Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist GroupGAJAH NUMBER 43

2015

GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group

Number 43 (2015)

The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by which members of the AsESG and others can communicate their experiences, ideas and perceptions freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can benefit. All articles published in Gajah reflect the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the AsESG. The copyright of each article remains with the author(s).

Editor

Dr. Jennifer PastoriniCentre for Conservation and Research

26/7 C2 Road, KodigahawewaJulpallama, Tissamaharama

Sri Lankae-mail: jenny@aim.uzh.ch

Editorial Board

Dr. Ahimsa Campos-ArceizSchool of GeographyUniversity of Nottingham Malaysia CampusJalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Kajang, SelangorMalaysiae-mail: ahimsa@camposarceiz.com

Heidi RiddleRiddles Elephant & Wildlife SanctuaryP.O. Box 715Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058USAe-mail: gajah@windstream.net

Dr. T. N. C. VidyaEvolutionary and Organismal Biology UnitJawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific ResearchBengaluru - 560064Indiae-mail: tncvidya@jncasr.ac.in

Dr. Prithiviraj FernandoCentre for Conservation and Research26/7 C2 Road, KodigahawewaJulpallama, TissamaharamaSri Lankae-mail: pruthu62@gmail.com

Dr. Alex RübelDirektor Zoo ZürichZürichbergstrasse 221 CH - 8044 ZürichSwitzerlande-mail: alex.ruebel@zoo.ch

GAJAH

Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist GroupNumber 43 (2015)

This publication was proudly funded by Wildlife Reserves Singapore

Editorial Note

Gajah will be published as both a hard copy and an on-line version accessible from the AsESG web site (www.asesg.org/gajah.htm). If you would like to be informed when a new issue comes out, please provide your e-mail address. If you need to have a hardcopy, please send a request with your name and postal address by e-mail to <jenny@aim.uzh.ch>.

Copyright Notice

Gajah is an open access journal distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unre-stricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, pro-vided the original author and source are credited.

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Cover

Adult male “Hura” being collared near the Hurulu EcoPark (Sri Lanka)

Photo by Jennifer Pastorini(See article on page 15)

Layout and formatting by Dr. Jennifer Pastorini

Printed at P & G Printers, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka

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Gajah 43 (2015) 1

Editorial

Jennifer Pastorini (Editor)

E-mail: jenny@aim.uzh.ch

This Gajah issue contains five research articles and one short communication. Half of the papers are from India and the other half from Sri Lanka. Even if the two countries are home to three quarters of free-ranging Asian elephants, it would be nice to have more papers from other range countries and also articles on captive Asian elephants world-wide in future issues of Gajah.

Two of the Indian papers in this issue deal with wild elephants. Ranjit Kumar Sahoo studied the distribution and population structure of elephants in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve in the Western Ghats. Based on people’s reports and tracking data, Mukti Roy and Raman Sukumar identified 59 corridors used by elephants in northern West Bengal. They present maps, location and habitats for the identified corridors in their paper. The third Indian paper is a historical one. K. G. Sheshadri summarizes a variety of ‘Basti’ therapies to treat elephants as described in a treatise by Sage Pālakāpya in the 5th or 6th century.

Two Sri Lankan papers are based on captive elephants. Rukmali Athurupana and co-authors present the results of a study on pinnae movement, finding that elephants are flapping their ears less often when it is cooler or more humid. Ashoka Dangolla describes traditional management practices for elephants kept in captivity. The third Sri Lankan paper is of a more technical nature, comparing the performance of elephant GPS tracking collars in the field. We have been asked for advise on choosing collars by so many people that it seemed to make sense to write about our experiences.

In the News and Briefs section we have three workshop reports. Chatchote Thitaram et al. inform us about a meeting held by a group of elephant experts and practitioners in Thailand to discuss living conditions of captive elephants

in Southeast Asia. They decided to form the “ASEAN Captive Elephant Working Group” and have further meetings on how to better manage captive elephants. Zaw Min Oo et al. report on a training workshop for mahouts and veterinary assistants held in Myanmar to improve management and health care of Myanmar’s huge captive elephant population. Nilanga Jayasinghe gives a summary of a WWF workshop held in Assam, India to exchange ideas and experiences on human-elephant conflict across WWF project areas.

Last but not least we are thrilled to have a note from the new Chair of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group (AsESG), informing us about his ideas on how to move forward with the AsESG.

We urgently need to update the mailing list for Gajah. We mailed the last issue to 67 addresses provided by the previous editor. I included a note asking the recipients to inform me if they received Gajah and wish to do so in the future. I only heard back from 18 people. Interestingly we also mailed Gajah to the authors and all of them received their copies. This makes me believe that the address list is outdated. From this issue on, we will not be posting hard copies of Gajah to those who did not respond to the notice sent with the last issue. Please provide me with your address if you wish to receive a hard copy of Gajah in the future.

I would like to thank all the authors for their valuable contributions to Gajah. I am grateful to the editorial team for their help with editing the papers and working with the authors to improve the standard of papers. This Gajah can be printed and mailed out to readers thanks to funding from Wildlife Reserves Singapore.

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Gajah 43 (2015) 2-3

Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group

Vivek Menon

Chair’s e-mail: vivek@wti.org.in

Dear members of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group

I am really honoured to take over as Chair of this key specialist group of the IUCN SSC. Every group has a different flavour in the varied ecosystem of SSC. Some of them have vast assemblages of fauna and flora to deal with, others deal with creatures found around the world and yet others are microscopically focussed. The Asian elephant is a single species specialist group but one that has an inordinate importance to policy and conservation management around the world. This, of course, is because of the mega charismatic flagship role that the elephant plays in the world today. It is thus an important role to be the custodians of such a key species that requires conservation across the 13 range states that it is found in.

I have been a long-term member of this group and in fact a longer-term member of the SSC through various other groups as well. This has given me, fortunately, a great ringside view of the challenges that it takes to bring such a diverse and talent-rich group together. I have also been fortunate in having been able to visit all the range states of the elephants during the three decades of my conservation work and in fact in seeing elephants in almost all of them. Now, in this new role I wish to call on all that experience of the past and embellish it with the rich experiences of all of you in order to guide the group moving forward. I have in my mind some guiding principles as I take on this onerous yet important role and I will be happy to share them with you in this issue of Gajah.

The first is regarding communication. Being primates, all of us yearn to communicate. Meet when possible, talk or discourse when meeting is not possible. I shall endeavour to get the long

pending meet of the whole group together in November 2016 in Assam in India organised. All of you will get a formal invitation for that once group membership gets finalised. I have also been fortunate to have two trips to Sri Lanka and the United Kingdom for other matters where I could meet many of the members based in those countries. These in country meetings shall also continue as I seek to meet and know all your needs and wishes to make this group a strong and vibrant one. We shall also seek to have online discourses using which methods people are happy to use. I personally prefer a variety of methods and not necessarily restricting ourselves to only one means of communication. I also think Gajah and the website need to be used more effectively to enhance such communication.

The second is regarding opening the group out to segments that are not adequately represented.

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The young are not adequately represented I feel, as also many geographies and also social sciences as a sector. A careful balance of the specialists in the group can yield it newfound energies and be able to be relevant in this fast changing world of ours. This can be adjusted as we go into the new quadrennium this autumn with a new membership roll.

The third is proactivity. While maintaining scientific rigor and not necessarily falling into the traps of advocacy all the time, one must as a group do things for the elephant. Being specialists who do not lead in policy, dialogue and positive action will be interpreted by many as impotence and I shall look to all of you to make it a vibrant and effective group. One must keep in mind of course that we are not an implementing agency and neither a public advocacy or campaign group, but our joint expertise must be available proactively for governments and civil society to lean upon when conserving elephants

The fourth is engaging upfront with the range states. This can be done by having range state representatives as ex officio members of the group, by having meetings of the group with range state reps and also by my calling on them whenever possible to understand their needs. The elephant is finally protected in all our countries by the range governments and a constant dialogue is key to ensure that those who are mandated to protect the species in our watch, do their jobs with the best technical advice that is available globally.

The fifth and final area of my concentration will be to raise resources to keep the group in an active state. This will include resources needed for a program manager who can really help coordination as also for meetings, workshops etc. While we must not overreach, it is key that more resources than have been available in the past must be made available as we move forward.

In all this, I look to both the Gajah and the website to be key tools of the group and I commit to writing more for both these instruments of the group. This message from the Chair will be a regular feature in Gajah and I hope all of you

would enjoy reading what I write. While talking of Gajah it will be remiss if I do not acknowledge Jenny who has done a wonderful job (alongside her husband Prithviraj Fernando) in bringing out this journal and the past one, ever since Jayantha Jayawardene has relinquished charge after many years of dedicated service to the group. I will also call on ALL members to contribute at least one piece to Gajah and also put all your news up on our website.

I was fortunate last month to visit Sri Lanka and see the wonderful elephants of the Yala National Park. Soon thereafter I was in Corbett watching an elephant that was attacked by a tiger die a natural death. Whether in an island setting, or in Himalayan foothills watching elephants is what gives me solace. I hope all of us in the membership will also enjoy elephants and while doing so also contribute to elephant conservation through this group.

Warm regards for the New Year

Vivek MenonChair AsESG, IUCN SSC

Keep the dates

Meeting of the IUCN SSCAsian Elephant Specialist Group

Assam, India

8. - 11. November 2016

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Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 4-9

Pinnae Movement of Captive Asian Elephants Weakly Affected by Environmental Factors

Rukmali Athurupana1*, Dennis Schmitt2,3 and Charles Santiapillai4

1Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 2 Ringling Bros. Center for Elephant Conservation, Polk City, Florida, USA 3 William H. Darr School of Agriculture, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri, USA4 Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka – Deceased October 2014*Corresponding author’s e-mail: rukmali_athurupana@yahoo.com

Abstract. Ear flapping is believed to be a behavioural mechanism to reduce heat in elephants. We examined the effects of temperature, humidity and body size on pinnae movement of elephants. Percentage of elephants flapping ears and individual ear flapping rate was determined every 10 minutes. Both factors were positively correlated with the ambient temperature and negatively correlated with relative humidity. Larger elephants flapped ears more frequently than smaller elephants.

Introduction

Heat dissipation is a concern for large terrestrial mammals living in tropical environments. Ele-phants have sparse body hair and no sweat glands, except for inter-digital sweat glands in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Thus, evaporative heat loss in elephants occurs by trans-epidermal water loss (Wright & Luck 1984; Lamps et al. 2001). The wrinkled skin of an elephant holds moisture and facilitates its movement on the body surface, which creates an evaporative cooling effect (Lillywhilte & Stein 1987).

Elephants use several behavioural mechanisms to reduce their heat load. They cover themselves with soil by dusting or wallowing, thereby absorbing less and reflecting more radiation, or dip in water to lose heat through conduction (Hiley 1975). It is believed that a large ear surface area and ear fanning is important for thermoregulation in elephants, under warm environmental conditions (Wright 1984). The constant motion of the pinnae expose the medial sides and corresponding vessels to air currents and increase heat loss from ears as well as from the fanned body surface (Wright 1984).

Infrared thermography has demonstrated that in elephants, pinnae act as thermal windows

(Weissenböck et al. 2010). Their ears are equipped with specialized motor control (Phillips & Heath 1992). Depending on ambient temperature, thermal windows regulate heat exchange via vasoconstriction and vasodilatation (Sumbera et al. 2007; Weissenböck et al. 2010). Temperature distribution across the ear changes with ambient temperature and heat loss is amplified by the movement of the pinnae (Phillips & Heath 1992).

The African elephant (Loxodonta africana), is the largest land mammal and has the largest thermoregulatory organ of any animal; the pinna or external ear, which it uses as a radiator-convector (Phillips & Heath 1992). The combined surface area of both sides of the ears of an African elephant is about 20% of its total surface area and the calculated heat loss from the ears is a significant proportion of the total heat lost (Buss & Estes 1971; Wright 1984). The pinnae of Asian elephants are approximately one third the size of African elephants (Carrington 1959). Therefore theoretically, heat loss from the pinnae in Asian elephants is one-third that of African elephants (Phillips & Heath 1992).

Weissenböck et al. (2010) reported the existence of thermal windows on the whole body surface indicating that the elephants’ skin has regional concentrations of vascular networks. Although

© 2015 The Authors - Open Access

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91% of the heat produced by an elephant can be dissipated via its pinnae (Phillips & Heath, 1992), heat transfer across the ears represented less than 8% of the total heat loss (Williams 1990). Myhrvold et al. (2012) revealed that elephant hair significantly enhances thermoregulation ability by over 5% under all scenarios considered and by up to 23% at low wind speeds where thermoregulation needs are greatest. However, Benedict (1936) claimed that a large animal such as the elephant has no need for special heat regulating mechanisms in its ears and if it did possess one, it would be a singular provision in nature. Hiley (1975) found that the temperature of the ear skin, especially the back of the ear where the prominent blood vessels are located, was cooler than that of the body during midday. Together with the fact that water loss from the ears was not significantly greater than that from the rest of the body, Hiley (1975) concluded that elephants do not use ears for cooling.

A number of studies have demonstrated the significance of ear flapping in African elephants (Buss & Estes 1971; Wright 1984; Phillips & Heath 1992). However few studies have been carried out on Asian elephants. The objectives of our study were to examine the effects of temperature, humidity and body size on ear flapping rate and the variation in ear flapping with time of day in captive Asian elephants.

Methods

The study was carried out at the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage (PEO), the Millennium Elephant Foundation (MEF) and the Elephant Safari (ES) in Sri Lanka.

PEO is located in a 10 ha coconut estate close to the Maha Oya River at Rambukkana, 80 km northeast of Colombo. It consists of a free ranging area for daytime activities and sheds to house elephants. During the study a total of 86 captive elephants of varying ages were housed at the PEO.

MEF and ES are located close to the PEO and keep elephants for providing tourist rides. Elephants are tethered under a tree canopy except

when giving rides or bathing. At night, elephants are tethered in a different location under a tree.

Observations for the study were based on 8 elephants at the PEO, 2 elephants at MEF and 2 elephants at ES (Table 1). Data were collected from February to September 2010.

Elephants at the PEO were allowed free movement during daytime. At night, adults were tethered in sheds, while calves were unfettered. The elephants were released at 8:00 h to move to an open area with little shade. Food was placed in the open yard and consisted mainly of foliage of coconut (Cocos nucifera), kithul (Caryota urens), jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus) bread-fruit (Artocapus nobilis), banyan (Ficus bengalensis) and bo (Ficus religiosa). Elephants were moved across the main road and down a path lined by trade stalls to the Maha Oya at 10:00 h. At the river, elephants were allowed to drink, bath and play. At noon, the herd returned to the yard. They remained there till taken to the river once again at 14:00 h. They were washed by the mahouts while in the river and taken back to the orphanage at 16:00 h and tethered in the sheds.

At MEF and ES, elephants were untied at about 8:00 h and bathed in a stream, which ran through the facilities. After that they were tethered in an exhibit area. The elephants were fed mainly with coconut, kithul and jack branches and food was provided intermittently throughout the day. The elephants were bathed several times a day in the

Table 1. Composition of elephants in the study. Site Elephant Sex AgePEO Kanaka M 6 months

Dinuda F 6 monthsWasamba M 10 yearsSurangi F 12 yearsSanka M 20 yearsSaama F 22 yearsMathali F 39 yearsAnusha F 64 years

MEF Pooja F 23 yearsLuxmi F 40 years

SF Manika F 38 yearsKumari F 50 years

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stream, with or without the presence of tourists. Elephants were taken back to their night quarters at about 17:00 h.

Each elephant was observed twice a month from 9:00 to 16:00 h and earflaps were counted for 3 minutes at every 10-minute interval for the entire period. The ear-flapping rate (EFR) was calculated as the average number of earflaps per minute over the 3-minute period. An ‘earflap’ was defined as the partial or full movement of pinnae, once forward and once back. Ambient temperature and relative humidity data were obtained using a digital weather station (Sensor Tech®, USA). No EFR counts were obtained while elephants were moving between the yard and the river at PEO or during tourist rides at MEF and ES.

Scan sampling (Altmann 1974) of the PEO herd (n = 66) was performed to count the number of elephants flapping ears at 10 minute intervals from 9:00 to 16:00 h twice a month. Daytime variations were determined by plotting the average number of elephants flapping ears at a particular time of the day with temperature and relative humidity.

Eight elephants at PEO were observed to examine the effect of body size on EFR. Data were collected from elephants representing three body sizes; juveniles (n = 2), sub-adults (n = 2) and adults (n = 4). Earflaps were counted when the elephants were in the herd.

All data analyses were performed with MINI-TAB 15 (Minitab Inc. PA, USA). Effect of

temperature and humidity on EFR was analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation. Effect of body size on ear flapping rate was evaluated using ANOVA followed by the Tukey’s multiple range test. All statistical analyses were carried out with an α level of P < 0.05 as the significant level.

Results

Ear-flapping rate (EFR)

The mean EFR of studied elephants was 8.19 ± 0.19 and EFRs of individual elephants ranged from 1.97 ± 0.18 to 15.79 ± 0.62 during the study period. EFR was positively correlated with the ambient temperature (r = 0.30, P < 0.05, df = 1810, Fig. 1) and negatively correlated with relative humidity (r = -0.36, P < 0.05, df = 1810, Fig. 2).

Percentage of elephants flapping ears (PEFE)

A positive correlation was observed between PEFE and ambient temperature (r = 0.18, P < 0.05, df = 251, Fig. 3) while a negative correlation was observed with relative humidity (r = -0.33, P < 0.05, df = 251, Fig. 4). Two peaks in PEFE were observed at 10:20 h and 14:20 h (Figs. 5 & 6). PEFE decreased from 12:00 to 14:00 h when ambient temperature reached a peak and the mean relative humidity was 69 - 70%. PEFE was 6 - 9% during the hottest part of the day, when many elephants were observed to stand still with their ears spread. PEFE was less than 10% before 10:00 h and after 15:30 h.

Figure 1. The effect of ambient temperature on individual EFR.

Figure 2. The effect of relative humidity on individual EFR.

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Figure 6. Variation in PEFE with relative humidity.

Figure 3. The effect of ambient temperature on PEFE.

The highest EFR and the PEFE were recorded at 30 - 31ºC and a relative humidity of 59 - 61%. Temperature ranged from 24 - 35ºC while relative humidity ranged from 56 - 76% during the study period.

Effect of body size

EFR was significantly different among large, medium and small elephants (Pa,b,c < 0.05, F = 164.78, df = 779). EFR was highest (10.7 ± 0.5a) in large elephants while it was lowest (1.6 ± 0.1b) in small elephants. EFR of medium sized elephants was 5.4 ± 0.3c.

Other observations

Some elephants had unique patterns of ear flapping. Elephant MEF-1 flapped 4 times followed by an interval, whereas it was 2 - 3 flaps in elephants MEF-2 and MEF-3. On the

other hand, elephant PEO-1 flapped 10 - 15 times continuously at a particular bout.

EFR of some elephants increased with approach of their preferred social partners. Elephant PEO-1 flapped ears more when elephant PEO-2 moved towards her. Elephant ES-1 flapped her ears considerably faster when she saw her mahout in the morning. She displayed this behaviour every morning, accompanied by voiding of urine. Ear spreading followed by rapid flapping was observed in elephants at the PEO when they were excited or alert. Higher EFR were also observed after a safari ride in ES and MEF elephants and before and after a fight or arriving at the river in PEO elephants. Ear flapping gradually decreased with most of the elephants moving to shade a few minutes after they reached the river. However, there was no increase in PEFE after they walked back to the yard at 12:20 h, in which they exert more, as they have to walk uphill.

Figure 4. The effect of relative humidity on PEFE.

Figure 5. Variation in PEFE with ambient temperature. Elephants are in the river twice a day from 10:00 – 12:00 h and 14:00 - 16:00 h.

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Discussion

Our results indicate that EFR and the PEFE were weakly associated with ambient temperature and relative humidity and strongly influenced by body size. PEFE decreased when the temperature was highest. Our findings are in contrast to some other studies in which strong relationships of EFR with ambient temperature were observed in wild African elephants (Buss & Estes 1971; r = 0.85) and captive Asian elephants (Vanitha & Baskaran 2010; r = 0.59).

The highest EFR was not associated with the highest temperature. Similarly, Buss & Estes (1971) observed that the three highest EFRs in their study occurred between 30 - 31ºC whereas the highest temperature recorded was 34.4ºC. Non-correspondence of highest temperature with highest EFR suggests that there may be an optimum temperature for efficient cooling by ear flapping of elephants. Consequently EFR and environmental factors may have a complex rather than a simple linear relationship.

A fall in the ear flapping percentage of the group was observed during the hottest periods of the day. Although wind velocity was not measured in our study, elephants standing still with the ears spread rather than flapping, during this part of the day suggests that they could be taking the advantage of wind to facilitate cooling. After the second peak at 14:20 h, percentage occurrence of ear flapping decreased as the temperature declined. A possible reason could be that elephants dissipate heat through non-evaporative heat loss at low temperatures and evaporative heat loss at high temperatures (>31ºC). Kuhme (1963) also reported that captive African elephants hardly flapped their ears in the morning when it was cold. Benedict (1936) estimated that 20% of the metabolic heat was lost by evaporation divided equally between respiratory tract and body surface under experimental conditions.

Even though elephants walk around the yard at a normal pace, they moved faster when they walk down to river. The increase in EFR after arriving at the river is probably due to excitement or muscular work, similar to safari elephants that

had raised EFRs after a safari ride. Similarly, Benedict (1936) reported that ear temperature and ear flapping rate increased after a muscular work. However, it was not the case for the elephants at the PEO as there was no such increase in PEFE after walking back to the yard probably because they were well cooled off in the river.

Moving to a shady area was seen in PEO elephants when they were in the river, which may enhance heat dissipation by increasing the temperature gradient between the elephant’s body and the environment. Besides, conduction through legs and drinking of water may assist them to lower the core body temperature when they are in the water. Similarly, Buss & Estes (1971) observed decreased rates of ear flapping when elephants were in the shade.

We observed that larger elephants flapped ears more frequently than smaller elephants. Larger size results in a smaller surface to volume ratio and hence a relatively smaller surface area for heat transfer (Williams 1990). Therefore, lager animals have a greater potential for heat retention and larger elephants can be expected to exhibit higher EFR to increase non-evaporative heat loss. Smaller elephants can be expected to lose more heat through evaporative heat loss and require less convective heat loss. Higher evaporative heat loss in young elephants compared to adults has been reported previously (Kumudinie et al. 2012; Kulasooriya et al. 2014).

Our observations also suggest that elephants may vary in pattern and timing of ear flapping reflecting individuality. Kuhme (1963) reported that the presence of a wild African female made a bull elephant increase his flapping rate and that the position of the ear is a signal to social partners. He further reported that superiority of the α male was demonstrated by flapping ears strongly. Likewise, Benedict (1936) stated that, changes in ear temperature and flapping were caused by nervousness, fright or apprehension. Our observations are compatible with EFR being influenced by communication, individual preferences, social environment and emotional state, in addition to environmental factors.

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Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank Ringling Bros. Center for Elephant Conservation for funding this project. We express our gratitude to management and all the staff members at Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage, Millennium elephant foundation and Elephants Safari in Sri Lanka for cooperation rendered during the study. We convey our appreciation to all the other colleagues who have helped us in various ways.

References

Altmann J (1974) Observational study of behavior: Sampling methods. Behavior 49: 227-266.

Benedict FG (1936) The Physiology of the Elephant. Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Buss IO & Estes JA (1971) The functional significance of movements and positions of the pinnae of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Jornal of Mammaogyl 52: 21-27.

Carrington R (1959) Elephants: A Short Account of Their Natural History, Evolution, and Influence on Mankind. Basic Books, New York.

Hiley PG (1975) How the elephant keep its cool. Natural History 84 (10): 34-41.

Kuhme W (1963) Ethology of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook 4: 113–121.

Kulasooriya GDBN, Abeygunawardene I, Rajarathne AAJ, Perera BV& Ariyarathne HBS (2014) Evaporative heat loss from the skin of captive Asian elephant calves (Elephas maximus maximus). Proceedings of the Peradeniya University International Research Sessions, Sri Lanka 18: 321.

Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A, Rajaratne & AAJ (2012) Mechanisms of thermoregulation in Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus maximus). Abstract Book, 25th

Anniversary of the Physiological Society of Sri Lanka (PSSL). p 38.

Lamps LW, Smoller BR, Rasmussen LEL, Slade BE, Fritsch G & Goodwin TE (2001) Characterization of interdigital glands in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Research in Veterinary Science 71: 197-200.

Lillywhite HB & Stein BR (1987) Surface sculpturing and water retention of elephant skin. Journal of Zoology 211: 727-734.

Myhrvold CL, Stone HA & Bou-Zeid E (2012) What is the use of elephant hair? PLoS ONE 7: e47018.

Phillips PK & Heath JE (1992) Heat exchange by the pinna of the African elephant (Loxodonta Africana). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 101: 693-699.

Sumbera R, Zelova J, Kunc P, KnizkovaI & Burda H (2007) Patterns of surface temperatures in two mole-rats (Bathyergidae) with different social systems as revealed by IR-thermography. Physiology and Behavior 92: 526-532.

Vanitha V & Baskaran N (2010) Seasonal and roofing material influence on the thermoregulation by captive Asian elephants and its implications for captive elephant welfare. Gajah 33: 35-40.

Weissenböck NM, Weiss CM, Schwammer HM & Kratochvil H (2010) Thermal windows on the body surface of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) studied by infrared thermography. Journal of Thermal Biology 35: 182-188.

Williams TM (1990) Heat transfer in elephants: Thermal partitioning based on skin temperature profiles. Journal of Zoology 222: 235-245.

Wright PG (1984) Why do elephants flap their ears? South African Journal of Zoology 19: 266-269.

Wright PG & Luck CP (1984) Do elephants need to sweat? South African Journal of Zoology 19: 270-274.

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Introduction

India holds 50-60% of free ranging Asian elephants (Vidya et al. 2005; Riddle et al. 2010), with four distinct populations in north-east, central, north-west and southern India (Sukumar 1986, 2003; Sukumar & Santiapillai 1996; Bist 2002). South India harbours approximately 22% of the global Asian elephant population (Vidya et al. 2005). This southern population can be divided into North Kanara, Brahmagiri–Nilgiri–Eastern Ghats, Anamalais–Nelliampathi–High Range and Periyar–Agasthyamalai subpopulations (Baskaran 2013). North Kanara in Karnataka represents the northernmost distribution of the southern population.

The North Kanara subpopulation consists of a few elephant herds scattered at low density, numbering perhaps less than 100 (Prasad et al. 1979; Sukumar 1986; Vidya et al. 2005; Baskaran 2013). The major part of this subpopulation is known to reside in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve (Baskaran 2013). It is believed that this subpopulation was connected to the Mysore subpopulation, which is part of Brahmagiri-Nilgiri-Eastern Ghats (Nair & Gadgil 1980). The two subpopulations were also found to

share the same mitochondrial haplotype (Vidya et al. 2005). Habitat loss and fragmentation in their traditional migratory routes confined the elephants to North Kanara making them vulnerable (Sarma & Easa 2006; Riddle et al. 2010). Since 1999, they have been extending their range towards Belgaum, Maharashtra and Goa (Sarma & Easa 2006; Kulkarni et al. 2008; Baskaran 2013). Information on the distribution, habitat conditions, size and structure of this population is required for conservation planning (Sukumar & Easa 2006; Baskaran 2013). This study provides preliminary information on the population structure of elephants and their distribution in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve.

Methods

Study area

The Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve (recently renamed as the Kali Tiger Reserve through a gazette notification dated 11th December 2015) is located in the North Kanara district of Karnataka State between 14º 57’ – 15º 9’ N and 74º 15’ – 74º 43’ E and is part of the biologically rich Western Ghats. It is composed of two contiguous protected areas, the Dandeli Wildlife

Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 10-14

Population Structure and Distribution of Asian Elephants in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve, India

Ranjit Kumar Sahoo

School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, CET Campus, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, IndiaDepartment of Ecology and Environmental Science, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, IndiaAuthor’s e-mail: sahoork@iisertvm.ac.in

Abstract. The northern-most population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the Western Ghats resides in the North Kanara district of Karnataka state. I conducted a study on the major part of this elephant population which occurs in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve, assessing their distribution, numbers and population structure, based on secondary information and field surveys. Elephant presence was confirmed in the Kulgi, Phansoli and Gund ranges of the Reserve. A total of 23 individual elephants were identified, providing a minimum estimate. The identified individuals consisted of 39.1% adults, 26.1% sub-adults, 30.4% juveniles and 4.4% calves. The sex ratio showed a gradual skew towards females from juvenile to adult.

© 2015 The Author - Open Access

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Sanctuary and the Anshi National Park (Fig. 1). The reserve is spread over an area of 1074 km2 and consists of five forest ranges (Kulgi, Phansoli, Gund, Anshi and Kumbarwada). Temperature varies from 16ºC to 36ºC with the coldest temperatures during January and highest in April-May. Rainfall occurs mainly from the South West monsoon (June to September) and varies from 1250 mm in the eastern part to 4000 mm in the west. Corresponding to the rainfall gradient, moist deciduous forest in the east transits to semi-evergreen forest in the west. Major vegetation types in the area include South Indian Moist Deciduous Teak Forest, Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest and West Coastal Semi-evergreen Forest with Bamboo and riparian stands (Champion & Seth 1968). River Kali and river Kaneri are two major perennial natural sources of water in the reserve along with several undulating streams and springs flowing inside the reserve.

Elephant distribution

Information about elephant presence was obtained from the Forest Department staff and villagers, which indicated that elephants were absent from the Anshi and Kumbarwada Forest Ranges and the southern and western part of Gund Range.

Based on this information, a field survey was conducted in the Kulgi and Phansoli Ranges and part of Gund Range. In the field survey, existing paths or trails in forest areas were traversed on foot, at an average of 3-4 km per day. The trail survey was carried out from 6:00–9:00 h and 16:00–18:00 h. The total distance covered was 48 km. Fieldwork for data collection was carried out from February to April 2011.

GPS points were taken for each sighting of elephants and elephant sign such as dung, footprints, feeding signs, mud marks on tree trunks, and places of mud bathing. The number of dung piles clustered together was also noted. Secondary information about elephant encounters was collected from local villagers and GPS points of the locations were taken.

A map of elephant distribution was generated from location data using ArcGIS version 9.2.

To evaluate the pattern of elephant distribution in different ranges, dung encounter rates (number of dung piles/km surveyed) were used as an index of relative abundance (Sundaram et al. 2003). Encounter rates were categorized as high (>4 dung piles/km), medium (1-4 dung piles/km) or low (<1 dung pile/km).

Figure 1. Map of the study area, Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve. Source: Asian Na-ture Conservation Foundation, Banga-lore, India.

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Individual identification and age-sex structure

In areas with low elephant densities, methods such as line transects with direct sightings or dung counts are ineffective in population size estimation and instead, individual identification is preferred (Varma et al. 2008). Hence, all elephants encountered were photographed and individually identified based on morphological features (Vidya et al. 2014) and their body condition scored (Fernando et al. 2009). Photo-graphs were taken using a Canon D1000 digital camera with a Sigma DG 70-300 mm lens.

At each sighting of elephants, group size and sex of individuals were recorded. Photographs of the lateral view were taken so that the foot and shoulder were clearly visible. Any trees close to the elephants that could be used for height reference were noted and measured after the elephant moved away or a calibrated vertical pole was held by an assistant at the exact spot where the elephant was and a picture taken to estimate the shoulder height (Arivazhagan & Sukumar 2008). Ages of individuals were calculated from their shoulder height following Sukumar et al. (1988) and were categorised into calf (<1 year old), juvenile (1-5 years old), sub-adult (5-15 years old) and adult (>15 years old) classes (Arivazhagan & Sukumar 2008). Individuals with tusks were identified as male and those without tusks or with tushes were considered females. Wherever possible, the appearance of external genitalia was used to confirm sex. For calves and juveniles, when sex differentiation was not possible, 50% were assigned to each sex.

Results and discussion

Elephant distribution

All sightings of elephants were in Kulgi Range around Bommanahalli reservoir except for three elephants sighted once at night in crop fields in the Phansoli Range. Elephant sign was found in the sampled forest areas of Kulgi and Phansoli Ranges while in the Gund Range elephant sign was restricted to the Kaneri river basin. Thus, the presence of elephants in the Kulgi, Phansoli and Gund ranges of the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve

indicated by the secondary information was confirmed by the field survey.

A high density of elephant sign was found around the Bommanahalli Reservoir in Kulgi range (Fig. 2). This may have been due to greater detection in the dry open habitat and frequent crossing of roads by elephants moving to and fro from the reservoir, as the surveyed trails were within 5 km of the reservoir.

Dung encounter rates (Table 1) were high in Kulgi Range which has dry deciduous habitat with flatter terrain, medium in Phansoli and low in Gund Ranges which have moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forest patches with undulating terrain. Dung piles were more commonly found in clusters and contained boli of various sizes, suggesting the presence of larger groups (>5) in Kulgi and smaller groups (<4) in Phansoli and Gund Ranges.

Elephant numbers

Elephants were encountered 8 times and the number of elephants sighted was 57. Of these, 31 were individually identifiable from photographs, which found 23 individuals and 8 re-sightings. Thus, the minimum population size estimate for the reserve is 23, although it is likely to be an underestimate. Therefore, the total number of elephants in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve is likely to be at the upper end of the 15-50 estimated by Forest Department census or greater.

Age-sex structure

Analysis of the age structure of identified individuals found 9 adults, 6 sub-adults, 7

Table 1. Relative abundance of elephants drawn from ground survey in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve.# Range Distance

walked#

SignsEncounter

rate*1 Kulgi 16 km 69 4.3 ± 3.32 Phansoli 22 km 31 1.4 ± 0.63 Gund 10 km 8 0.8 ± 0.7

*dung piles/km ± standard deviation

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Figure 2. Map showing the distribution of elephants drawn from direct sighting, indirect signs and secondary information in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve. Source: Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Bangalore, India.

juveniles and 1 calf. The assessed population structure showed a lower proportion of sub-adults (26%) compared to juveniles (30%). As the sub-adult segment represents a wider age range (10 years) than the juvenile segment (4 years), the number of sub-adults is expected to be higher than juveniles in any population (Sukumar 2003). The discrepancy observed could be due to misclassification or small sample size in the present study, non-correspondence of the size and age classes, or a real decline in sub-adult category or increase in the juvenile category.

The male : female ratio showed a gradual skew towards females from juvenile (1 : 0.8) to sub-adult (1 : 2) and adult (1 : 8). Such female biased sex ratios have also been reported from Mudumalai and Bandipur National Parks (Varma 2000). In a polygynous species like elephants, moderately female-biased sex ratios do not affect population growth (Sukumar 2003).

Acknowledgements

I thank Prachi Mehta for generous support throughout this study and for comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. I acknowledge Raman Sukumar for kind permission to work with the staff at the Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Bangalore. I am grateful for guidance on data analysis provided by Nagaraj Baskaran who also made the GIS map available for this work. I wish to thank the Karnataka Forest Department for providing field permit and support; and Surendra Varma and Somaiah Sundarapandian for informative discussions. This work was partially supported by Wildlife Research and Conservation Society, Pune, as part of “Long term elephant-human conflict mitigation” project funded by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund – Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (CEPF-ATREE).

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References

Arivazhagan C & Sukumar R (2008) Constructing age structures of Asian elephant populations: A comparison of two field methods of age estimation. Gajah 29: 11-16.

Baskaran N (2013) An overview of Asian elephants in the Western Ghats, Southern India: implications for the conservation of Western Ghats ecology. Journal of Threatened Taxa 5(14): 4854-4870.

Bist SS (2002) An overview of elephant con-servation in India. Indian Forester 128: 121-136.

Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Delhi.

Fernando P, Janaka HK, Ekanayaka SKK, Nishantha HG & Pastorini J (2009) A simple method for assessing elephant body condition. Gajah 31: 29-31.

Kulkarni J, Mehta P & Hiremath U (2008) Man-elephant Conflict in Sindhudurg and Kolhapur District of Maharashtra, India; Case Study of a State Coming to Terms with Presence of Wild Elephants. Final Report, Envirosearch, Pune.

Nair PVK & Gadgil M (1980) The status and distribution of elephant populations of Karnataka Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 75 (Suppl.): 1000-1016.

Prasad SN, Nair PVK, Sharatchandra HC & Gadgil M (1979) On factors governing the distribution of wild mammals in Karnataka. J. of Bombay Natural History Society 75: 718-743.

Riddle HS, Schulte BA, Desai AA & Meer LV (2010) Elephants: A conservation overview. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2: 653-661.

Sarma UK & Easa PS (2006) Living with Giants: Understanding Human-elephant Conflict in Maharashtra and Adjoining Areas. An occasional report on a wild species project under the human-elephant conflict, Wildlife Trust of India, India.

Sukumar R (1986) The elephant populations of India: Strategies for conservation. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal Sciences/Plant Sciences) Suppl. 59-71.

Sukumar R (2003) The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Cons-ervation. Oxford University Press, New York.

Sukumar R & Easa PS (2006) Elephant conservation in South India: Issues and recommendations. Gajah 25: 71-86.

Sukumar R, Joshi NV & Krishnamurthy V (1988) Growth in Asian elephant. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal Science) 97: 561-571.

Sukumar R & Santiapillai C (1996) Elephas maximus: Status and distribution. In: The Proboscidea: Evolution and Palaeoecology of Elephants and their Relatives. Shoshani J & Tassy P (eds) Oxford University Press, New York. pp 327-331.

Sundaram B, Varma S, Venkataraman A & Sukumar R (2003) The Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): Its habitat, status and distribution in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Gajah 22: 43-49.

Varma S (2000) Report at Asian Elephant Research and Conservation Centre. c/o Centre for Ecological Science, Bangalore, India.

Varma S, Dang NX, Thanh TV & Sukumar R (2008) The elephants (Elephas maximus) of Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam: Status and conservation of a vanishing population. Oryx 42: 92-99.

Vidya TNC, Fernando P, Melnick DJ & Suku-mar R (2005) Population differentiation within and among Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations in southern India. Heredity 94: 71-80.

Vidya TNC, Prasad D & Ghosh A (2014) Individual identification in Asian elephants. Gajah 40: 3-17.

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Introduction

Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are ‘forest-animals’ mostly occupying poor visibility habitats. They have large home ranges and can move long distances rapidly (Fernando et al. 2008, 2012). Due to ubiquitous conflict with people, most Asian elephants are behaviourally adapted to avoid humans (Fernando et al. 2008). Consequently, unlike African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana), Asian elephants are difficult to study by direct observation. Over the last decade, human-elephant conflict has escalated across the range (e.g. Baskaran et al. 2011; Fernando & Pastorini 2011; Saaban et al. 2011). Thus, management interventions are becoming essential for conserving elephants and mitigating human-elephant conflict across Asia.

GPS collars are an invaluable tool to study elephant behaviour and obtain information for their management (Campos-Arceiz 2008; Fernando et al. 2010, 2012; Alfred et al. 2012; Pastorini et al. 2013). Being of comparatively recent origin, studies using elephant GPS collars have been faced with various issues related to functional and physical failure of collars (Pinter-Wollman 2009; A. Campos-Arceiz, N. Othman, pers. comm.). Currently a number of products

Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 15-25

Elephant GPS Tracking Collars: Is There a Best?

Jennifer Pastorini1,2*, Tharaka Prasad3, Peter Leimgruber4, Karin Isler2 and Prithiviraj Fernando1

1Centre for Conservation and Research, Tissamaharama, Sri Lanka2Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland3Department of Wildlife Conservation, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka4Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Inst., Front Royal, USA*Corresponding author’s e-mail: jenny@aim.uzh.ch

Abstract. GPS tracking collars are an extremely useful tool in research, conservation and management of endangered Asian elephants. We provide an assessment of six GPS elephant tracking collar models from four manufacturers, based on field experience of collaring 51 elephants in Sri Lanka. Variations were observed among collars in the configuration and materials used, ability to obtain and transmit GPS locations, longevity, reliability and cost. There was no clear ‘winner’, the best choice depending on the type of study, area of use, financial and logistic constraints, importance of data quality vs. quantity and desired lifetime of the collar.

are on offer from different manufacturers and knowledge of the relative strengths and weaknesses of different collars are an important consideration in starting a collaring program.

Since 2004 we have monitored 51 elephants using 41 GPS-satellite collars. Here we describe and compare performance of different models of elephant collars from several manufacturers and suggest features that would be of advantage in general and in terms of particular field situations and logistic considerations.

Methods

We used 41 collars from four manufacturers including two models each from two manufacturers hereafter referred to as “old” and “new” (Table 1).

Collaring was done as a collaborative project between the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Centre for Conservation and Research to obtain baseline information and to increase effectiveness of elephant conservation and human-elephant conflict mitigation in Sri Lanka.

Six collared elephants died during the study period, five due to human-elephant conflict.

© 2015 The Authors - Open Access

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One was a crop-raiding male who was shot by a farmer. Four were translocated males (see Fernando et al. 2012). One female got killed in a train accident. Five of the six collars were re-used. Most (N=31) collars were programmed to collect a GPS location every 4 hours. Four collars gathered locations 8-hourly (one old Telonics, two new Telonics and one AWT) and three collars (New Vectronic) hourly. One collar had a mixed schedule of 1 and 4 hours and three collars had 4 and 8 hourly schedules as they were reprogrammed on a different schedule when they were re-deployed.

Results

Collar design

All collars consisted of a GPS unit, VHF transmitter, batteries and satellite or GSM transmitter for data download, packaged into one integrated sealed unit. Sky orientation of the functional unit for satellite detection was achieved by a counterweight (Fig. 1). All collars had to be mounted on the elephant so that the functional unit and the counter weight were at opposite poles. To facilitate this, we numbered the corresponding sets of perforations on the sides of the collar on both inside and outside surfaces of the belting. The Africa Wildlife Tracking (AWT) collar came with numbered perforations. Collar size (length of belting) could be specified at ordering for all collars.

Old and new Telonics collars came in two segments with a 90 cm length of belting incor-porating the functional unit and a longer belt incorporating the counter weight (Fig. 1A). The two pieces were bolted together with 5x5 cm metal plates and four 10 mm bolts at collaring.

A series of perforations in the long belt segment allowed the collar size to be adjusted.

The old and new Vectronic, Follwit and AWT collars had the functional unit fixed to a single piece of belt to which the counter weight was attached directly with two or four 13 mm bolts and metal plates at collaring (Fig. 1B). Multiple perforations in the belting allowed changing the collar length in Vectronic and AWT collars. Followit collars had only a single set of perforations hence a fixed collar length. As it was not possible to estimate the required collar length with certainty before collaring, we made additional sets of perforations prior to collaring.

Belting

Old Vectronic collars used a rubberized canvas belting and the new Vectronic collars a similar belting that was thicker. Old Telonics collar belts were made of a woven nylon strap encased in a proprietary plastic sleeve and the new Telonics collars used belting composed of a wide nylon-mesh embedded in a plastic material. Followit collars used multi-layered canvas belting and AWT collars PVC belting.

In the old Telonics collars, sometimes the plastic sleeve became separated from the nylon strap after deployment and the collar filled with mud, substantially increasing the collar weight (Fig. 1C). The new Telonics belting overcame this problem, but made the top piece stiffer. As a result, it did not sit on top of the neck of females but slid to a side (Fig. 1D). This was not an issue with big males as the neck was very broad and the functional unit sat on top. Using the old belting for the top part and the new belting for the bottom solved the problem.

Table 1. Collars used in the study.Manufacturer Country Year of use N CodeTelonics, Inc. USA 2004 10 Telonics old

2009 15 Telonics newVectronic Aerospace GmbH Germany 2006 3 Vectronic old

2009 8 Vectronic newFollowit Lindesberg AB Sweden 2009 4 FollowitAfrica Wildlife Tracking South Africa 2009 1 AWT

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Collar function

All collars with the exception of AWT were shipped by the manufacturer in the deactivated mode and were switched on by removing an external magnet. Collars were activated a few days prior to collaring. Telonics collars used variations in the VHF ‘beep’ to indicate success of collar activation while Followit collars used a flashing LED. AWT collars were shipped in activated mode from the manufacturer.

Followit, Vectronic and Telonics collars came programmed by the manufacturer but were re-programmable by user prior to deployment by connecting to a computer. Vectronic collars were also re-programmable while deployed, via SMS communication with the collar. AWT collars were pre-programmed by the manufacturer and the schedule could not be changed anymore.

Telonics collars uploaded data through an Argos satellite system <http://www.noaasis.noaa.gov/ARGOS/>. The upload window had to be specified at the time of collar ordering based on the geographic location of deployment as a polar orbiting satellite was used. Vectronic collars used either a Global System for Mobile Communi-cation (GSM) or the Iridium satellite network for data upload and download. For Vectronic GSM collars, a SIM card from a local provider was purchased and sent to the manufacturer and installed in the collar. Followit collars used an international GSM provider. AWT collars <http://www.awt.co.za> utilized asset-tracking hardware re-packaged as a wildlife collar.

GPS positions from Followit collars were listed in a text file, which was received via e-mail. In AWT collars an Excel sheet with the GPS positions was downloaded from the manufacturer’s website.

Figure 1. Elephant tracking collar configurations. (A) The two segments of a Telonics collar. (B) Single piece Vectronic collar with directly bolted counter weight at the bottom (AWT and Followit have a similar design). (C) Old Telonics collar belt filled with mud. (D) New Telonics collar slid to the side of the neck of a female.

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Old Vectronic collars sent the data via SMS, downloaded to the user’s computer through an attached base station. New Vectronic collars offered the options of downloading through a base station as well as receiving a data file via e-mail. Data from Telonics collars was accessed through the Argos website as a downloadable file. Data was kept on the ARGOS server for 10 days only. Vectronic and Telonics data files had to be processed with the manufacturer’s software to obtain the actual GPS locations.

Prior to collaring we stencilled a message with a local phone number on the counter weight of each collar, so the finders of fallen collars would be able to contact us. Most collars that dropped off were recovered through this method.

Vectronic, Telonics and Followit collars stored all collected data on-board. If recovered after deployment, the data could be downloaded by connecting the collar to a computer and using a software. Vectronic and Telonics collars required a functional collar battery for direct download but Followit collars could be downloaded even if the battery was dead. For a fee, Vectronic and Telonics collars with dead batteries could be sent to the manufacturer for recovery of data stored onboard. AWT collars did not store data.

Collar cost

Table 2 summarizes collar prices. The prices include shipping to Sri Lanka from the country of manufacture but exclude customs duty (in Sri Lanka, up to 30% of the collar cost). Satellite and GSM providers charged a monthly rental plus a fee for each transmission. The annual cost (Table 2) is based on six GPS locations per day.

Number of tracking days

The average number of data days obtained from all collars was 634.2 ± 355.3 days (Fig. 2A). The longest functioning were two Followit collars (1285 and 1327 days) and the shortest three new Vectronic collars (34, 41 and 45 days).

The four Followit collars functioned for 880.5 ± 516.3 (range 262 - 1327) days. Operational life of the 10 old Telonics collars was 586.8 ± 258.4 (range 307 - 1022) days. The 15 new Telonics collars worked for 855.3 ± 221.7 (range 223 - 1123) days, with 13 collars lasting more than two years. The three old Vectronic collars functioned for 377.7 ± 138.6 days, two lasting less than a year (270, 329 days) and one for 534 days. The eight new Vectronic collars on average lasted 277.6 ± 308.8 days. Seven of them ceased data transmission after less than one year but one collar lasted 976 days. The AWT collar stopped functioning after 428 days (Fig. 2A).

On average collars on 1- (n=3), 4- (n=31), and 8-hourly (n=4) schedules lasted 524.7 ± 390.9, 633.9 ± 362.4 and 862.3 ± 304.9 days respectively.

Number of GPS locations

On average 3333.5 ± 2797.9 GPS locations were received from each collar, ranging from 83 to 15,918 (Fig. 2B).

The four Followit collars provided 4945.3 ± 3306.8 (range 871 - 7651) GPS locations. All were programmed on a 4-hourly schedule.

The 10 old Telonics collars provided 2230.7 ±

Table 2. Cost (US$) of collars (including shipping) and annual data transmission (6 GPS per day).Collar Transmission

Company Price Annual cost TypeTelonics old NA 950 Satellite (Argos USA)Telonics new 4920 1200 Satellite (Argos France)Vectronic old NA 100 GSM (local)Vectronic new 3440 100 or 350 GSM (local or Iridium)Followit 6730 280 GSM (roaming)AWT 2570 375 Satellite

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1249.4 (range 83 - 4601) GPS locations. Nine of them collected GPS every 4 hours. The collar programmed on an 8-hourly schedule gathered 2213 GPS locations. The 15 new Telonics collars collected 3741.1 ± 1316.3 (range 80 - 5280) locations. Twelve of them were programmed on a 4-hourly schedule, two on an 8-hourly schedule and one on both schedules.

The three old Vectronic collars, all programmed on a 4-hourly schedule, collected 1545, 1638 and 2545 GPS locations. The eight new Vectronic collars, four of them collecting a GPS every hour and the others every 4 hours sent on average 3754.3 ± 5323.8 GPS locations. However, three collars sent less than 300 locations. One collar set on an hourly schedule for the first two years and

Figure 2. Box plots for the number of tracking days (A) and number of GPS locations received (B) per collar. Average cost in US$ per tracking day (C) and per GPS location (D) based on collar cost and transmission fees. The plotted values are marked according to the reason the collar stopped sending data. The red line is the grand mean. The dashed lines in A indicate full years (1, 2 and 3 years).

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Figure 4. Portion of scheduled GPS not taken and successfully acquired GPS not transmitted.

thereafter reset to a 4-hourly schedule, provided 15,918 GPS locations.

The AWT collar, which was programmed on an 8-hourly schedule sent a total of 920 GPS locations (Fig. 2B).

Completeness of transmitted GPS data

The 41 collars on average sent 78.2 ± 18.4% of the scheduled GPS positions for the period the collars were active. One old Telonics collar sent only 5.9% of the scheduled GPS positions while one Followit collar provided a 99.7% complete data set (Fig. 3).

The four Followit collars sent on average 89.8 ± 13.0% of the scheduled GPS positions (range 70.5 - 99.2%). The old and new Vectronic collars sent 81.2 ± 2.3% and 83.5 ± 15.8% of the expected GPS locations, respectively. The old and new Telonics collars sent 65.0 ± 22.8% and 81.1 ± 16.0% of scheduled GPS positions, respectively. The AWT collar provided 71.6% of the scheduled GPS locations (Fig. 4). The differences between manufacturers were not statistically significant (Oneway Tukey-Kramer HSD, P=0.15).

Failed GPS acquisition vs. transmission error

GPS locations stored on-board were downloaded from 16 collars recovered after deployment, consisting of 1 old Vectronic, 3 new Vectronic, 1 Follwit, 4 old Telonics and 7 new Telonics collars. These data sets provided all the GPS locations acquired and listed the missing data as failed GPS attempts.

Comparison of the direct download data sets with the data received while deployed showed that the three new Vectronic collars and the Followit collar transmitted all the acquired GPS locations. On average the new Vectronic collars failed to acquire 0.8 ± 0.6% and the Followit collar 6.4% of the scheduled GPS locations (Fig. 4). The one old Vectronic collar did not transmit 3.6% of the acquired GPS locations and failed to acquire 18.3% of the scheduled GPS locations. The old and new Telonics collars failed to transmit on average 4.8% ± 2.3 and 1.5 ± 0.7% of the acquired GPS locations, respectively. The old Telonics collars failed to acquire an average of 21.3 ± 10.9% and the new Telonics collars 12.4 ± 20.2% of the scheduled GPS positions.

Overall the 16 investigated collars lost 12.5 ± 15.5% (range 0.3 - 57.0%) of scheduled data points due to failure to acquire a GPS position and 2.1 ± 2.2%, (range 0 - 8.2%) from inability to transmit an acquired position.

Figure 3. Portion of scheduled GPS received. The red line is the grand mean. The plotted values are marked according to the reason the collar stopped sending data.

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Cost per tracking day

The average cost per tracking day for all collars was US$ 18.83 ± 25.20 (range 3.80 -102.14, Fig. 2C), excluding the old Vectronic and old Telonics collars (prices unknown).

On average a tracking day with Followit collars cost US$ 12.36 ± 9.71 (range 5.84 - 26.45) and with new Telonics collars US$ 9.98 ± 4.34 (range 7.67 - 25.35). New Vectronic collars cost an average of US$ 40.12 ± 40.53 per day, including the cheapest (US$ 3.80) and most expensive collar (US$ 102.14) in the data set. The AWT collar provided data for US$ 7.03 a day (Fig. 2C).

Cost per GPS location

The average cost per GPS position for all collars (excluding old Telonics and old Vectronic collars) was US$ 3.84 ± 4.69 (range 0.23 - 20.07, Fig. 2D).

Followit collars provided a GPS location at US$ 2.99 ± 3.34 (range 1.01 - 7.96) and new Telonics at US$ 2.57 ± 1.68 (range 1.57 - 7.06). Each location received from new Vectronic collars cost on average US$ 6.71 ± 7.83 (range 0.23 - 20.07) and from the AWT collar US$ 3.27 (Fig. 2D).

Reasons for failure

In one of the 51 collar deployments the collar dropped off before the battery expired, due to belt failure (Fig. 2). Ten collars (34%) were affected, with two coming off the elephant twice and one three times. Belt failure occurred in Telonics and Vectronic collars. The old Vectronic collars (2 collars, 4 elephants) came off within a year (8, 44, 99, 270 days). In three instances, the Telonics collars lasted for less than half a year (28, 35, 117 days) and seven collars came off between 668 - 1065 days.

Seven of the eight new Vectronic collars ceased functioning after less than a year (177.9 ± 135.5 days, range 34 - 331 days). The failure was caused by damage to the casing of the functional unit and consequent electronic failure, possibly due to moisture/water damage.

An old Telonics and a Followit collar stopped functioning prematurely due to electronic failure, without obvious damage to the casing (Fig. 2). The old Telonics collar sent very little data and the battery drained early (236 days). It is unclear if the GPS or the transmitter or both were at fault. The Followit collar failed after 262 days. It had an electronic malfunction, which caused the battery to drain quickly.

Presumed battery life differed between collar models and individual collars (Fig. 2, Table 3). Old Telonics collars lasted between 307 to 1022 days. The batteries of the old Vectronic and AWT collars lasted more than one year. With one exception (712 days) the new Telonics collars had a battery life of more than two years. Batteries on Followit collars lasted more than three years.

Discussion

Collar configuration

In all collars, location of the entire functional unit on top resulted in a high profile that projected above the elephant, causing increased damage from striking objects, especially where elephants frequented thick and thorny scrub habitats. Location of the functional unit at the bottom as in VHF-only collars would be preferable as it is then well protected from such abuse. In an age of ubiquitous inter-device wireless communication it is surprising that all available elephant GPS collars employed a counterweight, which more than doubled the weight of the collar.

Of the two collar designs evaluated, fixing the counter weight directly onto the belt was easier in the field, than bolting together the long and

Table 3. Usage time (days) of collars that reached the end of battery life.Manufacturer N Mean Stdev Min MaxTelonics old 8 617 256.0 307 1022Telonics new 8 876 124.7 712 1033Vectronic old 1 534 534 534Vectronic new 1 976 976 976Followit 2 1306 29.7 1285 1327AWT 1 428 428 428

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short segments of belting as in the Telonics collars. The latter required bolting at two widely separated points, which were sometimes not easily accessible when the elephant fell on scrubby or thorny vegetation.

Adjustability of collar size is a must and collars should have perforations that allow adjustment between the smallest and largest elephant that maybe collared. Most manufacturers will comply and provided factory perforated collars to cover the specified sizes. Collar size should be re-checked prior to collaring and the perforations tested to see that the bolts fit through them easily.

The use of 13 mm nuts and bolts for collar fixing is preferable to 10 mm, as under the stress of collaring where expediency is key, the larger size makes for easier manipulation and dropped and lost nuts less likely.

Belting

Belt durability is a tricky issue as ideally the belts should last the functional life of the collar and break off subsequently. This maximizes data acquisition and obviates the need to anaesthetize the animal to remove the collar. While removing dysfunctional collars is desirable from an animal welfare point of view (Casper 2009; Ferreira et al. 2013), anaesthetizing a wild elephant poses a risk to the life of the elephant and those undertaking the operation. Also, the current cost of anaesthetizing a wild elephant in Sri Lanka is around US$ 2000. Therefore, collars are not taken off as a rule in Sri Lanka. Collars dropped off due to degradation of the collar material and wear and tear, usually within five years.

Premature belt failure was an issue with some collars such as the old Vectronics. However, belt life was determined by a number of variables. Failure due to wear and tear was much greater in thorny scrub habitats and with males. It is also likely to vary with individual elephants. Overall, multilayered canvas belting as used by Followit appeared to be the best with most lasting the life of the batteries and dropping off soon after. The Followit belting material did not degrade and only got abraded, but tore between fixed and

flexible points as at the junction of the functional unit or counter weight and the belt.

In general, collars with stiffer belting were liable to fall off unless fitted close to the neck size. Collars with flexible belting tended to be more forgiving of loose fitting as the belt conforms to the neck shape and is prevented from dropping off by the head and ears. Stiffer belting is also liable to cause the functional unit to slide off the top to a side, especially on females, as their neck is narrower and more pointed dorsally. All tested collars had a flat underside to the functional unit meant to be on top of the neck. Shaping the underside of the functional unit to provide a better fit would be an easy improvement.

Collar switch-off

In Sri Lanka elephant immobilization for collaring is the exclusive preserve of the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Due to various administrative and logistic issues sometimes it took over a year after receiving the collars, for them to be deployed. Sometimes a collaring was scheduled and cancelled at the last minute, and rescheduled for months later. Therefore the inability of AWT collars to be switched on/off by the user was a major disadvantage. This may not be an issue where operations can be planned reliably.

Telonics and Televilt collars provided an assessment of collar function when activating them, through LED or VHF signals. However given the logistics and risks of collaring an elephant, we found it prudent to switch collars on a few days prior to deployment and ensure that data was received without any issues.

VHF

All collars had a VHF unit in addition to the GPS unit. The VHF unit was usually powered from a supplementary pack, so that it could be used to locate the collar once the GPS batteries were exhausted. This feature would also be of value if collars are to be taken off after cessation of GPS transmission. We found the VHF helpful to locate and recover collars that fell off and were unable

23

to acquire GPS signal from where they lay. The VHF was also useful for tracking elephants in real time through homing-in, as often the GPS data was from many hours earlier.

Real time communication with the collar GPS through a hand-held unit and a ‘go to’ facility as found in some hand-held recreational GPS units such as the GARMIN Rino (http://sites.garmin.com/en-US/rino), would provide much better tracking than possible with VHF, especially when combined with a screen map showing the collar and observer position.

Data download

If collars are deployed in areas with good mobile phone coverage, a local GSM provider is the cheapest option for data download. Addition of a data-roaming facility increases probability of data download where coverage is patchy and from different providers. Satellite phone systems such as Iridium and Inmarsat should have greater coverage and be more suitable for areas without local GSM coverage. Satellite phone charges were comparable to cost of GSM plus roaming.

Argos satellite collars had an advantage in ensuring data transmission, as they had global coverage. However, rapidly increasing global satellite phone coverage is likely to obviate this advantage. Argos-based data transmission was much more expensive. While providing exactly the same Argos service, CLS America was cheaper than CLS France. As expected collar life is three years, maintaining payments of high download fees may be a constraint. Using ARGOS imposed limitations on timing of data upload from a particular location. As most Asian elephants remain under cover during the day and venture into open areas during the night, data transmission at dusk or dawn is likely the best.

Failed positions

Overall, collars failed to provide close to one fourth of scheduled positions. The different collar types showed variable extents of failure. The new Vectronic and Followit collars provided near complete data sets while old Vectronic and old

and new Telonics collars had a high percentage of failed positions. Loss of scheduled positions could have a significant effect depending on the cause and extent of loss and type of study.

Failure to acquire GPS positions was more common than transmission failure of acquired positions. The new and old Telonics collars had both issues while new Vectronic and Followit collars were able to transmit all acquired positions.

Studies monitoring impact of management actions on elephants are unlikely to be greatly affected by failure to acquire some positions. Analyses of home range extent and movement patterns are more likely to be influenced by systematic bias in GPS acquisition failure. Similarly habitat use and preference studies may be greatly impacted, especially as GPS acquisition failure is likely to be related to variables such as high canopy cover, hence introduce significant bias. Transmission failure may introduce bias due to area of coverage in SMS download and habitat correlates in the case of Argos.

Downloading data stored on-board

Downloading data stored on-board is useful for assessing the relative importance of transmission and GPS acquisition failure. In cases of trans-mission failure, it provides a more complete data set. The ability to download data with a dead collar battery as in Followit collars is desirable as in many cases collars dropped off and were recovered long after the batteries had expired.

Data processing

Data processing was easiest with the Followit collars as the e-mailed text file listed the GPS locations. The old Telonics collars required considerable data processing effort as downloaded files had to be processed to get the GPS locations and then the locations received had to be sorted in a time-consuming process to remove duplicates and errors. For both old and new Telonics collars, since the Argos server kept the data only for 10 days, the data had to be downloaded regularly without fail throughout the life of the collar. Data

24

processing effort and capacity may be an issue in monitoring programs run by wildlife managers especially in developing countries and maybe a factor in collar selection.

Collars by manufacturer

Followit collars – The Followit collars performed very well, lasting long on the elephant and sending most of the scheduled GPS locations. The three well-functioning Followit collars provided the most complete data sets (>93%). The two collars reaching the end of battery life provided the most tracking days (1285, 1327) and sent the most GPS locations (7623, 7651). They also turned out to be the second cheapest option when considering the cost per GPS location (US$ 1.01, 1.02). One elephant died 648 days after collaring and the collar was not reused. The fourth collar had a technical failure, which caused the battery to drain quickly. The company accepted the fault and offered to refurbish one collar for free, so our financial loss was limited to the cost of collaring.

Telonics collars – Overall, the Telonics collars were very reliable. They provided the third highest number of tracking days and performed well in terms of the number of GPS and completeness of the data set. The new Telonics collars functioned better than the old ones. The cost per tracking day (US$ 9.98 ± 4.34) or per GPS (US$ 2.57 ± 1.68) was less than for Followit or new Vectronic collars. While 10 Telonics collars came off the elephant before the batteries were empty, only three did so in less than a year. One old Telonics collar had an unknown technical problem, which only let it transmit 83 GPS locations in 236 days. The main advantage of the Telonics collars is the Argos transmission, which is global in extent. This is an important consideration when studying elephants roaming over areas with no GSM coverage. While the Argos fees are very high, as the collars generally sent data for a longer period, the actual cost per tracking day and the cost per GPS was about the same as with an AWT collar.

AWT collar – The AWT collar did fine with the number of tracking days (428), which corresponded to what they are advertised for. However, the number of GPS locations (920)

and especially the completeness of the data set (71.6%) were not so impressive. The cost per tracking day was US$ 7.03, which was in the same range as Followit and Telonics collars. However, the cost per transmitted GPS (US$ 3.27) was higher. For short-term studies or those with a low budget, AWT collars are a good option.

Vectronic collars – The old Vectronic collars had an issue with belt failure. Seven of the eight new Vectronic collars stopped functioning due to the elephants damaging the case with the electronics. We received a first set of four collars which all stopped sending data within weeks (35, 41, 45 days) or months (196 days). The company replaced the collars and three of the new batch stopped functioning after about 300 days due to damage to the functional unit. Because of these problems the number of tracking days and number of GPS received was low. Less days and less GPS also means that the prices were higher compared to other companies. The failure of the Vectronic collars have to be viewed in the context that all of them were deployed on adult males that ranged outside protected areas. Such animals are more likely to traverse thick thorny scrub, as they hide inside patches of vegetation during day and come into open areas in the night. One of the new Vectronic collars worked perfectly. In 2.7 years the collar provided 15,918 GPS locations. The completeness of the GPS data set (83.6%) was also very good. The cost per GPS for this collar was the cheapest at only 23 cents. If Vectronic sorts out the problem with the belting and encasing of the electronics, their collars would be a very good option. It is particularly useful that a local SIM card can be used, which makes for very cheap data download.

Conclusions

None of the collar models tested worked consistently and individual variation in collar performance was high. This may be partly due to variations in field conditions, but also to variation in assembly. Because collaring an elephant is a major operation, is costly, and presents risks to the elephant and collaring team, it is very desirable that the collars last long. Duration of collar life is particularly important in evaluating seasonal

25

movements and inter-annual variation in ranging which requires multi-year data. Monitoring management actions such as elephant drives and translocations may not necessarily require long-term data. However, even in such cases, evaluation of long-term impacts on elephants is critical from a conservation point of view.

For most studies and especially for detailed analysis of elephant movements and habitat use, a data set without gaps is very important. Therefore, data download options and suitability to area where the collars will be deployed are important considerations. If the collars last longer and send more data, the cost per day and per GPS decrease. Therefore, it is well worth to pay more for a collar with a longer life. However, if then the collar has a technical problem, the financial loss is greater. Given that none of the collars were entirely reliable, whether to hedge the bets with shorter lasting less expensive collars or gamble on more expensive, potentially longer lasting collars, has to be considered.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) Sri Lanka for collaboration and H. K. Janaka, S. Ekanayaka, H. G. Nishantha and DWC officers for helping with the fieldwork. We are most grateful for financial support from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Asian Elephant Conservation Fund, Abraham Foundation, Sidney S. Byers Charitable Trust, EcoHealth Alliance, Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ), Circus Knie, Smithsonian Women’s Committee, Vontobel Stiftung, Swiss National Science Foundation and PAM-WCP Project of the DWC.

References

Alfred R, Ahmad AH, Payne J, Williams C, Ambu LN, How PM & Goossens B (2012) Home range and ranging behaviour of Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) females. PLoS ONE 7: e31400.

Baskaran N, Varma S, Sar CK & Sukumar R (2011) Current status of Asian elephants in India. Gajah 35: 47-54.

Campos-Arceiz A, Larrinaga AR, Weerasinghe UR, Pastorini J, Leimgruber P, Fernando P & Santamaría L (2008) Behavior rather than diet mediates seasonal differences in seed dispersal by Asian elephants. Ecology 89: 2684-2691.

Casper RM (2009) Guidelines for the instru-mentation of wild birds and mammals. Animal Behaviour 78: 1477-1483.

Fernando P, Wikramanayake ED, Janaka HK, Jayasinghe LKA, Gunawardena M, Kotagama SW, Weerakoon D & Pastorini J (2008) Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Mammalian Biology 73: 2-13.

Fernando P, Janaka HK, Prasad T & Pastorini J (2010) Identifying elephant movement patterns by direct observation. Gajah 33: 41-46.

Fernando P & Pastorini J (2011) Range-wide status of Asian elephants. Gajah 35: 15-20.

Fernando P, Leimgruber P, Prasad T & Pastorini J (2012) Problem-elephant translocation: Trans-locating the problem and the elephant? PLoS ONE 7: e50917.

Ferreira GA, Pinto ML, Nakano-Oliveira E & Genaro G (2013) Dermatitis prompted by a collar employed in radio-telemetry monitoring. Animal Welfare 22: 195-197.

Pastorini J, Janaka HK, Nishantha HG, Prasad T, Leimgruber P & Fernando P (2013) A preliminary study on the impact of changing shifting cultivation practices on dry season forage for Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Tropical Conservation Science 6: 770-780.

Pinter-Wollman N (2009) Spatial behaviour of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in a novel environment: Using behaviour to inform conservation actions. Behaviour 146: 1171-1192.

Saaban S, Othman NB, Yasak MNB, Nor BM, Zafir A & Campos-Arceiz A (2011) Current status of Asian elephants in Peninsular Malaysia. Gajah 35: 67-75.

26

Introduction

Small and isolated populations are vulnerable and can become extinct (Crooks & Sanjayan 2006). The challenge of habitat shortage can be mitigated if animals can move between isolated populations (Haddad et al. 2003). Corridors are passages or parcels of land wherein animals pass from one geographical area to the other (Nahonyo 2009). Corridors connect populations, facilitating gene flow, optimize habitat utilisation through reduction of pressure on grazing or browsing areas, and provide resources to animals passing through. Corridors increase the biological and ecological viability of species and populations. Therefore, maintaining corridors is important for conservation.

Conservation of species like the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) needs the conservation of large areas (Owen-Smith 1988; Sukumar 1989). The home ranges of Asian elephants may vary from 32 - 4349 km2 (Olivier 1978; Datye & Bhagat 1995; Sukumar et al. 2003; Fernando et al. 2008).

Elephant habitat in northern West Bengal is highly fragmented owing to the conversion of forests to tea plantations, settlements and agriculture, and due to exploitation of timber (Lahiri-Choudhury 1975; Barua & Bist 1995). At present, elephants move mostly on an east-

Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 26-35

Elephant Corridors in Northern West Bengal

Mukti Roy* and Raman Sukumar

Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India*Corresponding author’s e-mail: muktiroy@rediffmail.com

Abstract. The elephant habitat in northern West Bengal is highly fragmented. We studied elephant corridors in the area during 2003 - 2006. Details of elephant movement gathered from Forest Department and Tea Association Offices and radio-telemetry data from the Wildlife Institute of India and the Indian Institute of Science were used to identify elephant corridors. GPS points were collected for each corridor on field visits and a total of 59 corridors were characterized. The main challenge for the preservation of elephant corridors was the presence of tea gardens, army establishments and villages within them.

© 2015 The Authors - Open Access

west axis along the forest areas of northern West Bengal, Nepal, Bhutan and Assam through a series of corridors distributed across northern West Bengal. There is also some movement on the north-south axis from the hill slopes of southern Bhutan to the Terai region of northern West Bengal. The objective of our study was to identify the corridors that elephants currently use with a long-term goal of developing plantation forests on lands currently used for growing tea and connecting habitats for the free movement of elephants.

Methods

Study area

Northern West Bengal in north-eastern India is bound by Nepal on the west, Bhutan in the north, Assam in the east, and Bangladesh towards the south, covering a total area of 9394 km2. The study area lies within N27.218576º, E88.011095º; N26.639646º, E88.172676º, and N26.734619º, E89.862003º, N26.332775º, E89.809966º. The total range of the elephants in NW Bengal is 3051 km2 and the forest cover is 1954 km2 (La-hiri-Choudhury 1980; Barua & Bist 1995). The elevation varies from 60 to over 2000 m. The natural vegetation is primarily tropical moist forest with grasslands along the floodplains of rivers. Major land-use types in the study area are forest, cultivation, and tea gardens.

27

Climatic conditions vary from tropical to sub-tropical. A cool, dry period occurs from November to March (11 - 23ºC) followed by a warm, pre-monsoon period during April-May (16 - 30ºC), a hot, monsoonal period from June to August (25 - 32ºC), and a moderately warm, late-monsoonal period during September–October (21 - 31ºC). The coldest months are January and December (11 - 12ºC). The mean annual rainfall in Northern West Bengal ranges from 3000 - 3500 mm (Sukumar et al. 2003).

Data collection

Literature on elephants in the area (Lahiri-Chowdhury 1975, 1980; Barua & Bist 1995) was reviewed and squads dealing with elephant movement in these areas were consulted (Mal, Khunia, Binnaguri, Sukhna and Taipu Squads). Information on elephant movement during 2000 - 2005 was collected from the Tea Association offices at Dooars Branch Indian Tea Association and Terai Branch Indian Tea Association.

Radio-telemetry studies were conducted in non-forested areas by the Wildlife Institute of India (1995–1997) using VHF and collaring five elephants (two family herds and three bulls). Studies by the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science (2001 - 2006) were conducted by collaring 13 elephants (7 family herds and 6 bulls) using 9 VHF and 4 GPS collars. We initially identified corridors based on the data from these two studies.

If two successive radio telemetry locations were located in two forest patches, then the movement of elephants was assumed to have occurred through a corridor linking the two patches. Ground searches were conducted in such locations for evidence of elephant presence through detection of dung piles, tracks, and feeding sign. GPS points were taken of such evidence and mapped. For example, radio-collared family herd 23 was located on October 29, 2003 at Nayabasti (Buxa Tiger Reserve), and on November 3, 2003 at Titi-4 compartment (Jaldapara National Park). There is a gap of 6 km between Buxa and Jaldapara forests, which is

covered by Bharnobari, Dalsingpara and Beech tea gardens. So it was assumed that this family herd moved through a corridor in the tea gardens to reach Jaldapara, and Titi forests. Roads in the three tea gardens were searched and fresh dung piles and tracks were found on particular roads, and thus these were identified as corridors.

After identifying the corridors, the actual corridor/movement paths of each corridor was walked through and marked by taking GPS points every 100 m or wherever elephant sign was found. Forests on both sides of the corridor were also mapped. Field surveys were done during 2003 - 2006 by a team consisting of a researcher, two field assistants and two or three forest staff from the relevant squad.

Images from the Indian Remote Sensing satellite 1D/L-III bearing paths and row numbers 108 - 53 and 109 - 53, respectively, of March 16th and 13th, 2001, were used to make maps. A false colour composite was generated using different bands (red, blue and green) of satellite data. The main landscape features were mapped using ARC GIS software version 9.3. GPS points of corridors were marked as line features. The landscape was segregated into three zones: Zone I (Sankosh to Torsa), Zone II (Torsa to Tista) and Zone III (Tista to Mechi), with rivers as natural boundaries.

Results

In total 59 corridors were identified, of which 47 had land owned by communities, tea gardens and the army and 26 of them had people living within the corridors, consisting of villages, tea garden labour lines and army camps.

The total length of corridors identified was 369.30 km. The total length of corridors with people living there was 58.20 km, of which 29.52 km consisted of tea garden labour lines, 22.34 km villages and 6.34 km army camps. Individual tea garden labour lines varied in extent from 0.11 - 2.08 km with a mean of 0.62 ± 0.42 km, villages from 0.32 - 2.53 km with a mean of 1.02 ± 0.57 km and army camps from 0.23 - 2.31 km with a mean of 1.27 ± 0.89 km.

28

Zone I: Sankosh to Torsa

Fourteen corridors were identified with a total length of 71.30 km in Zone I. Of this, 7 had villages and tea garden labour lines amounting to 10.86 km. The villages within corridor areas totalled 7.50 km, with individual villages varying from 0.36 - 1.61 km in length with a mean of 1.25 ± 0.53 km. Tea gardens labour lines within corridors totalled 3.35 km with individual labour lines varying from 0.54 - 2.00 km with a mean of 0.84 ± 0.54 km. The details of corridors in Zone I are given in Table1 and Figure 1.

Zone II: Torsa to Tista

In total 28 corridors were identified with a total length of 238.30 km, of which 23 had land owned by communities, tea gardens and the army and 14 had people living within the corridors which amounted to 41.50 km. Villages within corridor areas totalled 13.40 km, with individual villages varying from 0.32 - 2.53 km in length with a Mean of 1.03 ± 0.59 km. Tea Gardens labour

lines within corridors totalled 24.12 km with individual labour lines varying from 0.11 - 2.05 km with a mean of 0.65 ± 0.42 km and army camps within corridors totalled 4.01 km, varying from 0.85 - 2.31 km with a mean of 1.34 ± 0.84 km. The details of corridors in Zone II are given in Table 2 and Figure 2.

Zone III: Tista to Mechi

In total 17 corridors were identified with a total length of 59.70 km. All corridors had land owned by communities, tea gardens and the army. Five corridors had people living within them amounting to 5.91 km. Villages within corridor areas totalled 1.53 km, with individual villages varying from 0.36 - 0.75 km in length with a mean of 0.51 ± 0.21 km. Tea garden labour lines totalled 2.05 km with individual labour lines varying from 0.12 - 0.43 km with a mean of 0.29 ± 0.10 km. Army camps totalled 2.33 km, with individual areas varying from 0.85 - 2.31 km and a mean of 1.17 ± 1.32 km. Details of corridors in Zone III are given in Table 3 and Figure 3.

Figure 1. Elephant corridors in Zone I (Sankosh to Torsa).

29

Tabl

e 1.

Cor

ridor

s in

Zone

I fr

om S

anko

sh to

Tor

sa (F

D =

For

est D

ivis

ion;

NP

= N

atio

nal P

ark;

RF

= R

eser

ve F

ores

t; R

FP =

Riv

erin

e Fl

oodp

lain

; TE

= Te

a Es

tate

; TG

= T

ea G

arde

n; T

R =

Tig

er R

eser

ve; W

B =

Wes

t Ben

gal).

No

Cor

ridor

Leng

thFr

om

To (v

eg. t

ype)

Cor

ridor

[km

]Lo

catio

nVe

geta

tion

type

Loca

tion

Vege

tatio

n ty

peV

iaLa

nd-u

se1

Sank

osh

- Jam

duar

2.6

Jam

duar

RF,

Kac

hu-

gaon

FD

, Ass

amde

nse

mix

edSa

nkos

h R

F, B

uxa

TR E

ast,

WB

dens

e sa

lSa

nkos

h R

FPR

FP

2Sa

nkos

h - B

halk

a8.

5Sa

nkos

h R

F, B

uxa

TR

East

, WB

dens

e sa

lB

holk

a R

F, B

uxa

TR

East

, WB

mix

ed p

lant

atio

n,

RFP

Sank

osh

RFP

RFP

3K

umar

gram

- B

halk

a5.

3K

umar

gram

RF,

Bux

a TR

Eas

t, W

Bde

nse

mix

edB

holk

a R

F, B

uxa

TR

East

, WB

mix

ed p

lant

atio

nK

umar

gram

TG

, San

kosh

TG

TG, v

illag

es

4N

ewla

nds -

Khu

rul

2.4

New

land

s RF,

Bux

a TR

Eas

t, W

Bde

nse

mix

edLa

moy

jhan

kha,

Sa

rpan

g FD

, Bhu

tan

dens

e m

ixed

Con

tiguo

us fo

rest

pat

ch

dens

e m

ixed

fo

rest

5

Kal

ikho

la -

Jam

duar

6.6

Lam

oyjh

ankh

a,

Sarp

ang

FD, B

huta

nde

nse

mix

edJa

mdu

ar R

F, K

achu

-ga

on F

D, A

ssam

de

nse

mix

edK

alik

hola

RFP

RFP

6B

huta

ngha

t- Sh

akhu

2.2

Bhu

tang

hat R

F, B

uxa

TR E

ast,

WB

teak

pla

ntat

ion,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

nSh

akhu

RF,

Sar

pang

, B

huta

nse

mi-e

verg

reen

Con

tiguo

us fo

rest

pat

ch

dens

e m

ixed

fo

rest

7

Panb

ari -

Kar

tika

2.4

Kar

tica

RF,

Bux

a TR

Ea

st, W

Bte

ak p

lant

atio

n, m

ixed

pl

anta

tion

Panb

ari R

F, B

uxa

TR E

ast,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

Kat

rica

TE, C

huni

ajho

ra T

E,

Nur

pur v

illag

eTG

, vill

ages

8K

artik

a - R

ydak

2.1

Ryda

k R

F, B

uxa

TR

East

, WB

RFP

, kha

ir-si

ssoo

se

rial,

sim

al si

ris se

rial

Kar

tica

RF,

Bux

a TR

Ea

st, W

Bte

ak p

lant

atio

n,

mix

ed p

lant

atio

nTu

tiri T

G, R

ydak

RFP

RFP

, TG

9R

aim

atan

g - M

onita

r4.

0R

aim

atan

g R

F, B

uxa

TR W

est,

WB

sem

i-eve

rgre

enM

onita

r, G

edu,

B

huta

n de

nse

mix

ed

sem

i-eve

rgre

enC

ontig

uous

fore

st p

atch

de

nse

mix

ed

sem

i-eve

rgre

en

10B

hata

para

- M

eche

para

7.5

Rai

mat

ang

RF,

Bux

a TR

Wes

t, W

Bde

nse

sal,

dens

e m

ixed

Bas

ra R

F, B

uxa

TR

Wes

t, W

Bm

ixed

pla

ntat

ion,

R

FP, k

hair-

siss

ooB

hatp

ara

TG, M

echp

ara

TGTG

, vill

ages

11B

asra

- Ti

ti9.

9B

asra

RF,

Bux

a TR

W

est,

WB

mix

ed p

lant

atio

n, R

FP,

khai

r-sis

soo

Titi

RF,

Jald

apar

a N

P, W

Bde

nse

mix

edB

harn

obar

i TG

, Dal

sing

h-pa

ra-B

eech

TG

, Tor

sa R

FPTG

, vill

ages

, R

FP

12G

abba

rjyot

i - T

iti8.

9B

asra

RF,

Bux

a TR

W

est,

WB

mix

ed p

lant

atio

n, R

FP,

khai

r-sis

soo

Titi

RF,

Jald

apar

a N

P, W

Bde

nse

mix

edG

abba

rjyot

i jho

ra R

FP

RFP

13N

Imtij

hora

- C

hila

pata

4.1

Nim

ati R

F, B

uxa

TR

Wes

t, W

Bm

ixed

pla

ntat

ion,

de

grad

edM

enda

bari

RF,

Ja

ldap

ara

NP,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

Nim

aljh

ora

TE, M

adhy

a Pa

tkap

ara,

Sou

th M

enda

bari

TG, v

illag

es

14N

imat

i - M

enda

bari

4.8

Nim

ati R

F, B

uxa

TR

Wes

t, W

Bm

ixed

pla

ntat

ion,

de

grad

edM

enda

bari

RF,

Ja

ldap

ara

NP,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

Nim

ati D

omoh

oni-U

ttar L

a-ta

bari-

Nak

adal

a-M

enda

bari

TG, v

illag

es

30 31

Tabl

e 2.

Cor

ridor

s in

Zon

e II

from

Tor

sa to

Tis

ta (F

D =

For

est D

ivis

ion;

NP

= N

atio

nal P

ark;

RF

= R

eser

ve F

ores

t; R

FP =

Riv

erin

e Fl

oodp

lain

; TE

= Te

a Es

tate

; TG

= T

ea G

arde

n; W

B =

Wes

t Ben

gal;

WLS

= W

ildlif

e Sa

nctu

ary;

WD

= W

ildlif

e D

ivis

ion)

.

No

Cor

ridor

Leng

thFr

omTo

C

orrid

or

[km

]Lo

catio

nVe

geta

tion

type

Loca

tion

Vege

tatio

n ty

peV

iaLa

nd-u

se

15Ti

ti - R

eti

4.4

Titi

RF,

Jald

apar

a N

P, W

Bde

nse

mix

ed, s

emi-

ever

gree

nR

eti R

F, Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

Bop

en m

ixed

Hun

terp

ara

TG /

Gar

gand

a TG

, Tu

lsip

ara

TG, M

akra

para

TG

TG, R

FP,

villa

ges

16Ti

ti - D

alm

ore

9.2

Titi

RF,

Jald

apar

a N

P, W

Bde

nse

mix

edD

alm

ore

RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

Bm

ixed

pla

ntat

ion,

de

grad

edH

unte

rpar

a TG

/ G

arga

nda

TG,

Tuls

ipar

a TG

TG, R

FP,

villa

ges

17Ti

ti - D

umch

i6.

7Ti

ti R

F, Ja

ldap

ara

NP,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

Dum

chi R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

sal,

open

m

ixed

, deg

rade

dH

unte

rpar

a TG

, Dum

chip

ara

TG, M

ujna

i TG

TG, v

illag

es

18D

umch

i - D

alm

ore

[1]

7.6

Dum

chi R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

sal,

open

mix

ed,

degr

aded

Dal

mor

e R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

mix

ed p

lant

atio

n,

degr

aded

Gop

alpu

r TG

, Has

naba

d TG

, R

amjh

ora

TG, D

alm

ore

TGTG

, vill

ages

19D

umch

i - D

alm

ore

[2]

3.6

Dum

chi R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

sal,

open

mix

ed,

degr

aded

Dal

mor

e R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

mix

ed p

lant

atio

n,

degr

aded

Gop

alpu

r TG

, Has

naba

d TG

, R

amjh

ora

TG, D

alm

ore

TGTG

, vill

ages

20D

alm

ore

- Dal

gaon

11.5

Dal

mor

e R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

mix

ed p

lant

atio

n,

degr

aded

Dal

gaon

RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

Bm

ixed

pla

ntat

ion,

de

grad

edJa

ybirp

ara

TG, N

angd

ala

TG,

Dim

dim

a TG

TG, v

illag

es

21Ti

ti - B

huta

n3.

5Ti

ti R

F, Ja

ldap

ara

NP,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

, sem

i-ev

ergr

een

Bhu

tan

fore

stse

mi-e

verg

reen

Titi

RF

cont

inuo

us

fore

st p

atch

22

Ret

i - D

iana

14.5

Ret

i RF,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded

Dia

na R

F, Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

BR

FP, k

hair-

siss

oo,

degr

aded

Rea

bari

TG /

Kat

halg

uri T

G,

Red

bank

TG

, Deb

para

TG

, Lax

-m

ipar

a TG

, Pra

yagp

ur v

illag

e

TG, v

illag

es

23R

eti -

Mor

agha

t [1]

14.5

Ret

i RF,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded

Mor

agha

t RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

Bde

nse

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

nK

arba

llaTG

, Ban

narh

at T

G,

Gen

drap

ra T

GTG

, vill

ages

24R

eti -

Mor

agha

t [2]

9.0

Ret

i RF,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded

Mor

agha

t RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

Bde

nse

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

nB

inna

guri

TG, M

orag

hat T

G /

Hal

diba

ri TG

TG, v

illag

es

25R

eti -

Mor

agha

t [3]

12.4

Ret

i RF,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded

Mor

agha

t RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

Bde

nse

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

nB

inna

guri

Can

tonm

ent,

Saru

gaon

bas

ti, S

hisu

jhum

ra,

Tele

para

TG

TG, a

rmy,

vi

llage

s

26M

orag

hat -

Dia

na9.

0M

orag

hat R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

dens

e sa

l, m

ixed

pla

n-ta

tion,

sem

i-eve

rgre

enD

iana

RF,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

RFP

, kha

ir-si

ssoo

, de

grad

edTo

tapa

ra T

G, M

ogul

kata

TG

, Ja

lapa

ra, U

pper

Kal

abar

iTG

, vill

ages

27R

eti -

Bhu

tan

1.9

Ret

i RF,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded

Gom

tu, B

huta

nde

nse

mix

ed, s

emi-

ever

gree

nR

eti f

ores

t co

ntin

uous

fo

rest

pat

ch

30 31

28D

iana

- G

orum

ara

3.5

Dia

na R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

Gor

umar

a N

P, W

BB

amon

dang

a TE

, Ton

du T

E TG

, vill

ages

29C

hapr

amar

i - N

eora

10.9

Cha

pram

ari W

LS,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

, ope

n m

ixed

, mix

ed p

lant

atio

nN

eora

RF,

K

alim

pong

Div

, WB

dens

e m

ixed

, ope

n m

ixed

, deg

rade

dK

ilcot

t TG

/ In

dong

TG

, A

ibhe

el T

G, Z

uran

tee

TGTG

, vill

ages

30K

uman

i - S

ipch

u3.

6K

uman

i RF,

Kal

i-m

pong

Div

., W

Bde

nse

mix

edSi

pchu

, Bhu

tan

dens

e m

ixed

, sem

i-ev

ergr

een

Hill

a TE

, Jiti

TE

TG, v

illag

es

31B

arad

ighi

-Apa

lcha

nd7.

5B

arad

ighi

RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

Bde

nse

mix

ed, d

ense

sal

Apa

lcha

nd R

F, B

ai-

kunt

hapu

r FD

, WB

Kan

tadi

ghi K

umar

para

, N

epuc

hapu

r TG

TG, v

illag

es

32La

tagu

ri-A

plac

hand

11.2

Lata

guri

RF

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

Apa

lcha

nd R

F, B

ai-

kunt

hapu

r FD

, WB

Neo

rana

dy T

E, N

epuc

hapu

r TG

TG, v

illag

es

33B

atab

ari-B

arad

ighi

[1]

4.1

Bar

adig

hi R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

Bat

abar

i RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

BB

arad

ighi

TE,

B

atab

ari T

ETG

, vill

ages

34B

atab

ari-B

arad

ighi

[2]

5.5

Bat

abar

i RF,

Ja

lpai

guri

FD, W

BK

haria

r Ban

dar R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

Bat

abar

i TE

TG, v

illag

es

35N

eora

-Bat

abar

i12

.2K

haria

r Ban

dar R

F,

Jalp

aigu

ri FD

, WB

dens

e sa

lN

eora

RF,

Kal

im-

pong

Div

., W

Bde

nse

mix

edSa

tkha

ya T

G, S

onga

chi T

G,

Nak

ati T

GTG

, vill

ages

36N

eora

- Le

thi

4.0

Neo

ra R

F, K

ali-

mpo

ng D

iv.,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

, sem

i-ev

ergr

een

Leth

i RF,

Kal

impo

ng

Div

., W

Bde

nse

mix

edPa

thar

jhor

a TE

TG, v

illag

es

37A

palc

hand

- C

hura

nthi

9.8

Chu

rant

hi R

F, K

a-lim

pong

FD

, WB

dens

e m

ixed

Apa

lcha

nd R

F, B

ai-

kunt

hapu

r FD

, WB

open

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

n, d

egra

ded

Gis

h R

FPR

FP

38N

eora

- A

palc

hand

[1]

16.9

Neo

ra R

F, K

alim

-po

ng D

iv.,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

, sem

i-ev

ergr

een

Apa

lcha

nd R

F, B

ai-

kunt

hapu

r FD

, WB

open

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

n, d

egra

ded

Mee

ngal

s TG

, Ran

iche

ra T

G,

New

Syl

ee T

G, C

hel R

FPTG

, vill

ages

39N

eora

- A

palc

hand

[2]

16.9

Neo

ra R

F, K

alim

-po

ng D

iv.,

WB

dens

e m

ixed

, sem

i-ev

ergr

een

Apa

lcha

nd R

F, B

ai-

kunt

hapu

r FD

, WB

open

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

n, d

egra

ded

Mee

ngla

ss T

G, R

anga

mat

ee

TG, D

amdi

m T

E, G

osai

line,

B

aint

goor

ie T

G, K

umla

i TG

, G

oodh

ope

TG

TG, v

illag

es

40A

palc

had

- Ada

bari

6.2

Apa

lcha

nd R

F,

Bai

kunt

hapu

r FD

, W

B

open

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

n, d

egra

ded

Ada

bari

RF,

Bai

-ku

ntha

pur F

D, W

Bde

nse

sal,

dens

e m

ixed

Tist

a R

FPR

FP

41A

palc

hand

- Sa

ugao

n -

Mon

gpon

g14

.3A

palc

hand

RF,

B

aiku

ntha

pur F

D,

WB

open

sal,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

n, d

egra

ded

Mon

gpon

g R

F,

Kal

impo

ng F

D, W

Bse

mi-e

verg

reen

, de

nse

mix

edTi

sta

river

, Son

ali T

ETG

, vill

ages

42Sa

ugao

n - L

alto

ng3.

9M

ongp

ong

RF,

Ka-

limpo

ng D

iv.,

WB

sem

i-eve

rgre

en, d

ense

m

ixed

Lalto

ng R

F,

Dar

jeel

ing

WD

, WB

dens

e sa

l, de

nse

mix

edTi

sta

RFP

RFP

32 33

Tabl

e 3.

Cor

ridor

s in

Zone

III f

rom

Tis

ta to

Mec

hi (F

D =

For

est D

ivis

ion;

RF

= R

eser

ve F

ores

t; R

FP =

Riv

erin

e Fl

oodp

lain

; TE

= Te

a Es

tate

; TG

= T

ea

Gar

den;

WB

= W

est B

enga

l; W

D =

Wild

life

Div

isio

n).

No

Cor

ridor

Leng

thFr

om

To

Cor

ridor

[km

]Lo

catio

nVe

geta

tion

type

Loca

tion

Vege

tatio

n ty

peV

iaLa

nd-u

se

43G

ulm

a - S

ukna

9.5

Gul

ma

RF,

D

arje

elin

g W

D, W

Bde

nse

mix

edSu

kna

RF,

Dar

-je

elin

g W

D, W

Bte

ak p

lant

atio

n, d

ense

sa

lM

ohur

gong

, Gul

ma

TETG

, vill

ages

44Su

kna

- Lam

agum

pha

4.4

Sukn

a R

F,

Dar

jeel

ing

WD

, WB

teak

pla

ntat

ion,

den

se

sal

Lam

agum

pha

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bde

nse

mix

edSu

kna

arm

y ar

ea

arm

y

45La

mag

umph

a - B

alas

an5.

3La

mag

umph

a R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

de

nse

mix

edB

alas

an R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

RFP

, kha

ir-si

ssoo

Sim

ulba

rie T

G, R

akti

RF,

Si

ptug

iuri

TGTG

, vill

ages

, ar

my

46La

mag

umph

a -

Bam

anpo

khri

1.1

Lam

agum

pha

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bde

nse

mix

edB

aman

pokh

ri R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

teak

pla

ntat

ion

Roh

ini T

GTG

, arm

y

47B

alas

an -

Dal

ka [1

]4.

4B

alas

an R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

RFP

, Kha

ir-Si

ssoo

Dal

ka R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

dens

e sa

l, de

nse

mix

ed, s

emi-e

verg

reen

OR

D T

erai

TG

, Trih

anna

h TG

, Ben

gdub

i arm

y ar

ea

TG, v

illag

es,

arm

y48

Bal

asan

- D

alka

[2]

1.4

DG

HC

Tat

ari R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

teak

pla

ntat

ion,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

nD

alka

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bde

nse

sal,

dens

e m

ixed

, sem

i-eve

rgre

enPa

nigh

atta

TG

, OR

D T

erai

TG

TG, v

illag

es

49D

GH

C T

atar

i - M

echi

[1]

1.1

Mec

hi R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded,

R

FPTi

ring,

Jhap

a FD

, N

epal

sa

l pla

ntat

ion

Tukr

a ba

sti,

Mec

hi R

FPTG

, vill

ages

50D

GH

C T

atar

i - M

echi

[2]

3.6

DG

HC

Tat

ari R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

teak

pla

ntat

ion,

mix

ed

plan

tatio

nM

echi

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bop

en m

ixed

, deg

rade

d,

RFP

Pani

ghat

ta T

G, B

el-g

achi

TG

, Mar

apur

TE,

Man

jha

TETG

, vill

ages

51D

GH

C T

atar

i - M

echi

[3]

2.3

Mec

hi R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded,

R

FPD

GH

C T

atar

i RF

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

Bel

gach

i TG

, Pan

igha

tta T

GTG

, vill

ages

52D

GH

C T

atar

i - M

echi

[4]

2.5

Mec

hi R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

open

mix

ed, d

egra

ded,

R

FPD

alka

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bde

nse

sal,

dens

e m

ixed

, sem

i-eve

rgre

enD

GH

C T

atar

i, D

alka

TG

, vill

ages

53M

echi

- B

aman

dang

i (N

epal

)1.

8M

echi

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bop

en m

ixed

, deg

rade

d,

RFP

Bam

anda

ngi,

Jhap

a FD

, Nep

alvi

llage

sM

echi

RFP

, Bam

nada

ngi

villa

geR

FP,

villa

ges

54D

alka

- U

CC

F8.

5D

alka

RF,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

dens

e sa

l, de

nse

mix

ed, s

emi-e

verg

reen

UC

CF

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bop

en m

ixed

pla

ntat

ion,

de

grad

edD

eom

oni-A

tal T

E, B

aira

bhita

TG

, vill

ages

55U

CC

F - T

ukria

jhar

1.8

UC

CF

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bop

en m

ixed

pla

ntat

ion,

de

grad

edTu

kria

hjha

r RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bop

en sa

l, te

ak

plan

tatio

nTu

kria

jhar

TG

TG, v

illag

es

56Tu

kria

jhar

- M

echi

2.6

Tukr

iahj

har R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

Mec

hi R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

Mec

hi R

FP, M

adan

, Mec

hi

(Nep

al)

RFP

, vi

llage

s

32 33

57M

echi

-Dal

ka [1

]1.

4M

echi

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bop

en m

ixed

, deg

rade

d,

RFP

Dal

ka R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

dens

e sa

l, de

nse

mix

ed, S

emi-

ever

gree

n

Bel

gach

i TG

, Nep

ania

, Sirs

ia

TGTG

, vill

ages

58M

echi

-Dal

ka [2

]4.

4M

echi

RF,

K

urse

ong

FD, W

Bop

en m

ixed

, deg

rade

d,

RFP

Dal

ka R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

, WB

dens

e sa

l, de

nse

mix

ed, S

emi-

ever

gree

n

Kal

abar

i, N

epan

ia,

Mirj

angl

a, Ja

mid

argu

rivi

llage

s

59D

GH

C T

atar

i - D

alka

3.6

DG

HC

Tat

ari R

F,

Kur

seon

g FD

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34

Main corridors

The main corridors identified and characterized were the following:

• Panbari - Kartika - Rydak (corridors 7 & 8)• Basra - Titi (corridor 11)• Titi - Dalmore / Titi - Reti (corridors 15 & 16)• Reti - Diana (corridor 22)• Reti - Moraghat (corridors 23, 24, 25 & 26)• Chapramari - Neora (corridor 29)• Baradighi - Apalchand (corridor 31)• Neora - Apalchand (corridors 38 & 39)• Gulma - Sukna (corridor 43)• Lamagumpha - Balasan - Dalka (corridors 45 & 48)• DGHC Tatari - Mechi (corridors 49, 50 & 51)

Discussion

As the landscape is fragmented, emphasis should be laid on increased connectivity of forest patches by corridors. Preserving the main corridors will facilitate the movement of elephants in north Bengal. We found that a significant extent of corridors constituted of

human dominated landscape features such as villages and tea garden labour lines which are not suitable for free elephant movement. However, tea gardens have shade trees and enable some movement of elephants, making them more suitable than villages. As a first step, if we can make the tea garden corridor areas free of human habitations and grow more shade trees, they will allow movement of elephants from one forest patch to the other with less conflict. It will be even better if we can convert corridor areas of tea gardens and human habitations to plantation forests. Such initiatives could be supported in terms of obtaining carbon credits and provision of ecosystem services. Establishing a secured corridor network would be an important objective for long-term conservation of elephants and other wildlife hence should be given priority in conservation planning.

Acknowledgements

We thank the West Bengal Forest Department for field and office help and especially, Mal Squad, Binnaguri Squad, Khunia Squad, and Sukna Squad for locating and identifying elephant

Figure 3. Elephant corridors of Zone III (Torsa–Mechi).

35

corridors and surveys. We also thank Tarun Mahalonibish (Range Officer Mal Squad), Dulal Chandra Das (Range Officer Khunia Squad) and Range Officers of Sukna and Binnaguri Squads for their help. We also thank Gopal Sharma, Netro Sharma, Nagraj and Ram Bagdas for help in the field. We also thank the Wildlife Institute of India and the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, for providing access to radio-telemetry data. We also thank Beependra Singh, the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, for help in preparing maps and R.P. Saini (IFS) for the photo shown below.

References

Barua P & Bist SS (1995) Changing patterns in the distribution and movement of wild elephants in North Bengal. In: A Week with Elephants. Proc. of the International Seminar on the Conservation of Asian Elephant. Daniel JC & Datye HS (eds) Bombay Natural Hist. Soc., Bombay. pp 66-84.

Crooks KR & Sanjayan M (2006) Connectivity Conservation. Conservation Biology Book Series, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.

Datye HS & Bhagwat AM (1995) Home range of elephants in fragmented habitats of central India. J. Bombay Natural History Society 92: 1-10.

Fernando P, Wikramanayake ED, Janaka HK, Jayasinghe LKA, Gunawardena M, Kotagama SW, Weerakoon D & Pastorini J (2008) Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Mammalian Biology 73: 2-13

Haddad NM, Bowne DR, Cunningham A, Danielson BJ, Levey DJ, Sargent S & Spira T (2003) Corridor use by diverse taxa. Ecology 84: 609-615.

Lahiri-Choudhury DK (1975) Report on Elephant Movement and Depredation in Jalpaiguri Division and Part of Madarihat Range of Cooch Behar Division in June-July, 1975. Submitted to the West Bengal Government.

Lahiri-Choudhury DK (1980) An Interim Report on the Status and Distribution of Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Northeast India.

Nahonyo CL (2009) Feasibility Study on Elephant Movement Between the Greater Ruaha Ecosystem and Selous Ecosystem in Central Eastern, Tanzania. Report, Rufford Small Grant.

Olivier RCD (1978) On the Ecology of the Asian Elephant. Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge University.

Owen-Smith N (1988) Megaherbivores: The Influence of Very Large Body Size on Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Sukumar R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Sukumar R, Baskaran N, Dharmarajan G, Roy M, Suresh HS & Narendran K (2003) Study of Elephants in the Buxa Tiger Reserve and Adjoining Areas of Northern West Bengal and Preparation of Conservation Action Plan. Final Report, West Bengal Forest Department.

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Introduction

In Asia since ancient times, Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have been used for transport, logging, war and religious purposes. Elephants have fascinated humans for millennia and a vast literature related to their characteristics, diseases and treatment developed in eastern cultures. Elephants in captivity are generally healthy and require few therapeutic interventions. However, when they do become ill, treatment is a serious issue. The large body size of the elephant and dearth of pharmacokinetic studies make determining appropriate medications and dosage for elephants a challenging task (Mikota & Plumb 2003). Aside from the weight of the animal, the size, thickness and density of various anatomical structures can physically hinder drug administration. The single most important factor in administering drugs to an elephant is the animal’s cooperation in accepting the medication (Isaza & Hunter 2004). Working around elephants can be dangerous and this is magnified with sick or injured animals subject to increased stress, pain and unusual situations associated with treatment.

In Ayurvedic literature Basti (known also as Vasti) literally means ‘bladder’ or a ‘container’ for medications to cleanse and detoxify the body, as in ancient times sterilized urinary bladders of animals were used to administer medications. An enema is defined as a fluid injected into the lower bowel of the patient by way of rectum and

is the commonest form of Basti therapy. Unlike enemas, which are used only for evacuating the bowels and cleansing the rectum and sigmoid colon, Basti therapy treats the entire length of the colon from the ileocecal valve to the anus and is thus used in treatment of a wide range of disorders of the body. It involves the introduction of oils, herbal decoctions or other liquids through the perineum anus, urethra, vagina and their intravenous or intramuscular administration to treat diseases. Classical Ayurvedic texts mention three types of Basti namely āsthāpana Basti (non-oily, using herbal decoctions), Anuvāsana Basti (oily, with medicated oils or ghee remaining in the body for some time without causing harm) and Uttara Basti (upper tract medication that uses a combination of both herbal decoctions and medicated oils). Basti therapy is also classified based on the site of administration of enemas such as the head, eyes, chest, abdomen and back.

Most texts attribute the initiation of elephantology to the Sage Pālakāpya (Harbola 2003). Maharshi Pālakāpya’s treatise titled the ‘Hastyāyurveda’ is an elaborate text dealing extensively with elephant diseases and their remedies (Sharma 1894). It runs to about 20,000 or more verses and is in the form of a discourse between king Romapāda and Sage Pālakāpya and divided into four sections named Mahārogasthāna, Kṣudrarogasthāna, śalyasthāna and Uttarasthāna. Here I present gleanings from this text about Basti therapy of elephants.

Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 36-41

Basti Therapy of Elephants According to Sage Palakapya

K. G. Sheshadri

Devinagar, Lottegollahalli, Bangalore, IndiaAuthor’s e-mail: kg_sheshadri@yahoo.com

Abstract. Sage Pālakāpya’s elaborate treatise from the 5th or 6th century BC titled the ‘Hastyāyurveda’ deals with elephant diseases, their remedies as well as elephant behaviour. Basti therapy is one of the main treatments in Ayurvedic literature, involving the introduction into the body of oils, herbal decoctions or other medicinal liquids to treat diseases. Here I describe Basti therapy in elephants, indications for such treatment, and the procedures employed in ancient times, based on the text of ‘Hastyāyurveda’.

© 2015 The Author - Open Access

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Enema in early Indian literature

The Suśruta Saṁhitā (Bhishagratna et al. 1983) mentions the use of a bladder and pipe contraption in detail and provides an excellent description of administering enemas in antiquity for the treatment of piles. He mentions tubular instruments for this purpose and describes them in his text. Traditional enema equipments consist of a tube (Vastinetra) and a bag (Vastipuṭaka). The tube is generally made of silver, copper, tin, brass, bell metal, ivory, cow’s horn, bamboo or gold in the case of treatment of royals. The bag is made by curing an oval shaped bladder of an animal, then heated with herbal antiseptic solution and rubbed with oil until it is germ free. The narrow end of the bag is heated and secured to one end of the tube and the other end of the tube shrunk so as to enable injection.

The Charaka Saṁhitā (Sharma & Dash 2001) refers to knowledge of administering enemas as he quotes Dhṛdavala who in turn mentions that disciples of sage ātreya enquired from him about enemas to be made in case of animals such as elephants, camel, cows, horses, lambs and goats. Similar to Suśruta, Charaka also mentions the bladder and tube contraption. Charaka prescribes buffalo’s urinary bladder for goats, sheep, elephants, cows and horses (Mukhopadhyaya 1913). He states that injections into the rectum are done by means of a tube with a membranous leather bag (or sterilized urinary bladder of an animal) tied to one end. The other end of the tube is inserted into the rectum. The Vasti (enema tube) is 18 aṅgulas (a measure equal to the normal width of a human thumb, approximately 16-20 mm) for elephants and is termed ‘Suvasti’ in Charaka Saṁhitā (Chapter 11, Siddhisthāna).

Charaka states that the basic formulations of enemas consist of rock salt, jaggery, Indrayava (Holarrhena antidysenterica), Kuṣṭha (Saussu-rea lappa), Madhuka (Bassia latifolia) and Daśamūla (combination of ten herbal roots). The additive formulations to the basic enema for elephants are Aśvattha (Ficus religiosa) Vaṭa (Ficus benghalensis), Aśvakarṇa (Shorea robusta) and Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica).

Basti therapy in Hastyāyurveda

Sage Pālakāpya describes rectal enema equipment for elephants made either of wood or bamboo. The length of the tube is 68 aṅgulas for elephants. There should be a projection 12 aṅgulas high at the end of the tube for firmly tying the leather bag to the tube. In the context of Basti therapy for treating wounds (Vraṇavasti), the tubes used for washing wounds of elephants are to be made of copper and shaped like the Karoṇtaka flower measuring 16 aṅgulas in length. These are called wound syringes. The Uttarasthāna (Chapter 5, Vastidānakathanam) of the text elaborately deals with enema administration to elephants (Sharma 1894). It states that there are nine kinds of enemas such as those administering oils (Snehabasti), to cause increase of digestive fire (Agnidīpana), to give strength, that which causes rasa to increase, to increase blood, flesh and fat or bone growth, to give strength or to increase marrow and semen.

Sage Pālakāpya describes an elaborate mechanism by which an elephant can be secured or laid down in an appropriate position in the śalyasthāna (Chapter 11, Yantravidhiḥ) of the text. The measurements of a device known as the Bāhuyantra are given which provides suitable arrangements to secure the head, tail, loins and limbs of the elephant during medical treatments. The Bāhuyantra also has an arrangement by which its height can be increased on the sides and back. Before beginning administration of enema, it states that the elephant must be tied carefully to the Bāhuyantra at an auspicious time amidst a sacrifice performed by Brahmins chanting Svasti mantras (hymns for well-being of the elephant). Persons on either side and in front of it should instil confidence in elephant to accept the medication by slowly massaging its trunk and other parts.

[A] Ophthalmic drug administration – Administering medications to the eyes is accompanied by enemas administered through rectal route. Basti therapy used to relieve tensions trapped in and around the eye sockets and thus treat eye disorders in elephants is termed by Sage Pālakāpya as Netrabasti. It involves pressing a doughnut ring of flour (dough) around

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the eye socket ensuring a good seal with the skin and pouring medication into it. Some eye diseases are cured by surgery whereas some by application of medicated oils to cure affected parts or by administering medications. Placement of medication into the eyes of an elephant must be done carefully. Most trained elephants will permit close visual inspection of the eye, but will close the eye if the medication is placed on the conjunctiva or cornea. Once closed, the ocular muscles effectively prevent manual opening of the eyelid by the Vaidya (elephant physician).

The śalyasthāna (Chapter 29, Pradeśajñāna) of the text deals with members of the eyes such as eye sockets, the regions above it, pupil, corner of the eye, eyelashes, eyelids, conjunctiva, cornea and angles at the corner of the eyes. The ‘Hastyāyurveda’ Akṣirogādhyāya (Chapter 18, Mahārogasthāna) gives details about the causes and diagnosis of several eye diseases (Sharma 1894). One such disease is Nāyamprekṣi caused by sleeplessness in the night (Sheshadri 2015) leading to headache, blurring vision and pain in the eyes. Regarding the cure of eye diseases, the text states that the Vaidya should tie the tusks and bind the eyes of the elephant, followed by application of a mixture of decoctions of various medicinal herbs, salts, honey or by applying collyrium (Añjana) after surgery if needed.

Netrabasti for elephants involves the tying of eyes of elephants using a skin bereft of holes as dealt in Uttarasthāna (Chapter 5, Vastidānakathanam; Sharma 1894). Netrabasti causes sweating in the elephant. By suitable arrangement, the Vaidya should administer treatment using specially medicated oils, taking care that the eyes do not go up or down. Similar internal therapy is given through the mouth while pleasing the mind of the elephant by playing music of a flute or a Vīṇā (a stringed musical instrument) as well as soft words. After the eyes are treated, the area around the eye sockets is massaged. The elephant is made to sweat out by sprinkling hot water, which eases the stressed optical nerves in the region surrounding the eyes (termed as Nāḍisveda). Sometimes herbal fomentation (application of moist warm compresses) is used to reduce pain and swelling in these regions. This is followed by

taking the elephant for a walk and having brought back, it is offered rice moistened by milk, barley, salt, oleaginous materials and made to sleep.

Netrabasti medications can be small measures of barley gruel and ghee. The elephant is tied to the Bāhuyantra and as the medications are slowly administered over the eyes, there is easing of all nerves (Nāḍis). The Eṣaṇi (a probe type) instrument is used to pour medications over the eyes. Medication in eyes should not be in excess as then it causes the windy humours in the body to rise upward and cause pain in the anus, obstructing evacuation of faeces. The text therefore mentions the use of suppositories (a medicated dosage form inserted for evacuation of faeces or urine). These suppositories are termed generally as Phalavarti (Gudavarti if through the anus Sisnavarti if through urethra and Yonivarti if through the vagina). The essence of Bṛhati fruits (Solanum indicum), Apāmārga (Achyranthes aspera), rice, Nirguṇḍi (Vitex negundo), Aragvadha (Cassia fistula), Sahachara (Strobilanthes heynianus), Surasa leaves (Vitex trifolia), Pippali (Piper longum), Maricha (Piper nigrum) are smoked and mixed together and made into a wick (Varti) and inserted into the anus to the extent of 12 aṅgulas causing urine to flow out (Rajan 2005). One must insert the wick while simultaneously applying clarified butter on the pechaka (part around the root of the tail). Sage Pālakāpya mentions some precautionary measures such in tying of the eyes during Netrabasti treatment, where it should not be too tight as it affects the medication. If the medicine is affected there are dośas (fundamental bodily humours due to wind, phlegm and bile). As the eyes get unsteady or get squeezed, the medication causes wind to rise upwards and for faeces affected to pass out through the anus. If the medications poured are less than optimal, then the desired result obtained is also less. If it is afflicted, then death occurs. If medication intake is long and more, then only oils are given. Medications should also not be too strong or soft or cold.

[B] Snehabasti – Sage Pālakāpya states that oleaginous materials and oil can be administered as medications and is termed as Snehabasti. The Uttarasthāna (Chapter 4, Snehavidhikathanam)

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describes these oils, giving the opinion of Sages Garga and Bhāradvāja (Sharma 1894). Administration of oleaginous materials and oils give good digestive fire and clear the joints, provide good skin color, remove pitta from the upper belly, removes fatigue, ticks and lice and pacify dośas of the body. Sage Pālakāpya states that medications are to be given if disorders arise in ears, eyes, tongue, face, teeth and head. Care should be taken so that oils that are administrated are not hot and introduced in haste.

[C] āsthāpana Basti – This therapy helps in maintaining the body dhatus and dośas. The ‘Hastyāyurveda’ recommends it for aged elephants, and those suffering from thirst or rut flows. Decoctions made of herbs or oils are used as medications. For excitement of amorous desires, treating diseases related to swooning, worms in the belly or wearing of body dhatus (fundamental principles that support the basic structure and functioning of the body such as lymph, blood, muscles, fat, bone, marrow and semen) this method can be used. Before administering it, the elephant must be tied well and then given the dosage based on its strength, disease, place and time. āsthāpana Basti eases passage of faeces from the anus of the elephant. The medications are generally mixed with oils or milk and then administered.

[D] Anuvāsana Basti – The therapy, which helps the elephant digest food easily by stimulating its digestive fire by enemas through the rectal route is Anuvāsana Basti. It varies according to seasons and is generally given after meals. In the case of Anuvāsana Basti, the elephant is first subjected to massage of the pelvic and abdominal regions after food intake and made to sweat by light physical exercise. Oils are given along with soft warm salts as a moisturizer to moisten dry tissues, reduce digestive disorders - especially those arising from wind (vāta). Salts remove all poisonous wastes and give strength. If the bowel and bladder are empty after evacuation, it indicates that medication is retained without causing harm to the elephant. Nasyakarma or inhalation as a method of drug delivery is limited. However Sage Pālakāpya mentions Nasyakarma for elephants in several sections of his text, to treat

diseases of the head. Medications through the naso-oral tract (as in Nasyakarma) is detrimental along with Anuvāsana Basti (involving unctuous substances given after meals) as it makes the stimulated dośas to move in an upward direction causing other diseases related to vision and the head.

[E] Kṣīrabasti – Elephants can be administered milk as it is the best medication for treating blood disorders according to Sage Pālakāpya. For disorders of flesh, bone and fat, salt can be used, while for disorders of semen and marrow, water can be used as an additive. The text states that milk is added to a decoction of five roots (Pañcamūla), til seeds (Sesamum indicum), Uśīra (Vetiveria zizanoides), Padmaka (Prunus cerasoides), lotus, sandal, Rāsna (Van-da roxburghii), Prapauṇḍarika (Nelumbium speciosum), Mustaka (Cyperus rotundus), Mṛdvīka (Vitis vinifera), Māmsi (Nardostachys jatamansi), Mañjiṣṭha (Rubia cordifolia), sugar and honey. Kṣīrabasti is also used to cure thirst, swooning, breathlessness and decreased flow of blood in arteries. It is generally practiced in case of elephants that are old, weak, whose rut flow has ceased or whose body dhatus are worn out.

[F] Medications to remove dośas – The text gives a long list of herbal formulations used as enemas to treat afflictions of the dośas. The urine of elephants, ass and camels mixed with sour curd, liquor, grains, Badara (Ziziphus jujuba), moist black til seed oil (Sesamum indicum) made bitter with salt are to be given as medications to remove phlegm. To pacify pitta (bilious) disorders, a herbal decoction of ‘milk trees’, Rodhra (Symplocos racemosa), Piṇḍīraka (Randia dumetorum), Kaseruka (Scirpus grossus), Abhīrupatrika (Aspargus dumosus), śyāma (Ipomomoea turpethum), Dhara (Emblica officinalis), Khadira (Acacia catechu), Turanti (unidentified), Agnimantha (Clerodendrum phlomoides), Nīpa (Barringtonia racemosa), Kaṭphalacetasa (Myrica esculenta), Shadi (unidentified), Suvarṇakṣīri (Argemone mexicana), Vajrajambu (Syzygium cumini), Dhātuki (Woodfordia fruticosa), til seeds (Sesamum indicum), Padmaka (Prunus cerasoides), and Uśīra (Vetiveria zizanoides) are

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given. They ease the faeces from the anus of an elephant. Warm medicated oils that are strong are good enemas for curing flatulence. The text also mentions certain enemas to be given to pacify the belly as well as treat blood disorders. Certain enemas are mentioned to cure diseases of genitals, painful passage of urine or urine entering into the belly.

[G] Rectal drug administration – Rectal administration is rare in veterinary medicine but considering the size of elephants it is a benefit as it can hold large quantities of drugs (Isaza & Hunter 2004). It requires acceptance of manual manipulation of the rectum and colon and cooperation of the elephant. Knowledge of administering the correct enemas through the rectum or anus is required so that they do not cause irritation in the colon or walls of the intestine. Further, such enemas are to be carefully deposited manually inside the anus so as to reach as far as the cranial and pelvic portions rather than being prematurely ejected from the rectum in the form of faeces. The procedure is initiated now-a-days by manually removing the large faecal balls (Mikota & Plumb 2003).

The ‘Hastyāyurveda’ mentions that if the anus is affected, the pitta disorders are more in elephants and gives several formulations to ease faeces. The Kṣudrarogasthāna (Chapter 40, śoṇitāṇḍādhyāya; Sharma 1894) describes inflammation of the scrotum in elephants and how it leads to urinary disorders. These also can be treated by enemas. The Uttarasthāna (Chapter 5, Vastidānakathanam) of the text mentions that one must follow Uttara Basti therapy for treatment of urinary diseases such as painful passage of urine, excess or scanty flow, urine entering the belly, and blood passing along with urine. Sage Pālakāpya recommends the use of tubular instruments (called Puṣpanetra) for injections into the vagina and urethra. These tubes have a length and circumference that is in accordance with the length and breadth of the passages into which they are to be inserted (generally penis of the elephant for Uttara Basti therapy).

Sage Pālakāpya quotes one instance of rectal drug administration that is very brief but interesting:

In some cases, pregnant elephants suffer from a condition of a dead foetus remaining within the uterus. The animal struggles due to labour and thus removal of the foetus by instruments without affecting the mother represents a severe problem. The śalyasthāna (Chapter 33, Mūḍhagarbhāpanayanam) deals with such a case of a dead foetus and its removal as follows (Sharma 1894) – “Using a decoction of clarified butter, śāli rice, Dhanvana (Grevia tilifolia) plant, one must worship the right portion of the trunk and also genital openings, slowly instilling confidence in the elephant. Then slowly injecting one’s hand into the womb of the elephant one must pull out the dead foetus. If it cannot be removed the normal way, one must use instruments, slowly excising obstructing parts and hurriedly one must stitch the parts to protect the mother and remove the foetus.” This shows that ancient Indians sought divine help for animals even during surgical procedures for them.

[H] Multipurpose enemas – The ‘Hastyāyurveda’ elaborates on certain enemas to counter diseases that are caused by wrong administration of enemas that lead to aggravation of dośas. In this context the text states that enemas must not be too strong, neither too hot nor cold and must be administered in the proper measures examining the dośas of the elephant. śyāma (Ipomoea turpethum), Tṛvrit (Operculina turpetham) and oil are to be given as medications to go deep and to be absorbed by the body. Therapy for the treatment of heart involves Triphala [a combination of āmalaki (Emblica officinalis), Vibhītaki (Terminalia bellirica), Harītaki (Terminalia chebula)], oils, śāli (Oryza sativa) roots, ChiraBilva (Holoptelea integrifolia) and roots of śyāma (Ipomoea turpethum), all made into a decoction. For swooning, cold enemas are to be given. These can also be given to excite amorous desires.

Post-enema administration observations

Some interesting details of the elephant’s bodily response to administered enemas are given in the ‘Hastyāyurveda’ (Sharma 1894). This involves careful observations, examination and diagnosis. The Kṣudrarogasthāna (Chapter 43) of the text

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devotes an entire chapter to treatment of old age in elephants and their daily regimen. Details of anointing the head with medicated oils, making the sleeping place soft by spreading Darbha (Imperata cylindrica) or other grasses are to be done post-enema administration in the case of aged elephants. Sage Pālakāpya states that the eyes treated with weak enemas or in excess, cause pain in the anus of elephants. Oleaginous materials and oils that are administered reach heart portions and affect the elephant if it has not eaten. These may also afflict the belly and wind may rise to the upper portions, eyes, ears, head and nose. If not eaten, oily Anuvāsanas are to be given. One must observe the elephant’s behaviour for seven nights and then administer the oil for three days. By this the strength of the elephant increases. Basti therapy has to be also given based on examination of movements, load carrying capacities, suffering excess heat, cold, rain, fire or sounds.

The text states that leprosy, ulcers and urinary disorders are to be cured by Anuvāsana Basti. If swooning occurs or if it suffers from thirst, yellowish oils are to be given. Enemas that cause pain or which are poisonous are not to be given.

Conclusion

One finds a tremendous development of knowledge of administering medications as well as therapies to both humans and animals from remote periods. It is remarkable that ancient Indian veterinarians recognized such diseases and complications of animals and treated them, especially in large populations of elephants in armies and royal stables as well as those that were in the wild. Inter- disciplinary research into the various Basti therapies recommended by the text for treatment of various diseases as well as the diagnostic and surgical procedures for pregnant or war elephants would be a topic of research that would bring forth the excellent contributions of Sage Pālakāpya. The text is also useful for practically implementing Basti therapy for elephants in modern veterinary health care as post- enema observations are also given in the text. A study of these aspects may allow timely identification and treatment of elephant diseases.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the Secretary, Mythic Society, Bangalore and Secretary, Kannada Sahitya Parishat, Bangalore for providing the necessary references

References

Bhishagratna KK, Mitra J & Dwivedi L (eds) (1983) Suśruta Saṁhitā. Text with English translation. Vols. I-III, Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi.

Harbola PC (2003) Historical perspective of Hasti Ayurveda. In: Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry in Ancient India. Somavanshi R & Yadav MP (eds) Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar. pp 51-59.

Isaza R & Hunter RP (2004) Drug delivery to captive Asian elephants – treating Goliath. Current Drug Delivery 1: 291-298.

Mikota SK & Plumb DC (2003) Elephant Formulary – Medication Techniques for Ele-phants. Elephant Care International. pp 1-8.

Mukhopadhyaya G (1913) The Surgical Instru-ments of the Hindus. Vol. I. Calcutta University, pp 130-131.

Rajan SS (2005) Dictionary of Sanskrit Plant Names. Vardhana Publications, Bangalore.

Sharma Pt. S (1894) Pālakāpya ‘Hastyāyurveda’ – Sanskrit text, Anandashram Sanskrit Series, No. 26, Poona.

Sharma R & Dash VB (2001) Charaka Saṁhitā – Text with translation and notes based on Chakrapāṇi’s Ayurvedadīpikā, Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series No. 94, Vol. VI., 2001. Chow-khambha Publications, Varanasi.

Sheshadri KG (2015) Elephant behaviour in the night according to Sage Palakapya. Gajah 42: 41-43.

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Short Communication Gajah 43 (2015) 42-45

Some Traditional Captive Elephant Management Practices in Sri Lanka

Ashoka Dangolla

Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri LankaAuthor-s e-mail: adangolla@gmail.com

vessels along the back of elephants (Kumudinie et al. 2005) and their thermal conductance is raised with increasing environmental temperature (Kumudinie et al. 2006b; Mikota 2006). Sweat glands are scarce or absent on the skin of elephants except in inter-digital spaces (Mikota 2006). Flapping the ears helps them thermo-regulate.

Elephant races and use of elephants in sport activity could generate excess heat which elephants may find difficult to dissipate. The organizers of festivals where elephant races are featured, usually delay holding the races, perhaps in order to refrain people from leaving the festival grounds early. Consequently, elephant races are held mostly towards the end of the day after 4:00 pm when the day becomes cool, running is limited to 150 - 200 m and most adults do not run. It is very rarely that an elephant misbehaves at such events, which shows that the elephants tolerate thermal stress to some extent, if the keeper commands them to do so. Elephants playing football or polo, both of which are not popular in Sri Lanka, could be more stressed, since these are games played earlier in the day and for longer durations.

At times, Sri Lankan elephant dress is criticized because it covers the entire ear (Fig. 1). In all other Asian countries, the ears are left bare when elephants are dressed up for festivals, and some make drawings on the ears. However, the rate at which processions in Sri Lanka proceed is very slow (approximately 1 km/h) which is unlikely to create a substantial impact for the rate of ear flapping to increase (Sakalasooriya et al. 2006). Interestingly, when a male elephant runs riot during a procession, keepers try and remove the earflaps of the dress first, if possible. This is because keepers believe that elephants are ‘heaty’

Introduction

Elephants have been managed in captivity in Sri Lanka for many decades. The owners and keepers of captive elephants carefully observed their behaviour and established many concepts, which eventually became traditional knowledge but went undocumented (Dangolla et al. 2002a). It is interesting and important to study such knowledge to understand elephants better and to provide them with better medical attention. Traditional knowledge on a few topics is briefly described below.

Provision of water

Since ancient times, calves are given drinking water more frequently, even at night, compared to adults. Recently, it has been shown that skin evaporation is faster in elephant calves than in adults and therefore, calves must be given drinking water more frequently (Bandara et al. 2005; Kumudinie et al. 2006a).

Bathing

During the warm hours of the day for 3 - 4 hours, most captive elephants are immersed in water even if they are not worked (Bandara et al. 2005). Most captive elephants sleep in the water while bathing when they are tired. During night festivals, which occur over a few consecutive days at times, participating elephants do not sleep well possibly due to unusual noise and too much light. During such times, elephant keepers force their elephants to sleep in water (Dangolla et al. 2002b).

Thermoregulation

The heat from the sun is absorbed by blood

© 2015 The Author - Open Access

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animals, who could become temperamental when their ears are covered. This is also possibly why keepers and owners prefer elephants with larger ears, and such elephants are more expensive.

Elephant control

Most keepers can predict when elephants are likely to run riot during processions. This has prevented many disastrous situations and injuries to both humans and elephants because the keepers remove such elephants from processions before they become unruly. Captive elephants, when angry, often kill their keepers (Dangolla et al. 2008). Therefore keepers observe and study the behaviour of their elephants primarily to protect themselves and the public. However, when an elephant runs riot during processions, the assistance provided by the keepers to the veterinarian to bring the animal under control is commendable. In such situations, keepers request chemical immobilization as the last resort even if an equipped and experienced veterinarian is present, because they believe it disturbs the morale and character of male elephants.

Owners frequently change keepers of male elephants with unpredictable behaviour. There-fore, it is possible that bonding between the elephant and the keeper is renewed more frequently than the elephant would like (Hettiarachchi et al. 2005). A well-known tusker of the temple of the tooth in Kandy, with relatively high serum testosterone levels has never shown unruly behaviour while most others did so, possibly because the keeper of this particular tusker was the same for 10 years (Hettiarchchi et al. 2005).

During musth, captive males are kept tied in the same stable for several months. After external signs of musth disappear, traditional keepers spend approximately two weeks discussing the matter with the owner, native doctor, village headman, the priest and the fortune-teller. The keepers release such males on an auspicious day at an auspicious time, after a special function for which several traditional sweets are prepared. Fairly recently, it was found that serum testosterone takes approximately two weeks to reduce to basal levels after disappearance of external signs of musth (Schmidt 1993).

Sometimes keepers want musth to end earlier than expected. In such instances, most keepers add bamboo (Bamboosa vulgaris) leaves into the diet, which is possibly less nutritious. After about one week, musth secretions cease. However, musth management always poses a challenge in elephant work (Mar 2006). I have encountered one female regularly coming into behaviour similar to musth males, who also killed a man and had to be tranquilized and re-captured.

Depending on the strength of the bond between the keeper and the elephant, keepers use various approaches to judge the behaviour of elephants every morning. Some keepers hum a song and others raise their tone and shout or scold so that the elephant could hear. They approach elephants from the front, giving the elephant sufficient time to identify the person, show friendship by various means and wait until the elephant urinates, defecates or perhaps performs a unique sneeze or a mild long grunt. It is only afterwards that a keeper would approach and clean the stables. The area close to the hind legs is cleaned

Figure 1. Elephant being dressed for a festival in Kandy, Sri Lanka (Photo by Jennifer Pastorini).

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first, possibly as a precautionary measure. Such behaviour, commonly used until the elephant-keeper bond is well established, can be interpreted as a submissive approach by the keeper. It is now known that in the morning, serum testosterone levels are likely to be higher compared to the evening (Hettiarchchi et al. 2005).

The ankus, the instrument used to manage captive elephants, is approximately seven feet long in Sri Lanka while in other range countries it is much shorter. It is possible that Sri Lankan keepers prefer to manage elephants from a distance for additional safety. Some Sri Lankan kings in the past used to execute criminals by commanding trained elephants to trample them and therefore keepers themselves possibly had to be careful.

Most elephants are always tied with the “walk chain” which is applied to both hind legs at an adequate length to allow walking. Additionally, several traditions of chaining are applied depending on the occasion. For example, if a male after running riot must be taken to his home, a stringent method of tying which could even injure the elephant if he struggles too much is adopted. But if the same animal has to go for a procession, a criss-cross method of chaining the legs is applied to prevent him from running or jumping forward. Recently some keepers have started applying walk chains to the front legs. The latter may be better from the welfare point of view, since the thoracic girdle is stronger with several strong muscles compared to the pelvic girdle and therefore, is unlikely to be dislocated or injured.

Treatment

Most keepers know medicaments that serve as a physical barrier to prevent entry of bacteria when applied on wounds. There are several combinations of herbs that prevent deterioration of existing wounds and infection of new wounds. Most of them work better on younger animals (Perera et al. 2004). With older elephants, such native medicaments work well in combination with paranteral antibiotics. There are also native medicines, which if applied continuously for 3-5 days, would destroy the pyogenic membrane of

abscesses and sinuses and expel necrotic tissue (Perera et al. 2004). One reason for keepers to prefer native medicaments may be that they do not cause fresh bleeding from wounds, which most of them do not like to see. Among the several factors attributed to the reduced incidence of pododermatitis in captive elephants (Gamage et al. 1998), the contribution by elephant keepers is important.

Immediately after musth, most males develop stomach ailments due to sudden changes in their appetite. Such males at times become pale due to anemia, mildly constipated and show signs of colic. For such animals, traditional keepers orally administer a combination of five herbs, which leads to a mild diarrhoea with which Mushidia spp. worms are excreted. The loose motion caused by such medicines, settles on its own and elephants get clinically better within about two weeks. If a modern anthelmintic is given afterwards to such males, they excrete more worms. In India, immediately after musth, most captive elephants are given a combination of cereals, which improve most hematological parameters but do not expel worms.

Elephants, when ill or in old age, develop malabsorption syndrome (Dangolla & Silva 2000) during which some sleep for very long times on their sides. Most traditional keepers are aware that if elephants sleep on their sides for more than about 8 hours, the prognosis becomes bad. One of the medicaments administered in such situations, irrespective of the cause, is to blow certain medicaments into the eye. This strongly irritates the cornea and in reaction, they get up at once. In western medicine, if an animal has been administered with all supplements liquids, vitamins, minerals and energy, an electric stimulation (shock) is given to get them on their feet. Most keepers are aware that some elephants have a preference for the side to lie down and sleep and that not all elephants sleep on both sides equally. Therefore, depending on the side they are either sleeping or even fallen at times, keepers tend to predict the prognosis. Such information is important to design treatment plans and also to device a strategy for hoisting and keeping such elephants upright thereafter.

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Thus, the traditional elephant keepers in Sri Lanka, not versed in science, have through observations and experience figured out a number of practices that are conversant with what would be advocated from scientific study of the animals.

References

Bandara KAPA, Dangolla A & Rajarathna AAJ (2005) Water balance in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus). SLVJ 52 (1&2B): 35.

Dangolla A, Weerasiri D, Jayantha ULD & Silva I (2002a) Data on keepers of domesticated elephants in Sri Lanka. In: Workshop on Captive Elephant Management. Kerala, India. p 36.

Dangolla A, Pathmasiri PL & Silva I (2002b) Sleeping patterns on domesticated elephants participating in festivals. In: Workshop on Cap-tive Elephant Management. Kerala, India. p 5.

Dangolla A, Rajapakse E, Silva I & Fernando KKM (2008) Human directed aggression in captive elephants in Sri Lanka. In: Conference on Elephant Conservation. Nong Nooch Hotel, Thailand.

Dangolla A & Silva ID (2000) A case of malabsorption syndrome due to fractured molars in and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus maximus). SLVJ 47 (1A): 11-12.

Gamage CNS, Kuruwita VY & Dangolla A (1998) Suppurative inflammation in the soles of the feet pododermatitis of Sri Lanka elephants (Elephas maximum maximus lineaus) and the causative bacteria. (Elephas maximus maximums lineaus). In: Peradeniya University Research Sessions. p 15.

Hettiarachchi GC, Dangolla A., Watawana IL & Udugama MC (2005) Serum testosterone level in captive male elephants (Elephant maximus maximus) in Sri Lanka. Proc. of the Peradeniya University Research Sessions 10: 163.

Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A & Rajaratna AAJ (2005) Mechanisms of

thermoregulation in Asian elephants. SLVJ 52 (1&2B): 34.

Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A & Rajaratna AAJ (2006a) Cutaneous evaporation as a mechanism of heat dissipation in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus maximus). In: Proceedings of Annual Convention and Scientific Sessions of Sri Lanka Veterinary Association. Plant Genetic Resource Centre, Gannoruwa. p 20.

Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A & Rajaratna AAJ (2006b) Adaptability of Sri Lan-kan elephants to the thermal environment of the tropics. In: International Conference on Humid Tropical Ecosystems, Changes, Challenges and Opportunities. Kandy, Sri Lanka. p 85.

Mar KU (2006) Myanmar. In: Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. Fowler ME & Mikota SK (eds) Wiley-Blackwell, Australia. pp 460-464.

Mikota SK (2006) Integument system. In: Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. Fowler ME & Mikota SK (eds) Wiley-Blackwell, Australia. pp 253-261.

Perera GIS, Dangolla A & Silva ID (2004) Effectiveness of indigenous and western medication combinations for wound dressing in domesticated elephants (Elephas maximus maximus). SLVJ 51(1B): 25-26.

Sakalasooriya SML, Kumudinie DLN, Dangolla A & Silva ID (2006) Possible role of external ear lobe in thermoregulation in captive elephants (Elephas maximus maximus). In: Proceedings of Annual Convention and Scientific Sessions of Sri Lanka Veterinary Association. Plant Genetic Resource Centre, Gannoruwa. p 21.

Schmidt MJ (1993) Breeding elephants in captivity. In: Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Fowler M (ed) WB Saunders, Philadelphia. pp 445-448.

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Background

In Asia, about 16,000 elephants are currently maintained in captivity for a variety of purposes: logging, tourism, cultural and religious activities, and transportation. With the banning of logging in many Asian countries within the past few decades, elephants have found work mainly in tourism, where they interact with the public in the form of shows, trekking, bathing, feeding and other activities. A major challenge, however, is that most captive populations are not self-sustaining because deaths exceed births. High morbidity and mortality can be attributed to inadequate management, nutrition and medical care; thus, off-take of wild elephants to supplement captive populations becomes another major threat to species survival. An additional challenge is the decline in good mahoutship and the lack of skills in newer, more humane training methods. There is an urgent need for practical guidelines and clear recommendations on how to effectively manage captive elephants such that good health, reproduction and welfare are equally addressed and ensured at all times.

With all the above it is clear that the current situation of captive Asian elephants in South-east Asia is far from optimal, and while problems of captive elephants differ greatly from those of wild populations, we cannot ignore that these large numbers of elephants under human care have a major role to play in the overall conservation strategy planning for this species.

On the 11th and 12th of June 2015, a group of elephant experts and practitioners from countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) met for a first brainstorming session

News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 46-47

Summary ASEAN Captive Elephant Working Group Meeting

Chatchote Thitaram1*, Janine L. Brown2 and Sonja Luz3

1Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand2Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, USA3Wildlife Reserves Singapore, Singapore*Corresponding author’s e-mail: cthitaram@gmail.com

in Chiang Mai, Thailand to strategize on how to address the above and ensure a sustainable and high quality of life for captive elephants in Southeast Asia.

Executive summary

On the first morning of the workshop, range country participants presented status reports on captive and wild elephant population numbers and uses of elephants in captivity. There were several common themes throughout these presentations that included declining numbers of wild elephants, lack of sustainability of captive populations, inability to breed captive elephants, need for better elephant health care, and a call for more mahout training to include positive reinforcement techniques.

Through facilitated discussions, participants then brainstormed ideas pertinent to these issues to: 1) identify a group vision, mission, objectives and goals; 2) determine areas of activity to promote good stewardship of elephants; 3) propose structure, roles and partners of the working group; and 4) determine next steps. Issues relevant to captive elephant management and welfare were identified, including ‘gaps and

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needs’, and strategies were outlined related to the goals, with specific actions, associated timelines and the person(s) responsible for ensuring the action would be carried out.

Five key issues emerged, listed below but not in order of ranked priority: • Create a functional working group that

serves to advance elephant management and ensure a sustainable, high quality of life for all captive elephants in Southeast Asia.

• Develop a document describing best captive elephant management practices and protocols.

• Create methods of assessment for evaluating and possibly scoring existing camps (rating/ranking system).

• Provide educational/training materials and enhance capacity building.

• Conduct a thorough literature search on what is available and compile information on elephant management, mahout training, conservation messages and health care for distribution to invested parties, and to identify gaps in knowledge.

On the second day, participants visited the Maesa Elephant Camp near Chiang Mai. This is a large camp (76 elephants) and participants found most to be in good health, although there were

indications of foot problems in some individuals because of the hard ground elephants walk on during the day up and down the hills. There was also some concern about the lack of socialization time for individual elephants. Setting aside an area for larger groups of elephants to interact normally (e.g., the soccer field), with the public watching from afar, might be an option, and could be stimulating for elephant and tourists alike. In a separate area of Maesa Elephant Camp is the Elephant Care Center, which takes care of retired (those over 55 years old) or sick elephants; currently they have eight. Tourists pay to take part in daily management, without riding or a show, thus bringing in an income to care for these elephants.

In the afternoon, participants met in plenary and chose a name – ASEAN Captive Elephant Working Group (ACEWG), and created a 10-member steering committee that is tasked with setting priorities for group activities, coordinating with members and sub-groups, creating a master plan, setting future meetings, and serving as a liaison to group members for people seeking information. Tasks were assigned in the afternoon of the last day. Singapore Zoo agreed to host the next working group meeting, which will take place 9-10 November 2015 to further discussions and assess progress.

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With approximately 5000 individuals, Myanmar manages the highest number of captive elephants amongst all Asian elephant range countries. Nearly 3000 of these captive elephants belong to the government run Myanma Timber Enterprise (MTE). The MTE has one of the best structured and closely monitored captive elephant management systems in Asia. In this system, adult trained elephants have been used for different kinds of work in logging operations since 1948. As MTE is a government agency, and due to its elephant management expertise, it is increasingly put in charge of wild elephant conflict management in Myanmar by means of wild elephant drives, habitat patrols, and wild elephant rescues and translocations.

During the past years the annual timber extraction quota in Myanmar has been drastically reduced, and progressively more heavy machinery is used for logging operations. This has led to a situation were increasing numbers of MTE elephants

News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 48-49

Collaborating with Myanmar Mahouts on Elephant Health Care

Zaw Min Oo1*, Christopher Stremme2 and Heidi S. Riddle3

1Myanma Timber Enterprise, Yangon, Myanmar2International Elephant Project, Sumatra, Indonesia3Riddle’s Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Greenbrier, USA*Corresponding author’s e-mail: zawminoomte@gmail.com

no longer need to be employed in the timber industry, but MTE still has a responsibility to provide care for these elephants and is working to identify alternatives for the sustainable use of these captive elephants. Recently MTE has explored the possibilities to employ some of their elephants in eco-tourism projects, for protected habitat monitoring and patrols, and for HEC management. With support from international conservation NGOs, during the past few years MTE started to develop some of their timber elephant camps as conservation and eco-tourism camps. This includes training MTE staff (mahouts, camp managers, timber rangers) in the camps to be able to fulfil their new or changed roles. Topics addressed by additional training include field navigation with GPS and maps, recording and record-keeping of data, English language skills, HEC conflict mitigation strategies, and exchanges with field staff from similar programs in other Asian elephant range countries.

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As part of this ongoing training program, and in order to improve the management and health care of their captive elephants, MTE conducted a training workshop for mahouts and veterinary assistants on September 14-20, 2015, with assistance from the NGO Asian Elephant Support (AES). Invited presenters were Dr. Christopher Stremme, elephant veterinarian, and Heidi Riddle, elephant manager, in addition to MTE staff led by Dr. Zaw Min Oo, Assistant Manager, MTE Department of Extraction.

The workshop started on September 14 in the MTE Nanchun training school in Taungoo, Bago (East) Region. During the first day lectures were given on basic elephant biology, differences between Asian and African elephants, captive elephant management in western facilities, training elephants for foot care, elephant foot anatomy and physiology, elephant foot problems and diseases, as well as treatment and prevention. Participants in the session included 18 veterinary assistants and 12 mahouts from different parts of the country. From September 15-20 the session was continued in the Phokyar elephant camp close to the town of Taungoo. During this time practical demonstrations using the camp elephants were given about training elephants for foot care and conducting proper foot care. From the second day on the participants were divided into 4 groups; two elephants with their mahouts were assigned to each group. The groups were supervised to start training their elephants and to conduct basic foot care procedures. All of the participants were extremely interested, enthusiastic, and participated very well in the practical activities. By the end of the workshop all the elephants used during the practical session

were able to be handled for basic foot care, and the participants had a good understanding of the principles of proper elephant foot care. Foot care tools donated earlier by the Elephant Managers Association, a U.S. based organization of elephant keepers and enthusiasts, as well as by AES were given to all participants in the session and to mahouts from the Phokyar camp to enable them to continue this elephant care after the session ended.

In addition to the Phokyar elephant camp, two other camps (Myaing Hay Wun and Green Hill Valley) managing MTE elephants were visited. In both these camps captive elephant management and foot care topics were discussed via presentations and practical demonstrations. Foot care tools were also distributed to mahouts in these camps.

Further collaborations including field training and knowledge exchange between elephant management programs and staff from Myanmar and other Asian elephant range countries (i.e. Sumatra-Indonesia) are planned for the future.

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Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is a significant threat to Asian elephant conservation and is a top issue of concern in addition to habitat loss and fragmentation. In India alone, an average of 100 elephants and 400 people are killed each year due to negative interactions that result from HEC. WWF is working to reduce levels of HEC across a number of landscapes in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia and Sabah, Malaysia.

In order to examine and improve our work to reduce HEC, WWF’s Asian Rhino and Elephant Action Strategy (AREAS) Program held a human-elephant conflict workshop for WWF landscape staff and other invited participants from November 20-24, 2015, in Assam, India. The workshop brought together staff from across WWF’s Asian elephant landscapes to share lessons learned on successes and failures experienced while addressing HEC in each of their respective regions with the aim of moving forward in a more collaborative and effective way to reduce conflict. In addition, the workshop participants included the coordinator of WWF’s African elephant conservation work, as well as a staff member from WWF-Kenya, to enable

sharing of ideas and experiences across Asian and African elephant landscapes.

During the workshop, participants had the opportunity to both discuss larger issues around HEC, like habitat loss and other drivers that exacerbate the issue, as well as to learn about effective HEC prevention and mitigation through demonstration of tools and techniques. The demonstrations were conducted by invited participants from Zimbabwe (Loki Osborn and Malvern Karidozo from Connected Conservation who demonstrated the use of chilli fences, chilli bombs and chilli smoke as deterrents) and Sri Lanka (Pruthu Fernando and Sampath Ekanayaka from the Centre for Conservation and Research who demonstrated seasonal electric fences), as well as WWF staff from the Western Ghats/Nilgiris landscape (Mohanraj and Boominathan who demonstrated a low-cost energizer used to power electric fences). In addition, staff from WWF’s North Bank and Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong landscapes in Assam, India, demonstrated and discussed the use of response teams from local communities and using trained elephants, or kunkies, to safely drive wild elephants away from potential conflict situations.

News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 50-51

WWF AREAS HEC Workshop Report

Nilanga Jayasinghe

WWF, Washington DC, USAAuthor’s e-mail: Nilanga.Jayasinghe@WWFUS.ORG

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Discussion topics during the workshop included the presentation of results from mapping WWF’s capacity to address HEC for Asian elephants; understanding elephant movement and behaviour to determine how we intervene in HEC situations; deep dives into the root causes of HEC; implementing standardized monitoring and evaluation of HEC across landscapes; the human dimensions of addressing HEC, including conflict transformation through groups like the Human Wildlife Conflict Collaboration; the use of technological tools to prevent HEC (early detection tools); and setting aside time for collaborating offices within the WWF Network to discuss ways of working together to reduce HEC within landscapes.

A key output of the workshop is to have each WWF landscape create a HEC-specific management plan within their larger landscape management plans in the two years following the meeting. This management plan will include the use and implementation of successful prevention and mitigation tools and techniques; testing of new methods that may become available (e.g. technological solutions); a more formalized plan for community engagement; a plan to address root causes, including formalized policy engagement; a standardized monitoring system; and ways through which the wider WWF network can help landscapes build capacity and obtain the tools and resources they need to successfully implement these plans. As a first step in devising these plans, each landscape listed the top measurable goals they plan to achieve in the next two years, with

shorter-term 6-month goals listed as an immediate next step. Collaborator offices for each landscape will follow up with each landscape to ensure these goals are met.

Participant feedback reflected that this was a useful workshop with the opportunity to not only discuss relevant issues, but to also have the opportunity to learn from the hands-on demonstrations of tools and techniques to prevent HEC. Participants appreciated the opportunity for discussion with external experts, networking, field trips, the participative approach of the sessions and learning from each other. Participants also reflected on the need for more time to discuss certain issues like root causes and long-term planning, which will be incorporated and included in the follow-up HEC workshop to be held in two years.

With special thanks to Hiten Baishya, Anupam Sarmah, Pranab Bora and Harshad Karandikar (WWF-India) for their support of the workshop.

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If you need additional information on any of the articles, please feel free to contact me. You can also let me know about new (2016) publications on Asian elephants.

S. Aini, A.M. Sood & S. SaabanAnalysing elephant habitat parameters using GIS, remote sensing and analytic hierarchy process in Peninsular MalaysiaPertanika Journals Science & Technology 23 (2015) 37-50Abstract. Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing are geospatial technologies that have been used for many years in environmental studies, including gathering and analysing of information on the physical parameters of wildlife habitats and modelling of habitat assessments. The home range estimation provided in a GIS environment offers a viable method of quantifying habitat use and facilitating a better understanding of species and habitat relationships. This study used remote sensing, GIS and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) application tools as methods to assess the habitat parameters preference of Asian elephant. Satellite images and topographical maps were used for the environmental and topographical habitat parameter generation encompassing land use-land cover, normalized digital vegetation index, water sources, digital elevation model, slope and aspect. The kernel home range was determined using elephant distribution data from satellite tracking, which were then analysed using habitat parameters to investigate any possible relationship. Subsequently, the frequency of the utilization distribution of elephants was further analysed using spatial and geostatistical analyses. This was followed by the use of AHP for identifying habitat preference, selection of significant habitat parameters and classification of

criterion. The habitats occupied by the elephants showed that the conservation of these animals would require good management practices within and outside of protected areas so as to ensure the level of suitability of the habitat, particularly in translocation areas. © 2015 Universiti Putra Malaysia Press.

N. Angammana, K.B. Ranawana & G. EllepolaEvaluation of damage caused by elephants (Elephas maximus maximus) to the woody vegetation in Udawalawe National ParkWildLanka 3 (2015) 20-30Abstract. Elephants can have profound effects on the structure and composition on woodlands. In this study, the damage caused by elephants to woody plants in the Udawalawe National Park was investigated. The study was carried out in three major habitat types in the Udawalawe National Park, namely grasslands, scrub forests and tall forests. Five plots were established in each habitat. Types of damages caused to the woody plants were categorized in to six main groups viz, crown damage, bark removal, branch damage, pushing down, partially damaged and totally damaged. Plant species, which were highly vulnerable for elephant damages and the areas in which elephant damages are high were identified. These results were used to identify the food preferences of elephants, highly recorded damage types and the area, which they prefer to stay. Based on the intensity of damages the study revealed that, crown damages, branch damages, pushing down and bark removal as highly recorded damage categories in the three habitats. Bauhinia recemosa, Phyllanthus polyphyllus, Limonia acidissima and Diospyros ovalifolia were the species that were more susceptible for elephant damages and the grassland habitats were the areas where elephant damages were high.

News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 52-67

Recent Publications on Asian Elephants

Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini

Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, SwitzerlandCentre for Conservation and Research, Rajagiriya, Sri LankaE-mail: jenny@aim.uzh.ch

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J.S. Anni & A.K. SangaiahElephant tracking with seismic sensors: A technical perceptive reviewJurnal Teknologi 74 (2015) 193-203Abstract. This paper presents a systematic literature review of elephant tracking approaches via seismic sensors. Elephant tracking is broadly divided into two categories: technical approach and non-technical approach. Among these two research directions technical approach has proved to be risk-free. It helps accumulation of the life of both human and elephants in the human-elephant conflict scenario. In the technical approach, seismic sensors have been preferred as an effective methodology for elephant tracking as reported in the literature. Seismic scenarios address research gap in the existing methodologies through their efficiency and precision in monitoring elephant movements without causing any harm to them while, at the same time, helping humans to solve their problems and saving environment from hazards. The main contribution of this paper is review of and address to the technical approaches that are employed for elephant tracking using seismic sensors, which also include seismic communication through sensor devices and encourage future research on this topic. © 2015 Penerbit UTM Press.

N. Arya, W. Moonarmart, N. Cheewa-mongkolnimit, N. Keratikul, S. Poon-iam, A. Routh, P. Bumpenpol & T. AngkawanishOsteocalcin and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at different agesThe Veterinary Journal 206 (2015) 239-240Abstract. Bone turnover markers could offer a potential alternative means for the early diagnosis of metabolic bone disease in young growing elephants although the baseline of bone turnover markers in elephant is not well established. The aim of this study was to determine any relationship between the age of captive Asian elephants and markers of bone formation. Serum samples from 24 female Asian elephants were collected to evaluate levels of two bone formation markers, namely, osteocalcin (OC) and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BAP). Both intact and N-terminal midfragment OC and BAP were negatively correlated with age. The findings

demonstrate that younger elephants have a higher rate of bone turnover than older elephants. Use of these and additional bone markers could lead to the establishment of validated protocols for the monitoring of bone disease in elephants. © 2015 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

A. Athanassiou, V. Herridge, D.S. Reese, G. Iliopoulos, S. Roussiakis, V. Mitsopoulou, E. Tsiolakis & G. TheodorouCranial evidence for the presence of a second endemic elephant species on CyprusQuaternary International 379 (2015) 47-57Abstract. Cyprus, the largest Eastern Medi-terranean island, hosted a highly impoverished endemic mammalian fauna during the Pleistocene to early Holocene times. This was a result of its extreme biogeographic isolation since its formation, which prevented the immigration of most terrestrial mammals, except for those with apparent sea channel crossing abilities. The main faunal elements are the extremely dwarfed hippo Phanourios minor, commonly found in many sites across the island, and the dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon cypriotes. The latter is a very small-sized elephant species, comparable in size with the Siculo-Maltese Palaeoloxodon falconeri. Larger dental specimens found sporadically during the last century, raised the possibility that a second endemic elephant, larger than P. cypriotes, may have also existed in Cyprus. Here we describe a skull recently excavated in the coastal area of Xylophágou, SE Cyprus, which provides evidence that, indeed, two elephant species have existed on the island. The larger species, Palaeoloxodon xylophagou n. sp., is still strongly dwarfed and characterised by elongated, low and wide skull, diverging tusk alveoli and comparatively large molars. Dimensionally the dentition is distinctly larger than P. cypriotes and close to Palaeoloxodon tiliensis, though the skull size is intermediate between P. tiliensis and P. falconeri. Both Cypriot elephant species exhibit morphological affinities with Palaeoloxodon antiquus, which is their probable ancestor. Stratigraphic data suggest that P. xylophagou is older (late Middle Pleistocene), while P. cypriotes is more recent (latest Pleistocene to early Holocene) and may have descended from the former or e less probably e evolved as a result

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of a separate, more recent colonisation event. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.

M.J. Boone, C.N. Davis, L. Klasek, J.F. del Sol, K. Roehm & M.D. MoranA test of potential Pleistocene mammal seed dispersal in anachronistic fruits using extant ecological and physiological analogsSoutheastern Naturalist 14 (2015) 22-32Abstract. Using Elephas maximus (Asian elephant) and Equus ferus caballus (domesticated horse) as ecological analogs to extinct Pleistocene mammals, we tested the effect of gut passage on 3 proposed anachronistic fruits: Diospyros virginiana (American persimmon), Maclura pomifera (osage orange), and Asimina triloba (paw paw). We found that elephant-gut passage of persimmon seeds increased their germination success and decreased their time to sprout, while osage orange seeds showed no benefit to gut passage. Neither American Persimmon nor osage orange seeds survived gut passage through horses. Both mammals refused to consume Paw paw fruits. Assuming a similar physiology and behaviour compared to our modern analogs, we suggest that extinct North American elephant species could have been important seed dispersers for American Persimmons but were unlikely to be effective for osage orange or paw paw, while horses would have been poor dispersers for all plant species tested. © 2015 Eagle Hill Institute.

K. Brantberg, B. Falahat & D.C. KalthoffDo extant elephants have superior canal dehiscence syndrome?Acta Oto-Laryngologica 135 (2015) 1259-1263Abstract: Conclusion: X-ray CT of an Asian elephant’s skull suggests that elephants do not have a labyrinthine 3rd mobile window. This excludes the concept that elephants benefit from enhancement of bone conducted vibration by an extra opening of the labyrinth. This finding does not, however, exclude that elephants use bone conducted hearing for seismic detection, nor that other species may use an extra labyrinthine opening for improved detection of seismic signals. Objectives: In man, a pathologic extra opening of the bony labyrinth causes altered hearing with supranormal bone conduction. Theoretically, this variation in auditory performance could be

advantageous for detection of seismic waves. Method: The skull of an adult Asian elephant was examined by X-ray computed tomography to investigate whether a natural ‘3rd mobile window’ mechanism for enhanced sensitivity of body sounds exist in elephants. Results: Although the entire elephant’s skull was otherwise broadly aerated, the labyrinth areas were surrounded by dense bone. © 2015 Informa Healthcare.

J.F. Brodie, A.J. Giordano & L. AmbuDifferential responses of large mammals to logging and edge effectsMammalian Biology 80 (2015) 7-13Abstract. Selective logging is one of the most widespread disturbances to tropical forests worldwide, yet its impacts on large mammals remain poorly understood. We used camera trapping and hierarchical models to compare local abundance of a variety of terrestrial mammal species in Borneo between selectively logged and unlogged forest, and to assess the impacts of edge effects. Our methods circumvent confounding factors that have plagued previous assessments of logging impacts by explicitly accounting for differential detection probability among habitats, separating the effects of hunting from those of logging-induced habitat disturbance, and explicitly measuring the distances over which edge effects occur. We found that mammalian carnivore species were either largely or completely confined to primary forest, although habitat use for the Sunda clouded leopard increased toward the ecotone. Several large ungulates, however, were either completely (Asian elephant and banteng) or mostly (sambar) found in logged forest. This suggests that, in the absence of hunting, disturbed habitats can be important for the conservation of certain endangered and vulnerable species. Sambar and muntjac both strongly avoided habitat edge in logged forest and primary forest, respectively. Lower habitat use by these species persisted 2–4 km from the habitat boundary – farther than has been observed for the infiltration of other edge effects such as canopy desiccation. Such avoidance of ecotones implies that 20–40% of the intact primary forest habitat in our study area is actually degraded “edge habitat” from the point of view of primary forest specialists.

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Our results suggest that, while selectively logged forests retain conservation value for certain large mammal species, it is critical that thresholds in logging intensity be identified so as to avoid declines in habitat use by taxa, such as carnivores, which appear intolerant of intensive logging pressure. © 2014 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Säugetierkunde. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

R. Chaiyarat, N. Youngpoy & P. PrempreeWild Asian elephant Elephas maximus population in Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary, ThailandEndangered Species Research 29 (2015) 95-102Abstract. The population of wild Asian elephants is declining worldwide; therefore, understanding the dynamics of the remaining population is critical for effective conservation. We monitored the population and distribution of elephants in Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand between May 2010 and March 2011. Using 32 camera trap locations and 1391 trap nights, we recorded 882 elephant photos. A total of 180 individuals were identified in the photos and classified as follows: 55 adult males, 60 adult females, 11 sub-adult males, 17 sub-adult females, 18 juveniles, and 19 calves. The age structure ratio (based on adult females) was 0.9:1.0:0.2:0.3:0.3:0.4, and the ratio of reproductive ability between adult females, juveniles, and calves was 1.0 : 0.3 : 0.3. The ratio between adult females and infants was highest in areas containing a high concentration of salt licks, which could indicate that salt licks are a keystone resource for wild Asian elephants. © 2015 The Authors.

K.-G. Chan, M.F. Loke, B.L. Ong, Y.L. Wong, K.W. Hong, K.H. Tan, S. Kaur, H.F. Ng, M.A. Razak & Y.F. NgeowMultiphasic strain differentiation of atypical mycobacteria from elephant trunk PeerJ 3 (2015) e1367Abstract. Background: Two non-tuberculous mycobacterial strains, UM 3 and UM 11, were isolated from the trunk wash of captive elephants in Malaysia. As they appeared to be identical phenotypes, they were investigated further by conventional and whole genome sequence-based methods of strain differentiation. Methods:

Multiphasic investigations on the isolates included species identification with hsp65 PCR-sequencing, conventional biochemical tests, rapid biochemical profiling using API strips and the Biolog Phenotype Microarray analysis, protein profiling with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, repetitive sequence-based PCR typing and whole genome sequencing followed by phylogenomic analyses. Results: The isolates were shown to be possibly novel slow-growing schotochromogens with highly similar biological and genotypic characteristics. Both strains have a genome size of 5.2 Mbp, G+C content of 68.8%, one rRNA operon and 52 tRNAs each. They qualified for classification into the same species with their average nucleotide identity of 99.98% and tetranucleotide correlation coefficient of 0.99. At the subspecies level, both strains showed 98.8% band similarity in the Diversilab automated repetitive sequence-based PCR typing system, 96.2% similarity in protein profiles obtained by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, and a genomic distance that is close to zero in the phylogenomic tree constructed with conserved orthologs. Detailed epidemiological tracking revealed that the elephants shared a common habitat eight years apart, thus, strengthening the possibility of a clonal relationship between the two strains. © 2015 The Authors.

D.P. Croft, L.J.N. Brent, D.W. Franks & M.A. CantThe evolution of prolonged life after repro-ductionTrends in Ecology & Evolution 30 (2015) 407-16Abstract. Why females of some species cease ovulation before the end of their natural lifespan is a longstanding evolutionary puzzle. For many species in captivity, post-reproductive life is simply an epiphenomenon of lengthened lifespan. Yet in natural populations of humans as well as some cetaceans and insects, reproductive senescence occurs much faster than somatic aging and females exhibit prolonged post-reproductive lifespans (PRLSs). Determining the mechanisms and functions that underpin PRLSs has proved a significant challenge. Here we bring together both classic and modern hypotheses proposed to explain PRLSs and discuss their application to both human and nonhuman animals. By taking

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an integrative and broad taxonomic approach we highlight the need to consider multiple interacting explanations for the evolution of PRLSs. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.

A. Das, M. Saini, S. Katole, S.S. Kullu, D. Swarup & A. K. SharmaEffect of feeding different levels of wheat roti on nutrient utilization and blood metabolite profile in semi-captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 99 (2015) 367-378Abstract. This experiment was conducted to study the effect of different levels of wheat roti (WR) on nutrient utilization and blood metabolites in Asian elephants fed roughages ad libitum. Nine (3 M, 6 F) Asian elephants (14–52 years of age, 1909–3968 kg BW) were used in an experiment based on replicated Latin square design. Animals in each group (n = 3) were assigned to one of the three dietary treatments in a manner that animals in all the three groups were exposed to all the three treatments in three different periods. Each feeding trial comprised 30 days (25 days of adaptation and 5 days collection period). The amount of WR fed to the elephants was 0.18, 0.12 and 0.06% of BW in groups I, II and III, respectively. They were allowed to forage in the nearby forests for 6 h/day and to bathe for 2 h/day. The animals had ad libitum access to cut rohini (Mallotus philippensis) trees in their night shelter. Intake and apparent digestibility of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), gross energy (GE), Ca, P, Fe, Cu and Zn were measured. Feed consumption was not significantly different among the groups. Significant (p < 0.01) decrease in digestibility of DM and GE and blood glucose concentration was observed with decreased level of WR in the diet. Feeding of WR at 0.06% of BW supplied adequate amount of DE, CP, Ca, P, Fe, Cu and Zn to meet requirement for adult maintenance. Feeding of WR in excess of 0.06% of BW supplied DE in excess of requirement, increased blood glucose concentration which may cause obesity and other associated health problems. It was concluded that the amount of WR should be restricted to 0.06% of BW in the diet of captive Asian elephants. © 2014 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.

A. Das, M.L. Smith, M. Saini, S. Katole, S.S. Kullu, B.K. Gupta, A.K. Sharma & D. SwarupEffect of concentrates restriction on feed consumption, diet digestibility, and nitrogen utilization in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)Zoo Biology 34 (2015) 60-70Abstract. In order to study the effect of concentrates restriction on feed consumption, diet digestibility, and utilization of nitrogen in captive Asian elephants, two feeding trials were conducted on three juveniles, four sub-adults, and three adults. During trial I, the conventional zoo diets of juveniles, sub-adults, and adult contained 22, 17, and 16% of concentrates on dry matter (DM) basis, respectively. During trial II, the amount of concentrate was reduced by 50%. A digestion trial of five days collection period was conducted during each period. The animals ate more roughages when concentrates were restricted. Intake of DM (g/kg BW 0.75/day) was highest in sub-adults, followed by juveniles and adults. Apparent digestibility of crude protein (CP), neutral detergent soluble (NDS), and supply of digestible energy (DE) was highest in juveniles, followed by sub-adults and adults. Based upon the estimated metabolic fecal nitrogen (MFN) and calculated endogenous urinary nitrogen (EUN) and dermal losses, minimum dietary CP required to meet maintenance requirement was estimated to be 6.12, 6.05, and 5.97% in juveniles, sub-adults, and adults, respectively. Restriction of concentrates resulted in decreased (P < 0.05) digestibility of DM and GE, but the diet still supplied adequate amounts of DE and CP to fulfil estimated requirements of energy and protein during the period of experimentation. Thus, the concentrates portion of the diets of captive Asian elephants should be fed in a restricted way so as to reduce the intake of excessive calories and the potential risk of obesity. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

E.F. Egelund, R. Isaza, A. P. Brock, A. Alsultan, G. An & C. A. PeloquinPopulation pharmacokinetics of rifampin in the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Asian elephantsJournal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 38 (2015) 137-143

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Abstract. The objective of this study was to develop a population pharmacokinetic model for rifampin in elephants. Rifampin concentration data from three sources were pooled to provide a total of 233 oral concentrations from 37 Asian elephants. The population pharmacokinetic models were created using Monolix (version 4.2). Simulations were conducted using ModelRisk. We examined the influence of age, food, sex, and weight as model covariates. We further optimized the dosing of rifampin based upon simulations using the population pharmacokinetic model. Rifampin pharmacokinetics were best described by a one-compartment open model including first-order absorption with a lag time and first-order elimination. Body weight was a significant covariate for volume of distribution, and food intake was a significant covariate for lag time. The median Cmax of 6.07 μg/ml was below the target range of 8–24 μg/ml. Monte Carlo simulations predicted the highest treatable MIC of 0.25 μg/ml with the current initial dosing recommendation of 10 mg/kg, based upon a previously published target AUC0–24/MIC > 271 (fAUC > 41). Simulations from the population model indicate that the current dose of 10 mg/kg may be adequate for MICs up to 0.25 μg/ml. While the targeted AUC/MIC may be adequate for most MICs, the median Cmax for all elephants is below the human and elephant targeted ranges. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

P. Fernando, T. Prasad, H.K. Janaka, S.K.K. Ekanayaka, H.G. Nishantha & J. PastoriniThe use of radio-tracking data to guide development and manage elephantsWildLanka 3 (2015) 12-19Abstract. Asian elephants are difficult to observe because of habitat constraints and behavioural adaptations to avoid people. Consequently, accurate information on their movement patterns, habitat occupancy and resource use can only be obtained through radio- tracking. GPS radio telemetry is particularly useful for this purpose as it provides a wealth of high quality data. Around 60 elephants have been tracked in Sri Lanka over the past two decades using GPS collars. Here we present four case studies demonstrating the importance of such data in guiding development so as to prevent or reduce human-elephant conflict

and for the effective management of elephants to ensure their conservation.

V.R. Goswami, K. Medhi, J.D. Nichols & M.K. OliMechanistic understanding of human–wildlife conflict through a novel application of dynamic occupancy modelsConservation Biology 29 (2015) 1100-1110Abstract. Crop and livestock depredation by wildlife is a primary driver of human–wildlife conflict, a problem that threatens the coexistence of people and wildlife globally. Understanding mechanisms that underlie depredation patterns holds the key to mitigating conflicts across time and space. However, most studies do not consider imperfect detection and reporting of conflicts, which may lead to incorrect inference regarding its spatiotemporal drivers. We applied dynamic occupancy models to elephant crop depredation data from India between 2005 and 2011 to estimate crop depredation occurrence and model its underlying dynamics as a function of spatiotemporal covariates while accounting for imperfect detection of conflicts. The probability of detecting conflicts was consistently <1.0 and was negatively influenced by distance to roads and elevation gradient, averaging 0.08–0.56 across primary periods (distinct agricultural seasons within each year). The probability of crop depredation occurrence ranged from 0.29 (SE 0.09) to 0.96 (SE 0.04). The probability that sites raided by elephants in primary period t would not be raided in primary period t+1 varied with elevation gradient in different seasons and was influenced negatively by mean rainfall and village density and positively by distance to forests. Negative effects of rainfall variation and distance to forests best explained variation in the probability that sites not raided by elephants in primary period t would be raided in primary period t+1. With our novel application of occupancy models, we teased apart the spatiotemporal drivers of conflicts from factors that influence how they are observed, thereby allowing more reliable inference on mechanisms underlying observed conflict patterns. We found that factors associated with increased crop accessibility and availability (e.g., distance to forests and rainfall patterns) were key drivers

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of elephant crop depredation dynamics. Such an understanding is essential for rigorous prediction of future conflicts, a critical requirement for effective conflict management in the context of increasing human–wildlife interactions. © 2015 Society for Conservation Biology.

R. JoshiTusker’s social bonds in RajajiHystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy 26 (2015) 41-45Abstract. Male elephants are known to live a solitary life after attaining the pubertal stage which is considered at the age of about 15 years. However, observations of single young males (about 10 years old) have also been reported. In contrast, few studies have explored that male elephants do have associations; however these associations are occasional and temporary. In Rajaji National Park, north-western Shivalik landscape of India, bull elephants were observed to have a year round association, mainly to perform movements outside the boundaries of protected habitats and to enjoy palatable crops. A recognised group of bull elephants (c. 2–8) was recorded between 2006–2010, performing movements in parts of Rajaji National Park, Haridwar forest division and agriculture fields nearby the protected habitats. Bull elephant interactions and social bond are illustrated. Since a long continuous chain of forests, which existed in the Rajaji–Corbett wildlife corridor, has been disrupted mainly because of habitat fragmentation, and since man-elephant conflict is increasing rapidly, regular monitoring of elephant habitat and population dynamics is of paramount importance. This is the first time that male-male interactions/male elephant behaviour in groups has been recorded from north-west India and possible explanations for the behaviour are discussed. © 2015 Associazione Teriologica Italiana.

S. Kaffashi, M.R. Yacob, M.S. Clark, A. Radam & M.F. MamatExploring visitors’ willingness to pay to generate revenues for managing the National Elephant Conservation Center in MalaysiaForest Policy and Economics 56 (2015) 9-19Abstract. Financial sustainability of protected

areas is one of the main challenges of management. Financial self-sufficiency is an important element in improving conservation effort in these areas. This study seeks to review best practices in recreational fee systems in different countries and to find a relevant entry fee for a wildlife sanctuary in Malaysia. The revenue of the National Elephant Conservation Center (NECC) in Kuala Gandah, Malaysia, comes from several sources, including the national government, but all these budgetary sources are strained by tighter public budgets and greater demands. The present study investigates the introduction of visitor entrance fees to supplement an otherwise inadequate budget for supporting the operational costs of the sanctuary. Factor analysis and a double-bounded contingent valuation method were combined to estimate tourists’ willingness to pay (WTP) the proposed entrance fee. Factor analysis showed that respondents’ motivation to support the NECC with user fees is conditioned by their direct experiences with elephants, their satisfaction with NECC’s education- al programs and services, and other experiences it gives to users. The WTP model considered respondents’ four motivation factors with their sociodemographic characteristics. Since NECC visitors arrive from both within and outside the country, this study suggests to centre managers a two-tier fee structure (residents vs. nonresidents of Malaysia), based upon mean WTP estimates. This study further suggests that revenue from such an en- trance fee for NECC could support the centre’s management and development costs. © 2015 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

A.C. Karawita, R.C. Rajapakse, P.G.I.D. Amara-siri, R.M.T.M. Ramanayake, W.R. Jayaweera, T.K. Bollinger, & G.S.P.D.S. GunawardenaCecocolic intussusception in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Sri Lanka associated with chronic hepato-intestinal schistosomiasis: A case reportInternational Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology 3 (2015) 744-746Abstract. A 25 year old female captive Asian elephant weighing approximately 3000 kg died and was subjected to a complete necropsy within 5 hours post mortem. Grossly, the elephant had sub-cutaneous edema, cecocolic intussusception and

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ascites. Histopathological examination revealed multifocal, granulomatous, portal phlebitis in the liver, multifocal, granulomatous, peri-portal hepatitis with marked portal and perisinusoidal fibrosis, and multifocal granulomatous colitis with intralesional Schistosoma eggs. To our knowledge, this is the first report of cecocolic intussusception in an Asian elephant associated with Schistosoma infection. © 2015 International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology.

T. Komatsu, M. Maruyama, S. Hasin, V. Woraguttanon, S. Wiyanan & W. SakchoowongObservations of immature and adult stages of the myrmecophilous cetoniine beetle Campsiura nigripennis (Coleoptera: Scara-baeidae)Entomological Science 18 (2015) 288-291Abstract. Several cetoniine species are known or speculated to be associated with ants, based on their specialized morphological characters. However, there are only a few species where biological information on the larval and adult stages is available. Field observations revealed that Campsiura nigripennis spends the immature stages inside elephant dung, and that adult females fly to elephant dung for oviposition. In addition, adult beetles of C. nigripennis intruded into arboreal nests of Oecophylla smaragdina. Specialized morphological characters appear to allow them to tolerate attacks from the ants. Furthermore, the distribution of the beetle in continental Asia largely overlaps that of the Asian elephant, indicating that dung of elephants, in conjunction with that of other large mammals, is fundamental to the biology of C. nigripennis. © 2014 The Entomological Society of Japan.

J.A. Landolfi, K.A. Terio, M. Miller, B.F. Junecko & T. ReinhartPulmonary tuberculosis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): Histologic lesions with correlation to local immune responsesVeterinary Pathology 52 (2015) 535-542Abstract. Although Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection is an important health concern for Asian elephants, no studies have evaluated the associated local immune responses or histologic lesions. In primates including humans, latent tuberculosis is distinguished by well-organized

granulomas with TH1 cytokine expression, whereas active disease is characterized by poorly organized inflammation and local imbalance in TH1/TH2 cytokines. This study examined archival, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded lung samples from 5 tuberculosis-negative and 9 tuberculosis-positive Asian elephants. Lesions were assessed by light microscopy, and lymphoid infiltrates were characterized by CD3 and CD20 immunolabeling. Expression of TH1 (interferon [IFN]–γ, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]–α) and TH2 (interleukin [IL]–4, IL-10, transforming growth factor [TGF]-β) cytokines was determined using in situ hybridization. In 6 of 9 samples, inflammation was similar to the pattern of primate active disease with low to moderate numbers of lymphocytes, most of which were CD20 positive. In 1 sample, inflammation was most similar to latent tuberculosis in primates with numerous CD3-positive lymphocytes. Expression of IFN-γ was detected in 3 of 8 tuberculosis-positive samples. Expression of TNF-α was detected in 3 of 8 positive samples, including the one with latent morphology. Low-level expression of IL-4 was present in 4 of 8 positive samples. Only single positive samples displayed expression of IL-10 and TGF-β. Tuberculosis-negative samples generally lacked cytokine expression. Results showed heterogeneity in lesions of elephant tuberculosis similar to those of latent and active disease in primates, with variable expression of both TH1 and TH2 cytokines. © 2014 The Authors.

J.A. Leonard, R.-J. den Tex, M.T.R. Hawkins, V. Muñoz-Fuentes, R. Thorington & J.E. MaldonadoPhylogeography of vertebrates on the Sunda Shelf: A multi-species comparisonJournal of Biogeography 42 (2015) 871-879Abstract. Aim: Pleistocene environmental fluctuations had well-characterized impacts on the patterns of within-species divergences and diversity in temperate habitats. Here we examine the impact the Pleistocene had on widely distributed forest vertebrates in a tropical system where the distribution of the habitat was affected by those fluctuations. Location: Sundaland, tropical Southeast Asia. Methods: We conducted a comparative phylogeographical analysis of 28 non-migratory, forest-dependent vertebrates,

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for which we constructed rooted, intraspecifc phylogenies based on mitochondrial DNA sequences of individuals from at least the three major landmasses in the area (Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula) and compared them to hypothetical phylogenies based on independent geological data and climate models regarding connections and relationships between the major landmasses of Sundaland. Java was included where possible. We dated the phylogenies to determine whether patterns of differentiation were concordant across species. Results: In most species, populations on the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra were most closely related, and sister to those from Borneo. The dates of these divergences, however, varied extensively between species. Borneo harbours multiple deeply divergent lineages of many species compared to the diversity within those species. Javan populations of several birds were most divergent relative to those from the rest of the Sunda Shelf. Main conclusions: These results suggest a dynamic history, including recurrent population extinctions and replacements and a strong priority effect for local populations. The close relationship between populations in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula supports the existence of forest on the exposed shelf during the Pleistocene at many different times, and suggests that proximity was more important than the presence of palaeorivers for dispersal of forest taxa between landmasses. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

X. Li, G. Jiang, H. Tian, L. Xu, C. Yan, Z. Wang, F. Wei & Z. ZhangHuman impact and climate cooling caused range contraction of large mammals in China over the past two millenniaEcography 38 (2015) 74-82Abstract. Many species have experienced dramatic declines over the past millennia due to the accelerated impact of human activity and climate change, but compelling evidence over such long-term time scales is rare. China has a unique system archiving historical records of important social, meteorological, agricultural and biological events over the last three millennia. We derived historical species occurrences (0–2000 AD) based on a comprehensive review of literature.

To detect the driving forces of range contraction, we used correlation and multiple regression to quantify the linear association between species range indices and climate variables (five temperature series and three precipitation series), as well as a human population size series. We also used a machine learning technique, random forest, to quantify the nonlinear effects of the climate variables and human population size. The southward retreat of the Asian elephant and the rhinoceroses (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Rhinoceros unicornis, R. sondaicus) was closely associated with climate cooling and intensified human impact (represented by high population size), and the westward retreat of the giant panda was associated with intensified human impact. One temperature series and human population size showed interactive effect on range shift of the Asian elephant and the rhinoceroses; the effect of temperature was positive at low population size, but negative at high population size. Our results imply that a higher temperature caused the northward or eastward range shift of the Asian elephant, the rhinoceroses and the giant panda, and currently this trend is impeded by human activities. We also illustrate how human activity and climate act synergistically to cause range contraction. © 2014 Nordic Society Oikos and The Authors.

V. Lynch, O.C. Bedoya-Reina, A. Ratan, M. Sulak, D.I. Drautz-Moses, G.H. Perry, W. Miller & S.C. SchusterElephantid genomes reveal the molecular bases of woolly mammoth adaptations to the arcticCell Reports 12 (2015) 217-228Abstract. Woolly mammoths and living elephants are characterized by major phenotypic differences that have allowed them to live in very different environments. To identify the genetic changes that underlie the suite of woolly mammoth adaptations to extreme cold, we sequenced the nuclear genome from three Asian elephants and two woolly mammoths, and we identified and functionally annotated genetic changes unique to woolly mammoths. We found that genes with mammoth-specific amino acid changes are enriched in functions related to circadian biology, skin and hair development and physiology,

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lipid metabolism, adipose development and physiology, and temperature sensation. Finally, we resurrected and functionally tested the mammoth and ancestral elephant TRPV3 gene, which encodes a temperature-sensitive transient receptor potential (thermoTRP) channel involved in thermal sensation and hair growth, and we show that a single mammoth-specific amino acid substitution in an otherwise highly conserved region of the TRPV3 channel strongly affects its temperature sensitivity. © 2015 The Authors.

S. Magda, O. Spohn, T. Angkawanish, D.A. Smith & D.L. PearlRisk factors for saddle-related skin lesions on elephants used in the tourism industry in ThailandBMC Veterinary Research 11 (2015) e117Abstract. Background: Lesions related to working conditions and improper saddle design are a concern for a variety of working animals including elephants. The objectives of the present study were to determine the prevalence of cutaneous lesions in anatomic regions (i.e., neck, girth, back, tail) in contact with saddle-related equipment among elephants in Thailand working in the tourism industry, and to identify potential risk factors associated with these lesions. Data for this cross-sectional study were collected between May 2007 and July 2007 on 194 elephants from 18 tourism camps across Thailand. Results: There was a high prevalence (64.4%; 95% CI 57.3 – 71.2) of active lesions, most often located on the back region. Using multilevel multivariable logistic regression modelling containing a random intercept for camp we identified the following risk factors: increasing elephant age, the use of rice sacks as padding material in contact with the skin, and the provision of a break for the elephants. Working hours had a quadratic relationship with the log odds of an active lesion where the probability of an active lesion initially increased with the number of working hours per day and then declined possibly reflecting a “healthy worker” bias where only animals without lesions continue to be able to work these longer hours. Conclusions: While we recognize that the cross-sectional nature of the study posed some inferential limitations, our

results offer several potential intervention points for the prevention of these lesions. Specifically, we recommend the following until longitudinal studies can be conducted: increased monitoring of older elephants and the back region of all elephants, working less than 6 hours per day, and the avoidance of rice sacks as padding material in contact with skin. © 2015 The Authors.

J.N. Maslow & S.K. MikotaTuberculosis in elephants — A reemergent disease: Diagnostic dilemmas, the natural history of infection, and new immunological toolsVeterinary Pathology 52 (2015) 437-440Abstract. Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants has been described since ancient times. However, it was not until 1996 when infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis was identified in a herd of circus elephants that significant research into this disease began. The epidemiology and natural history of TB were unknown in elephants since there had been no comprehensive screening programs, and diagnostic techniques developed for cervidae and bovidae were of unknown value. And, while precepts of test and slaughter were the norm for cattle and deer, this was considered untenable for an endangered species. With no precedent for the treatment of TB in animals, treatment regimens for elephants were extrapolated from human protocols, which guided changes to the Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants. In the absence of diagnostic testing to confirm cure in elephants, the efficacy of these treatment regimens is only beginning to be understood as treated elephants die and are examined postmortem. However, because of pressures arising from public relations related to elephant husbandry and the added considerations of TB infection in animals (whether real or imagined), sharing of information to aid in research and treatment has been problematic. Here we review the challenges and successes of the diagnosis of tuberculosis in elephants and discuss the natural history of the disease to put the work of Landolfi et al. on the immunological response to tuberculosis in elephants in perspective. © 2015 The Authors.

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A.M. Moßbrucker, I. Apriyana, J. Fickel, M.A. Imron, S. Pudyatmoko, Sumardi & H. SuryadiNon-invasive genotyping of Sumatran ele-phants: Implications for conservationTropical Conservation Science 8 (2015) 745-759Abstract. Reliable baseline information necessary for the monitoring and conservation of Sumatran elephants is scarce. We here combine non-invasive molecular genetics methods and capture-recapture modelling to estimate elephant population size, distribution, sex ratio, and age structure for the Bukit Tigapuluh landscape in Sumatra, Indonesia. Two separate subpopulations were found, for which we estimated a population size of 99 (95% CI = [86, 125], PCCL = 38.59%) and 44 elephants (95% CI = [37, 56], PCCL = 43.18%), respectively. Low elephant densities are likely the result of patchy habitat usage and anthropogenically increased mortality, the latter assumption being supported by strong skews in both sex ratio and age structure as well as direct evidence of elephant killing. Still, the Bukit Tigapuluh landscape currently holds the largest known population of elephants in central Sumatra, representing one of the most important areas for their conservation in Indonesia. Conservation of both the elephant population and their habitat in this region should thus be of high priority. We identified several threats to the population, including (i) the risk of inbreeding and subsequent loss of genetic diversity, (ii) illegal elephant killing, and (iii) the lack of protected habitat. In order to overcome these challenges we suggest: (i) the implementation of a meta-population management program, (ii) monitoring and safeguarding elephants and improving law enforcement,

H.S. Mumby, S.N. Chapman, J.A.H. Crawley, K.U. Mar, W. Htut, A.T. Soe, H.H. Aung & V. LummaaDistinguishing between determinate and indeterminate growth in a long-lived mammalBMC Evolutionary Biology 15 (2015) e214Abstract. Background: The growth strategy of a species influences many key aspects of its life-history. Animals can either grow indeterminately (throughout life), or grow determinately, ceasing at maturity. In mammals, continued weight gain after maturity is clearly distinguishable

from continued skeletal growth (indeterminate growth). Elephants represent an interesting candidate for studying growth because of their large size, long life and sexual dimorphism. Objective measures of their weight, height and age, however, are rare. Results: We investigate evidence for indeterminate growth in the Asian elephant using a longitudinal dataset from a semi-captive population. We fit growth curves to weight and height measurements, assess sex differences in growth, and test for indeterminate growth by comparing the asymptotes for height and weight curves. Our results show no evidence for indeterminate growth in the Asian elephant; neither sex increases in height throughout life, with the majority of height growth completed by the age of 15 years in females and 21 years in males. Females show a similar pattern with weight, whereas males continue to gain weight until over age 50. Neither sex shows any declines in weight with age. Conclusions: These results have implications for understanding mammalian life-history, which could include sex-specific differences in trade-offs between size and reproductive investment. © 2015 The Authors.

H.S. Mumby, K.U. Mar, A.D. Hayward, W. Htut, Y. Htut-Aung & V. LummaaElephants born in the high stress season have faster reproductive ageingScientific Reports 5 (2015) e13946Abstract. Senescent declines in reproduction and survival are found across the tree of life, but little is known of the factors causing individual variation in reproductive ageing rates. One contributor may be variation in early developmental conditions, but only a few studies quantify the effects of early environment on reproductive ageing and none concern comparably long-lived species to humans. We determine the effects of ‘stressful’ birth conditions on lifetime reproduction in a large semi-captive population of Asian elephants. We categorise birth month into stressful vs. not- stressful periods based on longitudinal measures of glucocorticoid metabolites in reproductive-aged females, which peak during heavy workload and the start of the monsoon in June-August. Females born in these months exhibit faster reproductive senescence in adulthood and have significantly reduced lifetime

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reproductive success than their counterparts born at other times of year. Improving developmental conditions could therefore delay reproductive ageing in species as long-lived as humans.

E. Ranaweerage, A.D.G. Ranjeewa & K. SugimotoTourism-induced disturbance of wildlife in protected areas: A case study of free ranging elephants in Sri LankaGlobal Ecology and Conserv. 4 (2015) 625-631Abstract. Tourism-induced disturbance is a growing concern in wildlife conservation worldwide. This case study in a key protected area in Sri Lanka, examined the behavioural changes of Asian elephants in the context of elephant watching tourism activities. Observations of different age–sex-group classes of elephants were conducted focusing on the feeding activity of elephants in the presence vs. absence of tourists. Frequency and duration of alert, fear, stress and aggressive behaviours of elephants were significantly high in the presence of tourists and these behaviours occurred at a cost of feeding time. Tourist behaviour, vehicle noise, close distances and time of the tours were closely associated with the behavioural changes of elephants. It is important to monitor tourism effects on endangered species such as Asian elephants and to take proper measures including controlled tourist behaviour and vehicle activity in protected areas in order to reduce disturbance of wildlife behaviour. © 2015 The Authors.

P.C. Reddy, I. Sinha, A. Kelkar, F. Habib, S.J. Pradhan, R. Sukumar & S. GalandeComparative sequence analyses of genome and transcriptome reveal novel transcripts and variants in the Asian elephant Elephas maximusJournal of Biosciences 40 (2015) 891-907Abstract. The Asian elephant Elephas maximus and the African elephant Loxodonta africana that diverged 5–7 million years ago exhibit differences in their physiology, behaviour and morphology. A comparative genomics approach would be useful and necessary for evolutionary and functional genetic studies of elephants. We performed sequencing of E. maximus and map to L. africana at ~15X coverage. Through

comparative sequence analyses, we have identified Asian elephant specific homozygous, non-synonymous single nucleotide variants (SNVs) that map to 1514 protein coding genes, many of which are involved in olfaction. We also present the first report of a high-coverage transcriptome sequence in E. maximus from peripheral blood lymphocytes. We have identified 103 novel protein coding transcripts and 66-long non-coding (lnc)RNAs. We also report the presence of 181 protein domains unique to elephants when compared to other Afrotheria species. Each of these findings can be further investigated to gain a better understanding of functional differences unique to elephant species, as well as those unique to elephantids in comparison with other mammals. This work therefore provides a valuable resource to explore the immense research potential of comparative analyses of transcriptome and genome sequences in the Asian elephant. © 2015 Indian Academy of Sciences. With permission of Springer.

R.K. Runting, E. Meijaard, N.K. Abram, J.A. Wells, D.L.A. Gaveau, M. Ancrenaz, H.P. Posssingham, S.A. Wich, F. Ardiansyah, M.T. Gumal, L.N. Ambu & K.A. WilsonAlternative futures for Borneo show the value of integrating economic and conservation targets across bordersNature Communications 6 (2015) e6819Abstract. Balancing economic development with international commitments to protect biodiversity is a global challenge. Achieving this balance requires an understanding of the possible consequences of alternative future scenarios for a range of stakeholders. We employ an integrated economic and environmental planning approach to evaluate four alternative futures for the mega-diverse island of Borneo. We show what could be achieved if the three national jurisdictions of Borneo coordinate efforts to achieve their public policy targets and allow a partial reallocation of planned land uses. We reveal the potential for Borneo to simultaneously retain B50% of its land as forests, protect adequate habitat for the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis), and achieve an opportunity cost saving of over US$43 billion. Such coordination

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would depend on enhanced information sharing and reforms to land-use planning, which could be supported by the increasingly international nature of economies and conservation efforts. © 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited.

J. Saarinen, A. Karme, T. Cerling, K. Uno, L. Säilä, S. Kasiki, S. Ngene, T. Obari, E. Mbua, F.K. Manthi & M. Fortelius A new tooth wear–based dietary analysis method for Proboscidea (Mammalia)J. of Vertebrate Paleontology 35 (2015) e918546Abstract. Dietary analyses of herbivorous mammals are important for paleoecological reconstruction. Several methods applicable to fossil teeth have been developed lately. The mesowear method based on wear-induced occlusal shape and relief of ungulate molars has proven to be a robust method for dietary analysis. In its original form it can only be used for selenodont, plagiolophodont, and ectolophodont ungulate molars, but the principle can be extended to other kinds of tooth morphology. We introduce a new method of dietary analysis for proboscideans similar to the mesowear method, based on angle measurements from worn dentin valleys reflecting the relief of enamel ridges. The enamel ridges should be heavily worn when the abrasiveness of diet increases, resulting in lower occlusal relief and larger angles. For testing this, we compared the mesowear angles with stable carbon isotope values from dental enamel from populations of extant and fossil species from localities from Kenya and India. This enables us to compare diet and tooth wear in proboscideans, because the stable carbon isotope ratios in tropical environments provide a reliable standard for assessing the relative amounts of C4 and C3 plants in diet, and most of the C4 plants are grasses, which should be reflected in the mesowear signal. © 2015 the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology

A.H.M.R. Sarker, A. Hossen & E. RøskaftFatal elephant encounters on humans in Bangladesh: Context and incidencesEnvironment and Natural Resources Research 5 (2015) 99-108Abstract. Here we report the context encounters of elephant attacks on humans in Bangladesh,

during the period 1989 to 2012. Attack rates significantly increased over this study period. The proportion of encounters that caused deaths or injuries differed statistically significant between the two sexes (men more deaths), age groups (elder more deaths), time of the day (more deaths during night), place of casualty (more deaths outside forests), weapon used by elephants (more deaths when elephants were using both trunk and leg) and study sites. No difference was found between seasons, elephant group size, or financial status, occupation and household size of victims. Elephant family groups were mostly responsible for attacks in the north, while single bulls were more responsible in the southeast. The place of casualty (inside or outside forests), time of the day, gender and regions were all significant in explaining the variation in encounters which resulted in human deaths or injuries. Conflict mitigation approaches including incentive-, awareness-or training programs from the forest department could help to reduce the conflict between humans and elephants in Bangladesh. © 2015 Canadian Center of Science and Education.

J. Schmidt-Burbach, D. Ronfot & R. SrisangiamAsian elephant (Elephas maximus), pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) and tiger (Panthera tigris) populations at tourism venues in Thailand and aspects of their welfarePLoS ONE 10 (2015) e0139092Abstract. This study focused on determining the size and welfare aspects of Asian elephant, pig-tailed macaque and tiger populations at facilities open to tourists in Thailand. Data were gathered from 118 venues through direct observations and interviews with staff. A score sheet-based welfare assessment was used to calculate scores between 1 and 10, indicating each venue’s welfare situation. Factors such as freedom of movement for the animals, access to veterinary care, environmental noise quality, hygiene standards and work intensity were included in the score sheet. 1688 elephants, 371 macaques and 621 tigers were found at the venues. 89 venues exclusively kept elephants, 9 designated ‘monkey schools’ offered macaque shows, 4 venues kept primarily tigers, mostly for petting and photo opportunities, and the remaining venues kept a mix of these animals. A

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strong imbalance in female to male gender ratios was recorded with about 4:1 for adult elephants and 1:4 for adult macaques. Severely inadequate welfare conditions were common, with 75% of macaques and 99% of tigers being kept at venues with scores less than 5. 86% of elephants were kept in inadequate conditions at venues with scores between 3 and 5, but a significant number of venues with scores above 5 were found. 4.6% of elephants were provided commendable conditions, reaching assessment scores of 8 and above. 71% of venues did not offer any sort of education about animals to visitors. This study is the first to assess welfare aspects of captive wild animals at tourism venues across Thailand. It concludes that significant concerns exist about the welfare of wild animals in the tourism sector of Thailand. Urgent attention needs to be given to address these concerns and prevent further suffering. But also to ensure the demand for wild animals doesn’t have a negative impact on wild populations. © 2015 The Authors.

C. Thitaram, S. Dejchaisri, C. Somgird, T. Angkawanish, J. Brown, R. Phumphuay, S. Chomdech & D. KangwanpongSocial group formation and genetic relatedness in reintroduced Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in ThailandApplied Animal Behaviour Science 172 (2015) 52-57Abstract. Captive-held elephants were recruited from several parts of Thailand and released as part of a reintroduction project. Wild elephants with a herd matriarch generally contain the same matrilineal line and are genetically related. However, reintroduced elephants are less likely to be related, but are known to establish social groups. The objective of this study was to investigate the genetic relatedness and behavioural relationships of elephants reintroduced into forested areas in central and northern Thailand. Blood samples were collected from 53 elephants before release into the Sublanka (SLK) and Doi Phamuang (DPM) Wildlife Sanctuaries, and DNA was extracted for microsatellite and mitochondrial analysis. Direct observations of social bonding behaviours were done weekly for 12 months after release, and an association index (AI) calculated for each individual. The results showed a low

relatedness for both populations; the observed heterozygosity and number of mitochondrial haplotypes were 0.739 and 13 at SLK (n = 26), and 0.808 and 11 at DPM (n = 27), respectively. Across both locations, 33 elephants formed into 11 groups (range 2–6 individuals/group). The average AI and pairwise genetic relatedness of elephant groups were 0.517 ± 0.039 and 0.078 ± 0.019, respectively, and were not correlated (r = −0.036; p = 0.78). Twenty elephants were not associated with specific groups and had average AI and pairwise genetic relatedness of 0.002 ± 0.001 and 0.047 ± 0.013, respectively, which were not correlated (r = −0.074; p = 0.491). Several mitochondrial haplotypes were found within the same group. Thus, social bonding of the reintroduced elephants was not influenced by genetic relatedness. Rather, groups formed in association with the presence of an elephant calf. Additionally, many elephants occasionally preferred isolation. Thus, reintroduction procedures should favour introducing elephant calves, or adults with calves to increase the chance of group formation and establishment of stable elephant herds. © 2015 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

P.B. van den Doel, V.R. Prieto, S.E. van Rossum-Fikkert, W. Schaftenaar, E. Latimer, L. Howard, S. Chapman, N. Masters, A.D.M.E. Osterhaus, P.D. Ling, A. Dastjerdi & B. MartinaA novel antigen capture ELISA for the specific detection of IgG antibodies to elephant endotheliotropic herpes virusBMC Veterinary Research 11 (2015) e203Abstract. Background: Elephants are classified as critically endangered animals by the International Union for Conservation of Species (IUCN). Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) poses a large threat to breeding programs of captive Asian elephants by causing fatal haemorrhagic disease. EEHV infection is detected by PCR in samples from both clinically ill and asymptomatic elephants with an active infection, whereas latent carriers can be distinguished exclusively via serological assays. To date, identification of latent carriers has been challenging, since there are no serological assays capable of detecting seropositive elephants. Results: Here we describe a novel ELISA that

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specifically detects EEHV antibodies circulating in Asian elephant plasma/serum. Approximately 80 % of PCR positive elephants display EEHV-specific antibodies. Monitoring three Asian elephant herds from European zoos revealed that the serostatus of elephants within a herd varied from non-detectable to high titers. The antibody titers showed typical herpes-like rise-and-fall patterns in time, which occur in all seropositive animals in the herd more or less simultaneously. Conclusions: This study shows that the developed ELISA is suitable to detect antibodies specific to EEHV. It allows study of EEHV seroprevalence in Asian elephants. Results confirm that EEHV prevalence among Asian elephants (whether captive-born or wild-caught) is high. © 2015 The Authors.

R. Venu, T. Thoiba Singh, R. Veeraharin, D. Rajesh & C. SrilathaFirst report of Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) larvae in a free ranging wild elephant from Andhra Pradesh, IndiaJournal of Parasitic Diseases 39 (2015) 168-170Abstract. Larvae of Cobboldia elephantis have been reported from the stomach of a free ranging wild elephant (Elephas maximus) while conducting post mortem examination at Palamner forest range, Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh state, India. This is the first report of C. elephantis in free ranging wild elephant in Andhra Pradesh state, India. © 2013 Indian Society for Parasitology, with kind permission from Springer Science+Business Media.

S. Vijayakumar, S. Prabhu, J.E.M. Yabesh & R. PragashrajA quantitative ethnozoological study of traditionally used animals in Pachamalai hills of Tamil Nadu, IndiaJ. of Ethnopharmacology 171 (2015) 51-63Abstract. Ethnopharmacological relevance: The purpose of this study was designed to gather primary folk knowledge on different animal based therapies used by Malayalis in Pachamalai hills. This is the first ethnozoological study in Pachamalai hills; the data regarding the medicinal animals/animal products were documented and their usages were analyzed quantitatively. Methods: Data was collected following the

interviews from key informants (N1⁄489) and reported diseases and health complications were classified in 18 categories. Seven quantitative indexes such as informant consensus factor (FIC), fidelity level (FL), relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance (RI), cultural importance index (CII), index of agreement on remedies (IAR) and cultural agreement index (CAI) were used to analyze the reported animal species. Results: A total of 46 animal species belonging to 8 taxonomic groups were documented to be used in traditional medicine by Malayalis in Pachamalai hills. Animal based medicines were prepared from whole animals or their body parts or products extracted from them such as: butter, meat, milk, bones, horn, musk, skin, fin, honey, mucus, eggs, urine, excreta, hair and legs. The most encountered taxonomic group was Mammalia having 14 species. Aphrodisiac ailments (0.99), dental care ailments (0.99), endocrinal disorders ailments (0.99), hair care ailments (0.99), oncology ailments (0.99) and ortho ailments (0.99) gained the highest FIC value. Sus scrofa domesticus scored the highest FL (100%) for the skeleto-muscular ailments for external cause; Lissemys punctata had the highest RI value (2.00) due to its versatility and the highest frequency of citation (RFC=1.000). Gallus domesticus had the highest cultural importance (CII=8.538) and the highest CAI value (CAI=8.427). According to IAR, Plexippus paykulli (IAR=1.00), Equus ferrus caballus (IAR=1.00), Trachypithecus johnii (IAR=1.00), Oecophylla samaragdina (IAR=1.00) and Apis indica (0.990) had the highest agreement among the informants for being used for the same medicinal purpose. Furthermore, no side effects have been reported from the use of ABT. Conclusions: Our study revealed that Malayalis (Pachamalai hills) possess valuable knowledge on Malayalis’ animal based therapies. It is believed that the present documentation will serve to record this vanishing knowledge before it is eroded completely from the island and to the scientific community. It is also anticipated that the present documentation will be fundamental to protect traditional knowledge, for the conservation and sustainable use of the rich biodiversity of Pachamalai hills for future generations and to ensure Pachamalai hills’

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sovereign rights over its genetic resources and utilization by first documenting them. In addition, further experimental investigations are required to elucidate the pharmacological properties of the reported medicinal fauna of Pachmalai hills. © 2015 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

U. WestphalElephas anthropogenusZoologischer Anzeiger 256 (2015) 36-41Abstract. This paper and its accompanying artwork examines the history of our perception of nature based on the example of elephants (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta africana, Loxodonta cyclotis). With the fall of the Roman Empire up until the late Middle Ages, elephants virtually disappeared from Western Europe. Since there was no real knowledge of how these animals actually looked, illustrators had to rely on oral, pictorial and written transmissions to morphologically reconstruct an elephant, thus, reinventing the image of an actual existing creature. This led, in most cases, to illustrations in which the most characteristic features of elephants – such as trunk and tusks – are still visible, but that otherwise completely deviate from the real appearance and physique of these animals. In this process, zoological knowledge about elephants was overwritten by its cultural significance. Based on a collection of these images I have reconstructed the evolution of the ‘Elephas anthropogenus’, the man made elephant. © 2015 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

S. Wijeyamohan, K. Treiber, D. Schmitt & C. SantiapillaiA visual system for scoring body condition of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)Zoo Biology 34 (2015) 53-59Abstract. A body condition score (BCS) may provide information on the health or production potential of an animal; it may also reflect the suitability of the environment to maintain an animal population. Thus assessing the BCS of Asian elephants is important for their management. There is a need for a robust BCS applicable to both wild and captive elephants of all age categories based on the minimum

and maximum possible subcutaneous body fat and muscle deposits. The visually based system for scoring the body condition of elephants presented here satisfies these criteria and is quick, inexpensive, non-invasive and user-friendly in the field. The BCS scale correlates (P < 0.05) with morphometric indices such as weight, girth, and skin fold measures. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

E. Williams, S. Bremner-Harrison, N. Harvey, E. Evison & L. YonAn investigation into resting behavior in Asian elephants in UK zoosZoo Biology 34 (2015) 406-417Abstract. Maintaining adequate welfare in captive elephants is challenging. Few studies have investigated overnight rest behaviour in zoo elephants, yet time spent resting has been identified as a welfare indicator in some species. We investigated resting behaviour in Asian elephants in UK zoos, with the aim of identifying patterns or preferences in lying rest. Details of standing (SR) and lying (LR) rest behaviour were identified by observing video footage of inside enclosures collected for 14 elephants (2 male, 12 female) housed at three UK zoos (Zoo A: 18 nights; Zoo B: 27 nights; Zoo C: 46 nights) from 16:00 to 08:30 (approximately). Elephants engaged in a mean of 58–337 min rest per night. Time of night affected mean duration of LR bouts (P < 0.001); longest bouts were observed between 22:01 and 06:00. Elephants showed a substrate preference when lying to rest; LR was not observed on concrete or tiled flooring. Where sand was available (to 11/14 elephants), all elephants engaged in LR on sand flooring. Only two elephants engaged in LR on rubber flooring (available to 7/14 elephants). Mean duration of rest bouts was greater when a conspecific was within two body lengths than when conspecifics were not (P < 0.01). Our study indicated that elephants show substrate preferences when choosing an area for rest and engage in more rest when conspecifics are in close proximity. The results of this study could be used as a basis for future studies investigating the link between rest and welfare in captive elephants. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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1. Farmers offer land for elephant corridor to avoid jumbo-size woes (India)

Deccan Herald - 6.8.2015

Agriculturists in eight villages coming under the Hongadahalla and Vanagur Gram Panchayats are so beset by problems that they are ready to give up their lands to be included in the elephant corridor. They constantly live under the fear of wild animals entering their villages any moment and feasting on or destroying crops, including commercial ones like coffee and cardamom.

On Wednesday, during a meeting chaired by Deputy Commissioner, Umesh Kusugal, they demanded that they should be rehabilitated with proper compensation, in return for the farmlands. Farmers who participated submitted consent letters that they were ready to part with their land. They have sought a minimum of Rs 30 lakh per acre and proper rehabilitation. The farmers want monetary aid for crop loss, till the elephant corridor is created. However, the meeting had its share of naysayers too, unwilling to give up land to be converted into forest, including Hongadahalla GP president Sunitha Prakash.

However, if people decide that life is completely untenable in the forest, he would take steps for acquiring their land. A total of 416 families in eight villages have given consent letters to part with 2261 acres of their land.

2. Wandering wild elephants to be herded home (Myanmar)

Myanmar Times - 27.8.2015

Six wild elephants that managed to wander from their native Bago Yoma habitat in Natmauk

News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 68-74

News Briefs

Compiled by Jayantha Jayewardene

Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust, Rajagiriya, Sri LankaE-mail: romalijj@eureka.lk

township, Magwe Region, to Nyaung Oo township in Mandalay Region are to be herded back home with the help of tame elephants. The six wild elephants, including two calves, walk along a ridge on Tuyin Mountain near Bagan, Nyaung Oo township.

If all goes according to plan, the wild elephants will be herded back home by urging them to change their direction of travel. This effort will be carried out using six tame elephants, seven big trucks and a team of 55 people under the direction of officials from the Zoo Department and the Myanmar Timber Enterprise, accompanied by an elephant doctor. Their supplies will include four tranquiliser guns, which will only be deployed if absolutely necessary.

He said he assumed the elephants originally lost their way because of interference from humans. He added that further interference could complicate efforts to drive the elephants back to the Bago Yoma. There have already been some casualties: A police officer from Nga Tha York sub-township in Nyaung Oo district said the elephants injured one man from Thantel village and killed another from Sarkyat village on August 25, after they approached too close to the animals.

3. Largest ever elephant survey conducted in Mondolkiri (Cambodia)

Cambodia Daily - 5.9.2015

As part of the country’s largest ever elephant survey, 1300 dung samples have been collected in Mondolkiri province in an effort to ascertain how many of the pachyderms remain in the province and where they live. Rachel Crouthers, biodiversity technical monitoring adviser for

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WWF Cambodia, said researchers took samples from three areas in the province and will produce a unique analysis of Asian elephant populations in Mondolkiri.

“This landscape-wide survey spanning three protected areas (Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Mondulkiri Protected Forest and Seima Protected Forest) will produce the first estimates for the entire Eastern Plains Landscape within Cambodia,” Ms. Crouthers said via email.

“Results will help us understand more about the elephant population’s characteristics such as population size, movement patterns, corridor use for the entire landscape, [and] will be crucial in protecting this regionally important population of this endangered and charismatic species,” she said.

4. Bengal denies jumbo sterilisation (India)

The Telegraph - 17.9.2015

The Supreme Court today directed the Bengal government to place before it a World Wildlife Federation research proposal for evolving an “immuno-contraception” drug to reduce the state’s elephant population. A bench headed by Justice Dipak Misra passed the directive after the state’s counsel told the court that Bengal had not taken any steps yet for sterilising elephants, whose numbers are said to have increased three-fold in north Bengal since 1989.

The court was dealing with a public interest petition filed by a journalist, Shakti Prasad Nayak, on deaths of elephants mowed down by speeding trains, a common occurrence in north Bengal where vast stretches of railway tracks run through forests.

At an earlier hearing, the petitioner’s counsel, had brought to the court’s notice alleged sterilisation of elephants by the Bengal government to reduce their population. In its affidavit today, the state said it was “incorrect” to say that the government had any plans for sterilising wild elephants but voiced the need for research on the subject.

5. Tusker kills Chinese engineer in Raigarh

Daily Pioneer - 8.9.2015

A Chinese national was trampled to death by a tusker in Raigarh district of Chhattisgarh on Monday. The incident took place forest close to village Katengapali in the Gharghoda police area. The victim identified, as Jong Kitau, along with his colleague was walk in the forest. The victim was an Engineer and part of team here from China to setup a power plant in the region.

Like on other days, they were taking walk in the forest patch when an elephant suddenly appeared before them. Somehow, Kitau colleague managed to escape. the spot and he was targetted by the tusker. In the encounter Kitau suffered severe injuries on internal body parts. Notably, in part few months some parts of the State has witnessed killing, damage to human settlement and standing crops by herd of tuskers.

It is to be mentioned here that as many as 63 people were killed by tuskers and other wild-animals across the state between 2014 and 15.9 lakh as compensation whereas Rs 10,000 was provided to each affected family as an instant relief.

6. Nine human-elephant conflict zones mapped (India)

The New Indian Express - 3.10.2015

Studying the reasons and possible mitigation options for human-elephant conflicts in Sathya-mangalam forest in West Tamil Nadu, wildlife experts here have identified nine conflict hotspots where over 72% of crops had been damaged by elephants the last year. Experts from the Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF) began their survey a few months ago and studied 26 villages around Velamandi reserve forest area near Sathyamangalam. Of these, frequent conflicts were reported from nine villages along the fringes of the forest area. Out of the 124 damages reported in the region, 89 incidents of elephants raiding farmlands were reported from these nine hotspots. Among the nine villages, Kallipatti,

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Nalroad and Solabanur villages were the worst hit. The damages were often susbstantial, leaving the farmers with no money to feed their families.

Experts added that the elephants went on a rampage mostly from February to June. However, to get a better picture, the wildlife scientists will spend another year at the forest studying the spatial landscapes, animal movements and recording any repetition in their patterns.

Velamandi reserve forest is spread across 130 km2 that has about 30,000 villagers living around it. Most of these villagers are subsistence farmers who grow banana, jasmine, tobacco and other crops that are sold during festivals that fall later in the year. However, the constant raids by elephants have left farmers with very little.

7. Asian jumbos play key role in spreading green cover (India)

Press Trust of India - 4.10.2015

Asian elephants play a vital role in the ecology of the forest and help spread green cover because of their eating and movement pattern, says a study by the researchers of the Indian Institute of Science and Princeton University. The researchers studied the eating and movement patterns of domestic cattle, buffaloes and pachyderms as they are the ones who often venture inside the core of the forest and also travel a significant distance daily. More importantly, these species are herbivores.

They also chose the Buxa Tiger Reserve for their research. The core area of the reserve consists of native vegetation, surrounded by areas consisting of plantations and degraded forest tracts. According to a 2003 estimate, there are 217 elephants in Buxa. In the study over three fruiting seasons (2010-2012), the researchers chose three species of plants for their study: Dillenia indica (the elephant apple), Artocarpus chaplasha (the chaplash) and Careya arborea (wild guava). These are mostly eaten by cattle, buffaloes and elephants.

In the fruit trees chosen by the researchers, they found that the elephant apple produces relatively

hard fruit that are about 430 g in weight. Because the hardness of the elephant-apple fruit, it makes pachyderms its predominant consumer. Chaplasha and wild guava trees produce softer fruits, which are easy for smaller fruit-eating species to handle.

8. Diseases kill more elephants than poaching (India)

Post News Network - 5.10.2015

Diseases such as anthrax have claimed more elephants in the state than poaching since 2000. While the number of elephant deaths due to poaching reported from 13 districts in Orissa has declined since 2000, deaths caused by unknown reasons have risen. Wild life expert Binoy Kumar Behera, said that the state’s elephants, are now increasingly falling prey to unknown diseases.

Studies by wildlife experts have documented that since 2000, 23% of the state’s elephants died due to diseases, mainly anthrax, while poaching and unknown reasons claimed 18% and 15% deaths respectively. “The existing practice of burying the dead elephant’s bodies instead of burning could be one of the reasons behind the spread of anthrax. Scientific studies have revealed that anthrax germs were found to be active even after 50 years and the disease could contract other animals that eat grass grown near the carcass,” said Behera.

Increasing man-elephant conflicts have resulted in the death of about 700 people and elephants each in the state since 2000, said Behera. Elephants have been increasingly attacking villagers and destroying their crops due to the non-availability of food in forests, he said. Connecting the state’s 14 elephant corridors with forests of neighboring West Bengal and Jharkhand could help in easy movement of the pachyderms, said Behera.

9. The last refuge for China’s elephants

Fox News - 7.10.2015

In China, the country with the highest demand for elephant tusks and where lust for ivory threatens

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the species’ survival, pachyderms have found a refuge in a nature reserve established with the goal of raising awareness about wildlife. The 10,000-km2 Mengyang wildlife refuge is located in the southern district of Xishuangbanna, a region known as “Chinese Thailand” on the border with Laos and Myanmar (Burma).

Strolling on a walkway made of wooden planks a few meters above the ground, visitors hope that some of the 150 wild elephants living in the reserve will make an appearance. “We estimate they come through here every 1.3 days,” Zhang Zhongqin, a member of the management staff at the sanctuary, told EFE. “The main reason is the surroundings, with a large forested area without humans, many small rivers and a large supply of the foods they eat,” Bao said.

In southern China, the government protects elephants and defends their rights, even putting them above those of local residents.

“The main problem we currently have is that of confrontations with peasants,” researcher Yang Zhengbin said. “Wild elephants cannot be controlled and sometimes they eat the crops,” Yang said, adding that bad encounters between humans and pachyderms result in an average of two peasants killed each year. The government pays compensation, but residents consider the money inadequate.

Since the reserve opened in 2008, about a dozen people have worked to check the pachyderms’ health and sometimes stage rescues, as in the case of Yang Niu, a 2-month-old female elephant found abandoned recently and who suffers from a heart condition. The reserve’s hospital is currently caring for 10 elephants.

10. Scientists discover why elephants rarely get cancer

USA Today - 8.10.2015

According to everything we know about cancer, elephants should be hit hard by the disease. Cancer is a disease of aging, and elephants can live up to 70 years. Over the course of a life that

long, elephants grow a lot – burgeoning from 200-pound babies to 12,000-pound giants. All that growth involves cell division, a process that provides opportunities for potentially lethal genetic mistakes. Yet cancer is relatively rare in elephants. Fewer than 5% of elephant deaths in captivity are related to cancer.

A new study suggests a possible reason why: Elephants have 20 times as many copies of a key cancer-fighting gene as humans. Humans typically have just two copies of a tumor-blocking gene called TP53, inheriting one from their mother and one from their father, said Joshua Schiffman, co-author of a study published Thursday in JAMA. In contrast, elephants have 40 copies.

TP53 plays a vital role in preventing cancer, said Schiffman, who describes it as the “guardian of the genome,” scanning cells for genetic mistakes and destroying ones that can’t be fixed. “Every time a cell divides is a potential disaster,” said Weinberg, Professor of Biology at the MIT in Cambridge, Mass. “As we evolved from small, short-lived animals into larger, long-lived animals, there has been the co-evolution of anti-cancer mechanisms in our tissue, so we don’t have an ever-increasing risk of cancer as we get older.” Cancer death rates vary widely by species, the new study says, ranging from 1% in the rock hyrax, a small African mammal related to elephants, to 8% of deaths in African wild dogs and more than 20% of deaths in cheetahs. Cancer causes 11% to 25% of deaths in humans; many of those deaths due to lifestyle issues such as smoking, the study said.

11. Wildlife ranger trampled to death by elephants in China

New Straits Times Online - 24.10.2015

A wildlife ranger was trampled to death while observing wild elephants in southwest China, authorities said Saturday. Yao Zhengyang went missing Thursday afternoon in Mengwang township and his body was found early the

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next morning, the Xishuangbanna prefectural government said on its microblog. “According to an initial investigation, death was caused by wild elephants,” said the brief posting. Xishuangbanna is in southern Yunnan province, bordering Laos. Despite China’s reputation as a major market for poached African ivory, Xishuangbanna’s approximately 300 wild elephants enjoy state-level protection on a level with China’s unofficial mascot, the giant panda. Killing an elephant in China can result in a death sentence. Despite the setting aside of land for elephant habitat, the animals are blamed for damage to crops, and occasional attacks on humans are reported.

12. Wild tuskers unleash terror in Madi; destroy houses, crops (Nepal)

Himalyan News Service - 26.10.2015

Prastav Subedi of Madi municiplaity-10, Di-wanagar, was busy chasing wild tuskers during Dashain festival in Chitwan. Subedi is not the only person who spent most of his time chasing away tuskers instead of enjoying the festival with family. The locals remained under constant fear of tusker attack as elephants from the Chitwan National Park entered human settlements and damaged houses and crops ready for harvest. The locals had no option but to keep vigil throughout the night.

According to Narayan Datta Sapkota, chairman of Chitwan National Park Buffer-zone Consumers’ Committee at Gardi, at least two houses at Bhairabpur were damaged. Locals have started patrolling the locality after elephants started wreaking havoc on human settlements. Besides, the locals move around carrying torches and hitting plates during the night. He said elephants run away at the sound of siren installed on the tractor.

13. EU adopts baby elephant (Indonesia)

Jakarta Post - 29.10.2015

The Delegation of the European Union (EU) in Jakarta has adopted Eropa (Europe), a newborn elephant from the Tangkahan Conservation

Response Unit in the Leuser Ecosystem, as part of its effort to strengthen conservation and encourage community-based ecotourism.

“The naming and adoption of baby elephant Eropa, born on Sept. 1, 2015, highlights the EU’s long-term commitment to the unique Leuser Ecosystem, to which it has contributed over US$ 55 million to protect and sustainably manage Aceh’s and North Sumatra’s forests,” the head of cooperation of the EU Delegation to Indonesia, Franck Viault, said.

Earlier this year, the EU Delegation adopted young elephant Aras, which monitors and protects the eastern part of the Leuser Ecosystem as part of the Aras Napal Elephant Patrol Unit (EPU). The aim of Aras’ adoption was to bring public attention to the importance of conservation and the fight against climate change.

It is estimated that 80% of Sumatran elephants’ lowland natural forest habitat has disappeared in the past 25 years and the number of Sumatran wild elephants has diminished to only 2500 with increased conflict between them and farming communities. As a result, the Sumatra elephant, a subspecies of the Asian elephant, is now on the international list of critically endangered species.

14. Elephant caravan treks across Laos on mission to stave off extinction in species’ former stronghold

ABC Online - 29.10.2015

A “caravan” of elephants is travelling 500 km through northern Laos over the next two months as part of a campaign to save the Asian elephant from extinction in the small landlocked country. Twelve elephants and their mahouts (keepers) will travel through the provinces of Xayaboury and Luang Prabang, raising awareness of the elephant’s plight.

There are now fewer than 900 Asian elephants left in Laos. There are about 350 in the wild and about 400 domesticated animals. The species’ survival is threatened by habitat loss, poaching and abuse. Conservationists say without urgent measures,

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within half-a-century the Asian elephant will disappear from a country traditionally dubbed the “Land of a Million Elephants”. From the mid-14th century, for 353 years, Lan Xang was a large kingdom in Southeast Asia. It eventually became part of modern-day Laos.

The Elephant Caravans arrival in Luang Prabang on December 17 will coincide with the 20th anniversary celebrations of the city being granted World Heritage status. The next day 20 elephants will join the traditional elephant procession through the ancient city.

15. Now, elephants get ambulance service in Kerala (India, Kerala)

The Indian Express - 5.11.2015

Elephants in Kerala will soon have the luxury of ‘ambulance’ service to transport sick and injured jumbos. The state Forest Department has launched an animal ambulance, a specially designed vehicle for elephants at the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (WWS), a paradise of wild jumbos in north Kerala. A modified lorry, the ‘ambulance’ vehicle will be used mainly for the transportation of injured and tranquilised elephants for their translocation during the time of emergencies and to ferry ‘kumkis’ (domesticated elephants) from other places, department officials said..There is a special system in the vehicle to restrict mobility of jumbos. The vehicle has also facilities to store food and medicines for the animal. Official say the vehicle could play a significant role in bringing down man-elephant conflicts region of high range Wayanad. Domesticated elephants can be brought in this vehicle to drive away wild elephants which stray into human settlements..

16. India, Bangladesh join hands for safe cross-border elephant migration

The Economic Times - 4.11.2015

Human migration may remain a contentious issue between India and Bangladesh, but not for elephants. The two countries are working with

their respective external affairs and home affairs ministries to ensure that jumbos can cross the international boundary with ease.

India and Bangladesh are cooperating on trans-boundary conservation of elephants and safe cross-border migration of elephants is on the agenda of our cooperation. We have submitted our proposal to our external affairs and home affairs ministries for approval so that elephants are allowed smooth passage across the international border. So far the response of the ministries have been positive,” Project Elephant inspector general, R K Srivastava said. Experts said cross-border jumbo movements are primarily affected by border fencing, which at many places are right on the elephant corridors.

“Elephants are by nature migrating animals. Blocking their corridors actually do not work as elephants manage to overcome the barriers. However, we need to ease their cross-border movement of elephants. There are about 200-odd elephants left in the wild in Bangladesh. If we do not allow safe migration, there genetic stock will be affected,” Srivastava said.

17. Indonesia uses trained elephants to control forest fires

AP - 11.11.2015

Officials in Indonesia are using trained elephants outfitted with water pumps and hoses to help control fires that have claimed vast amounts of forest while sending thick haze into neighboring countries. For nearly three months, Riau province in East Sumatra has been blanketed by smoke from forest fires and land clearing, especially in peat-rich areas where flames are difficult to contain.

At the elephant conservation center in Siak district, 23 trained elephants are being used as “forest watchdogs.” Carrying water pumps and other equipment, elephants and their crews patrol burned areas in the national forest to ensure that fires don’t reappear after smoldering beneath the peat lands.

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Elephants had earlier been trained to help patrol forests to find people encroaching illegally, as well as to resolve frequent conflicts between wild elephants and people by driving the wild elephants that enter human settlements back to their habitats.

So far, Indonesia has been unable to put out the raging fires this year because of intentional burning and a rain shortage. Much of the forest land that was burned in the past 17 years was converted into oil palm and pulp plantations. Data from the Riau Forest Fire Prevention Taskforce show more than 10,000 hectares (25,000 acres) of forests and land have been burned in the province.

18. Chased jumbo under train (Alipurduar, India)

The Telegraph - 22.11.2015

A wild elephant chased by a group of villagers was run over by a train near Madarihat early this morning, bringing to the fore the constant man-elephant conflict that has led to the deaths of several jumbos in the Dooars. The people of Haripur village said the train was running at a high speed when the adult male elephant, being chased by villagers who were guarding their paddy, moved towards the tracks between Madarihat and Shishubari stations.

Fifty-nine elephants have been mowed down by trains, including the animal killed this morning, since the 163 km long stretch between Alipurduar Junction and Siliguri Junction was converted into broad gauge in 2003. Around 90 km of the tracks pass through forests in the Dooars.

Both the tusks of the animal were wrenched out in the impact of the collision. The animal’s hind was badly injured, which shows the train was coming down at a high speed. Later it was known from foresters that the spot fell in a zone where trains have to move slowly at night.

However, Sanjib Kishore, the divisional railway manager of Alipurduar, said the stretch where the accident happened was not among the speed

restriction corridors where trains cannot run faster than 25 km/h at any time of the day. “After every incident, we record the statement of the driver and conduct an inquiry. If any elephant suddenly comes on to the tracks, it is not possible for him (the driver) to stop the train and save the animal,” Kishore said. “Drivers always try to save animals.”

19. Elephant population growth needs to be addressed (Malaysia)

New Straits Times - 6.12.2015

There is a need to have better management of the growing elephant population and its limited habitat size, said Sabah Wildlife director William Baya. He was commenting on the department’s largest translocation operation involving 24 elephants back to Tabin Wildlife Reserve here today. “Translocating the herd (that comes into conflict with humans) does not serve as a permanent solution. “It has been proven that the same translocated elephants made their way back to the conflict area,” he explained.

In 2013, the department had a similar translocation operation involving 10 Borneo elephants that were introduced into Tabin Wildlife Reserve. The department had spent about a month to conduct the elephant control by herding them back to the forest reserve but decided to translocate them to prevent further damage and ensure the safety of people.

The herd, comprising of 22 females and two males pachyderms, were first reported in a village area located less than 10 km away from the town. Four of the elephants were captured from Kampung Sri Putatan, 15 from Jalan Sin Hwa, three from Layung and two from Kampung Binuang. Two elephants are also fixed with satellite collars sponsored by Danau Girang Field Centre for future movement monitoring to better understand the human-elephant conflict in Sabah.

Meanwhile, the department also announced a statewide elephant population survey would also be conducted next year to look into the increasing human-elephant conflict in Sabah.

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Baskaran N & Desai AA (1996) Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve, South India. Gajah 15: 41-57.

Olivier RCD (1978) On the Ecology of the Asian Elephant. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.

Rajapaksha RC, Mendis GUSP & Wijesinghe CG (2004) Management of Pinnawela elephants in musth period. In: Endangered Elephants, Past Present and Future. Jayewardene J (ed) Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 182-183.

Sukumar R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

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Contents Gajah 43 (2015)

Editorial 1Jennifer Pastorini

Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 2-3Vivek Menon

Research Articles

Pinnae movement of captive Asian elephants weakly affected by environmental factors 4-9Rukmali Athurupana, Dennis Schmitt & Charles Santiapillai

Population structure and distribution of Asian elephants in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve, India 10-14Ranjit Kumar Sahoo

Elephant GPS tracking collars: Is there a best? 15-25Jennifer Pastorini, Tharaka Prasad, Peter Leimgruber, Karin Isler & Prithiviraj Fernando

Elephant corridors in northern West Bengal 26-35Mukti Roy & Raman Sukumar

Basti therapy of elephants according to Sage Palakapya 36-41K. G. Sheshadri

Short Communication

Some traditional captive elephant management practices in Sri Lanka 42-45Ashoka Dangolla

News and Briefs

Summary ASEAN Captive Elephant Working Group Meeting 46-47Chatchote Thitaram, Janine L. Brown & Sonja Luz

Collaborating with Myanmar Mahouts on Elephant Health Care 48-49Zaw Min Oo, Christopher Stremme & Heidi S. Riddle

WWF AREAS HEC Workshop Report 50-51Nilanga Jayasinghe

Recent Publications on Asian Elephants 52-67

News Briefs 68-74

Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist GroupGAJAH NUMBER 43

2015