Language shift and endangerment in urban and rural East Africa: 3 case studies

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Language shi+ and endangerment in urban and rural East Africa: 3 case studies Maik Gibson Redcliffe College & SIL Interna9onal Bagamba Araali SIL Interna9onal

Transcript of Language shift and endangerment in urban and rural East Africa: 3 case studies

Language  shi+  and  endangerment  in  urban  and  rural  East  Africa:    

3  case  studies  

Maik  Gibson    Redcliffe  College  &  SIL  Interna9onal  

Bagamba  Araali  SIL  Interna9onal  

The  three  contexts  

Nairobi  (Gibson  2012)    ShiE  in  informal  urban  seHlements  compared  with  formally  seHled  areas.  

Bunia,  DRC  (Bagamba  &  Gibson)    Urban  shiE  among  one  of  the  larger  communi9es,  Badha-­‐speaking  Hema.    

Bhele  community  of  DRC  (Bagamba)      ShiE  in  a  small  rural  community.  

In  each  case  the  target  of  shiE  is  a  variety  of  Swahili  (not  an  ethnically-­‐marked  language  in  these  contexts).    

Nairobi:  a  mel9ng  pot  or  a  salad  bowl?  

African  ci9es  -­‐  sites  of  recently  developed  and  dynamic  language  ecologies.    

They  can  be  both  sites  of  language  shiE  and  language  maintenance,  with  Mufwene  sugges9ng  that  at  least  parts  may  be  seen  as  “mega-­‐villages”  (eg  2010:915),  with  a  mix  of  rural  and  urban  dynamics  –  a  salad  bowl.  

PaHerns  of  norma9ve  mul9lingualism  complicate  the  analysis  of  language  shiE  

 Nairobi  Suburbs,  dominant  language  at  home  (Gibson  2012)  

Note   that   figures   do   not   claim   to   be   representa9ve   of   wider  popula9on,  beyond  a  widespread  shiE  to  Swahili.    

“Mother Tongue” 3 7%

Swahili 37 80%

Swahili & English 2 4%

English 4 9%

Kibera,  dominant  language  at  home  

•  We  note  a  marked  difference  from  the  Northern  suburbs.    

•  Only  home  domain  shows  strong  MT  reten9on  

“Mother Tongue” 109 70%

Swahili & MT 18 12%

Swahili 28 18%

Intergenera9onal  Transmission  (Kibera)  

Child to Child

“Mother Tongue” 14 18% Swahili and MT 9 12% Swahili 54 70%

Parent to Child

“Mother Tongue” 11 31%

Swahili and MT 6 17%

Swahili 15 43%

English 3 9%

Language  use  by  age  of  arrival  in  Kibera  

0-9 10-19 20+

Luos 83% (n=12)

67% (n=12)

89% (n=18)

Other groups

29% (n=7)

77% (n=13)

71% (n=14)

Bunia  and  the  Bhele  (DRC)  

Bunia  

Bhele  

Source:  ethnologue.com  

Bunia  (Bagamba  &  Gibson)  

Ongoing  work  –  part  of  larger  project  Rapid  urbaniza9on  increased  by  civil  conflict  Metaphors  –      Mel9ng  pot  (shiE  to  LWC)      Salad  bowl  (widespread  maintenance)    Spice  pot?  (assimila9on  to  locally  dominant  vernacular)  

Focused  on  one  community  –  Northern  Hema,  speaking  Badha  (=Lendu  -­‐  not  originally  their  ethnic  language)  

Not  self  repor9ng,  but  assessment  of  abili9es  of  children,  along  with  interview  of  parents,  by  a  Badha  speaker.    

 Competence  of  Northern  Hema  children  in  Bunia  in  Badha  

5-­‐9  year  old(N=59)   10-­‐13  year  old  (N=51)  

14-­‐18  year  old  (N=37)  

63%  

27%  19%  

27%  

55%  

38%  

10%  18%  

43%  

Doesn't  understand  Badha  

Understands  but  does  not  speak  Badha  

Speaks  Badha  perfectly  

Children’s  Iden9ty  Percep9ons  

Inhabitant  of  Bunia   Northern  Hema  living  in  Bunia  

Northern  Hema  

74%  

7%  20%  

61%  

8%  

31%  

45%  

11%  

45%  

5-­‐9  year  old  (N=  61)   10-­‐13  year  old  (N=51)  

14-­‐18  year  old    (N=38)  

Parents’  language  use  paHerns,  Bunia  

Swahili   Badha   Swahili  and  Badha  

Other  combina9ons  

59%  

20%  17%  

4%  

59%  

21%   18%  

2%  

18%  

44%  

27%  

11%  

Father  to  children   Mother  to  children   Between  parents  

Other  studies    

Trends  similar  to  the  Northern  Hema  case  were  observed  among  the  Alur  in  Bunia  (Bagamba  and  Ucuon  2012)  –  another  large  community  in  the  town  

 Also  among  the  Tembo  people  in  Goma  (Bagamba  and  Masumbo  2013)  –  a  small  community  in  a  larger  city.    

Bhele  (Bagamba)  

Sample  taken  from  the  four  more  accessible  clans  (of  six),  in  rural  homeland.    

Group  oEen  present  selves  as  Nande  when  outside  homeland.    

Exogamy  of  around  40%  (half  with  Nande)  

ShiE  oEen  to  Nande-­‐Swahili  bilingualism  

Interviews  with  parents  showed  that  neither  Bhele  iden9ty  or  language  perceived  as  useful  

Bhele  children’s  competence  in  Bhele  

Doesn't  understand  

Understands  but  don't  speak  

Speaks  but  not  well  

Speaks  fluently  

25%  

35%  27%  

13%  9%  

14%   16%  

56%  

Aged  06-­‐13   Aged  14-­‐20  

A  Final  Ques9on  

We  raise  the  ques9on  of  whether  this  rural  shiE  to  Swahili  (a  language  which  is  not  perceived  as  belonging  to  one  par9cular  ethnic  group)  is  facilitated  by  its  widespread  use  in  urban  contexts.  As  such,  we  must  ask  the  broader  ques9on  of  how  the  dynamics  of  urban  language  ecologies  in  Africa  impact  those  in  the  countryside.      

References  

Gibson,  Maik  (2012)  “Language  shiE  in  Nairobi”.  In  MaHhias  Brenzinger  and  Anne-­‐Maria  Fehn  (eds.),  Proceedings  of  the  6th  World  Congress  of  African  Linguis'cs,  Cologne,  Germany,  17–21  August  2009.  569-­‐575.  Cologne:  Koeppe  Verlag.  

Mufwene,  Salikoko  (2010)  “The  role  of  mother-­‐tongue  schooling  in  eradica9ng  poverty:  A  response  to  Language  and  poverty”  Language  86:4.  910-­‐932.  

Ucoun,  Combe.  2012.  “Transmission  des  langues  maternelles  en  milieu  urbain  :  cas  de  Dhu-­‐Alur  à  Bunia”.  ISP-­‐Bunia,  unpublished  licence  disserta9on