In order to integrate the wishes
and preferences of both the
constituencies, and the local
people and organizations abroad,
the two departments that are
focused on these respective
groups of “customers” are inter-
connected by the board. They
have to bridge the two sides in
order to secure proper policy
making. For securing proper
policy making there are also
specific “soundboard groups” that
are asked for feedback on
developed policies and visions. In
order to have partners that suit
Woord en Daad, mostly partners
are sought that have a clear
Christian vision on their work and
strongly draw inspiration from
the bible.
Because of the mandate to
offer development aid that finds
its origin in a biblical exhortation
and perspective, regions that
demonstrate no possibilities for
Christianity at all, do not share in
the focus of Woord en Daad.
Such regions resemble better
with the mandate of other, more
secular organizations and
therefore Woord en Daad rather
leaves these regions up to other
organizations. It is important to
create a presence whereby the
Factual partnership identity
Partnerships are built on different levels and in
different constructions. The creation of a partnership
always progresses incrementally. When first
contacts are laid, reference to Christian inspiration is
made and this can result in cooperation forms after
a binding advice of the board. After reflections on
the partnership during two or three years, a more
structural partnership can be built.
Due to different compositions and histories of
denominations in a variety of cultures, Woord en
Daad does not strictly search for partners that
resemble with their own reformed background. As a
principle it is maintained that: ‘the bible needs to be
accepted as the word of God and as guidance, and
people have to administer the bible in a balanced
way and need to be approachable for it’. Partners
can therefore be diverse; Credo for example stems
from a Pentecostal tradition, but the core has to
show resemblance. Direct cooperation with churches
is not sought extensively due to the hierarchical
structures and lack of transparency that (can)
give(s) rise to imposed decisions of church leaders,
instead of dealing with a contact person with whom
Woord en Daad can directly cooperate and discuss
decisions.
Woord en Daad also stimulates the long term
relations to engage in informal cooperation
associations of multiple partners, including Woord
en Daad, in different regions. However, in order to
enter into such an association, organizations need to
have a certain standard and the organization is
therefore analysed in advance. The associations also
mutually endorse visions and principles that form
the basis for their cooperation.
Because of the contexts, there can be
61
principles of the organization and
hence; Christianity, can be, and
are conveyed.
different criteria for performing a Christian identity.
Bangladesh for example is mainly an Islamic country
and that poses more difficulties. The type of project
can therefore differ. Some projects are more explicit
in the way the Christian message is conveyed,
although the principles and motivations of all the
projects resemble. In South Africa for instance,
there are more possibilities to pray with patients
and there are less possibilities to do this in an
Islamic country
Personnel
Formal personnel identity
Partner organizations make their
own decisions with respect to
employment requirements.
Woord en Daad merely monitors
HRM policies and based on the
cooperation, it can be the case
that Woord en Daad asks for
clarification. This is due to the
cooperation agreement that,
based on a conviction to live in
accordance with the bible, an
organization can be approached
for its decisions.
Factual personnel identity
Dependent upon the context and the country there
are more or less employees that happen to be
Christian. Some people are non-Christian but people
in leading positions abroad always have to be
Christian in order to maintain the basic Christian
principles. Two times a year there are regional
meetings where all partners in a particular region
(association partners) come together. In these
meetings, Christian elements are very visible and
central. Important in these meetings is also the
contribution of Woord en Daad to equip personnel of
the partners with Christian ideas, visions and
practical tools in order to testify while performing
their works.
Moreover, there is sometimes direct financial
involvement in training programs and if that is the
case, Woord en Daad also becomes involved in the
content of such a program. In Southern Africa,
Woord en Daad for example has, together
cooperation with its partners, developed a theology
on HIV/Aids in an African context.
62
§ 8.4. Gereformeerde zendingsbond
Project: Adol and Yambio HIV/AIDS project 2008
Management of the project is in the hands of ACROSS, which stands for ‘Association of
Christian Resource Organizations Serving Sudan’. The objective of Across consists of:
‘creating HIV and AIDS awareness from a biblical perspective in the communities in
Sudan.’ (Across Website)
With a contribution of the GZB, ‘the Across HIV and AIDS program aims to
educate the people in Southern Sudan on the impact of HIV/AIDS in the
community. Across expects to enable the communities to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS
and to equip them to support the infected people and affected families. Across is carrying
out several activities. One of the main activities is training people including pastors,
community leaders, teachers, community members and the village health committees on
general HIV and AIDS awareness. Beside that there is home based care for chronically ill
people. Trained volunteers give practical and spiritual care to people around them.’
(Across Website)
‘By educating people on HIV and AIDS from a biblical perspective, Across hopes to
help people think through their behaviour as individuals and as a society, and stimulate
and support changes where necessary and possible. Besides that, the aim is also to help
the church and the society to see the role they can play in the response to HIV and
AIDS in “Renewing minds-Transforming lives!”’ (Across Website)
Constituency
Formal constituency identity
The GZB is strongly related to the
Protestantse Kerk in Nederland
(PKN), which can be translated as
the Protestant Church in the
Netherlands, and finds its origins
in the former Reformed
Congregation of the Dutch
Reformed Church (Gereformeerde
Bond in de Nederlands
Hervormde Kerk)28, although
informally. It is founded by
ministers of the Dutch Reformed
Factual constituency identity
Because of the strong relation with the current PKN,
the GZB also reports to the synod of the PKN, just
as ‘Kerk in Actie’ does (an official service
organization of the PKN), although the GZB is not
officially obliged to render an account. The
constituencies are informed through publications
and reports and once a year a general meeting of
members is held and the people that are send out
maintain close relations with their home churches
through newsletters. Moreover, for the first time in
its existence a meeting was held in the 2011 where
people from the constituencies were invited to take
28 A rather conservative part of the Dutch Reformed Church.
63
Church as a private initiative. The
PKN churches constitute the main
of the constituencies of the GZB
and the GZB reckons 400 to 450
local churches to be (financial)
supporters of their organization.
part in policy making. The people that were invited
were based on samples taken at random and
consisted of ministers, church council members,
people from local mission committees etc.
Adjacently, members of church councils sometimes
seek direct contact and/or become involved in policy
and vision making for they represent the churches
of the constituencies. Lastly, the board of the GZB
has to approve of the policies and they are elected
by the constituencies.
Specific dilemmas (that concern topics like
the use of contraceptive measures) are not
specifically addressed together with, or in the
churches of the constituencies. Mostly, churches are
interested in (and involved in reflection on) the
approach by which the GZB performs its missionary
activities. That is their main interest and specific
topics such as contraceptive measures are only
addressed or accounted for, if there is a specific
need for it. Reflections and experiences from the
South on the other hand, on how to be a
(missionary) congregation, are shared with the
constituencies and form an input for the
conversations that are held in the churches in the
Netherlands.
Content
Formal content identity
The GZB exists since 1901. Its core motivation is
the great missionary instruction of Jesus Christ, as
it is formulated in Mathew 28 verse 19. In its
activities, the GZB wants to take the bible as its
core inspiration. For comprehending the bible, the
confessions of the early church and the
reformation are leading. In its mission statement,
the GZB states the following:
Factual content identity
In it its kernel, the GZB is a
missionary organization. But
because the Word component is
always interrelated with the deed
component, the GZB also performs
diaconal activities in close
connection with the missionary
activities. The GZB mainly aims at
theological education and the
64
‘Following up/ furthering the great instruction of
Jesus Christ, the GZB wants to
as missionary institution in the Dutch
reformed church29, in the service of the
missionary appeal of the church and the
congregations,
together with others apply themselves for the
salvation of people and for their
equipment/teaching for the service in the
Kingdom of God,
such that the house of the Father is filled and
the ending comes wherein God will be all in
all people and the earth will be filled with the
knowledge of the Lord.’
‘The activities that are performed fall apart into
three categories:
Proclamation (preaching)
Equipment (teaching)
Diaconate (healing)’
‘In practice this implies that among others, the
GZB is involved in:
development, building and expansion of
congregations
training/education of preachers
equipment of local magistrates and
congregation members
youth work and students work
support to Christian education
medical work
social development programs
bible distribution
To make all these activities possible, the GZB
offers personnel or material assistance to partner
churches or organizations.’ (GZB Website)
support for local churches and this
approximately contains 60% of the
work, leaving 40% of the work for
diaconal aid. The GZB is not
focussed on pure development
cooperation.
There are restrictions on
using funds for missionary activities
but these restrictions are not really
experienced. This can be explained
by the way the funds are used. The
MFS-I restrictions leave room for
an approach that involves praying
and bible study as elements of a
particular approach. Moreover, the
funds can, and will be used for
elements of the projects that are
more technical since a project also
involves objectives that are focused
on humanitarian aid and/or care. In
the HIV/Aids projects, MFS-I funds
mostly serve educational and
medical objectives. There are for
example churches that distribute
medicines.
The GZB works in so called
‘closed countries’: environments
where there are restrictions for
manifestations of Christianity. In
such environments it is more
difficult to convey a Christian
identity and this is also experienced
by the GZB. Nevertheless, the GZB
deems it important to also support
small churches in countries where
there are less possibilities to spread
the gospel.
29 Currently the Protestantse Kerk Nederland (PKN), in English: Protestant Church Netherlands.
65
Partnerships
Formal partnership identity
In the South, the GZB cooperates
with partners and with combined
forces it wants to spread the
gospel and make Gods Kingdom
visible. This implies a mutual
relationship where both partners
are eager to learn from each
other and from the work that is
performed. As a condition for
partnerships, the GZB demands
that there is room for a mutual
realization of the missionary
vocation. The missionary vocation
has to bind the organizations
together and based on that
vocation, the rest of the
partnership has to be built.
Factual partnership identity: general
A missionary vocation is deemed the main condition
for a partnership and the related condition is that
the partner has to be bible centred. As a result,
partnerships are entered with organizations and
churches form different denominations. The GZB for
example works with Presbyterian, Anglican and also
Evangelical organizations and churches.
Partnerships that find their core in a
missionary vocation are also possible within MFS-I.
It is also an important condition for the GZB since
the GZB only applies for funds if these funds can be
integrated into existing projects. Hence, the GZB
does not create new projects for incoming MFS-I
funds and this criterion holds for the partnerships as
well. According to the GZB, the integration of MFS-I
funds into existing programs does not pose many
difficulties, apart from extra administrative work.
The framework of existing partners is
important for the GZB contains some very
established partnerships with churches and
organizations with whom it has a long history. The
longest, still enduring, partnership concerns a local
church in Indonesia with whom the GZB already
cooperates for as long as 98 years. Across, the local
partner in Sudan, is also involved as a partner for
approximately 25 years and there are more
examples.
In the partnerships the GZB mostly focuses
on capacity reinforcement, such that the partners
can self-sufficiently perform their visions and
missions. Subsequently, capacity reinforcement also
contributes to the enablement to carry the
administrative load of the MFS-I projects. Across, as
an example, was already involved in HIV/Aids
projects before MFS-I started. Subsequent to the
66
long-during partnerships, also new partnerships are
created. In a new partnership, new visions need to
be created that are tailored to the context of that
particular organization. Such visions serve as a
framework for performing the work and it has to be
biblically based. As a result, a biblical vision is
translated into a particular context and therefore
there can be no strict definitions or pre-ordinations
from the side of the GZB.
For maintenance of the partnerships,
conferences are organized where partners meet,
discuss and share visions and principles in order to
arrive at a mutual understanding and to learn from
each other. Prisma vision documents have a place in
these meetings and in the partnerships. They can
either be directly sent to, and shared with partners,
or the thoughts that are behind the principles are
stressed and shared in the contacts with the
partners. Visions on fidelity within marriage,
polygamy, sexuality etc. that are stressed in the
Prisma vision documents have to be translated to,
and developed in a local setting. This is also referred
to as a ‘contextual biblical theology’.
Factual partnership identity: churches
The GZB puts strong emphasis on the cooperation
with churches since churches form the centre for
putting the missionary vocation into practice. The
aim of such cooperation is focused on serving the
wider community. In Zimbabwe, it was even the
case that the church governed a local hospital. As a
facility, it was open for everybody and it
demonstrates the role of the church in society.
Churches can have an important stake in making
sure that services and facilities are provided to the
community at large. In general, cooperation with
churches is sought in regions where the GZB is
active and it is also allowed within MFS-I programs.
67
Personnel
Formal personnel identity
There is a strong focus on a
shared missionary identity and it
is also sought in partnerships.
The missionary identity can, as a
result, be performed and made
visible by employees and people
that work for the GZB and its
partners.
Factual personnel identity
As a result of cooperation in closed countries,
cooperation also takes place with partners that have
a personnel file that contains Muslims. The values of
such an organization still need to be clearly
Christian, but as there are also more technical
aspects aid can also be performed by non-Christian
employees. These employees nevertheless have to
agree with the principles.
Equipment of personnel is important and
provides a means for stimulating a missionary
manifestation. Destigmatization regarding HIV/Aids
takes place inside and outside the church.
Equipment of church- and religious leaders is
therefore a main task of the GZB. With respect to
care that is offered in HIV/Aids projects, the
pastoral and spiritual care form important
contributions to regular care that is offered.
68
Discussion
As a preparation for the conclusions in chapter 11, it is useful to first adopt a broad
perspective for looking at the results. This chapter is therefore introduced by elaborating
a theoretical discussion of the main results in order to add an extra layer to the results.
It is performed along two main topics that came to the surface after the analysis of the
empirical results in the previous chapter. Subsequently, the results of the previous
chapter are further elaborated by comparing the organizations along the four dimensions
of the operationalization in order to enrich the prior discussion of the results.
§ 9.1. A theoretical contribution
The description of an extra theoretical contribution serves as an important interpretative
framework for analysing and comparing the results in the next paragraph and for
drawing the main conclusions in the next chapter. Firstly, the results are summarized
and subsequently the two main topics are theoretically further elaborated.
Summary of the main results
When going through the empirical results of the previous chapter, two important topics
come to the surface. At first it can be observed that the composition of the organizational
background in terms of focus and constituency strongly determines the identity of the
organizations. In order to demonstrate the different compositions, table 7 is introduced.
The four organizations are inserted into the different cells of the table:
Constituency
Focus
One denomination Several denominations/
non-denominational
Mainly missionary Gereformeerde
Zendingsbond
Mainly humanitarian Bijzondere Noden Woord en Daad
Leprazending
Table 7: compositions of organizational backgrounds.
Secondly, in line with the organizational background, different accentuations for
partnerships are demanded per organization. Partnership preferences are strongly
influenced by the composition of the organizations, as partnerships serve as a main
9
69
instrument for connecting the constituencies with the target groups abroad and hence for
conveying a desirable Christian identity.
Figure 3: partnership preferences.
The two topics (composition of organizational background and partnerships) are further
elaborated with theoretical contributions before the four organizations are compared
along the four identity dimensions of the operationalization (constituency, content,
partnerships and personnel).
A composition of organizational background
An important determination for the way a Christian identity becomes manifest is created
through the way an organization perceives the three development components:
‘missionary works’, ‘diaconal works’ and ‘development cooperation’. It determines the
focus of the organization (missionary or humanitarian) and impacts the way the
organization performs its work. It therefore also establishes an important frame for
conveying Christian identity. For gaining more insight into the three components and
their influence on the way Christian identity becomes manifest, it is worthwhile to
address a description of Buijs (in Buijs et al, 2003).
Buijs (in Buijs et al, 2003) puts the interrelations of the three development
components into a broader perspective of caritas (charity) and the ‘missio Dei’. He states
that the core of Christian caritas is that: ‘normal people demonstrate the love of God
which they have experienced through Jesus Christ as a matter of fact to whomever
without distinction, but in special to them, who for whatever reason stay behind in
societal traffic, such as orphans, widows, strangers and poor.’ (Buijs et al, 2003, 51)
Caritas gives rise to a movement or manifestation of Gods philanthropy. It is known that
‘we are not what we are supposed to be.’ (Buijs et al, 2003, 53) But there is also a
‘missio Dei’, a ‘recovery of relationships’: ‘People are straightened out with God, diseases
are cured, loathed people receive a new place within the community, justice is done to
the poor, prostitutes receive a new chance, the threatening elements of nature are
repelled by Him. He is the Lord of recovery.’ (Buijs et al, 2003, 54) This movement is
incremental, ‘magis et magis in dies: every day a bit more’ and it demonstrates an
utterance to become active. Out of the awareness of brokenness and the belief in God’s
Partnership preferences
Denominational background
Focus (humanitarian /missionary)
70
recovery initiative, flows ‘an inspiration to concrete, day to day acts of recovery, in the
hope that also the small things that we do form a reference to a renewed future.’ (Buijs,
2003, 55) These day to day recovery acts know different contents and this is
demonstrated in the description of the three ‘activity accents’ that form a Christian
reformulation of the three development components.
Within the mission Dei, three ‘activity-accents’ can be distinguished (Buijs et al,
2003, 55). There is ‘the ministry of the word’ (the missionary activity) that makes an
individual appeal to all people. This appeal is focussed on convincing people of the
distance between how they are, and how they should be, uttered in a relational setting
and thereby also rendering a relational engagement. ‘The ministry of compassion’ on its
turn (diaconal works) forms a sign of sjaloom (peace). No distinction is made between
people inside and outside the church and all people are approached with dignity and
respect, as an act out of charity and aimed at recovery. ‘The ministry of justice’
(development cooperation), lastly, refers to the political relations and dimensions. ‘The
political order needs to regard elementary rules of justice.’ (Buijs et al, 2003, 61) It
hence belongs to the task of people and organizations to also pay attention to the
initiatives that are aimed at structural improvement in society.
The three ‘activity-accents’ in the broad perspective of caritas and the missio Dei
demonstrate the Christian content that is embedded in the three different development
components. The composition of the three ‘activity-accents’ determines the focus
(missionary/ humanitarian) and thereby it strongly directs the content that (can)
become(s) visible in the organization’s aid realizations. Together with the denominational
background it also forms a guide for the partnerships that are, or can be sought30.
Conveying Christian identity: partnerships
Renkema (2009) pays attention to the topic of religious resources as a requisite for
sharing between Christian organizations and for performing Christian aid. He describes
four religious resources that can be shared and combined when cooperation between
North and South takes place. He states that a Christian identity is dynamic, based on a
combination of Northern and Southern religious resources. It implies: ‘a mutual search
for concrete meaning of the through both parties shared Christian belief in this situation’.
(Buijs et al, 2003, 317) The four religious resources Renkema describes are:
1. ‘Spiritual experiences: the religious experiences of people in relation with the
transcendent31. Such experiences can form a foundation for transformations,
individual and collective.
30 The influence of denominations (constituency) is extensively elaborated on page 71 and 72 where examples from the four organizations are addressed and compared. 31 Outside or other than the World (Gunton, 2010).
71
2. Religious ideas: the visions on the cosmos, the world, the life, the nature, the
evil, the sacred up to virtues and values that are guiding for acting.
3. Religious organizations: the religious movements, communities and
organizations, their (possible) leaders and networks in which they cooperate.
4. Religious practices: the ritual acts, customs, places and subjects that connect
the not empirically determined and empirically determined reality.’ (Renkema,
2009, 43)
A partnership that includes religious exchange of the four resources allows a mutual
influence on both sides with the objective to serve the needs of the local community in
order to help people find meaning in life and transform societies in an integral and
upright manner (Remkema, 2009). This is confirmed by Jochemsen (2009) in his
inaugural address. He states that ‘humans are called to predispose themselves and make
something visible of that destiny in their works. That is meaning-oriented designing
making it disclose meaning, restricted and temporary, but still..!’. (Jochemsen, 2009, 45)
It implies that (both) partners have to be receptive towards the needs of local
communities, focused on contributing to people’s well-being out of a motivation of love to
help other people find meaning in their lives. This creates an interaction of religious
resources within a different culture. Identity formulated as such, is the identity that
becomes visible in aid that is offered. Not an identity that is straightforwardly
demonstrated, but an identity that is dynamically shaped, influenced and also restricted
(Renkema, 2009).
§ 9.2. Comparing constituencies
Origins and history/background
The constituencies of the four organizations differ in the way they are built up and in the
way they interact with the respective organization. The main distinction in the way they
are built up stems from the origins of the respective organization; does it relate to a
church or does it form a civil-initiative organization? If related to a church, the mandate
of the organization is also determined by the synod of the respective church. The church
or denomination therefore forms an important factor for the work that is performed and
the visions that are created. For civil society organizations, the tradition with its founding
principles forms a main factor for the mandate and approach that are employed.
Differences can also be observed in the way a civil-initiative organization is built
up. There can be so-called network organizations, such as Leprosy Mission International
and there are pure civil-initiative organizations such as Woord en Daad. A network
member such as Leprazending shares in the international network and the network
72
therefore also constitutes an important background against which the visions and
approaches of the organization are adjusted.
Lastly, there are also differences in life-span of the organizations and an
organization such as the GZB (founded in 1901) has a very long history with its
constituencies (and also some partners). A long history can contribute to the knowledge
of- and experience with a particular organization, also among the constituencies.
Constituencies might also feel more related to partnerships that exist as long as some
examples of the GZB (up to 98 years).
Interaction
Regarding the interaction with constituencies, differences between the organizations can
be observed. In general, all organizations put effort in informing and involving their
constituencies. This is performed though reports, advertisements, brochures, leaflets etc.
Typical for Bijzondere Noden is that it has established contact persons such that all the
churches of the Reformed Congregations receive information. The GZB also has a very
clear relation with a group of approximately 450 churches. The other organizations differ
in their relatedness with churches and denominations and dependent upon their
relatedness they have more or less contact. Specific for interaction with constituencies
however is that Woord en Daad involves its constituencies through the establishment of
platforms, committees and ambassadors. Compared to the other organizations, Woord en
Daad is also larger, which can explain the existence of such means since it also requires
capacity.
§ 9.3. Comparing content
Missionary works, diaconate and development cooperation
An important difference among the organizations is the interrelatedness of missionary
works, (world)diaconate and development cooperation. The GZB maintains an
approximate division of about 60% missionary- and 40% diaconal works, rendering an
emphasis on missionary works and no engagement in pure development cooperation.
Bijzondere Noden is mainly active in diaconal works, but as diaconal works are strongly
related to the Word, missionary works (can) form an element of it, while development
cooperation does not fall within its focus. Woord en Daad on its turn tries to maintain a
separation between missionary works on the one hand and diaconate and development
cooperation on the other hand (no pure development cooperation), and it tries not to be
involved in pure missionary works. Leprazending, lastly, is not involved in pure
missionary works as well, as it is focussed on the alleviation of humanitarian needs,
73
rendering an emphasis on (world)diaconate. It is also involved in (relatively) pure
development cooperation, as the example of the NLEP project (MFS-I) shows.
Nevertheless, Leprazending possesses a variety of TLM hospitals that are involved in
many of its projects (also in NLEP) (in)directly and in these hospitals, Christianity has a
main influence.
The differences in the interrelatedness of the stressed components accounts for
differences in the way identity can become manifest in the day to day activities. It is
clear that funding for missionary activities is not allowed within MFS-I. For organizations
that already maintain a separation between aid and missionary works (like Woord en
Daad), it does not pose a problem. Bijzondere Noden is also more focussed on diaconal
works while the elements of missionary works can also be financed with personal funds
instead of MFS-I funds. Leprazending on its turn has a specific vision on witnessing and
missionary work for they embody an approach where contactual witnessing is stimulated;
an approach that clearly demonstrates the ministry of compassion which Buijs described
(in Buijs et al, 2003). The GZB at last, the organization that probably has the strongest
focus on missionary works, is very clear in its integration of MFS-I funds. MFS-I funds are
only applied for when it fits within a project. As a consequence there have to be
“technical aspects” that require financial resources, for missionary activities cannot be
supported with MFS-I funds. Since there is no aid that is solely missionary; without any
deed component at all, application is almost always possible.
Basic Healthcare and HIV & Aids programs
The vision papers of Prisma touch upon many aspects that render a clear Christian vision.
Moreover, the organizations themselves have their own identities and viewpoints in which
Christian influences are very much present. As a first remark it needs to be mentioned
that the areas- and level of involvement determine the amount of stress on the different
elements of the vision papers. Bijzondere Noden for example maintains a division both
between relief aid and structural aid, and between precaution and aftercare. Pure
diaconal works mostly imply a focus on aftercare, and relief aid even stronger
emphasizes the importance of pure alleviation of humanitarian needs. This does not
mean that there are no possibilities for stressing the Christian ‘educational elements’ of
the vision documents but it already shows that there are differences in possibilities due
to the focus areas and the level of involvement.
Some important elements that were mentioned in the vision documents are: ‘a
stress on Christian lifestyles, Christian visions on relationships and sexuality (family
planning and contraception), the promotion of abstinence outside marriage and fidelity
within relationships, the value of human (prenatal) life and destigmatization through
churches and religious leaders’. These elements can all be observed, dependent upon
74
where the focus is laid on in the respective projects. Whenever there are possibilities to
stress such elements, it receives attention. The main examples come forth because of
employees that are in close contact with patients and also because of role models that
exhibit these elements. Therefore, in some cases, Human Resource Management (HRM)
is influenced by demanding a minimum amount of Christian personnel working for the
partner organization.
There are also differing attitudes towards countries where there are established
restrictions for Christianity. All organizations strive for possibilities and therefore they
mostly maintain conditions for engagement that demonstrate possibilities to convey a
Christian identity, meaning that some countries are left out as options. But still it implies
that sometimes there are less possibilities due to restrictions and due to options to find
and hire Christians, which is often related to the existence of a Christian civil society.
With respect to the regions issue, Leprazending and the GZB might be the most
unconditional. As an explanation, it can be stressed that Leprazending is focussed on the
eradication of the causes and consequences of leprosy. The motivation of the gospel is
thereby especially demonstrated in the serving attitude that is rather implicit but still
very Christian (ministry of compassion). The reason for the GZB’s rather unconditional
attitude is that it is also involved in church building and capacity reinforcement of local
churches. As restrictions generally refrain organizations from public manifestations,
possibilities are still present in cases where small, local Christian communities are aided.
This forms an explicit element of the work of the GZB and therefore it is active in “closed
countries” as well.
Destigmatization and churches/ religious leaders
For destigmatization sake, all organizations have contacts with churches and religious
leaders. Churches and religious leaders are encouraged and sometimes equipped and
trained to stress a biblical view on human life and its value, and to also motivate the
congregation to treat human life with dignity. Churches are often involved in local
partnerships for they can satisfy the role of counsellor and offer psycho-social and
spiritual aid focussed on making humans more whole.
§ 9.4. Comparing partnerships
Sharing and conveying identity
Partnerships are deemed important by all organizations for conveying Christian identities.
Moreover, all organizations apply some form of monitoring and control in order to
manage a proper delivery of the work to the people abroad. However, direct influence is
75
difficult and trust therefore plays an important role in all partnerships. Partnerships are
incrementally built, such that organizations can increase their commitment, build trust
and diminish the risks that are involved. Moreover, there is a focus on long-term
relations, although in different forms (associations, networks, mere long term contacts
etc.). Funds of MFS-I are therefore mainly integrated into running programs and
partnerships.
With respect to maintenance of- and sharing in partnerships, both Woord en Daad
and the GZB utilize a specific means as they respectively organize “partnership
associations” and “global conferences”. In Woord en Daad’s partnership associations, all
structural partners in a specific region are stimulated to become a member such that
partners can share viewpoints and reflect on Christian development aid. Sharing on such
levels warrants the development of general Christian visions and approaches.
Partnership prescriptions
For entering into a partnership, different requirements are uphold. The requirements
differ from rather strict prescriptions in terms of spiritual relationship and an objective
adherence to the Westminster Confession in English speaking countries, to more broad
prescriptions where the bible needs to be accepted as the word of God and as guidance
for life. All organizations differ in their prescriptions but in general Christian partners are
preferred and also demanded. Interesting to note is that prescriptions are related to the
identity and/or (non-)denominational background of a particular organization. The GZB
for example demands a missionary objective as an important requisite for cooperation,
Bijzondere Noden demands a spiritual relationship with the Gereformeerde Gemeenten
and Leprazending merely has a preference for Christian organizations. Leprazending has
very typical partnerships, as they are a member of an international fellowship where
values and missions are shared through all members and where room is left for the
partners and contexts abroad to seek local partners.
Cooperation with churches
All organizations cooperate with churches but there are differences in viewpoints among
the four organizations. Woord en Daad is relatively modest in its cooperation with
churches, as it does not want to get caught in hierarchical church decision-making
processes. Leprazending on its turn tries to seek cooperation locally but currently it is
also testing whether churches become really involved in policy-performance or mainly
become involved for the funds churches (can) contribute. Bijzondere Noden, as a deputy
of the church, emphasizes cooperation with churches and it mainly seeks cooperation
with churches that have a spiritual relation. The GZB at last emphasizes the creation of
76
partnerships with churches as, for them, churches form the core means for putting the
missionary vocation into practice.
§ 9.5. Comparing personnel
Formal/ factual distinction
Formal descriptions on personnel do not really exist and formal personnel identity mostly
flows from the visions and principles of the respective organization (content and
constituencies). Addressing personnel identity thus mostly implies a factual elaboration.
Formally speaking, it can be stated that organizations deem it important that personnel,
both at home and abroad, complies with its principles and visions and also exhibits a
correspondent lifestyle in its work and contact with people it encounters.
A first difference with respect to the formal/factual statement can be observed in
the distinction between the home-country organization and the partner-organization
abroad. For all four Dutch organizations, a condition of being an active Christian is
demanded from personnel. Moreover, employees sometimes need to adhere to specific
religious documents (3 Forms of Unity). The same conditions are not bluntly copied and
applied on the employees abroad, but instead they become visible in different forms
(Christians on leading positions for example). This mainly has to do with the different
contexts of the regions where the organizations are active.
Equipment
In a pro-active sense, the four development aid organizations are active in equipment
and training. They sometimes offer courses and training themselves and sometimes they
(financially) contribute by supporting a training program that is set up locally. Moreover,
a Christian culture is stimulated by placing importance on prayer and bible-reading. Such
cultures can be found in many of the partnerships and it contributes to Christian
motivations and performances of the aid that is offered. The TLM hospitals of
Leprazending, apply as a major example for these hospitals always provide a chapel on
the terrain, whereby prayer and gospel acquire a central place and provide a main
invitation for the visitors and a stimulus for the employees.
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Conclusions
In this last chapter, there is a reflection on the research that now lies behind. A small
overview of the research is provided in order to stress the background of the conclusions.
The main motives for researching Christian development aid are firstly described.
Secondly, the sub-questions are briefly answered, as the sub-questions form the
framework of the research. Thirdly, the main conclusions are drawn and an answer to the
main question is provided. In the fourth part the limitations and recommendations are
described.
§ 10.1. Main conclusions
An overview of the research and the most important topics is provided in a progressive
manner, starting with the motive and main question and ending with the limitations and
recommendations. The main conclusions form the core part of this chapter.
Motive and main question
Four Prisma-member organizations were researched in order to gain an insight in the
way a Christian identity becomes manifest in MFS-I projects. Due to advanced modernity
developments an increased pressure on Christian identities can be observed in general
and also in the field of development aid. However, upholding Christian identity is
important for both the Prisma-members and for Prisma and this forms the main
motivation for this research. The main question that applied as a guideline during the
research comprised the following:
How does the Christian identity of Prisma member-organizations become manifest
in MFS-I financed development aid activities?
The main question was elaborated along the following twofold “summary” of the sub-
questions:
1) What does a Christian identity and vision exist of?
2) How are these visions put into practice by the member organizations, within an
MFS-I framework?
10
78
Answers to the sub-questions
The answer to the sub-questions is also summarized into two points:
A Christian identity/vision: it became clear that Christian identity is rather
dynamic. The bible can be reckoned as the main foundation of a Christian identity
for all four organizations. Derived from the bible, they develop visions and
approaches. A Christian identity thereby becomes visible in ‘stakeholders identity’
(partnerships and personnel) and ‘content identity’ (structure and culture)32.
‘Constituency identity’ also belongs to the stakeholders group but constituencies
mostly shape the Christian identity of the organization, instead of being an area
where Christian identity becomes manifest. Moreover, the composition of the
development components ‘missionary works’, ‘(world)diaconate’ and ‘development
cooperation’ bears a strong distinctive influence on Christian identity.
Contextual/ governmental influences: due to MFS-I restrictions and the
different contexts abroad, a few factors are deemed important for maintaining
Christian identity abroad. A first factor and probably the most important factor is
partnerships. How Christian identity becomes manifest can be influenced by
choosing appropriate partners and by developing a trustworthy partnership
relation. A second factor, to especially deal with governmental restrictions on
proselitism, is a separation of missionary- and diaconal works. MFS-I funds are
integrated into projects and mostly utilized for the mere technical elements (care,
support, training, capacity reinforcement etc.). Personal funds can then be used
for activities that have a more obvious missionary/Christian focus. A third factor
that is slightly related to the second factor, is a focus on humanitarian aid in
terms of aftercare. Delicate and/or theological issues can be avoided by
maintaining a focus on humanitarian aid and aftercare instead of missionary
works and precaution. As a consequence it puts strong emphasis on the
dimensions of culture and personnel for conveying Christian identities as the
content of mere aftercare is, or can be less explicitly Christian.
Answer to the main question
In line with the summary above and the discussion in the previous chapter, it can be
stated that Christian identity can merely be comprehended in the sense that it becomes
manifest in the realizations of a dynamic development aid process. The organization’s
focus, its constituency background and the combination of (spiritual) resources into a
partnership give rise to an identity that cannot a priori be grasped. The outcome of
Christian identity moreover becomes visible into three development components
32 As has been mentioned, in the research another division was uphold and only: ‘constituencies, content, partnerships and personnel’ were investigated as identity dimensions.
79
(missionary works, diaconate and development cooperation). These components can all
be given a Christian substance as the reformulation of the components by Buijs et al
(2003) into respectively: ‘ministry of the word’, ‘ministry of compassion’ and ‘ministry of
justice’ makes clear. However, it must also be acknowledged that, as Boersema (in Buijs
et al, 2003) makes clear, missionary works are at the core of the interactive paradigm
that underlies Christian development aid. ‘Missionary works’ is therefore the most central
and also most explicit component of Christian development aid. Table 4 recaptures above
description:
Figure 4: a recap of Christian identity manifestation.
As a main drawback of the MFS-I programs, it can be remarked that an integration of
MFS-I funds reinforces an organizational/ administrative separation of missionary and
humanitarian aid. Dependent upon the prior existence of such a separation, an
organization can more or less integrate the MFS-I funds into its core activities. In some
cases, such a separation is already maintained as there is a focus on diaconal works and
in these cases, there is a smaller chance that integration creates problems. If a
separation does not already exist, organizations (can) run the risk that complete
integration of MFS-I funds cannot be achieved and as a consequence it could be the case
that an holistic approach is impeded, because an “artificial separation” creates the
possibility that a separation, to some extent, also becomes visible in practice.
Partnerships
Constituency background: (non-)denominational/ inter-
denominational/ network
Focus: humanitarian /missionary
Culture Personnel
Ministry of compassion
Ministry of the Word
Ministry of justice
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Whichever drawback of an (artificial) separation of missionary- and diaconal works
can be envisaged, it still holds that missionary elements can never be totally erased as
the MFS-I prescriptions are mainly maintained administratively, meaning that important
elements as partnerships, personnel and culture cannot be completely monitored and
influenced. There is room for Christian partnerships and as long as Christian
organizations, churches and Christians exist, there is room for conveying a Christian
identity. Aid can be provided by Christians, trainings can be facilitated by church
members and religious leaders can add to regular care by providing psycho-social and
spiritual aid. Moreover, the way Europe looks at the separation of church and state
(religion and society) is not straightforwardly rendered in other countries. Abroad it can
be much more common (and also allowed) to provide spiritually inspired care (especially
in Africa), because religion forms a part of day to day life.
Hence it can be concluded that there are problems that are related to the
manifestation of a Christian identity but these are not substantially reinforced within the
MFS-I programs. It is merely so that there are challenges related to the manifestation of
Christian identity. The challenges can be summarized into two main challenges for
conveying a Christian identity, a formal- and a factual challenge:
Formal challenge: the prior
composition and interrelatedness of the
three development components creates
a unique challenge for giving substance
to different manifestations of a Christian
identity for which there is sufficient
space within MFS-I, as funds can be
separated (in the case of a strong
missionary focus).
Factual challenge: day to day work implies
a receptiveness in the cooperation with
religiously inspired partners and people
abroad which goes hand in hand with a great
range of possibilities to let the inspiration of
God’s mission for recovery out of brokenness
flow into concrete ministries (Word,
compassion and justice). Practical Christian
identity can hence become manifest in many
different ways.
Limitations and recommendations
As already became visible, the main limitation of the research can be traced to the
operationalization. It became clear that factual and formal identity consist of both
organizational and project levels. This made it difficult to separate factual and formal
elements that were important and consecutively, the whole of interrelations is
investigated. The conclusions thereby do mainly provide a broad answer to the main
question. It might need more explication such that it can be addressed quantitatively, or
a method should be adopted that separates factual and formal identity elements.
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Secondly, it is difficult to measure identity and this relates to a couple of problems
that mainly revolve around the dynamic nature of identity:
1. A first problem of identity is that it does not really exist a priori and therefore it is
difficult to speak of a Christian identity that becomes manifest into practical
works, even more if it is taken into consideration that the dynamics of identity are
enhanced by personnel.
2. A second related problem concerns uncontrolled interaction: all organizations
acknowledge that management of identity abroad contains a contradiction as
management is laid in the hands of the partner. For an organization it is therefore
difficult to know and influence its identity abroad.
3. The third problem concerns visibility: a Christian approach might not always be
clear and obvious. Works might be small and difficult to discern but still it can
contribute to the missio Dei. How can we as humans know and discern Christian
content?
4. The fourth problem concerns contextual restrictions: although some organizations
maintain restrictions on the regions where they are active, still there are difficult
regions (in terms of restrictions on Christian manifestations) where they allow
themselves to be. There is a likelihood that in such regions, Christian identities
become less manifest but what conclusion can be attached to it?
Thirdly, there was a scope restriction. There was insufficient time and means to apply
and elaborate the prior operationalization of ‘stakeholder identity’ and ‘content identity’.
Culture is therefore not elaborated although elements of it became visible in the results.
Moreover, a rather small amount of organizations was analysed. A main recommendation
is therefore to either expand the research to more organizations or to separate particular
identity elements to more thoroughly investigate these elements.
Fourthly, it did not fall within the range of possibilities to actually observe the
work in the South as working visits were not an option. Explicit data from case studies in
the South would have enriched the data greatly and would have helped to answer the
main question. Projects could then also be compared such that differences due to MFS-I
restrictions could be observed and explained in practice.
Fourthly, during the research it became apparent that the composition of the
three forms of ministry (Buijs et al, 2003) greatly account for the way identity becomes
manifest in day to day activities. Interviews could have more fully been used to actually
gain more insight into the ministry topic from the organization’s perspective.
82
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Appendices
Appendix A, interviewguide:
Interviewguide
Hoofdvraag: Hoe wordt de christelijke identiteit van ontwikkelingshulporganisaties zichtbaar in MFS-I projecten?
Deelvragen:
1) Waaruit bestaat een christelijke identiteit? 2) Hoe wordt die identiteit vertaald naar de praktijk (uitgedragen)? 3) Wat is de invloed van MFS-I op het uitdragen van een christelijke identiteit?
Achterban identiteit
Hoofdvraag: Op welke manier(en) is het christelijke karakter van uw achterban tot uitdrukking gekomen in de MFS-I projecten?
5. Waaruit bestaat uw achterban? 6. Hoe is uw achterban betrokken geweest bij MFS-I projecten? 7. Hoe wordt het christelijke element daardoor zichtbaar gemaakt? 8. Zijn er specifieke gebieden waarbij uw achterban betrokken is, en uitte die
betrokkenheid zich ook in MFS-I projecten? (denk aan: ethische dillema’s op het gebied van HIV&Aids, pastorale zorg, personeelswerving etc.)
9. Voor wat voor keuzes zag u zich als organisatie gesteld in de verantwoording van de MFS-I projecten naar uw achterban?
Partnerships
Hoofdvraag: In hoeverre werd in de MFS-I projecten in de partnershipkeuzes en in de samenwerkingsverbanden in het Zuiden uitdrukking gegeven aan een christelijke identiteit en aanpak?
10. Welke rol speelt christelijke levensvisie bij het aangaan van partnerships in het Zuiden?
11. In hoeverre werd een christelijke levensovertuiging gedeeld en gestimuleerd in partnerships in MFS-I projecten en op welke manier?
Inhoud identiteit
Hoofdvraag: In welke mate werd de christelijke grondslag van missies, visies, beleid en aanpak zichtbaar in de praktijk MFS-I projecten?
12. In hoeverre en op welke manier zijn zendingswerk, (wereld)diaconaat en ontwikkelingssamenwerking in uw organisatie in elkaar vervlochten?
13. Welke plek is in de geboden hulp aan het evangelie toebedeeld? 14. In hoeverre waren er mogelijkheden om het evangelie bekend te maken en uit te
dragen in MFS-I projecten? 15. Hoe is dat zichtbaar geworden in MFS-I projecten? 16. Op welke manier(en) werden er mogelijkheden geschept om binnen MFS-I
projecten vanuit een christelijke visie te werken?
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17. Op welke gebieden moesten er concessies gedaan worden?
Prisma Vision paper HIV&Aids:
18. Hoe werden christelijke levensstijlen m.b.t. HIV & Aids gestimuleerd binnen MFS-I projecten?
19. In hoeverre vond hulp die gericht was op preventie plaats binnen MFS-I?: ‘het promoten van seksuele onthouding buiten het huwelijk, en trouw binnen het huwelijk en in relaties’ (Prisma Vision paper)
20. Hoeveel ruimte was er binnen MFS-I projecten om aandacht te schenken aan christelijke visies op relaties en seksualiteit?
21. Destigmatisatie vindt o.a. plaats door: ‘het aanmoedigen van kerken, religieuze leiders en religieuze organisaties om een milieu te creëren waarin iedereen zich welkom en gewaardeerd voelt.’ (Prisma Vision paper) In hoeverre was er hiervoor ruimte binnen MFS-I?
Prisma Vision paper Basic Healthcare:
22. Hoe werden christelijke levensstijlen m.b.t. Basic Healthcare gestimuleerd en geïntegreerd in MFS-I projecten?
23. In welke mate was er ruimte om zorg te bieden vanuit een christelijke visie en aandacht te geven aan de aspecten die daaromheen een rol spelen? (zoals psychologische zorg, de nadruk op verantwoordelijkheid van het gezin)
24. Welke rol speelde christelijke levensvisies bij de zorg voor mensen met een handicap binnen MFS-I?
25. In hoeverre werden christelijke visies geïntegreerd in de bewustwording en het onderwijs omtrent seksualiteit in MFS-I projecten?
26. Hoe werd er omgegaan met familie planning en voorbehoedsmiddelen in MFS-I projecten?
27. Hoe werden christelijke visies omtrent prenataal leven geïntegreerd in MFS-I projecten?
Uitgedragen identiteit
Hoofdvraag: In welke mate werd de christelijke identiteit van de organisatie uitgedragen door het werk en de houding van de lokale werknemers in MFS-I projecten?
28. Wat wordt er van werknemers verlangd op het gebied van christelijke levensovertuiging en visie?
29. Hoe worden werknemers toegerust om ontwikkelingshulp vanuit een christelijke levensvisie uit te voeren?
30. Wat waren daarvoor de mogelijkheden in MFS-I projecten? 31. Hoe is dat zichtbaar geworden in MFS-I projecten? 32. Op welke gebieden ondervond men hinder in MFS-I projecten?
Appendix B, letter to organizations:
Houten, Geachte heer …, Bij Prisma voer ik in het kader van mijn studie aan de Universiteit van Tilburg een onderzoek uit waarbij ik graag uw medewerking wil inroepen. Ik doe een onderzoek naar
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de zichtbaarheid van de christelijke identiteit van ontwikkelings-samenwerkingsorganisaties bij het uitvoeren van projecten met MFS-I financiën. Met dit onderzoek probeer ik inzicht te krijgen in de plek die christelijke visies hebben bij projecten waarbij “seculiere” (lees overheid-) voorschriften gelden. Moeten er bijvoorbeeld concessies worden gedaan en op welke gebieden gebeurt dit? Wat zijn hierbij de afwegingen en hoe worden hierbij keuzes gemaakt? En hoe verantwoorden Prismaleden wat er onder het label van MFS-I gedaan is vanuit hun eigen christelijke identiteit? Om bovenstaande te onderzoeken heb ik van Prisma informatie gekregen voor het beschrijven van een christelijke identiteit en aanpak, waarbij voor de MFS-I deelgebieden ‘hiv & aids’ en ‘basis gezondheidszorg’ ook de Prisma visiedocumenten zijn gebruikt. Ik hoop op basis van deze informatie en met behulp van specifieke documenten van uw organisatie een beschrijving te maken van uw organisatie en een MFS-I project waarin u actief bent geweest, zodat ik vragen kan stellen over de manier waarop uw identiteit zichtbaar wordt in ontwikkelingshulpprojecten uitgevoerd binnen MFS-I. Hiervoor zou ik dus willen vragen of het mogelijk is om een interview te plannen waarbij ik voorafgaand een interviewschema zal toesturen. Ik hoop dat u, of iemand die hierover gaat, bereid is om mij hierover te woord te staan. Een interview zal maximaal ongeveer een uur duren en i.v.m. voorbereiding zal een interview in de laatste week van mei en/of in juni mij het beste uitkomen. Binnenkort zal ik u bellen om uw antwoord te vernemen en hopelijk een afspraak te maken. Bij voorbaat dank. Met vriendelijke groet, Jan Willem Westerveld
