Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2014, 23, 148-160, © 2014 West Virginia University

Motivation, Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions: Segmenting Youth Participants at the Interamnia World Cup 2012

Girish Prayag and Elsa Grivel

Girish Prayag, PhD, is a lecturer of marketing in the Department of Management, Marketing and Entrepreneurship at the University of Canterbury, Caterbury, New Zealand. His research interests include consumption emotions, brand attachment and segmentation algorithms.Elsa Grivel, MS, is a former postgraduate student in strategic event and tourism management at SKEMA Business School, France. Her research interests include event marketing and consumer motivation.

AbstractThe present study is aimed at segmenting participants’ motivation for attending the Interamnia World Cup (IWC) in 2012 and identifying whether motivational profiles differ by demographics and post-consumption behaviors. The IWC is an annual event hosted by the city of Teramo-Italy and is aimed at young participants interested in the sport of handball. Based on a sample of international sport tourists (n = 242), the study uncovers four clusters of participants (Indifferent, Enthusiast, Socializer, and Competitive). The results con­firm that the youth segment of sport tourists is not homogeneous on motives to attend a sporting event. The four identified segments differ by socio-demographics, overall satisfaction, revisit, and recommend inten­tions. Implications for attracting participants to IWC and marketing of youth sporting events in general are suggested.

IntroductionUnderstanding motivation of sport consumers is com­plex (Funk 8c Bruun, 2007). Sport consumers are a heterogeneous population, either active (participating) or passive (watching) (Tokuyama 8c Green well, 2011;Weed 8c Bull, 2004). In the sport marketing literature, the motivation of spectators/fans (passive consumers) has been prioritized over participants (Caro 8c Garcia,2007; Dwyer, Shapiro, 8c Drayer, 2011). Gibson (1998a) suggests that sport consumers may also engage in some form of touristic activities (e.g., visiting sport stadiums) when away from home, giving rise to the phenomenon of sport tourism. Several definitions of sport tourism exist and the motivation of sport tourists is reasonably well examined (Deery, Jago, 8c Fredline,2004). Existing studies not only suggest that the motives of sport participants may differ from watchers (Lera-Lopez 8c Rapun-Garate, 2011; Tokuyama 8c Greenwell, 2011), but also no single motive can account for the variety of multiple and shared motives prevalent at any one time among sport tourists (Robinson 8c Gammon, 2004).

“There is little research which has specifically focused on segmentation strategies in the sport mar-

148 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

keting literature” (Dwyer et al., 2011, p. 130). Market segmentation is a key concept in the sport marketer effort to understand the needs of specific groups of consumers and the development of targeted marketing mixes (Mullin, Hardy, 8c Sutton, 2007). It is necessary for sport marketers to understand the behavior of sport consumers on psychological variables (Alexandris 8c Tsiotsou, 2012). Accordingly, several studies segment the motives of either sport consumers (e.g., Dwyer et al., 2011; Luna-Arocas 8c Tang, 2005; Rohm, Milne, 8c McDonald, 2006) or sport tourists (e.g., Alexandris, Kouthouris, Funk, 8c Giovani, 2009; Hallmann, Feiler, 8c Breuer, 2012). The resulting m oti­vational profiles are often used to enhance promotion­al and marketing strategies (Wann, Grieve, Zapalac, 8c Pease, 2008). For sporting event organizers, segmenta­tion offers the opportunity to better understand event attendees’ motives, attitudes, and behaviors (Hallmann et al., 2012) while fine-tuning event marketing and positioning (Caro 8c Garcia, 2007).

Marketing strategies built around an understanding of sport tourist motivation and satisfaction can be effective at boosting sport event attendance and loyal­ty. In the tourism literature, several studies suggest that

tourist motivation influences post-consumption behaviors such as satisfaction (e.g., Devesa, Laguna, 8c Palacios, 2010; Yoon 8c Usyal, 2005) and behavioral intentions (Prayag, 2012; Schofield 8c Thompson, 2007). However, limited studies have examined the relationship between motivation and post-consump­tion behaviors among sport tourists. Existing sport tourism studies prioritize the event satisfaction and behavioral intentions relationship (e.g., Kaplanidou 8c Gibson, 2010; Shonk 8c Chelladurai, 2008). With the exception of Caro and Garcia’s (2007) study, the influ­ence of motivation on satisfaction and behavioral intentions has received scant attention in the sport marketing literature. Luna-Arocas and Tang (2005) confirm that clusters of sport consumers grouped by motivations can have diverse levels of satisfaction.

The two research questions this study, hence, address are: (1) Can different motivational profiles of youth participants at the IWC be identified? (2) Are the iden­tified motivational profiles different on the basis of demographics, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions? The contribution of this study to the sport tourism and marketing literature is two-fold. First, we identify the motivation of youth participation in a sporting event and evaluate whether subgroups of youth participants exist. There is a lack of studies on youth participants’ motives for attending sporting events despite the importance of this segment to the sport and tourism industry (Hinch 8c Higham, 2011). Lim and Turco (1999) observe that the sport marketing literature focuses mainly on adult participants rather than youngsters. Taks and Scheerder (2006) argue that youth sport market segmentation studies are uncom­mon. The sheer size of this segment, commonly referred to as the Generation Y market, makes it a desirable target of corporations, events, and sport mar­keting professionals (Bennett 8c Lachowetz, 2004). The motivational patterns of sport participation for this segment suggest strong individualistic (e.g., competi­tion, fitness, and status/recognition) and affiliation (e.g., friendship and fun) components (Daniels 8c Lawton, 2003). Second, despite motivation being an attractive variable for segmentation (Caro 8c Garcia, 2007), few studies (e.g., Caro 8c Garcia, 2007; Luna- Arocas 8c Tang, 2005) examine how motivational pro­files differ on the basis of post-consumption behaviors such as satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Existing studies mainly ascertain the satisfaction and behavioral intention relationship (Kaplanidou 8c Gibson, 2010; Shonk 8c Chelladurai, 2008), omitting motivation as a critical component of event participation (Caro 8c Garcia, 2007).

Theoretical Framework

Segmentation TheoryConsumer motivation and market segmentation repre­sent core marketing principles. Yet the integration of these two essential concepts with regard to sport con­sumers in general is limited (Dwyer et al., 2011). Segmentation consists of dividing a market into small­er and homogeneous groups based on the assumption that customers in such markets are heterogeneous and that a differentiated market offering can satisfy them (Kruger, Saayman, 8c Ellis, 2011). No absolutely “cor­rect” segmentation method exists (Tkaczynski 8c Rundle-Thiele, 2010) because the underlying relation­ships among the units (customers and segmentation variables) may have a different structure and the researcher has to find the best segmentation method to capture the hidden structure (Dolnicar et al., 2008). It is not uncommon in marketing and tourism literature to segment motivation as part of the broader “benefit segmentation” approach (see Frochot 8c Morrison, 2001). In the sport marketing literature, segmentation studies generally focus on segmenting the motivation of sport fans/participants in a specific sport (Dwyer et al., 2011; Rohm et al., 2006) or different sports (Wann et al., 2008) and sport tourists (Alexandris et al., 2009; Hallmann et al., 2012).

Motivation Theories in Tourism and Sport Tourism Motivation is a critical component of behavioral mod­els of tourism consumption (Gnoth, 1997). Various theories exist to understand tourist motivation. Examples include Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, Plog’s (1974) allocentric-psychocentric typology, expectancy-value theories (Lewin, 1938), goal directed behavior (Bettman, 1979), travel career ladder (Pearce 8c Lee, 2005), and the push-pull framework (Crompton, 1979; Klenosky, 2002). Yet there is no agreement on how to define travel motivation and the best way to measure it (Pearce 8c Lee, 2005). Generally, the tourist motivation for travel represents a compro­mise between multiple motivators (Swarbrooke 8c Horner, 1999).

Likewise, sport tourism researchers continue to struggle with definitional, measurement, and lack of replication in motivation studies (Weed, 2005).Intrinsic motivators refer to engaging in a sporting activity purely for pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation, while extrinsic motivators repre­sent goals such as material rewards or avoidance of external constraints (Deci, 1975). Four categories of travel motivators may be relevant in the sport tourism context (McIntosh, Goelder, 8c Ritchie, 1996). Physical motivators, the first category, are directly related to

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 149

physical needs and drives such as fitness and sports.The second category, cultural motivators, is linked to traditions and heritage that may include visiting sports museums, stadiums, halls of fame, and historic sites.The third category, interpersonal motivators, includes socialization with friends and other sport participants. The last category, status and prestige motivators, is linked to people traveling to high-profile destinations and distinctive sports events (Kurtzman & Zauhar, 2005). Other motives that may be associated with par­ticipants’ motivation in sport tourism include relax­ation, cultural learning, and experience (Funk, Toohey, & Bruun, 2007).

In addition, each destination hosting a sporting event has its own specificities, including sport tourists, making the comparison of motives across events diffi­cult (Funk & Bruun, 2007). The same person may intentionally travel to a sporting event to participate either passively or actively in the event (Deery et al., 2004). This dichotomy has given rise to the terms “sport tourism” and “tourism sport,” depending on the motives of the tourist. Indeed, some sport cus­tomers travel with the primary purpose of participat­ing to the event (sport tourism) while others travel primary to visit the destination and taking part in the event is a secondary motive (Ottevanger, 2007).

Motivation of Sport Event TouristsThe motives for sport activities are highly diverse andhave been categorized in different ways (Caro &Garcia, 2007; Wann et al., 2008). The motives of sport tourists also differ by type of sport attraction, experi­ence desired (Gibson, 1998b), country (Won & Kitamura, 2007), gender, race, and social class (Gibson, 2004; Funk et al., 2007). Sport event tourists are generally classified as passive attendees (McDonald, Milne, 8c Hong, 2002; Kim 8c Chalip, 2004), active par­ticipants (Filo, Funk, 8c O’Brien, 2011; Taylor 8c Shanka, 2008; Xu 8c Pegg, 2007), and volunteers (Doherty, 2009; larvis 8c Blank, 2011). Researchers have not yet reached a consensus on whether sport participants (active) and sport fans (passive) share sim­ilar consumer characteristics related to motivation (Tokuyama 8c Greenwell, 2011). However, recent evi­dence suggests that sport participation and attendance are two distinct segments driven by different factors, and each segment has its own socio-demographic fea­tures and sport motivations (Lera-Lopez 8c Rapun- Garate, 2011). The motives of sport tourists (e.g., escape, relaxation, and socialization) can also be simi­lar to those of pleasure travelers (Crompton, 1979; Pearce 8c Lee, 2005), but some sport-specific motives such as the need to compete, a desire to win, and the opportunity to develop current skill levels (Weed 8c

Bull, 2004) are not necessarily relevant to other types of tourists.

In the context of active sport tourists, few studies exist on the youth segment (e.g., Daniels 8c Lawton,2003; Taks 8c Scheerder, 2006) and local participants may have motives different from international partici­pants. Xu and Pegg (2007) studied the motivations of students engaging in the Australian University Games. The results revealed that the primary purpose of partic­ipation was recreational but other factors such as com­peting with other athletes, going away from home (escape), participating in an organized event (achieve­ment), and prestige in representing their university were also valued. Gillet (2011) studied the motives of participants to the 2003 Australian Master Games and found that the five key psychological motives were competition, socializing, camaraderie, achievement, and athletic motives. However, local and non-local par­ticipants differed in the intensity of their motivational factors. Non-local participants had a higher social motive score than local participants. Socialization and achievement are strong motives of participation in sporting events that include young participants (Daniels & Lawton, 2003; Taylor 8c Shanka, 2008). Overall, the findings suggest that young sport tourists may have different motives (e.g., need for excitement) and/or attach different levels of importance to motives (e.g., socialization, escape, and achievement) identified for the general sport consumer.

Motivation Measurement for Sport Tourists There are several frameworks to measure the motiva­tion of sport consumers from the spectator/fan per­spective (Wann et al., 2008), but these may not always be relevant to sport tourists. One of the earliest scales is Wann’s (1995) Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) that measures eight factors represented by motives such as eustress, self-esteem, escape from daily life, entertainment, economic factors, aesthetics, group affiliation, and family needs. Milne and McDonald (1999) proposed the Motivations of the Sport Consumer (MSC) scale, which includes 12 motivation factors (stress release, skill mastery, aesthetics, self­esteem, self-actualization, value development, social facilitation, affiliation, achievement, risk-taking, aggression, and competition). Trail and James (2001) developed the Motivational Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC) that measures nine motives (achievement, knowledge, aesthetics, drama, escape, family, physical attraction, physical skills, and social) of sport consumption for mainly sport spectators using 27 items. Funk et al. (2002) augmented the Sport Interest Inventory (SII), which they developed a year earlier that included 10 factor and 30 items to explain

150 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

fan motivations associated with women’s soccer in the United States. Trail, Anderson, and Fink (2000) speci­fied additional factors such as event expectations, dis- confirmation or confirmation of expectations, and affective reactions that may also influence sport con­sumption. Overall, existing research suggests that self­esteem, aesthetics, drama, escape, entertainment, and social interaction demonstrate applicability across a wide range of sport settings (Dwyer & Kim, 2011; Wann et al, 2008).

Given the plethora of motives uncovered in previous studies, it is not surprising that researchers have tried to bring parsimony to the study of motivation (Funk et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2008). Recent studies typically consider a wider array of motives, refine existing scales, and put forward different scales for measuring differ­ent types of sports or spectators (Won 8c Kitamura, 2007). Existing frameworks are often perceived as bur­densome and complex by practitioners (Funk et al., 2009) but nevertheless the multi-dimensionality of motivation is confirmed. For example, Funk et al. (2009) developed the SPEED scale that measures five facets of sport attendance (socialization, performance, excitement, esteem, and diversion). These dimensions represent a convergence of constructs from previous instruments.

Motivation, Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions Attracting new and retaining existing tourists require an understanding of tourist motivation (Prayag, 2012), management of satisfaction, and the generation of favorable behavioral intentions through satisfied tourists (Eusebio 8c Vieira, 2013). Tourist satisfaction is a central concept in tourism (Chen 8c Tsai, 2007) and its measurement has been operationalized using the disconfirmation theory, whereby satisfaction arises when consumers compare their perceptions with initial expectations (Baker 8c Crompton, 2000). A distinction is made also between overall satisfaction and satisfac­tion with individual components of the holiday (Spreng et al., 1996). Overall satisfaction is a broader concept that includes an evaluation of the accumulated experiences of a tourist’s expectations, purchase, and consumption experiences (Andreassen, 1995). Overall satisfaction is, hence, a holistic impression after the purchase and consumption of a holiday (Fornell,1992). A single global measure of satisfaction may be a better measure than using the disconfirmation theory (Baloglu et al., 2003).

Behavioral intention is an outcome of mental process­ing that leads to an action that transforms motivation into future behavior (Jang et al., 2009). Two proxies, revisit and recommend intentions, have been used to measure the construct of behavioral intentions in

tourism (Baloglu et al., 2003; Bigne et al., 2001; Prayag, 2009). The general consensus is that a positive relation­ship exists between tourist satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Bigne et al., 2001; Yoon 8c Uysal, 2005), and motivation and behavioral intentions (Prayag, 2012). Fulfillment of motives generally leads to high satisfac­tion (Prayag, 2012), in turn leading to favorable behav­ioral intentions about the destination (Baker 8c Crompton, 2000). FJowever, some studies have shown that the relationship between satisfaction and revisit intention does not always hold true (Bigne et al., 2001) and that not all fulfilled motives are capable of generat-

et ing satisfaction (Schofield 8c Thompson, 2007).In the sport marketing and tourism literatures, sever-

:s, al studies (e.g., Biscaia et al., 2012; Kaplanidou 8c Gibson, 2010; Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, 2007; Shonk 8c Chelladurai, 2008) suggest a positive relationship between satisfaction and behavioral intentions. However, it is not clear whether satisfaction with the event leads to positive behavioral intentions for the event only and/or the destination. Kaplanidou and Vogt (2007) found that satisfaction with the event did not significantly influence intentions to revisit the desti­nation for sporting activities. In another study, Kaplanidou and Gibson (2010) showed that satisfaction with the event directly influenced intentions to partici­pate in the event again. Biscaia et al. (2012) found that satisfaction with team games increased the likelihood of attending and recommending future games to other

’ people. When the event is recurring and in the same place, intention to return may pertain to both the place and the event (Shonk 8c Chelladurai, 2008).

Yet, limited studies (e.g., Caro 8c Garcia, 2007;Taylor 8c Shanka, 2008) examine the relationship between motivation and satisfaction or behavioral

’ intentions in the sport marketing context. Taylor and 1 Shanka (2008) found that overall satisfaction with a 1 not-for-profit sporting event was significantly predict­

ed by the motive “to get fit/health benefits” but not by the motive “to have fun.” In the same study, intention to participate in future sporting events was not pre­dicted by motivation but rather by overall satisfaction. Hence, beyond understanding how satisfaction leads to post-consumption behaviors of sport tourists (Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, 2007; Taylor 8c Shanka, 2008; Shonk 8c Chelladurai, 2008), it may be necessary to understand the role of motivation in shaping satisfac­tion and behavioral intentions. Such an understanding is critical for effective event and destination marketing strategies. Hence, the main research questions for this study are whether different motivational profiles of youth participants at the IWC can be identified and whether such profiles differ on demographic character­istics, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions.

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 151

Method

Study SettingThe Interamnia World Cup (IWC) is an international event described as the “world’s largest junior handball tournament” (IWC Organizing Committee, 2011), held in the same location (Teramo, Italy), on the same date (July 4-10) every year since 1973. The event nor­mally draws participants from more than 100 nations (www.interamniaworldcup.com). IWC is different from other youth sporting events in two main ways. First, a key theme of the event over the past few years has been the promotion of peace between participating nations with a clear commitment toward supporting athletes from countries in conflict or engaged in post­war reconstruction. Second, every year a specific theme is chosen (e.g., Leaders of Tomorrow) that fits with the “peace” theme, which then becomes the focus of debate and consideration among town/city mayors of participating cities/towns/countries. The event also encourages youth participants to discover the city of Teramo and Italy as a tourist destination, with trips to Rome and Venice being a regular feature. In many respects, the city of Teramo has become the gateway for youth from politically and racially torn countries to participate in sporting events and compete peacefully with others, earning the city’s recognition as “Teramo, citta aperta al mondo” (Teramo, city open to the world) by UNICEF in 1989.

MeasuresTo operationalize the motivation concept in this study, a mixed method (Rohm et al., 2006) was utilized. Four team managers were conveniently selected prior to the event and semi-structured interviews were carried out to find out the motives and satisfaction of participants. Only two of the team managers interviewed had previ­ous participation in IWC. The four team managers were selected on the basis of their knowledge about the event and the fact that they were also the coach of their team. Numerous studies have highlighted the role of the coach in positively or negatively influencing youth sporting experiences (Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005). A coach can also influence the motivation of participants as well as the drivers of performance of the team (Keegan et al., 2010). Hence, it is reasonable to assume that the team managers are knowledgeable about par­ticipants’ motives for attending IWC. The main motives identified from the interviews were: socializa­tion, learning and discovery of Italy, competing with other participants, prestige, escape, and excitement for participants. Also of particular interest is the motive of participation related to the promotion of peace between participating countries. These broad motives

were used to refine the list of motives identified from the literature (Dwyer 8c Kim, 2011; Funk 8c Bruun, 2007; Funk et al., 2007; Funk et al., 2009; Gillet, 2011; Taylor 8c Shanka, 2008; Xu 8c Pegg, 2007). A final list of 14 motivation items (a = 0.88) was retained and measured on a 5-point scale (1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree). In general, item wording was based on these studies (e.g., Gillet, 2011; Taylor 8c Shanka, 2008; Xu 8c Pegg, 2007).

Overall satisfaction was operationalized using one item adapted from Chen and Li (2010), “I am globally satisfied with my participation at the 2012 IWC,” and measured on a 5-point scale (1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree). Given the recurring nature of the event, intentions to revisit and recommend were focused on the event rather than the destination.Revisit and recommendation intentions were opera­tionalized using one item each adapted from the fol­lowing studies (Caro 8c Garcia, 2007; Chen 8c Li, 2010; Shonk 8c Chelladurai, 2008; Taylor 8c Shanka, 2008). The items “I will probably attend the IWC next year” and “I will recommend the IWC to my friends and family” were measured on a 5-point scale (1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree). Several demograph­ics and travel characteristics were measured including age group, gender, country of residence, and previous participation at the event. The survey instrument was originally designed in English and translated in French and Italian. The method of back translation (Brislin, 1970) was used to ensure that the translated versions reflected the meanings and intent of the original ques­tionnaire. The questionnaire was pre-tested on 20 potential participants to the event.

Sample and Data CollectionThe target population for the study was all internation­al registered participants of the 2012 Interamnia World Cup. Each country represented at the event was accompanied by a team manager who signed consent forms on behalf of participants who were less than 18 years old. The total number of participants at the event was estimated at 3,100, representing 48 different coun­tries, and aging from 10 to 30 years old. Of partici­pants, an estimated 1,862 were from Italian cities/regions other than Teramo. Of these, 1,161 were international participants and the survey instrument was systematically included in every welcome pack for this group. Once completed the questionnaires were returned either directly to the organizing committee office or handed to official volunteers at the event. Since the focus of the study was on youth participants, only questionnaires from respondents aged 10 to 21 years old were considered useable. Data collection last­ed for the duration of the game and resulted in 265

152 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Table 1Results of Cluster Analysis of Motivation Items

Motivations Cluster 1(n - 48)

ESC1: To enjoy being away from home 2.35PARl:To take part in an organized youth 3.56

sporting eventPRES1: To take part in a prestigious event 3.23

for people who follow handballLEARl:To learn something new about 2.42

handballPAR2: To participate in physical activities 3.35

because it’s funCOMP1: To compete with other athletes 3.46COMP2: To compete with strong opponents 3.21

in handballSOC1: To meet new people and make friends 2.48SOC 2: To meet new people with similar 2.29

interest as myselfSOC 3: To share an international experience 4.08

with my friendsEXC 1: To experience excitement and 2.41

nothing moreEXC 2: To enjoy the atmosphere 3.21

surrounding the eventESC2: To feel in peace with myself and others 2.21LEAR2: To discover and experience Italy as 1.94

a tourist destination

Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 F* Sample Sample( n - 98) (n = 60) (n = 36) Mean SD

3.24 3.07 2.16 9.98 2.86 1.324.64 4.04 4.67 30.39 4.28 0.84

4.58 3.60 4.81 47.81 4.10 1.01

4.62 3.77 4.33 66.73 3.93 1.22

4.41 3.68 2.78 24.72 3.78 1.21

4.69 3.75 4.69 34.71 4.21 0.984.70 3.82 4.78 43.79 4.20 1.04

4.78 4.15 4.00 102.22 4.05 1.124.57 3.81 3.85 95.31 3.82 1.13

4.89 4.10 4.19 20.53 4.43 0.84

4.20 2.91 3.37 41.69 3.40 1.23

4.62 3.77 4.08 32.26 4.05 1.01

4.49 2.98 3.43 67.65 3.51 1.324.58 3.60 1.78 147.32 3.40 1.47

*all F values significant, p < 0.001; (COMP: Competing with other participants; ESC: Escape; EXC: Excitement; LEAR: Learning 8c Discovery; PAR: Participation; PRES: Prestige; and SOC: Socialization)

usable surveys. The demographic profile of the sample showed that the survey polled more males (56.2%) than females (43.8%). The age group of respondents was as follows: 12-14 (13.1%), 15-17 (70.9%), and 18- 21 (16%). The survey polled participants with different country of residence, including Denmark (17.8%), Cyprus (9.1%), France (11.2%), Bosnia 8c Herzegovina (8.7%), Belgium (9.1%), Chile (7%), and Algeria (5.8%), among many others. The majority of partici­pants (61.4%) were at their first participation to the event.

Data AnalysisThe data were analyzed in three stages. In stage one, a two-step cluster analysis (Punj 8c Stewart, 1983) was used to classify respondents on their motivation scores. Missing data led to the exclusion of another 23 surveys for clustering purposes (n = 242). W ard’s (1963) hier­archical clustering method with squared Euclidean dis­tances was performed on a sub-sample generated

randomly following the procedures recommended by Punj and Stewart (1983) to identify potential clusters in the data. The agglomeration schedule suggested the presence of three to five clusters. A non-hierarchical k- means clustering algorithm developed three, four and five cluster solutions. An examination of group mem­bership, group sizes, and the associated dendograms indicated the four-cluster solution was the best. In stage two, the validity of the four-cluster solution was assessed using discriminant analysis and the final stage consisted of profiling the clusters using socio-demo- graphic characteristics of respondents, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions.

Results

Cluster Identification and Description The results (Table 1) indicated that cluster 1 {n = 48) comprised participants that were on average either most­ly “disagree” or “neutral” on the motives measured,

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 153

Table 2Results of Discriminant Analysis

Discriminant Eigenvalues Canonical Wilks’ Chi-square Sig.Functions Correlation Lambda

1 5.39 0.92 0.06 667.40 0.002 1.15 0.73 0.36 236.88 0.003 0.29 0.48 0.77 59.47 0.00

Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients Function 1 Function 2 FunctionSOC2 .461*ESC2 .388*LEAR1 .372*EXC1 .300*EXC2 .269*LEAR2 -.608*PRES1 .447*COMP2 .356*COMP1 .331*PARI .278*ESC1 .204*SOC1 -.517*SOC3 .440*PAR2 .345*

* Largest absolute correlation between each variable and any discriminant function

except for the item (SOC3) “to share an international experience with my friends” (M = 4.08), indicative of the importance of socialization for youth event participation. The hedonistic aspects of the trip such as (LEAR2) “to discover and experience Italy as a tourist destination” (M = 1.94) and (ESC1) “to enjoy being away from home”(M = 2.35) scored low with this group. Hence, this group was named “Indifferent” given that they were not strongly motivated by any particular item, except for socialization. Cluster 2 (« = 98) scored on average highly all the motives except for the item (ESC1) “to enjoy being away from home” (M = 3.24), indicative of various motives such as participation, competing, socialization, learning, and prestige being valued. This was the only cluster driven by the motive of “peace” (M = 4.49). Hence, this cluster was named “Enthusiast” based on their high scores for most items. Cluster 3 (n = 60) scored highly on average only the motives (PARI) “to take part in an organized youth sporting event” (M = 4.04), (SOC1) “to meet new people and make friends” (M = 4.15) and (SOC3) “to share an international expe­rience with my friends” (M = 4.10), indicative of social­ization being the most valued motive of participation. This cluster was, thus, named “Socializer.” Cluster 4 (n = 36) assigned the highest scores on average to the motives

of prestige (PRES1) “to take part in a prestigious event for people who follow handball” (M = 4.81), (COMP1) “to compete with other athletes” (M = 4.69), (COMP2) “to compete with strong opponents in handball” (M = 4.78), and (PARI) “to take part in an organized youth sporting event” (M = 4.67). This cluster was named “Competitive” due to their high scores on such motives. Overall, the results indicate that motives of socialization, competition, and participation are highly valued by most clusters while escape (ESC1) is not valued highly by any of the clusters.

A discriminant analysis was performed to determine the accuracy of the four cluster solution. Using the saved cluster membership as the dependent variable and the motives as the predictors (Dwyer et al., 2011; Luna-Arocas & Tang, 2005), three statistically signifi­cant canonical discriminant functions were extracted (Table 2), explaining the majority of variance in the dependent variable. Wilk’s lambda and chi-square tests (Table 2) show that the groups are statistically signifi­cantly different (p<0.001). The canonical correlations between the groups .92 (function 1), .73 (function 2), and .48 (function 3) are high and significant (p < 0.001), indicative of a significant relationship between the functions and cluster membership (Hosany &

154 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Table 3Cluster Profiling by Demographic and Travel Characteristics

Variables Indifferent Enthusiast Socializer Competitive Significance(CL1) (CL2) (CL3) (CL4) level

Age % % % %12-14 yrs 4.2 18.8 8.6 17.1 X2 = 9.57, p > 0.0515-17 yrs 81.3 66.7 75.9 60.018-21 yrs 14.5 14.5 15.5 22.9

Gender % % % %Male 45.8 54.1 50.0 86.1 X2 = 16.29, p < 0.01Female 54.2 45.9 50.0 13.9

Country of residence % % % %North-Africa - 16.3 10.0 33.3 X2 = 149.79, p < 0.001Middle East 2.1 4.1 5.0 _

Western Europe 31.3 10.2 26.7 47.2Northern Europe 58.3 2.0 40.0 8.3Asia 4.2 5.1 5.0 2.8South America 4.2 16.3 1.7 8.3Eastern Europe - 45.9 11.7 -

Previous Participation % % % %0 time 63.8 50.0 66.7 77.8 X2 = 32.15, p < 0.011 time 23.4 13.6 17.5 19.42 times 12.8 18.2 7.0 -

3 times - 5.7 7.0 2.8>=4 times - 12.5 1.8 -

Prayag, 2013). The eigenvalue can be interpreted as the proportion of variance accounted for by the correla­tion between the respective canonical variates (Alexandris & Tsiotsou, 2012). The classification matrix showed that 95.5% of the original grouped cases were correctly classified, with cluster 2 achieving the highest percentage of correct classification (98%) and cluster three the lowest (90%). The results confirm the external validity of the four cluster solution.

Cluster ProfilingTo profile the clusters, cross tabulations with demo­graphic variables (age, gender, and country of resi­dence) and travel characteristics (previous participation at IWC) were undertaken. The results (Table 3) indicated statistically significant differences between the clusters on gender, country of residence, and previous participation only. Cluster 4 had a high percentage of male participants (86.1%) while cluster 1 had a higher percentage of female participants (54.2%). Country of residence was recoded in seven groups (North Africa, Middle East, Western Europe, Northern Europe, Asia, South America, and Eastern Europe). A high percentage of participants in cluster 1

were from Northern Europe (58.3%). Cluster 2 had a high percentage of Eastern European participants (45.9%). Cluster 4 had a high percentage of both Western European (47.2%) and from North African (33.3%) participants. Cluster 4 had the highest per­centage (77.8%) of first-time participants while cluster 2 had a high percentage (12.5%) of previous participa­tion (4 times or more). Cluster 1 had a significant per­centage of participants (23.4%) who had attended the event once before.

The one item for satisfaction, revisit intention, and recommendation intention was used to further profile the clusters. ANOVA tests with Tukey post-hoc com­parisons identified differences between the four clus­ters on all three variables (Table 4). Cluster 2 had on average the highest (M = 4.57) while cluster 1 had the lowest (M = 3.34) overall satisfaction with the event. Cluster 2 had on average the highest revisit (M =4.31) and recommendation (M = 4.63) intentions. Cluster 1 had on average the lowest revisit (M = 2.65) and rec­ommend (M = 3.08) intentions. Overall, the results suggest that the clusters had significantly different sat­isfaction and behavioral intentions based on the moti­vational profiles identified.

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 155

Table 4Cluster Profiling by Overall Satisfaction, Revisit, and Recommendation Intentions

Variables Mean ISD (CLl)a

Indifferent(CL2)

Enthusiast(CL3)

Socializer(CL4)

Competitive Significancelevel

Overall satisfaction 4.14/ 0.92 3.34 4.57 3.85 4.53 F = 32.66, p < 0.001, CL1-CL2*, CL1-CL3T CL1-CL4*, CL2-CL3T CL3-CL4*

Revisit intention 3.71/1.47 2.65 4.31 3.52 3.81 F= 16.83, p < 0.001, CL1-CL2*, CL1-CL3* CL1-CL4*, CL2-CL3*

Recommend 4.03/ 1.18 3.08 4.63 3.68 4.25 F= 27.76,p < 0.001,intention CL1-CL2*, CL1-CL3*,

CL1-CL4*, CL2-CL3*, CL3-CL4*

a CL=Cluster, ^indicate statistical significant differences between clusters

To further understand the relationship between clus­ters and post-consumption behaviors, four logistic regression models were estimated. Cluster membership was the dependent variable (1 = belongs to the cluster;0 = belongs to other clusters) while post-consumption behaviors (satisfaction, revisit intention, and recom­mendation intention) were specified as the independ­ent variables. Table 5 indicates that the clusters are different on the basis of the post-consumption behav­iors. Cluster 1 (Indifferent) is less likely than other clusters to consist of sport tourists that are satisfied with the event based on the odd ratio of Exp(B) = .404. Odd ratios greater than 1.0 show the increase in odds of an outcome of T,’ whereas odd ratios less than 1.0 show the decrease in odds of that outcome (Hair et al., 2005). The negative beta coefficient for satisfaction ((3 = -.905, p < 0.05) confirm the existence of a negative relationship between cluster membership and overall satisfaction. The logistic regression (Table 5) for cluster 2 (Enthusiast) suggests that participants in this cluster are most likely to be satisfied (Exp(B) = 1.97, |3 = .679, p < 0.05) and recommend (Exp(B) = 1.93, (3 = .656, p < 0.05) the event. As for cluster 3 (Socializers) none of the post-consumption behaviors could predict accu­rately cluster membership. Cluster 4 is most likely to have sport tourists that are satisfied with the event (Exp(B) = 2.07) but will most likely neither recom­mend nor revisit the event.

Discussion and ImplicationsThe research questions for this study were related to the identification of different segments of youth partic­ipants on their motivation to attend a sporting event

and the differences in motivational profiles based on demographic characteristics and post-consumption behaviors. The results indicate that four motivational profiles exist among active participants at the IWC (Indifferent, Enthusiast, Socializer, and Competitive). The identified clusters were profiled on demographic characteristics, which revealed that only gender, coun- try-of-residence and previous participation to the event could significantly differentiate between the clus­ters. Profiling the clusters by overall satisfaction, revis­it, and recommendation intentions revealed that statistically significant differences existed between the clusters on these post-consumption behaviors. Accordingly, the results hold important theoretical and managerial implications.

From a theoretical perspective, the study confirms that the youth segment of the sport tourism market is heterogeneous on their motives for attending sporting events. Similar to previous studies (e.g., Daniels & Lawton, 2003; Taylor & Shanka, 2008), the findings suggest that motives of socialization, participation, and competition are highly valued by young participants. However, unlike the study of Xu and Pegg (2007), the motive of escape is not necessarily a driver of event participation for all young sport tourists, as evidenced by the clusters of “Indifferent” and “Competitive.” The “fun” and “excitement” motives are highly valued by one group (e.g., Enthusiast) but not necessarily a main motive of participation as suggested in previous studies (e.g., Gillet, 2011). Likewise, the motive of learning (Funk et al., 2007) is important for adult sport tourists but only valued by two of the clusters (Enthusiast and Competitive) when it is related to the sport (handball).

156 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Table 5Results of Logistic Regression on Clusters

Post- Indifferent Enthusiast Socializersconsumptionbehaviors

Wald Exp(B) p Wald Exp(B) P Wald Exp(B) P

Overall Satisfaction 17.07 0.404 -.905* 10.41 1.97 .679* 3.477 0.713 .338n,sRevisit intention 3.192 0.757 ,279n-s 0.863 1.14 127n-s 0.913 1.147 .137n‘sRecommend 3.118 0.715 ,336n-s 9.55 1.93 .656* 2.97 0.738 ,303n-s

intentionNagelkerke 0.344 0.312 0.064

R-square Hosmer &

Lemeshow GoF test

% correctly classified

X2=6.21, p>0.05 X2 =8.93, p>0.05 X2 =22.22, p<0.05

85.1 75.2 74.8

Competitive Wald Exp(B) (3

6.2520.5210.029

2.07 .726* 0.89 -1.17n-s 1.04 ,039n-s

0.195

X2 =4.96,p>0.05

85.1

*p <0.01; **p < 0.05, n.s= not significant

When the motive of learning is related to discovery and experience of the destination (Italy), only cluster 2 assigned a high score to this motive.

Overall, the motives identified in this study are somewhat similar to past youth market sport studies (e.g., Daniels & Lawton, 2003; Gillet, 2011), highlight­ing that no single motive, but rather a combination of motives, drives event choice. This confirms the com­plexity (Funk & Bruun, 2007) and multi-dimensionali­ty of the motivation construct as suggested in other studies (Caro & Garcia, 2007; Dwyer & Kim, 2011; Funk et al., 2009). The identified segments not only suggest that youth participants have different motives but also different demographic profiles. Gender, coun­try of residence, and previous participation can also be used effectively as segmentation variables to differenti­ate between the youth participants at an event.

While several studies suggest that satisfaction can adequately predict behavioral intentions (Biscaia et al., 2012; Kaplanidou & Gibson, 2010; Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007), our results confirm that motivation profiles are related to post-consumption behaviors. The segment of “Indifferent” is least likely to be satisfied with the event while the segment of “Enthusiast” is most likely to be satisfied and recommend the event. The differ­ences that exist between the clusters on overall satisfac­tion, revisit, and recommend intentions suggest a potentially contradictory relationship between motiva­tion and post-consumption behaviors. On the one hand, highly motivated youth participants are likely to be satisfied and recommend an event (e.g., Enthusiast) but on the other, relatively high scores on motivation do not necessarily lead to revisit and recommend intentions (e.g., Competitive). Hence, the positive rela­

tionship between motivation and event satisfaction is not guaranteed as implied in other studies (Caro & Garcia, 2007; Taylor & Shanka, 2008).

In addition, the results offer several implications for event organizers, sport marketers, and destination marketers to fine-tune marketing strategies. Understanding motivation is critical for implementing effective market segmentation and targeting strategies. Motives also inform successful promotion and adver­tising campaigns (Dwyer et al., 2011). Cluster 1 had the lowest scores on motivation, satisfaction, revisit, and recommend intentions suggesting that these youth participants are potentially disengaged with the event. It would be worthwhile for event organizers to improve communication with participants and team managers prior to the event and emphasize opportuni­ties for socialization for future IWC events. The seg­ment of “Enthusiast” is highly motivated and has positive post-consumption behaviors. Through rela­tionship marketing, this segment can be transformed into advocates of the event that can stimulate interest in the event among both active and passive youth handball sport consumers using social media. Findings suggest the existence of sport tourist sub-groups with different motivational profiles. Recognizing these dif­ferences should enable IWC to better market the event to young sport tourists. The development of prom o­tional campaigns around event and sport specific motives can aid in the marketing of IWC, thus driving attendance and consumption (Wann et al., 2008). Specifically, advertising themes of socialization and participation should be used to enhance the attractive­ness of the event, along with the “peace” theme. Also, given that motives differed by country of residence and

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 157

gender, communication strategies should be adapted to effectively communicate with international partici­pants. Availability of event information through the official website in several languages would be a good starting point. Currently, website information is avail­able only in English and Italian. Given that the event is organized around young participants, the website should also enhance the experience of potential partici­pants by including more interactive components such as a virtual visit of the event site and local touristic attractions. These may create the desire to participate and, hence, boost event attendance.

Limitations and Future StudiesDespite the contribution of this study to the sport tourism and marketing literature, the study is not without limitations. First, the results are specific to one event and a small sample of international event atten­dees. The results cannot be generalized to all youth sporting events or IWC event attendees. Second, the sample size does not meet the recent conservative esti­mate of sample size requirements for effective segmen­tation. However, the sample is larger than the worst-case scenario suggested in the literature (Dolnicar et al., 2014). Third, the motivation items identified are specific to this event and the youth mar­ket. There is the possibility that other motives may drive sporting event attendance for the youth market. Fourth, k-means as a clustering method has several limitations (see Dolnicar, 2003). There is a possibility that sport tourists, similar to pleasure tourists, may belong to multiple clusters as suggested in other stud­ies (Li et al., 2013).

Given these limitations, several avenues for further research can be offered. The recurring nature of IWC and its focus on young participants suggest that a lon­gitudinal study would be worthwhile to understand both active and passive attendees’ behavior on site and post-consumption behaviors. Also, previous studies have shown differences between the motives of local and non-local participants (Gillet, 2011). It would be beneficial if future studies could compare the motives, attitudes, and behaviors of local and non-local partici­pants to a recurring sporting event to understand the drivers of event (re)attendance. Future research can also consider other clustering methods such as fuzzy clustering, bagged clustering, and latent class analysis to improve cluster stability and reproducibility (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000). Finally, motivation is only one of many psychological variables that can be used to seg­ment sport tourists. Future studies can consider using other psychological variables such as destination image (Kaplanidou & Gibson, 2012), event image

(Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007), and emotions (Biscaia et al., 2012) for segmentation purposes.

ReferencesAlexandris, K., & Tsiotsou, R. H. (2012). Segmenting soccer spectators by

attachment levels: A psychographic profile based on team self-expression and involvement. European Sport Management Quarterly, 12, 65-81.

Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., Funk, D., & Giovani, C. (2009). Segmenting winter sport tourists by motivation: The case of recreational skiers. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 18, 480-499.

Andreassen, T. (1995). Dissatisfaction with public services: The case of pub­lic transportation. Journal o f Services Marketing, 9(5), 30-41.

Baloglu, S„ Pekcan, A., Chen, S. L, 8c Santos, J. (2003). The relationship between destination performance, overall satisfaction, and behavioral intention for distinct segments. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 4(3/4), 149-165.

Baker, D. A., & Crompton J. L. (2000). Quality, satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Annals o f Tourism Research, 27, 785-804.

Bennett, G., 8c Lachowetz, T. (2004). Marketing to lifestyles: Action sports and Generation Y. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 239-243.

Bettman, J. R. (1979). An information processing theory of consumer choice. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company.

Bigne, J. E., Sanchez, M„ 8c Sanchez, J. (2001). Tourism image, evaluation variables and after purchase behavior: Inter-relationships. Tourism Management, 22, 607-616.

Biscaia, R., Correia, A., Rosado, A., Maroco, J., & Ross, S. (2012). The effects of emotions on football spectators’ satisfaction and behavioral intentions. European Sport Management Quarterly, 12, 227-242.

Brislin, R. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 185-216.

Caro, L. M., 8c Garcia, J. A. M. (2007). Consumer satisfaction with a peri­odic reoccurring sport event and the moderating effect of motivations. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 16, 70-81.

Chen, C-Y., 8c Li, Y-H. (2010). A study on cognitive-affective model of sport consumer satisfaction in the event of Taipei 101 Run-Up Race. Journal of Venue & Event Management, l, 45-62.

Chen, C„ 8c Tsai, D. (2007). How destination image and evaluative factors affect behavioral intentions. Tourism Management, 28, 1115—1122.

Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6, 408-424.

Daniels, M. J., 8e Lawton, L. J. (2003). Adolescent sport participants:Segmentation by motivation patterns. World Leisure Journal, 45(3), 35-42.

Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York, NY: Plennum Press.Deery, M., Jago, L., 8c Fredline, L. (2004). Sport tourism or event tourism:

Afire they one and the same? Journal of Sport Tourism, 9, 235-245.Devesa, M„ Laguna, M., 8c Palacios, A. (2010). The role of motivation in

visitor satisfaction: Empirical evidence in rural tourism. Tourism Management, 31, 547-552.

Doherty, A. (2009). The volunteer legacy of a major sport event. Journal o f Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1, 185-207.

Dolnicar, S. (2003). Using cluster analysis for market segmentation: Typical misconceptions, established methodological weaknesses and some rec­ommendations for improvement. Australasian Journal o f Market Research, 11, 5-12.

Dolnicar, S., Crouch, G. I., Devinney T., Huybers, T., Louviere, J. J., 8c Oppewal, H. (2008). Tourism and discretionary income allocation: Heterogeneity among households. Tourism Management, 29, 44-52.

Dolnicar, S., Grun, B., Leisch, F., 8e Schmidt, K. (in press). Required sample sizes for data-driven market segmentation analyses in tourism. Journal of Travel Research.

Dwyer, B., 8e Kim, Y. (2011). For love or money: Developing and validating a motivational scale for fantasy football participation. Journal o f Sport Management, 25, 70-83.

Dwyer, B., Shapiro, S. L., 8c Drayer, J. (2011). Segmenting motivation: An analysis of fantasy baseball motives and mediated sport consumption.

158 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Sport Marketing Quarterly, 20, 129-137.Eusebio, C„ & Vieira, A. L. (2013). Destination attributes’ evaluation, satis­

faction and behavioral intentions: A structural modeling approach. International Journal o f Tourism Research, 15, 66-80.

Filo, K., Funk, D. C., 8c O’Brien, D. (2011). Examining motivation for char­ity sport event participation: A comparison of recreation-based and charity-based motives. Journal of Leisure Research, 43, 491-518.

Fornell, C. (1992). A national customer satisfaction barometer: The Swedish experience. Journal of Marketing, 56, 6-21.

Fraser-Thomas, J. L., Cote, J., 8c Deakin, J. (2005). Youth sport programs: An avenue to foster positive youth development. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 10, 19-40.

Frochot, I., 8c Morrison, A. M. (2001). Benefit segmentation: A review of its applications to travel and tourism research. Journal o f Travel & Tourism Marketing, 9, 21-45.

Funk, D. C., 8c Bruun, T. J. (2007). The role of socio-psychological and cul­ture-education motives in marketing international sport tourism: A cross-cultural perspective. Tourism Management, 28, 806-819.

Funk, D. C., Mahony, D. F., 8c Ridinger, L. (2002). Characterizing con­sumer motivation as individual difference factors: Augmenting the sport interest inventory (SII) to explain level of spectator sport. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11, 33-43.

Funk, D. C., Toohey, K., 8c Bruun, T. (2007). International sport event par­ticipation: Prior sport involvement, destination image, and travel motives. European Sport Management Quarterly, 7, 227-248.

Funk, D. C„ Filo, K„ Beaton, A. A., 8c Pritchard, M. (2009). Measuring the motives of sport event attendance: Bridging the academic-practitioner divide to understanding behavior. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 18,126-138.

Gibson, H. (1998a). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review, 1, 45-76.

Gibson, H. (1998b). Active sport tourism: Who participates? Leisure Studies, 17, 155-170.

Gibson, H. J. (2004). Moving beyond the “what is and who” of sporttourism to understanding “why.” Journal o f Sport & Tourism, 9, 247-265.

Gillet, V. G. (2011). Identification and analysis o f psychological motivesamong local and non-local Masters Games participants: Empirical evidence for the unique characteristics of sport tourists. Unpublished doctoral dis­sertation. School of Commerce and Management, Southern Cross University, 2011.

Gnoth, J. (1997). Motivation and expectation formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 24, 283-304.

Hair, J. F„ Black W. C„ Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., 8c Tatham, R. L.(2005). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hallmann, K., Feiler, S„ 8c Breuer, C. (2012). Sport motivation as driver for segmenting sport tourists in coastal regions. Tourism Review, 67,4-12.

Hinch, T., 8c Higham, J. (2011). Sport tourism development (2nd ed.). Ontario, Canada: Channel View Publications.

Hosany, S., 8c Prayag, G. (2013). Patterns of tourists’ emotional responses, satisfaction and intention to recommend. Journal o f Business Research,66, 730-737.

Interamnia World Cup Organizing Committee. (2011). Interamnia World Cup Facebook Page. Retrieved from http://www.facebook.com/pages/Interamnia-World- Cup/139580232742153

Jang, S. S., Bai, B., Hu, C., 8c Wu, C. M. E. (2009). Affect, travel motivation, and travel intention: A senior market. Journal o f Hospitality & Tourism Research, 33, 51-73.

Jarvis, N., 8c Blank, C. (2011). The importance of tourism motivations among sport event volunteers at the 2007 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships, Stuttgart, Germany. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 16, 129-147.

Kaplanidou, K„ 8c Vogt, C. (2007). The interrelationship between sport event and destination image and sport tourists’ behaviors. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12, 183-206.

Kaplanidou, K„ 8e Gibson, H.J. (2010). Predicting behavioral intentions of active event sport tourists: The case of a small-scale recurring sports event. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 15, 163-179.

Kaplanidou, K., 8c Gibson, H. J. (2012). Event image and traveling parents’ intentions to attend youth sport events: A test of the reasoned action model. European Sport Management Quarterly, 12, 3-18.

Keegan, R., Spray, C., Harwood, C., 8c Lavallee, D. (2010). The motivational atmosphere in youth sport: Coach, parent and peer influences on moti­vation in specializing sport participants. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22, 87-105.

Kim, S. S„ 8c Chalip, L. (2004). Why travel to the FIFA World Cup? Effects of motives, background, interest, and constraints. Tourism Management, 25, 695-707

Kim, S„ Greenwell, T. C., Andrew, D. P. S., Lee, J., 8e Mahony, D. F. (2008). An analysis of spectator motives in an individual combat sport: A study of mixed martial arts fans. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 17, 109-119.

Klenosky, D. B. (2002). The ‘pull’ of tourism destinations: A means-end investigation. Journal o f Travel Research, 40, 385-395.

Kruger, M., Saayman, M., 8c Ellis, S. (2011). Segmentation by genres: The case of the Aardklop National Arts Festival. International Journal of Tourism Research, 13, 511-26.

Kurtzman, J., 8c Zauhar, J. (2005). Sports tourism consumer motivation. Journal o f Sport & Tourism, 10, 21-31.

Lera-Lopez, F., 8c Rapun-Garate, M. (2011). Determinants of sports partici­pation and attendance: Differences and similarities. International Journal o f Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 12, 167-190.

Lewin, K. (1938). The conceptual representation and the measurement o f psy­chological forces. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Li, X., Meng, F„ Uysal, M„ 8c Mihalik, B. (2013). Understanding China’s long-haul outbound travel market: An overlapped segmentation approach. Journal of Business Research, 66, 786-793.

Lim, C., 8c Turco, D. (1999). The next generation in sport: Y. Cyber Journal of Sport Marketing, 3, n. p. Retrieved from http://fulltext.ausport.gov.au/ fulltext/1999/cjsm/v3n4/lim34.htm

Luna-Arocas, R„ 8c Tang, T. L. P. (2005). The use of cluster analysis to seg­ment clients of a sport center in Spain. European Sport Management Quarterly, 5, 381-413.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.

McDonald, M. A., Milne, G. R., 8c Hong, J. (2002). Motivational factors for event sport spectator and participant markets. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11, 100-113.

McIntosh, R. W., Goeldner, C. R., 8c Ritchie, J. R. B. (1996). Tourism princi­ples, practices and philosophies. New York, NY: John Wiley 8c Sons.

Milne, G. R., 8c McDonald, M. A. (1999). Sport marketing: Managing the exchange process. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Mullin, B. J., Hardy, S., 8c Sutton, W. A. (2007). Sport marketing (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Ottevanger, H. J. (2007). Sport tourism: Factors of influence on sport event visit motivation. Doctoral dissertation, Bournemouth University, UK.

Pearce, P. L., 8c Lee, U. (2005). Developing the travel career approach to tourist motivation. Journal o f Travel Research, 43, 226-237.

Plog, S. (1974). Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity. Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Quarterly, 14(4), 55-58.

Prayag, G. (2009). Tourists’ evaluation of destination image, satisfaction and future behavioral intentions—The case of Mauritius. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 26, 836-853.

Prayag, G. (2012). Senior travelers’ motivations and future behavioral intentions: The case of Nice. Journal o f Travel & Tourism Marketing, 29, 665-681.

Punj, G., 8c Stewart, D. W. (1983). Cluster analysis in marketing research: A review and suggestions for applications. Journal o f Marketing Research,20, 134-148.

Robinson, T., 8c Gammon, S. (2004). A question of primary and secondary motives: Revisiting and applying the sport tourism framework. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 9, 221-233.

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 159

Rohm, A. J., Milne, G. R., 8c McDonald, M. A. (2006). A mixed method approach for developing market segmentation typologies in the sports industry. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 15, 29-39.

Schofield, P., & Thompson, K. (2007). Visitor motivation, satisfaction and behavioral intention: The 2005 Naadam festival, Ulaanbaatar. International Journal o f Tourism Research, 9, 329-344.

Shonk, D. J., & Chelladurai, P. (2008). Service quality, satisfaction, and intent to return in event sport tourism. Journal o f Sport Management,22, 587-602.

Spreng, R. A., Mackenzie, S. B., 8c Olshavsky, R .. (1996). A re-examination of the determinants of consumer satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 60, 15-32.

Swarbrooke, J., 8c Horner, S. (1999). Consumer behavior in tourism. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Taks, M., 8c Scheerder, J. (2006). Youth sports participation styles and mar­ket segmentation profiles: Evidence and applications. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6, 85-121.

Taylor, R., 8c Shanka, T. (2008). Cause for event: Not-for-profit marketing through participant sports events. Journal o f Marketing Management, 24, 945-958.

Tkaczynski, A., 8c. Rundle-Thiele, S. R. (2010). Event segmentation: A review and research agenda. Tourism Management, 32, 426-434.

Tokuyama, S., 8c Greenwell, T. C. (2011). Examining similarities and differ­ences in consumer motivation for playing and watching soccer. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 20, 148-156.

Trail, G. T„ 8c James, J. D. (2001). The motivation scale for sport consump­tion: Assessment of the scale’s psychometric properties. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, 108-127.

Trail, G. T., Anderson, D., 8c Fink, J. (2000). A theoretical model of sport spectator consumption behavior. International Journal of Sport Management, 3 ,154-180.

Wann, D. L. (1995). Preliminary validation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 19, 377-396.

Wann, D. L., Grieve, F. G., Zapalac, R. K., 8c Pease, D. G. (2008).Motivational profiles of sport fans of different sports. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 17, 6-19.

Ward, J. H. (1963). Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective func­tion. Journal of American Statistics Association, 58, 236—244.

Wedel, M., 8c Kamakura, W. A. (2000). Market segmentation: Conceptual and methodological foundations (2nd ed.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.

Weed, M. (2005). Sport tourism theory and method—Concepts, issues and epistemologies. European Sport Management Quarterly, 3, 229-242.

Weed, M., 8c Bull, C. (2004). Sports tourism: Participants, policy and providers. London, UK: Elsevier.

Won, J-U, 8c Kitamura, K. (2007). Comparative analysis of sport consumer motivations between South Korea and Japan. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 16, 93-105.

Xu, R., 8c Pegg, S. (2007). Exploring the motivations for participant engage­ment in the Australian University Games. International Journal o f Event Management Research, 3, 39-46.

Yoon, Y., 8c Uysal, M. (2005). An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction on destination loyalty: A structural model. Tourism Management, 26, 45-56.

160 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Copyright of Sport Marketing Quarterly is the property of Fitness Information Technology,Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listservwithout the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print,download, or email articles for individual use.