Liquid modernity and choice of university degree programmes: Malaysian university students’...

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published online 17 July 2013Journal of SociologyJin Kuan Kok and Siew Mun Ang

Malaysian university students' perceptionLiquid modernity and the choice of university degree programmes:

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Liquid modernity and choice of university degree programmes: Malaysian university students’ perception

Jin Kuan KokUniversity of Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Kampar, Malaysia

Siew Mun AngUniversity of Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Kampar, Malaysia

AbstractEducation has become increasingly driven by economic forces and it is now seen as a way to advance economic growth and prosperity. This article starts by describing the traditional educational vision and Bauman’s liquid modernity. Later, the higher education scenario in Malaysia will be presented. The objective of this research is to investigate the factors influencing Malaysian students’ university degree choice, and their perspectives on basic science as well as basic social science degree courses in universities. Our findings show the primacy of economic considerations when students make a choice about their education. An examination of the relevance of Bauman’s liquid modernity is also applied here. Moreover, the discrepancies in the research results will be discussed. The article concludes that while liquid modernity promises opportunities and advancement, awareness of the current dynamics in the education sector is also needed.

Keywordschoice of degree programme, economic growth, liquid modernity, Malaysian higher education

Most European countries and the United States have inherited the traditional educational vision and mission of the Humboldt University in Germany, the then University of Berlin, which emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge and the integration of research and teaching (Boulton, 2008) in universities. Therefore, the original mission for

Corresponding author:Siew Mun Ang, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Block P, Level 1, Perak Campus, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, Kampar, Perak, 31900, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]

492236 JOS0010.1177/1440783313492236Journal of SociologyKok and Ang2013

Article



2 Journal of Sociology 0(0)

universities is for the discovery and passing on of knowledge (Kok et al., 2011). In fact, the current fervent debate going on among the universities in European countries reflects a change of emphasis in higher education (Schimank and Winnes, 2000) as a conse-quence of the impact of economics.

As education does not exist on its own, it is affected by the cultural and environmental factors in which the educational system is embedded. The environment shapes the edu-cational culture and also influences how students make their university degree choice. This article adopts a sociological approach so as to investigate the perceptions of Malaysian university students of the factors that influence their university degree choice. Moreover, it studies how economic considerations have affected their choice of univer-sity degree programmes in the context of Malaysia. First, this article outlines the charac-teristics of liquid modernity; it then provides an overview of the Malaysian higher education scenario; and, finally, presents an empirical study of our Malaysian university students’ choice of degree programmes.

Literature review

Many different terms and concepts have been used by a variety of sociologists to describe a post-industrial society since Daniel Bell coined the term ‘post-industrial society’ in the 1970s to denote a future society which uses predominantly technology and computers in its economy. Most of the western world today and some parts of Asia have now already reached the stage called ‘post-industrial society’ since Bell’s forecast about four decades ago. Moreover, according to Macionis and Plummer (2012: 135–6), the terms and con-cepts now used by other sociologists have diversified, ranging from the ‘post-history society’, coined by Francis Fukuyama, to ‘late modernity society’ used by Anthony Giddens, David Harvey and Jurgen Habermas, to ‘multiple modernities society’ devel-oped by Eisenstadt, and ‘liquid modernity’ by Zygmunt Bauman, professor emeritus of Sociology at the Universities of Leeds and Warsaw.

Zygmunt Baumann and liquid society

According to Zygmunt Bauman (2007), there are five important characteristics of liquid times (which is also the title of his book) that denotes a time of change, uncertainty, stress and flexibility. The first characteristic of this ‘liquid’ phase (totally different from a ‘solid’ phase) is that social forms or structures are unlikely to have time to solidify and, as a result, they cannot serve as ‘frames of reference for human actions and long-term life strategies because of their short life expectation’ (2007: 1).

The second characteristic concerns the divorce of power and politics in a modern nation-state. Bauman notes that the modern state’s power to act effectively is now mov-ing into the politically uncontrolled global space while politics remains local (i.e. at national level). The consequence of this divorce is that the state is encouraged to transfer or ‘contract out’ an increasing number of the functions that it had previously performed to outsiders. With this abandonment, functions previously performed by the state are now ‘left to the inherently unpredictable market forces and/or private initiative and care of individuals’ (2007: 2).



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Third, inter-human bonds which once were worthy investment of one’s time, effort and sacrifice have become increasingly frail and temporary. The consequence of this weakening of human bonds causes:

individual exposure to the vagaries of commodity-and-labour markets [which] inspires and promotes division, not unity; it puts a premium on competitive attitudes, while degrading collaboration and teamwork to the rank of temporary stratagems that need to be suspended or terminated the moment their benefits have been used up. (Bauman, 2007: 2–3)

Fourth, this phase sees the collapse of long-term thinking, planning and acting, and such a breakdown means that concepts like ‘development’, ‘maturation’, ‘career’ or ‘progress’ (which suggest a pre-ordained order of succession) can no longer be meaning-fully applied. In fact, Bauman notes that life will be so fragmented in this phase of liquid modernity that:

Past successes do not necessarily increase the probability of future victories, let alone guarantee them; while means successfully tested in the past need to be constantly inspected and revised since they may prove useless or downright counterproductive once circumstances change. A swift and thorough forgetting of outdated information and fast ageing habits can be more important for the next success than the memorisation of past moves and the building of strategies on a foundation laid by previous learning. (2007: 3)

Finally, the last characteristic of this ‘liquid’ phase is that individuals, instead of the state or social institutions, would now bear ‘the responsibility for resolving the quandaries generated by vexingly volatile and constantly changing circumstances … individuals … are now expected to be “free choosers” and to bear in full the conse-quences of their choices’ (2007: 3–4). Bauman concludes in the Introduction of his book by saying that:

The virtue proclaimed to serve the individual’s interest best is not conformity to rules (which at any rate are few and far between, and often mutually contradictory) but flexibility: a readiness to change tactics and style at short notice, to abandon commitments and loyalties without regret – and to pursue opportunities according to their current availability, rather than following one’s own established preferences. (2007: 4)

To summarize, ‘liquid society’ or ‘liquid modernity’ describes a time of turbulence, a time of great changes, instability and inconsistencies in our post-industrial world. Accordingly, such turbulence in moving from the ‘solid’ to the ‘liquid’ phase of moder-nity (Bauman, 2007: 1) has had the effect of causing ‘social forms or social structures to decompose and melt faster than the time it takes to cast them, and once they are cast for them to set’. These characteristics make it difficult for individuals to develop a cohesive and consistent strategy in life because social forms ‘cannot serve as frames of reference for human actions and long-term life strategies because of their short life expectation’ (2007: 1). In Malaysia, while this characteristic is not yet so visible, it can be seen in fast-moving industries such as the information and communications technology (ICT) sector.




The characteristics of this liquid modernity phase, as highlighted by Bauman (2000, 2007), are highly unstable, unpredictable, insecure, filled with ambiguity and uncer-tainty, and constantly changing. Human relationships and human bonds have become transient and unstable, and this instability or ‘liquidity’ affects all levels of human experi-ence, including the experience of study, work and career. The highly compressed time and space has also caused changes in values, with the emphasis now being placed on competitiveness, short-term gains and the primacy of profits and commerce.

The above-mentioned characteristics seem to synchronize with many traits mentioned by other authors writing on postmodernity: members of the ‘liquid society’ are highly individualized as there is a rejection of meta-narrative (Lyotard, 1984) whereby the nation-state has gradually lost the power of control, thus resulting in the third wave of education reform which was impacted by parentocracy (Brown, 2003), and individuals have thus assumed more responsibility for their own choices. This postmodern condition is also in tandem with Derrida’s idea of ‘decentring of the subject’ and ‘deconstruction of self’ (Kumar, 2003) as individuals constantly faced the challenges of a changing world. Other factors that influence students’ choice of university degree programmes include privatization (Lieberman, 1989), parental choice (Brown, 2003), the expansion of supply and competitiveness (Welch, 2010), and students’ A-level results which could have been adversely affected by their unequal social economic background (Reay et al., 2001).

In Malaysia, when Anwar Ibrahim was Deputy Prime Minister, he endorsed the idea of a ‘knowledge-based economy’, a phrase which had been popularized by management guru Peter Drucker, since 1968. Anwar had thought the ideas to be excellent to help transform Malaysia into a knowledge-based economy and its citizens into knowledge workers. How does the characteristic of this ‘liquid modernity’ and/or knowledge-based economy affect students’ university choice in Malaysia?

The education scenario in Malaysia

As higher education has been identified as a tool to achieve economic prosperity, the fed-eral government run by the National Front (known in Malay as Barisan Nasional and com-monly abbreviated as BN) unveiled strategies in its Ninth Malaysia Plan (Malaysian Budget, 2001) and its Knowledge-based Economy Master Plan to become a world-class economy as well as to produce world-class universities which could enhance the nation’s overall socio-economic development. Moreover, the United Nations Commissions on Science and Technology for Development report (UNCSTD, 1997) concluded that govern-ments of developing countries need to integrate effective national ICT policies in order to promote the production of knowledge, which is said to be essential for economic growth. With the combined factors of knowledge, research and education, citizens of a knowledge-based economy can become a valuable resource known as ‘human capital’. In short, ICT for development (ICT4D) has been the dominant idea for sustainable economic growth in the developing world, especially in the 1990s. This idea is supported by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in defence of ICT for people with disabilities, among other marginal-ised groups (Information and Communication Technologies for Development, 2013).

When the economy in Malaysia rebounded after the global economic crisis, the BN government acknowledged the challenges of globalization, liberalization and the digital



Kok and Ang 5

wave (Malaysian Budget, 2001). It is frequently mentioned in official reports that the knowledge-based economy or K-economy which has evolved along with the pervasive use of ICTs was going to pose tremendous challenges to the country. All national strate-gies, including educational strategies, are used to stimulate and enhance economic growth.

The Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) has strategically planned to produce a large number of graduates through mass education. Institutions of higher learning were transformed so that they could play a pivotal role in supplying ‘human capital’ to the workforce (Malaysia MOHE, 2007). The National Higher Education Strategic Plan (Malaysia MOHE, 2007) stated that the government aims to produce 21,000 PhD holders by 2010. A total of 100,000 PhD holders would have emerged in 15 years in the areas of science, technology and medicine (60%), humanities and applied literature (20%) and other professional fields (20%). At present, MOHE oversees all the 20 public, and 32 private universities and university colleges, as well as 485 private colleges in Malaysia. Besides the five branch campuses of foreign universities that have set up campuses in Malaysia, namely Monash University, the University of Nottingham, Curtin University of Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, and Newcastle University of Medicine Malaysia, the number of overseas branches keeps rising (Malaysia, National Higher Education Research Institute, 2010).

The purpose of increasing the number of institutions of higher learning or higher education and overseas branches is to reduce the outflow of funds for overseas educa-tion (MAPCU, 2009). The BN-run federal government has also acknowledged the challenges and demands of a globalized environment. The emphasis on education in the drive for economic growth is evident in the government’s high budget allocation (Malaysian Budget, 2010) for educating and nurturing its people at higher educational levels.

The government’s 2010 budget plan states that ‘high quality human capital is a pre-requisite to support the national development agenda’ (Malaysian Budget, 2010: 21). Therefore the government has taken initiatives to develop its people’s soft skills in gen-eral, and their entrepreneurial capabilities and creativity in particular, so that they are able to compete in an increasingly globalized economy and environment.

Many programmes have been implemented, such as widening the scope of the schol-arship scheme, accessibility to the National Higher Education Fund Corporation (PTPTN) loans, and converting the PTPTN loans to scholarships for students who gradu-ate with first class honours from 2010. A large sum of money (RM504m) has been allo-cated to the Industrial Training Institutes and the Advanced Technology Training Centres. The Malaysian government also provided RM438m to Institut Kemahiran MARA (or literally, MARA Skills Institute) and Kolej Kemahiran Tinggi MARA (or literally, MARA High Skills College) for research purposes. Another RM110m was allocated for the development of industrial training programmes (Malaysian Budget, 2010). This is a remedial intervention as most of the graduates face unemployment problems. It has been identified by Sulaiman and Burke (2009) that the high percentage of unemployment among graduates in Malaysia is caused by a lack of soft skills. Sulaiman and Burke (2009) suggest that good soft skills and problem-solving skills are essential for Malaysian graduates to secure jobs.




In the meantime, the number of graduates who completed their university degree course in Malaysia is observed to be growing steadily in all areas.

It is evident that, on the one hand, the Malaysian government is making an effort to develop its human capital through education while, on the other hand, it uses education as an engine of economic growth. Undeniably, the Malaysian education industry has also generated income for the country. Education has become an enterprise and has successfully generated as much as 4 per cent of gross national income for the country. This was approximately RM27b in 2009 (Malaysian Economic Transformation Programme, 2010).

Methodology

Our dataset was collected from an online survey designed and managed by the University of Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) Opinion Poll research committee. This UTAR Opinion Poll Portal gives Malaysian students and/or working adults a plat-form to express their opinions on various topics. Therefore the sample could be considered as a kind of cross-sectional random sampling. Participants took part in this research voluntarily. The data was collected in June 2011. This set of online questionnaires was developed by a group of UTAR researchers to find out what fac-tors affect students’ choice of university degree programmes, the students’ preferred skills and their understanding of how employers rate those skills. The questionnaire consists of basic demography and nine questions to explore their perspectives on the determining factors for choosing a university degree programme, and also to dis-cover their views on basic physical science as well as basic social science degree programmes. The participants were also informed that their personal information would not be revealed.

A total of 683 university students participated in this online survey, of whom 282 were from the physical science programme and the remaining 401 from the social science programme. There were 45.2% (n = 309) male and 54.8% (n = 374) female students. Table 1 shows the gender distribution of participants in this study.

SPSS version 16 was used to process the descriptive data and a Pearson chi-square for independence test was run to look at the association between courses of study and skills identified.

Table 1. Gender distribution of respondents from the physical science and social science faculties.

Total number of participants

Physical or social science Frequency Percentage

Physical science M 155 55%(Total: 282) F 127 45%Social science (Total: 401) M 154 38.4% F 247 61.6%



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Findings

The bar charts and tables in the following section show three parts of our research find-ings, that is (a) factors determining choice of degree programmes, (b) skills preferred by students, (c) students’ understanding of how employers rate such skills which they had identified and (d) students’ likelihood of pursuing a postgraduate degree upon graduation.

Factors determining choice of degree programmes

Only 12.1% of the students (n = 34) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 16.7% of the students (n = 47) chose ‘unsure’, while a total of 71.3% of these students (n = 201) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for ‘prospects of employment after completing degree’ as the factor in determining their choice of university degree programme.

On the other hand, 15.3% of the students (n = 43) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 21.4% of the students (n = 60) chose ‘unsure’ and 53.5% of the students (n = 179) chose ‘more or most relevant’ when it comes to career choice as the factor in determining their choice of university degree programme.

Prospects of employment and career chances were the two factors voted for most by the students studying physical science.

Similar results were obtained from social science students.Only 9.9% of the students (n = 40) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 22.4% of the students

(n = 90) chose ‘unsure’ and a total of 67.6% of the students (n = 271) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for prospects of employment after completing their degree as the factor in determining their choice of university degree programme.

On the other hand, 12.7% of the students (n = 51) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 22.9% of the students (n = 92) chose ‘unsure’ and 64.3% of the students (n = 258) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for students’ career chances as the factor in determining their choice of a university degree programme.

For both the physical science and social science students, career choice and prospects of employment after completing their university degree remain the highest among all other factors.

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Less or Not Relevant 41 34 74 48 41 166 189 195 76 102 43 258

Unsure 70 47 84 91 100 71 64 62 70 81 60 16

More or Most Relevant 171 201 124 143 141 45 29 25 136 99 179 8

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Figure 1. Factors determining choice of degree programmes for physical science students.




Skills preferred by students

Only 12.8% of the students (n = 36) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 13.5% of the students (n = 38) chose ‘unsure’ and 73.7% of the students (n = 208) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for applied technical knowledge and/or skills as their preferred knowledge and/or skills to be acquired after joining a degree programme.

On the other hand, 12.0% of the students (n = 34) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 23.0% of the students (n = 65) chose ‘unsure’ and 64.9% of the students (n = 183) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for fundamental knowledge of a particular field as the most preferred knowledge and/or skills to be acquired after joining a degree programme.

Less or Not Relevant 76 40 91 64 65 196 221 250 99 143 51 355

Unsure 115 90 104 128 140 105 115 102 103 100 92 25

More or Most Relevant 210 271 206 209 196 100 65 49 199 158 258 21

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Figure 2. Factors determining choice of degree programmes for social science students.

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Less or Not Relevant 36 50 34 43 45 44 77 47 48 260

Unsure 38 79 65 61 79 66 91 79 84 12

More or Most Relevant 208 153 183 178 158 172 114 156 150 10

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Figure 3. Physical science students’ preference for skills and/or knowledge.



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More importantly, it was found that even in the field of physical science studies, stu-dents preferred applied technical skills over fundamental knowledge.

The two most preferred skills to be acquired were identified, with the social science students voting for communication skills and applied technical skills.

Only 12.0% of the students (n = 48) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 18.5% of students (n = 74) chose ‘unsure’ and 69.6% of students (n = 279) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for communication skills as the preferred knowledge and/or skills to be acquired after join-ing a degree programme.

Only 14.9% of the students (n = 60) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 25.4% of the students (n = 102) choose ‘unsure’ and 59.6% of the students (n = 239) chose ‘more or most rel-evant’ for applied technical knowledge and/or skills as their preferred knowledge and/or skills to be acquired after joining a degree programme.

Students’ understanding of how employers rate such skills

Most of the physical science students identified communication skills as the number one skill required by employers, with applied technical knowledge and/or skills, and critical thinking skills tying at second place.

There were 11.3% of the students (n = 32) who chose ‘less or not relevant’, while 12.4% of the students (n = 35) chose ‘unsure’ and finally 76.2% of the students (n = 215) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for communication skills as significant based on their (i.e. physical science students’) understanding of how employers rate the skills that they had identified.

There were 13.5% of the students (n = 38) who chose ‘less or not relevant’, while 13.1% of the students (n = 37) chose ‘unsure’ and 73.4% of the students (n = 207) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for applied technical knowledge and/or skills as important based on the physical science students’ understanding of how employer rate these skills.

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Less or Not Relevant 60 83 53 79 85 57 85 48 59 357Unsure 102 143 92 92 139 107 128 74 101 29More or Most relevant 239 175 256 230 177 237 188 279 241 15

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Figure 4. Social science students’ preference for skills and/or knowledge.




As for critical thinking knowledge and/or skills, 13.8% of students (n = 39) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 12.8% of students (n = 36) chose ‘unsure’ and 73.4% of students (n = 207) chose ‘more or most relevant’ based on the physical science students’ understand-ing of how employer rate these skills which they had identified.

Moreover, the physical science students identified academic theoretical knowledge as less important compared to the above-mentioned applied skills. A total of 20.6% of the students (n = 58) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 35.5% of the students (n = 100) chose ‘unsure’ and 44.0% of these students (n = 124) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for aca-demic theoretical knowledge based on their understanding of how employers rate this skill.

On the other hand, communication skills, critical thinking skills and leadership skills were strongly voted for by the social science students.

There were 10.4% of students (n = 42) who chose ‘less or not relevant’, 11.0% of students (n = 44) who chose ‘unsure’ and 78.5% of students (n = 315) who chose ‘more or most relevant’ for communication skills as important based on the social science stu-dents’ understanding of how employers rate this skill.

Only 11.2% of the students (n = 45) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 15.7% of the students (n = 63) chose ‘unsure’ and 73.0% of the students (n = 293) chose ‘more or most rele-vant’ for critical thinking knowledge and/or skills as important based on their under-standing of how employers rate the skills they had identified.

A total of 12.0% of the students (n = 48) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 19.7% of the students (n = 79) chose ‘unsure’ and 68.3% of the students (n = 274) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for leadership skills as significant based on the social science students’ under-standing of employer needs of how employers rate such skills.

Besides the category ‘others’, academic, theoretical and fundamental knowledge were ranked the lowest.

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Less or Not Relevant 38 58 43 58 39 75 32 46 264

Unsure 37 100 53 76 36 91 35 56 11

More or Most Relevant 207 124 186 148 207 116 215 170 7

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Figure 5. Physical science students’ understanding of employer needs.



Kok and Ang 11

There were 26.0% of students (n = 104) who chose ‘less or not relevant’, 35.9% of students (n = 144) who chose ‘unsure’ and 38.1% of students (n = 153) who chose ‘more or most relevant’ for academic theoretical knowledge as important based on the social science students’ understanding of how employers rate this skill.

Only 14.0% of the students (n = 56) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 28.7% of the students (n = 115) chose ‘unsure’ and 57.4% of the students (n = 130) chose ‘more or most rele-vant’ for fundamental knowledge of a particular field as necessary based on the social science students’ understanding of how employer rate this skill.

In order to find out if there was any association between the students’ course of study (physical science vs. social science students) and their perception of how a basic science or basic social science degree programme would help them develop their communication skills, a chi-square test for independence was run. The result showed that there was a significant association between the students’ course and their perception of the develop-ment of communication skills.

The chi-square result was significant (χ2= 48.419, df = 1, N = 683, p < 0.05). Social science students agreed that their basic social science degree programme had helped them develop communication skills more than physical science students thought their own basic physical science degree programme could.

Likelihood of pursuing a postgraduate degree

Tables 3 and 4 show the physical science and the social science students’ likelihood of pursuing a postgraduate degree in their respective fields.

A total of 32.9% of the students (n = 93) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 29.1% of the students (n = 82) chose ‘unsure’ and 37.9% of the students (n = 107) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for the likelihood that they would pursue a postgraduate degree in physical science.

Less or Not Relevant 37 104 56 62 93 45 90 42 48 362

Unsure 79 144 115 102 121 63 128 44 79 23

More or Most Relevant 260 153 130 237 187 293 183 315 274 16

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Figure 6. Social science students’ understanding of employer needs.




A total of 34.4% of the students (n = 138) chose ‘less or not relevant’, 31.4% of students (n = 126) chose ‘unsure’ and 34.2% of these students (n = 137) chose ‘more or most relevant’ for the likelihood that they would pursue a postgraduate degree in basic social science.

For both cases, more students chose ‘unsure’ and ‘less or not relevant’, compared to those students who felt choosing a postgraduate degree in basic physical or social science was relevant to them.

Discussion

We conclude with an examination on the relevance between Bauman’s liquid modernity and Malaysian students’ perspectives in this section. The discrepancies observed will be also discussed in this section.

Table 2. Cross-tabulation of courses and communication skills.

Course Communication skills χ2 φ

Less preferred More preferred

Physical science

Count 120 162 48.419 0.266Expected count 79.7 282 % within communication 62.2% 41.3%

Social science

Count 73 401 Expected count 113.3 401 % within communication 37.8% 58.7%

Total Count 193 683 Expected count 193 683 % within communication 100% 100%

Table 3. Physical science students’ likelihood of pursuing a postgraduate degree in basic physical science.

Frequency Percentage (%)

More or most relevant (4 and 5) 107 37.9Unsure (3) 82 29.1Less or not relevant (1 and 2) 93 32.9Total 282 100.0

Table 4. Social science students’ likelihood of pursuing a postgraduate degree in social science.

Frequency Percentage (%)

More or Most relevant (4 and 5) 137 34.2Unsure (3) 126 31.4Less or Not relevant (1 and 2) 138 34.4Total 401 100



Kok and Ang 13

Liquid times and pragmatism

From the survey, we noted that both the physical science and the social science students cited ‘prospects’ and ‘career’ as strong determinants in their choice of degree pro-grammes. The findings also showed that the Malaysian students favoured pragmatic rea-sons when choosing university courses which they think would give them an advantage or edge in their future career. This is in line with previous research (Kok et al., 2011) findings. The trend of our youths wanting an education in Malaysia has increasingly emphasized market value instead of focusing on cultural formation or the search for truth as postulated by Bartell (2003). This also explains why arts courses like history and geography are no longer popular choices of study in the universities. In fact, in private universities, such arts courses are not even offered to students because they are perceived as having a low value in terms of career prospects and competitiveness in the job market.

Bauman (2007) noted that there would be an increased number of people who would develop competitiveness as a personality trait just to stay in the rat race and not flounder. This is perhaps the price that must be paid to stay afloat in our increasingly ‘liquid’ or turbulent world. Certainly, students these days choose university courses which they think will give them an advantage or edge in their future career. This is being pragmatic or realistic.

Students showed an inclination towards pragmatism not just for the question of ‘factors determining choice of degree programme’ but also for ‘skills preferred’ when pursuing a degree programme in universities. A total of 74% (n = 208 out of 282) of physical science students and 60% (n = 239 out of 401) of social science students chose applied skills as their preferred skills. In contrast, the R&D skills were ranked much lower (see Figures 3 and 4). Communication skills were voted significantly more by social science students compared to physical science students, 60% (n = 279 out of 401) for social science and 55% for physical science students (n = 156 out of 282). Perhaps the workplace for physical or natural science students would be in the labora-tory doing experiments and is therefore more tasked-focused as compared to those of social science graduates.

The scenario that both groups of students appreciated communication skills, and both groups also voted strongly for ‘skills preferred’ and ‘skills which employers would rank highly’ could be explained by the fact that applied skills, especially communication skills, are seen as transferable. The ability to speak and communicate, picked up at uni-versity, is going to be much more important than the mere learning and memorization of facts and knowledge acquired in the tertiary institutions. Moreover, this observation seems to validate Bloom’s Taxonomy about the need for educators to teach students to acquire application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation skills which could be transferable or applicable to their future workplace rather than just the pure memorization of facts and knowledge (Bloom et al., 1956). Along the same lines, Bauman (2007: 3) described the need for a ‘swift and thorough forgetting of outdated information and fast ageing habits’ to ensure the next success, which is not based on the ‘memorization of past moves and the building of strategies on a foundation laid by previous learning’.

The nature of modern jobs is no longer a life-long vocation or for the purpose of iden-tity establishment (Bauman, 2000). Bauman has observed that today’s employees can no




longer expect to work in the same job or even career for life if they want better salary and benefits from their employer. This also indicates why transferable skills are important.

Monopoly and consumerism

The production of knowledge with the help of ICT is incredible. Such technologies increase the production, dissemination and application of new knowledge and have actu-ally changed the ways in which knowledge is created and applied. A university is seen as a ‘knowledge factory’ (Aronowitz, 2000), but is not the only factory in this knowledge-based economy. With the invention of technologies, there seem to be many more facto-ries in the marketplace. Perhaps we need to further differentiate between ‘information’ and ‘codified knowledge’ that could be swiftly disseminated via ICTs. This is because the traditional role of universities focused on the furthering and transference of knowl-edge through ‘rigorous collision of mind with mind, and knowledge with knowledge’ (Newman, 1872: 16). In the absence of this function, the role of universities and/or the importance of pursuing fundamental knowledge would be undermined.

Students perceived that the unpopular skills for employers are in the areas of aca-demic theoretical knowledge and R&D. The findings of this study showed consistency with their preferred skills to be acquired in line with their perceptions of the needs of employers. This suggests that students’ choice of university degree programme will increasingly be dictated by the demands of employers. Students will aspire to acquire those skills demanded by employers. On the one hand, this is beneficial, as the link between education and industry is made. However, on the other hand, the emphasis on industry and economic considerations means that a university will no longer be able to decide what courses to offer in the future. There may be a danger that factors outside the academic realm, such as market forces, will become the sole determinant of the availabil-ity of courses offered in the universities. It will be market forces which lead the direction of education. Education will thus be viewed as a commodity in a consumerist society that can be exchanged for quick benefits.

Bauman (2007: 3) argued that knowledge is fast becoming outdated. From this line of argument, Malaysian students are wise to pursue transferable skills instead of knowledge acquisition. However, the reasons our students want to pursue pragmatic skills remain unclear. Being members of society in this liquid modernity phase, it is not so easy to have a sense of fulfilment as compared to living in a productive society. In a productive soci-ety a sense of achieving goals was achieved by productivity. However, in a liquid society, the goals seem ‘forever in sight while never reaching proximity’ (Bauman, 2010). Moreover, never reaching, and never satisfying were some of the experiences and/or values exhibited in a consumerist society, which Bauman described as ‘the value of embracing constant changes and focusing on manipulating of transience rather than durability’ (Bauman, 2000: 125–6).

Basheer Abass Al-Allak and his associates (2011) noted that ‘globalisation weakens the nation-state and global institutions … gradually take over the functions and power of the nation-state’. As a consequence, education has moved beyond countries and cultures. New concepts such as ‘internationalization’, ‘transnational’ or ‘cross-border instruc-tional opportunities’ (Kwiek, 2000) have provided Malaysian students with more



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opportunities but, at the same time, they face more competition too. Education has become an industry and/or a commodity in a consumerist society where economic growth and advancement is the highest goal for all countries. Therefore, in this market-driven and commercial society, the popularity of university degree programmes and the contents of our education curriculum will increasingly be shaped and dictated by market forces.

Paradoxes and discrepancies

This study showed that Malaysian university students are pragmatic in favouring pursu-ing applied skills over basic or theoretical knowledge. Bell (1973) postulated the picture of acquisition of integrated knowledge which emphasizes on ‘the centrality of theoretical knowledge over empiricism’ (1973: 20). He stresses the integration of theoretical knowl-edge, without which innovation and transfer of knowledge is impossible. This concept is supported by many social scientists (Leydesdorff, 2010; Tikhomirov et al., 2009).

In Malaysia, education is seen as a tool to drive the economy. This is one of the major thrusts of the Malaysian strategic plan (Malaysian Budget, 2010) to develop the country into a knowledge-based and innovative economy. How can the country become innova-tive if research is not an important factor for students when they choose their university degree programme? Moreover, it is not even a preferred skill. Perhaps there are many institutions of higher learning in Malaysia which do not emphasize research as they should be doing.

Nonetheless, most of the academics in Malaysia are struggling to balance the tasks of teaching and doing research. As a result, our university students are not inspired to do research or to acquire research skills. The limitation of this sample may be another rea-son why our Malaysian students seem not to be inspired to do research or to acquire research skills. For example, only a small proportion of the university students partici-pated in this survey.

However, this is still a worrying sign for the future of Malaysia, especially since the Malaysian government is so keen to rely on its people to realize the national plan (Malaysian Budget, 2010). Our studies showed that only a small number of graduates are motivated to choose physical/natural science or social science postgraduate courses. Most of them feel unsure about natural/physical science or social science courses and believe that they are less relevant to them.

Basic physical science and basic social science may face a crisis and be discontinued as postgraduate courses as well. Applied science is practical and useful. However, basic sci-ence knowledge can enhance the building of theoretical frameworks in young minds, hence resulting in the production of knowledge, especially research in the area of biomedical science. The contribution of scientific knowledge goes beyond training or clinical prac-tices. Therefore basic physical science such as physics, chemistry, biology or mathematics should not be neglected, as without it R&D advancement will not be possible. Likewise, basic social science courses like anthropology, history, sociology, etc. are essential for pro-ducing social knowledge and enhancing cultural development in our country.

If this trend persists, the preservation and furtherance of basic physical or natural science and social science knowledge may be jeopardized. Or Malaysia will forever




rely on other countries that emphasize the creation of knowledge and the invention of technologies.

There is no doubt that education will help to improve human capital, and thus it is believed that it will eventually lead to economic growth and national development. The link between participation in higher education and economic growth seems to have been established (Egger et al., 2005). However, Egger and his associates (2005) argue that this is not generally true. Growth models only started to consider education as an input to pro-duction in the 1960s (Chiam et al., 2011). Education does not actually guarantee growth or returns as it is just one of the variables in the complicated economic growth equation. In order to obtain returns on a form of educational investment, we have to make the assump-tion that the rest of the variables will remain constant. This is an illusion, according to Bauman, as everything remains fluid and constantly changing. It is in the political agenda that Malaysia’s Vision 2020 achieves a zero illiteracy rate and also utilizes higher educa-tion as a means to achieve economic growth. Alfred Marshall (2007) held that: ‘The most valuable of all capital is that invested in human beings’ (1920: 49), and it is believed that investment in education will pay off. Nonetheless, this is not supported by some growth models (Chiam et al., 2011). Perhaps this is then another illusion in this liquid modernity.

Finally, in the survey, students were found to have cited the media as ‘less relevant’ in influencing their choice of university degree programmes. This seems to go against our assumptions that the mass media would be an important tool for and/or influencer of deci-sions. Perhaps in Malaysia many citizens rely on individual and personalized knowledge as well as experience to make decisions about where to study and which degree pro-gramme to take up. Perhaps in Malaysia, due to the long history of government control of the press or the mainstream media, many citizens don’t trust it enough to tell the truth about issues (any issues) and, as such, they lack confidence in the information dissemi-nated. Nevertheless, it is also possible that students these days don’t read newspapers any longer. This could possibly also explain why the mass media were cited as ‘less relevant’ when it comes to making decisions about their choice of university degree programmes.

Conclusion

The market or the current economic-driven trend has implications for the education sys-tem and education sector. The Malaysian students, as represented by the participants in this study, demonstrated that there were more students who preferred applied knowledge and/or skills compared to academic or theoretical knowledge. There seems to be a lack of interest in choosing physical or natural science and basic social science subjects. This is a reflection of the actual scenario in the country. This trend will affect the future devel-opment of basic physical science and basic social science disciplines in Malaysia. Therefore, while acknowledging the characteristics of the economic-driven environment of our Malaysian education sector, we hope to have raised awareness about the discrep-ancies and paradoxes of this scenario.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr T.L. Yee who introduced Zygmunt Bauman to us; to Miss Andrea Chan who helped us with the data analysis; and UTAR Opinion Poll Research Committee for giving us per-mission to use the data collected.



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Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Author biographies

Jin Kuan Kok obtained her BA in Chinese Literature from the National Taiwan University, and her Masters in Education (Guidance and Counselling) as well as her PhD in Education from Durham University, England, UK. She also has a Masters in Divinity from China Evangelical Seminary.



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She is Assistant Professor at the Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR). She specializes in using a qualitative research methodology approach under the constructivist and interpretative mode, to research into areas of social science. Her areas of research include higher education in Malaysia, teenage sui-cide, depression narratives, among others.

Siew Mun Ang has degree in history, in which she obtained first class honours, from the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. She spent a year in Cambridge, UK in 1992–3 doing an MPhil in Sociology and Politics of Development. At present, she is Senior Lecturer at the Journalism Department, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR). Her research interests include crime issues, Malaysian culture and environmental sociology.



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