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A Question of Nationalism: A Comparison of Explicit and Implicit Manifestations of Nationalism in the Music of Frkdkric Chopin and Alberto Ginastera

By Melody Marchman Prof. Marjorie Hirsch, Advisor

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honors in Music

WILLIAMS COLLEGE Williamstown, Massachusetts

MAY 3,2006

I

Throughout the 19'~ and 2 0 ~ centuries, the display of musical nationalism was

an exercise in self-description. Composers such as Chopin, Wagner, Schoenberg, and

Ginastera displayed national pride through the use of patriotic texts, folk tunes and

rhythms, vernacular scales, and dance rhythms derived from their native dances. Each

of these examples marks an instance of self-description for composers who have

utilized and engaged with an element of their country's musical identity. This has

been done with such frequency that we study the display of musical nationalism as a

pursuit approached in a systematic fashion. This is problematic, because it implies

that displays of nationalism are necessarily conscious. On the contrary, nationalism

may be displayed in both explicit and implicit manners.

The music of Alberto Ginastera (1 9 16- 1983) and Frkdkric Chopin (1 8 10-

1849) provides examples of explicit nationalism. Each of these composers displayed,

through the use of specific musical devices, nationalist sentiments that align with the

conventional conceptions of musical nationalism. Chopin's nationalist sentiments

were not confined to his openly nationalist works, however. Though typically

considered an explicitly nationalist composer, Chopin also displayed his nationalism

in more subtle and implicit ways; his Nocturne in C-sharp minor Op. 27, no.1 (1835)

is one such example. Ginastera's Danzas Argentinas (1937) and Chopin's Nocturne

in C-sharp minor Op. 27, no. 1 provide an apposite example of explicit and implicit

nationalism, respectively. In the following, I will argue that while musical

nationalism can be displayed explicitly, implicitly nationalist music not only exists

but also can be equally effective. Where Ginastera's Danzas Argentinas is explicitly

nationalist, Chopin's Nocturne is subtly and sufficiently nationalist.

Ginastera was an Argentinian nationalist composer who divided his career

into periods he identified as objective nationalism (1 934- 1947), subjective

nationalism (1 947-1 957) and neo-expressionism (1 958-1 983). The objective

nationalism period is characterized by a direct reference to Argentine folk materials,

the subjective nationalism period by the integration of sublimated Argentine traits,

and the neo-expressionist period by the employment of dodecaphony and other avant-

garde techniques.2 In short, nationalism was a concept integral to Ginastera's

composition.

In 193 1, at age fifteen, Ginastera heard Arthur Rubenstein play in Buenos

Aires and for the first time encountered Bela Bartok's Allegro Barbaro. Many years

later Ginastera described the experience as a "discovery" in which he felt "the

bewilderment of a re~elation."~

The Allegro Barbaro filled in all the gaps I felt in my conception of forging a national music. The rhythmic strength of that admirable piece - 'the feverish excitement produced by the repeated primitive' themes, in Bartok's words.4

The Allegro Barbaro erased a void for Ginastera, enabling him to compose Danzas

argentinas. Of this work he stated:

1 Deborah Schwartz-Kates: "Alberto Ginastera," Grove Music Online ed. L.Macy (Accessed [ lo October 2005]), <http://www.grovemusic.com>.

Ibid. 3 Alberto Ginastera. 'Homage to BCla Bartdk',Tempo, no.136 (1981), 3 4 .

Ibid.

When I composed my Argentine Dances for piano in 1937, Bartok's influence was present. My 'folklore imaginaire' begins there, with its polytonal harmonizations. Its strong, marked rhythms - the Bartokian 'feverish excitement' - all within a total pianism where the spirit of a national music is re~reated.~ (sic)

Composed during Ginastera's objective nationalist period, Danzas argentinas

reveals Ginastera's nationalist sentiments in both title and musical elements; these

musical elements are associated with a system of musical codes that Argentine

composers devised during the late 1 9th century to convey their national identity.6 The

musical elements germane to Danzas argentinas include: (1) melodies based on

vernacular scales, (2) rhythms derived from Argentine dances, (3) imitation of

idiomatic guitar writing, (4) voicings in thirds, and (5 ) bimodal harrn~nies.~ In my

analysis, I will focus on the elements of rhythm and harmony in Danzas argentines

that serve as markers of Ginastera's conscious,ly nationalist compositional style.

RHYTHM

The rhythms in Ginastera's music are largely derived fiom the Argentine

dance tradition, in particular the m ~ l a m b o . ~ A dance of the gaucho, an Argentine

horseman, the malambo was a competitive dance in which the participants would

challenge their opponents with "increasingly vigorous dance steps."9 The music of the

malambo was in 618 meter and often employed syncopated rhythms. The syncopated

Ibid. 6 Schwartz-Kates,"Ginastera."

Ibid. 8 Gilbert Chase. "Alberto Ginastera: Argentine Composer." The Musical Quavterly, Vo1.43, No. 4 (Oct. 1957),454.

Schwartz-Kates, "Ginastera."

rhythms of the malambo were meant to emulate the dancer's rapid foot work and

were produced by the varied strum patterns of the guitarist.''

Both the 618 time signature and a number of varied strumming patterns

characteristic of the malambo are heard in Darm del Gaucho Matrero, the third

movement of Danzas argentinas. In the third thematic section of the movement, the

time signature alternates between 618 and 918. This alternation between meters not

only displaces the downbeat, but also paints a sonic picture of alternating strumming

patterns. (See FIG. 1) Because the rhythmic foundation of the malambo is based on a

harmonic progression composed of major triads, this section also illustrates the

dialectical relationship between rhythm and harmony within a rnal~mbo.~ Again, the

third thematic section of Danza del Gaucho Matrero serves as a good illustration of

this as the right hand plays only major triads tlx-oughout. (See FIG. 1)

FIG. 1 Ginastera, Beginning of the Third Thematic Section, Danza del Gaucho Matrero

HARMONY

The harmonic language employed in Danzas argentinas is influenced by both

bimodality and the pictorial image of the gaucho - the icon of the gauchescho

10 Deborah Schwartz-Kates: The 'Gauchesco' Tradition as a Source of National Identity in Argentine Art Music (ca. 1890-1955) (diss., U. of Texas, 1997). " Ibid.

tradition. Danza del Viejo boyero, the first movement of Danzas argentinas,

exemplifies both of these qualities.

Danza del Viejo boyero displays a unique type of bimodality. Rather than

using chords built from superimposed triads, Ginastera achieves bimodality in a very

literal way through his simultaneous use of different key signatures in each hand;

throughout Danza del Viejo boyero the right hand key signature has no sharps or flats

(C Major) and the left hand has 5 flats ( D ~ Major). This complete bimodality is

juxtaposed with sections of functional tonal harmony in passages such as measures

37-41 and measures 50-53; here Ginastera utilizes harmony derived from stacked

fourths and fifths both melodically and harmonically. Due to the tonal implications

suggested by the fifth and the octave, this key area is clearly E Major. Contrary to the

premise of bimodality, these definite key areas further highlight the movement's

bimodality by illustrating and juxtaposing with bimodality's cousin.

As noted, Ginastera also uses harmony to conjure the pictorial images of the

gaucho. The guitar was the gaucho's representative instrument; "it served as his

faithful friend, second only to his horse."12 Ginastera evokes the image of the guitar

through his use of the guitar chord. The guitar chord is one whose pitches are derived

from the notes of the guitar's standard tuning - E-A-D-G-B-E. (See FIG.2) Ginastera

utilizes this chord in measures 78-79 of Danza del Viejo boyero.

l2 Ibid.

FIG. 2 Ginastera, Danza del Viejo boyero, mm.78-79

Ginastera employs the guitar chord in less literal ways as well, as in the opening

measures of Danza de la moza donosa, the second movement of Danzas argentinas.

Here the left hand accompaniment figure teeters between varied orderings of the

guitar chord's pitches. At times the pitches of the chord are repeated exactly, and at

other times, there are chromatic alterations. (See FIG. 3)

FIG. 3 Ginastera, Danza de la moza donosa, mm. 1-5

The penultimate measure of Danza de la mom donosa illustrates the evolution of this

non-literal translation of the guitar chord. Here, the opening motive has been pared

down to just the pitches A and E and then extended upwards. Because the gesture is

similar to the opening motive, we are aware of the allusion to the same image. This

motive, however, resolves far from the tonal world of the guitar chord, and in doing

so asks the listener to question the meaning of the movement's resolution. (See FIG.

4)

FIG. 4 Ginastera, Danza de la moza donosa, mm.80-81

On November 1, 1830, Chopin, restless and fkustrated, left his native Poland

in search of a more fulfilling musical environment. Just twenty years old, he was

unaware that the political strife spurred by an attempt to assassinate the Grand Duke

Constantin would prevent him hom ever returning.13 Subsequently, Chopin would

comment, "I curse the moment of my departure."14 It is at this juncture that a Polish

style emerged in Chopin's compositions. While the style was first witnessed in his

Opus 7 Mazurkas (1 829) - composed before he left poland15 - a similar nationalist

flair would later emerge, intensified, in his Opus 26 Polonaises (1 835).16 Because

these works are both genres of traditional Polish music, their association with Polish

13 Kornel Michalowski and Jim Samson: "Fryderyk Chopin," Grove Music Online ed. L.Macy (Accessed [12 October 2005]), ~http://www.grovemusic.com>.

l4 Ibid.

l5 Because this national flair appears prior to his deparhu-e from Poland, perhaps we can assume that Chopin was destined to be a nationalist composer regardless of whether or not he left Poland. However, I believe the vast number of nationalist works in Chopin's repertoire to be no coincidence.

nationalism is unambiguous, and not surprisingly, are also the works most often

associated with Chopin's nationalist sentiments.

The mazurka, a dominant genre in 1 8th-century Polish folk music, is

characterized by triple meter, accented weak beats, a fixed form (AABB, AABC,

AAAB, or ABBB), tempo rubato, and awkward and folksy rhythms. Chopin's

mazurkas incorporate these characteristics and feature stark contrasts between joyous

vigour and profound melancholy. l7 In total, Chopin wrote fifty-seven mazurkas -

fifty-two of which date from after 1830. The Polonaise, on the other hand, is a stately

Polish dance in triple meter, Lydian, Phrygian or Aeolian modes, and usually ternary

forms. Chopin modified the Polonaise by incorporating more "formal expansion,

poetic intensity and pianistic bravura; throughout there is a "heroic-military tone.'"'

He wrote fifteen Polonaises, seven of which were composed after 1830. Due to the

abundance of these two Polish dance genres in Chopin's body of piano works, we can

see that much of his musical identity is connected to a sense of nationalism. What

happens then, when a composer who conceives himself to be nationalist composer,

writes in a genre that is not obviously nationalist? I will argue that because we find

many of the characteristics of the Mazurkas anid Polonaises in Chopin's Nocturne in

C# minor Op. 27, No. 1, we can conceive of Chopin as also being an unconscious

nationalist - a composer whose nationalism is so inextricably linked to his

compositional style, that musical nationalism may infuse works that are not

commonly recognized as nationalist.

l6 Ibid. 17 Stephen Downes: 'Mazurka,' Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [14 November 2005]), <http://www.grovemusic.com>. '* Stephen Downes: 'Polonaise,' Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [14 November 200511, <http://www.grovemusic.com~.

The C-sharp minor Nocturne was composed in 1835 during a period of

tremendous creative output for Chopin.(During this year Chopin completed the Op.

67 Mazurkas, Op. 27 Nocturnes, Op.26 Polonnises, Op.34 and 69 Waltzes, Scherzo in

B minor, Ballade in G minor, Grande Polonaise Brilliante in E~ and began the Op. 25

~ t u d e s . ) ' ~ However, this was also a period in which he experienced considerable

homesickness. Weary, Chopin arranged to see his parents in Carlsbad in the summer

of 1 835.20 In a letter to his absent family members Chopin proclaims, "What a pity

we are not all together.. .it's better not to try to think today; just be happiness, now

happiness has come."21 Chopin's obvious delight during this visit is tinged with

profound sorrow that his happiness was due to the presence of his family. The

implication embedded in Chopin's statement, "now happiness has come," reveals that

he was not happy before and gives us a window into Chopin's mental state during this

year. Chopin's tremendous output during this :year seems almost escapist.

Because nocturnes do not have names that suggest national heritage, we do

not conventionally consider them under the heading of "Chopin's Nationalist Pieces."

Displays of national elements, however, and perhaps even nationalism can arise "on a

level below conscious in ten t i~n ."~~ In this vein of thought then, nationalistic

compositions can be seen not as a result of a series of a conscious decisions but rather

as an intrinsic quality of the composer's compssitional style. I believe this to be the

case with Chopin's Nocturne in C# Minor. It does not fall within the realm of

l9 Samson, 'Chopin."

20 Ibid.

21 Frederick Chopin: Henryk Opienski and E.L. Voynich Ed. and Trans. Chopin Letters. New York: Knopf, 174. 22 Jim Samson. The Music of Chopin. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 100.

Chopin's typical nationalistic genres yet it displays qualities of nationalism in its

harmony, form and character.

HARMONY

Because modes and their resultant harmonies are so inextricably linked to

certain Polish dances, namely the polonaise, Chopin's use of the available modal

resources is associated with his musical nat i~nal ism.~~ Throughout the A section of

this nocturne (measures 1-28), D natural is consistently used (as opposed to the D#

which is standard in the key of C# minor.) Lowering the second scale degree yields a

scale of C# - D - E - F# - G# - A - B - C# - a Phrygian mode scale. Because

Chopin has taken a piece in C-sharp minor and appropriated the Phrygian mode, the

modal allusion leads us to thepolonaise. (See FIG. 5)

FIG. 5 Chopin, Nocturne Op. 27, no. 1, rnm. 1 -7

Similarly, throughout the C section ( measures 63-82) Chopin colors the

harmony through his use of modes. This section is primarily grounded in the key of

23 Downes. 'Mazurka.'

G-flat, however, through chromatic alterations Chopin tinges of both Phrygian and

Lydian are heard. (See FIG. 6)

FIG.6, Chopin, Nocturne Op.27 No. 1, mm. 63-69

Section C showcases most thoroughly the heroic-military character24 of this Nocturne

through the use of large, and sonorous chords that mimic triumphal horns. If we read

Chopin in terms of nationalism it is no surprise then that this exultant section contains

musical reference to the Polish dances.

FORM

The form and character of this nocturne align with the mazurka by

highlighting the starkly contrasted melancholic and yearning melody in the A section

and the joyous and heroic chordal structure of the C section. The A section begins

with a flowing arpeggiated C# minor chord in the left hand while the right hand

enters on an E which quickly moves to the dissonant E-sharp which sonically yearns

to resolve upwards to consonance. Once resolved, the harmony in the left hand

changes such that the prior resolution is now dissonant and again yearns to become

consonant. (See FIG.5) This tension is heightened by the fact that a consonance

between left hand and right hand does not occur until measure 7.

24 The character of this section is discussed in the subsequent section.

12

The heroic C section in G-flat major is characterized by large spanning

consonant chords which favor the open and sonorous fourths and fifths. These chords

move quickly through their dissonant harmonies to blossom into large and expansive

major chords. These chords, however, quickly introduce dissonance and lead us back

to the A section where we again hear the yearning and sorrowfbl melody in c# minor.

Though these sorts of starkly contrasted sections are characteristic of the

mazurkas, it is significant that the harmonies sf these contrasting sections are most

notably associated with thepolonaise. Chopin has done an interesting thing here in

employing the notion of contrasting sections firom the mazurkas and the notions of

character from the polonaise. The joining of cliaracteristics of these two dances

results in a work that, at its most basic units, is truly Polish. This gesture at once

evokes both Polish folk dances while being infused with and maintaining the Chopin-

esque pianism so emblematic of the nocturnes. With this nocturne, Chopin has

created a piece that evokes all the makings of his mazurkas andpolonaises. From its

harmonies to its character, this piece is distinctly Polish in that regard. Yet, this is not

a piece dedicated to Poland - it is a nocturne. In an article on the Chopin's F minor

Polonaise op.44 (1 841), Stephen Downes comments:

"The polonaise.. .combines daring rhetoric, formal expansion, poetic intensity and pianistic bravura. The heroic-military tone is amplified by imitative, percussive effect.. .In his later polonaises the ternary form, with a contrasting trio section, becomes modified."25

Had the name of the Polonaise not been presented with this description, one

might have assumed the piece discussed here was the op. 27 no. 1 nocturne.

This nocturne is in every way characteristic of the Poland-inspired dance

25 Downes. 'Polonaise.'

13

pieces of Chopin's repertoire. Yet, he makes no specific extra-musical

mentions of those forms in this piece; he names it a nocturne.

Entering the piano repertoire circa 1812, the Nocturne is a piece suggesting

images of night and meditation; Liszt felt they were pieces, "designed to portray

subjective and profound em~tion."'~ These pieces, however, were not at all nationally

oriented. In fact, during the Romantic Period, the Nocturne was established as a bona

fide musical form tantamount to the Classical Period's Sonata Allegro form. Chopin's

choice of the Nocturne, then, signals no overt nationalist allusions or tendencies but

rather the desire to write in this specific form. This Nocturne then, can be seen as a

display of unconscious nationalism - an instance in which Chopin composed a

specific form of music which displayed nationalistic tendencies. The display of these

tendencies may not have been intentional, but they read loud and clear. Poland was

not only on Chopin's mind, but his feelings of sorrowful longing and triumphal praise

were brimming such that they are clearly displayed in his music.

IV

Displays of nationalism are often difficult to define. Because nations are

crudely defined by the bounds of their physical borders, geography is the primary

common denominator for a nation's inhabitants. A definition of a nation based solely

on geography is problematic, however, and requires amendments to provide a more

encompassing definition. Romantic notions lead us to believe that language, customs

and culture all combine to round out and complete our definition of a nation. This

rounded out, all encompassing, definition is the result of a melding of the political

26 Quoted in: Brown, Maurice and Hamilton, Kenneth: "Nocturne," Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [lo April 2006]), <http://www.grovemusic.com>.

definition of a nation, and the nation's self-description.27 Self-description, then, is

crucial to the very concept of nationality and is closely tied to nationalism. Richard

Taruskin tells us, that "Nationality is a condition; nationalism is an attitude."

Nationalism then must be something other than the expression of one's nationality; it

is an internalization of one's nationalist sentiments. This internalization is expressed

in varying degrees of obviousness - from the explicitly defined characteristics of

one's nationalism to the implicit. Alberto Ginastera and Frkdkric Chopin exemplify

this juxtaposition. Together they paint a picture of nationalism that is - perhaps - more

inclusive than conventional ideas would lead us to believe. They show us that at the

core one's nationality is much more complicated than their locale or customs. It is

truly all encompassing, all inclusive and internalized to a point that it constantly

colors their art - whether they intend it or not.

27 Richard Taruskin: 'Nationalism', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [13 September Year 2006]), <http://www.grovemusic.com>.

15

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, Maurice and Hamilton, Kenneth: "No~cturne," Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [lo April 2006]), <http://ww.grovemusic.com>.

Chase, Gilbert. "Alberto Ginastera: Argentine Composer." The Musical Quarterly, Vo1.43, No. 4 (Oct. 1957).

Chopin, Fryderyk. Henryk Opienski and E.L. Voynich Ed. and Trans. Chopin Letters. New York: Knopf. 193 1.

Downes, Stephen: 'Mazurka,' Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [14 November 2005]), <http://www.grovemusic.com>.

Downes, Stephen: 'Polonaise,' Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [14 November 2005]), <http://www.grovemusic.com>.

Ginastera, Alberto. 'Homage to Bkla Bart6k',Tempo, no. 136. 198 1.

Liszt,F.: ~ b e r John Fields Nocturne (Leipzig, 1859); repr. in Gesammelte Schriften, iv, ed. L. Ramann (Leipzig, 1882lR); Eng. trans. in Schirmer's edn.

Michalowski, Kornel and Samson, Jim: "Fryderyk Chopin," Grove Music Online ed. L.Macy (Accessed [12 October 2005]), <http:llwww.grovemusic.com>.

Samson, Jim. The Music of Chopin. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1985.

Schwartz-Kates, Deborah: "Alberto Ginastera," Grove Music Online ed. L.Macy (Accessed [ lo October 2005]), <http://www.g~rovemusic.com>.

Schwartz-Kates, Deborah: The 'Gauchesco' Tradition as a Source of National Identity in Argentine Art Music (ca. 1890-1955) (diss., U. of Texas, 1997).

Taruskin, Richard: 'Nationalism', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [13 September Year 2006]), <http ://www.grovemusic.com>.