Jacqueline Waugh - Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture
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DOES ADVERTISING SHAPE OR REFLECT POPULAR CULTURE? Jacqueline P. Waugh This dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the regulations for the MSc Degree in Creative Advertising. Edinburgh Napier University 2011 10015256
Transcript of Jacqueline Waugh - Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture
DOES ADVERTISING SHAPE OR REFLECT POPULAR CULTURE?
Jacqueline P. Waugh
This dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the regulations for the MSc Degree in Creative Advertising.
Edinburgh Napier University 2011 10015256
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This Dissertation is copywrited to Jacqueline P. Waugh – September 2011
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Acknowledgements Thanks to everyone who completed my survey, and particularly those advertising and popular culture professionals who took the time to complete the email interview. Special thanks to Tom Bage and Alex Benady who were extremely helpful and considerate in allowing me to conduct phone interviews. Considerable thanks to Philip Lodge for answering my questions and supporting me throughout this study and the course. Lastly, thanks to my mum, Susan Waugh and also Scott Suttie for supporting me and believing in me – I couldn’t have done it without you.
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Abstract The advertising industry receives much criticism for the suggested manipulative
effects it has on consumers’ intentions to purchase products. It is also derided for its
ability to shape popular culture. Culture theorists however, state that ‘the people’
make popular culture and it is not imposed from above.
The purpose of this dissertation was to understand the influence advertising can have
over popular culture in order to produce a unique understanding of the link between
the industries. Although there have been similar studies undertaken, none have
concluded with a full understanding with a current, balanced and unbiased argument.
As such, it is the aim of this study to answer the question, ‘Does advertising shape or
reflect popular culture?’
In order to accomplish this goal, several methodologies were used including
interviews with professionals from each industry, content analysis of current
advertising, a consumer survey and research into current literature.
The study was divided into several sections including background knowledge, a
literature review and insight into the dimensions of popular culture. This later stage
was intertwined with the empirical results in order to establish a conclusion.
Analysis of results showed that popular culture can be shaped by advertising, but only
in the events where consumers choose to retain elements of advertising for
themselves. The advertising industry is unable to manipulate popular culture, or force
consumers into purchasing goods they do not want. Advertising is a communication
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tool that delivers messages to consumers through channels that they will find familiar.
As such, popular culture references are used and therefore reflected in campaigns.
At the end of the study, suggestions are made for further study into the subject such as
a more in-depth investigation into global advertising and the requirements for
advertising to reflect, and not aim to shape popular culture.
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Contents Page CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................13 1.1: BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................13 1.2: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADVERTISING AND POPULAR CULTURE .....................13 1.3: DEFINITION OF POPULAR CULTURE.........................................................................14 1.4: OPINIONS OF THEORISTS.........................................................................................17 1.5: OUTLINE OF THE STUDY...........................................................................................25 CHAPTER 2: WHY THE TOPIC IS IMPORTANT..............................27 2.1: BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................27 2.2: THEORIES................................................................................................................30 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...........................................................31 3.1: OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................31 3.2: EMAIL INTERVIEW: ADVERTISING PROFESSIONALS...................................................31 3.3: EMAIL INTERVIEW: POPULAR CULTURE PRODUCERS................................................34 3.4: OPEN FORMAT FORUM QUESTIONNAIRE WITH ADVERTISING INDUSTRY...................35 3.5: PHONE INTERVIEWS: ADVERTISING INDUSTRY…….................................................36 3.6: CONTENT ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................36 3.7: CONSUMER SURVEY ...............................................................................................38 3.8: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................40 3.8.1: THE EFFECT OF ADVERTISING ON POPULAR CULTURE IN LITERATURE ...........40 3.8.2: LITERATURE THAT WAS PARTICULARY BIASED............................................45 3.8.3: LITERATURE THAT LACKED A FULL ARGUEMENT.........................................49 3.8.4: LITERATURE THAT WAS WRITTEN PRIOR TO 1990..........................................51 3.8.5: LITERATURE THAT WAS CONSIDERED VERY ‘AMERICANISED’ ......................54 3.8.6: ADDITIONAL LITERATURE..........................................................................55
3.8.7: OUTLINE OF STUDY BASED ON LITERATURE REVIEW....................................57
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION ...................................58 4.1: HISTORICAL ANALYSIS ...........................................................................................58 4.2: SEMIOLOGY & SYMBOLS..........................................................................................60 4.3: THE CREATORS.......................................................................................................69 4.4: CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS....................................................................................72 4.5: CHARACTERS..........................................................................................................78 4.6: MUSIC....................................................................................................................80 4.7: PRODUCT PLACEMENT.............................................................................................84 4.8: ART........................................................................................................................92 4.9: PSYCHOLOGY OF CONSUMERS.................................................................................94 4.9.1: LOVEMARKS ............................................................................................98 4.10: ADVERTISING AGENCY PSYCHOLOGY....................................................................99 4.11: MAGAZINES........................................................................................................100 4.12: CASE STUDIES.....................................................................................................105 4.12.1: COCA-COLA AND SANTA CLAUS .............................................................105 4.12.2: DIAMONDS ...........................................................................................108 a) POWERLINES ....................................................................................110 b) MEMES ............................................................................................113 4.12.3: DOVE CAMPAIGN FOR REAL BEAUTY ......................................................117 4.13: ADVERTISING INDUSTRY INTERVIEWS, REPONSES AND DISCUSSION......................120
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4.13.1: POLITICAL ADVERTISING.......................................................................127 4.13.2: ADVERTISING REFLECTS........................................................................133 4.13.3: MARKET RESEARCH…….......................................................................136 4.14: POPULAR CULTURE INTERVIEWS AND RESPONSES................................................139 4.14.1: BODIES IN PLACE TO DEFEND CONSUMERS..............................................142 4.14.2: ADVERTISING IN OUR LIVES...................................................................144 4.15: GLOBAL ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS.....................................................................147 4.15.1: BENETTON CASE STUDY ........................................................................154 4.15.2: AMERICAN ADVERTISING.......................................................................156 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF PORTFOLIO ...................................160 5.1: SECTION A – ADVERTISMENTS 1-6.........................................................................160 5.2: SECTION B – ADVERTISMENTS 7-11.......................................................................160 5.3: SECTION C – ADVERTISMENTS 12-24.....................................................................161 5.4: SECTION D – ADVERTISMENTS 25-33.....................................................................161 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ...............................................................163 6.1: CONCLUSION........................................................................................................163 6.2: RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE SUGGESTIONS..................................................167 CHAPTER 7: PORTFOLIO OF ADVERTS CREATED ...................169 7.1: ADVERTISEMENTS.................................................................................................169 CHAPTER 8: APPENDICES .................................................................207 8.1: APPENDICES.........................................................................................................207 CHAPTER 9: SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ........................225 9.1: CONTACT WITH INDUSTRY PROFESSIONALS...........................................................225 CHAPTER 10: BIBLIOGRAPHY .........................................................261 10.1: LITERATURE........................................................................................................262 10.2: TV SHOWS ..........................................................................................................278 10.3: IMAGE SOURCES..................................................................................................278
Figures Page
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FIGURE 1.1: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONTENT ANALYSIS OF
PRINT ADVERTISING ………………………………………………….20 FIGURE 3.1: AGE OF RESPONDENTS FROM CONSUMER SURVEY………………………39 FIGURE 3.2: SEX OF RESPONDENTS FROM CONSUMER SURVEY …………...…………39 FIGURE 4.1: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONSUMER SURVEY
REGARDING CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT ……………………………….73 FIGURE 4.2: COMPARISON OF STATISTICAL DATA FROM CONSUMER
SURVEY BETWEEN AGES GROUPS..…………………………………….74 FIGURE 4.3: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONSUMER SURVEY
REGARDING MUSIC IN ADVERTISING …………………………………..80 FIGURE 4.4: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONSUMER SURVEY
REGARDING PRODUCT PLACEMENT ……………………………………85 FIGURE 4.5: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONSUMER SURVEY
REGARDING ‘REALITY ENGINEERING’ ……………………………….…91 FIGURE 4.6: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONSUMER SURVEY
REGARDING PRODUCT RESEARCH …………………………………..…96 FIGURE 4.7: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONSUMER SURVEY
REGARDING MAGAZINE PURCHASE HABITS …………………………..101 FIGURE 4.8: STATISTICAL RESEARCH FROM CONSUMER SURVEY
REGARDING POLITICAL ADVERTISING ……………………………..…130 Images Page
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IMAGE 1: TVA / MICKEY MOUSE ……………………….………………………………64 IMAGE 2: TVA / MATRIX …………………………………..……………………….…..64 IMAGE 3: TVA / KILL BILL …………………………..…………………………………64 IMAGE 4: TVA / MARGE SIMPSON ………………………..…………………………..…64 IMAGE 5: CHUPA CHUPS / BARBIE ………………………………………...……………65 IMAGE 6: TOP INTERIEUR / TETRIS …………………………………...…………………65 IMAGE 7: L’ILLA / MICHAEL JACKSON …………………………………………...…..…65 IMAGE 8: MEGASTAR / JAWS …………………………………………...………………65 IMAGE 9: MARANI EYEWEAR / HARRY POTTER …………….………………………...…66 IMAGE 10: TAIBA HOSPITAL / KERMIT THE FROG ………………….……………………66 IMAGE 11: MILK COUNCIL / GREEN LANTERN ………………………..…………………67 IMAGE 12: MILK COUNCIL / RONALD WEASLEY ………………………...………………67 IMAGE 13: MILK COUNCIL / BATMAN …………………………………..………………67 IMAGE 14: MILK COUNCIL / MARIO ………………………….…………………………67 IMAGE 15: MILK COUNCIL / SUPERMAN ………………………..………….……………68 IMAGE 16: MILK COUNCIL / AUSTIN POWERS ………………………….…..……………68 IMAGE 17: MILK COUNCIL / WOLVERINE ………………….……………………………68 IMAGE 18: MILK COUNCIL / A-TEAM ……………………….………………..…………68 IMAGE 19: COMEX / SMURFS …………………………..…………………….…………77 IMAGE 20: COMEX / PINK PANTHER ………………………………..…………...………77 IMAGE 21: COMEX / GARFIELD …………………..……………………………..………77 IMAGE 22: NIKE / X-MEN …………………………..…………………...………...……89 IMAGE 23: COCA-COLA / SANTA CLAUS ………………………..…………...…………106 IMAGE 24: DIG FOR VICTORY …………………..…………………………..…………124 IMAGE 25: CONSERVATIVE / JEDWARD ……………………………...…………………131 IMAGE 26: LABOUR / JEDWARD ………………………………...……………...………131 IMAGE 27: JULIA ROBERTS / CHRISTY TURLINGTON …………………….………..……143 IMAGE 28: FREIGHTLINER / HULK …………………………………………...……...…157 IMAGE 29: FREIGHTLINER / SUPERMAN ……………………………………...……...…157 IMAGE 30: FREIGHTLINER / STAR WARS ………………………..……………………...157 Appendices Page
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APPENDIX 1: LIST OF METHODOLOGIES USED ……………………………………..…31 APPENDIX 2: EMAIL INTERVIEW SENT TO ADVERTISING PROFESSIONALS …………......31 APPENDIX 3: LIST OF SOME COUNTRIES THAT THE ADVERTISING PROFESSIONALS
WORK IN ………………...………………………………………...…32 APPENDIX 4: PEOPLE SELECTED FOR INTERVIEW WITHIN AGENCIES ………………….33 APPENDIX 5: PEOPLE WHO RESPONDED TO EMAIL INTERVIEWS……..………………..33 APPENDIX 6: CHANGES MADE TO QUESTIONS FOR EMAIL INTERVIEW SENT TO
ADVERTISING PROFESSIONALS …………………………...……………34 APPENDIX 7: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS SENT TO POPULAR CULTURE PRODUCERS …..…..35 APPENDIX 8: PEOPLE WHO RESPONDED TO EMAIL INTERVIEWS FROM POPULAR
CULTURE PRODUCERS ………………………...……………….………35 APPENDIX 9: PEOPLE WHO RESPONDED VIA LINKEDIN FORUM ………………....……35 APPENDIX 10: PEOPLE WHO DID PHONE INTERVIEWS FROM ADVERTISING
PROFESSIONALS ……………………………………………………….36 APPENDIX 11: MAGAZINES SAMPLED FOR CONTENT ANALYSIS …………...………….37 APPENDIX 12: WHICH ADVERTS WERE INCLUDED IN THE STUDY ………..………...…37 APPENDIX 13: CHANNELS SELECTED FOR TV ADVERTISEMENT CONTENT ANALYSIS ….37 APPENDIX 14: SAMPLE TIMES AND DATES OF TELEVISION ADVERTISING ………….....37 APPENDIX 15: QUESTIONS ANALYSED FOR PRINT ADVERTISEMENTS …………………37 APPENDIX 16: QUESTIONS ANALYSED FOR TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENTS …………...37 APPENDIX 17: CONSUMER SURVEY ………….…………………………………….…38 APPENDIX 18: POPULATIONS TARGETED FOR CONSUMER SURVEY ………………....…38 APPENDIX 19: EXAMPLES OF CELEBRITIES AND THE VARYING AREAS OF POPULAR
CULTURE THEY ARE FROM ……………………..…………………..…72 APPENDIX 20: BAR GRAPHS OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT FROM CONTENT
ANALYSIS …………………………………………………………..…72 APPENDIX 21: CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT CHANGES …………………………………78 APPENDIX 22: JOHNNY ENGLISH SUCCESS ……………………………………...……78 APPENDIX 23: ADVERTISING’S GREATEST HITS CHART ………………………….……81 APPENDIX 24: GRAPH FROM TELEVISION CONTENT ANALYSIS ………………….……83 APPENDIX 25: CRITICISM OF MAGAZINES ………………………………………..…101 APPENDIX 26: DSEF RESEARCH FOR DOVE CAMPAIGN ……………………...………117 APPENDIX 27: POLITICAL ADVERTISING: VIEW OF DAVID OGILVY …….……….…...128 APPENDIX 28: ADVERTISING AGENCIES FEATURING IN POPULAR CULTURE
PRODUCTIONS …………………………………………………..……146 APPENDIX 29: DETAILED EXPLANATION OF ADVERTISEMENTS CREATED FOR
PORTFOLIO ……………………...………………………………...…160
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Portfolio of advertisements created Page SECTION A 1. KERRY KATONA / RBS ……………………………………………………………171 2. LINDSAY LOHAN / AA ………………………………………….…………………172 3. PARIS HILTON / ASDA ………………………………………………………….…173 4. TOP GEAR TEAM / YSL MASCARA …………………………………………...……174 5. MR. BEAN / GILLETTE ……………………………….……………………………175 6. BRUCE WILLIS / L’OREAL ELVIVE ………………………..………………………176 SECTION B 7. ANGELINA JOLIE / CHANEL …………………………..……………………………178 8. RYAN REYNOLDS / GILLETTE …………………………………..…………………179 9. PINK / L’OREAL ELVIVE ……………………………….…………………………180 10. KATY PERRY / YSL MASCARA ………………………………...…………………181 11. ALAN SUGAR / RBS …………………………………………………………...…182 SECTION C 12. KIM AND AGGIE / VANISH ………………………………………………………184 13. RAPUNZEL / STRENGTHENING SHAMPOO …………………………………………185 14. ALAN CARR / BT …………………………………………………………...……186 15. MADONNA / VIRGIN ……………………………..………………………………187 16. BACK TO THE FUTURE / OMEGA ……………………...…………………………188 17. MISSION IMPOSSIBLE / BEROCCA …………………………...……………………189 18. BOB HOLNESS / BIRDSEYE PEAS ………………………….……..………………190 19. HARRY POTTER / COCO POPS ……………………………………………………191 20. FIGHT CLUB / CLUB BISCUITS ……………………………………………...……192 21. THE HANGOVER / NUROFEN ………………………..……………………………193 22. A-TEAM / RAC …………………………………………………………..………194 23. BIG BROTHER / POLICE ……………………….…………………………………195 24. LORD OF THE RINGS / FEDEX …………………..………………..………………196
SECTION D 25. S.H.E. / THOMAS COOK …………………………………..………………………198 26. SABRINA SATO / DAVE CHANNEL …………..……………………………………199 27. UTADA HIKARU / CONTACT LENSES ………..……………………………………200 28. KIM YU NA / ACTIVIA ……………………………………...……………………201 29. NEETU CHANDRA / TOM TOM ……………………………………………………202 30. MICHELLE WATERSON / UFC TRAINER FOR XBOX ………………….……………203 31. GABY DELA MERCED / CONTINENTAL TYRES ……………………………………204 32. MARIEL RODRIGUEZ / AVON DUAL MASCARA …………………………...………205 33. MANU FEIDEL / LE CREUSET ……………………………………………….……206
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Further supplementary information Page EMAILS RECIEVED:.............................................................................225 1: DAVID LOWSON ......................................................................................................226 2: GEORGE MARTINO...................................................................................................229 3: DROD TUNSTALL .....................................................................................................231 4: DAVE TROTT............................................................................................................232 5: SIMON LENDRUM .....................................................................................................233 6: RODRIGO CARR........................................................................................................234 7: PHIL COWDELL ........................................................................................................235 8: DAVID WHITTLE ......................................................................................................236 9: JOHN MCCALLUM.....................................................................................................237 10: RICHARD SCHOLEY ................................................................................................239 11: FIONA LINDSAY ....................................................................................................240 12: JOANNA MCCULLOCH.............................................................................................241 13: HAYLEY GRANSTON...............................................................................................242 14: AMANDA SEARLE...................................................................................................243 15: PAMELA RICHARDSON............................................................................................244 16: ALEESHA ANDREWS...............................................................................................246 TELEPHONE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS......................................248 17: TOM BAGE.............................................................................................................248 18: ALEX BENADY.......................................................................................................254 FORUM DISCUSSION TRANSCRIPT.................................................259 19: LINKEDIN..............................................................................................................259
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND
A professor at the New School of Social Research in New York teaches his
students that ‘advertising is a profoundly subversive force in American life. It
is intellectual and moral pollution. It trivializes, manipulates, is insincere and
vulgarizes. It is undermining our faith in our nation and ourselves’ Holy
smoke, is that what I do for a living? (Ogilvy 1983, p. 206)
For years, advertising has been held as a creator of false needs, a manipulator of
consumers’ minds and an industry so powerful it can alter culture. It is also widely
believed that the purchase and use of goods can convey social identity, but it is argued
that these purchases we make are controlled by a manipulative advertising industry.
Additionally, many consumer theorists believe that not only does advertising alter
social trends it also shapes popular culture. It has been suggested that advertising
reflects popular culture in order to be successful and culture theorists argue that
popular culture is created by ‘the people’ and cannot be imposed from the advertisers.
This study aims to investigate if advertising reflects or shapes popular culture, and
these findings, in turn, will also determine if advertising is able to manipulate
consumers into purchasing products they do not wish.
1.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADVERTISING AND POPULAR CULTURE
It is thought that meanings infused in popular culture by advertising can potentially
move in both directions, from advertising shaping popular culture, and from
consumers back to advertising. It has therefore been acknowledged that ‘the
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relationship between popular culture and the forces of commerce and profit is highly
problematic’ (Fiske 1989a, p. 10). This ‘problematic’ link between the advertising
and popular culture industries will be thoroughly investigated through gaining a full
understanding of each industry, the opinions of the people working in these industries,
content analysis of current advertising, case studies of campaigns which are argued to
have shaped popular culture and the opinions of consumers, along with any research
previously undertaken on this, and related topics.
In researching a history of advertising, there are irrefutable examples where an
advertisement – a concept dreamt up by a copywriter or art director – has become part
of our popular culture. These case studies will be used, along with other research to
determine whether their success at influencing popular culture is due to the
advertising industry controlling the consumers or the consumers building their
popular culture by retaining choice images and ideas from the advertising.
1.3 DEFINITION OF POPULAR CULTURE
For the purposes of this study, popular culture is taken to be the things that people
voluntarily take part in, to induce pleasure, for example television, music, films and
art, but also certain social trends and vocabulary. ‘Culture may even be described
simply as that which makes life worth living’ (Eliot 1949, p. 26). Popular culture
however is criticized and said to be ‘excessive, its brush strokes are broad, its colors
[sic] bright. This excessiveness invites its denigrators to attack it as “vulgar,”
“melodramatic,” “obvious,” “superficial,” “sensational,” and so on’ (Fiske 1989a, p.
114). It is also possible however, that ‘popular culture may well be popular because of
the pleasures its consumers derive from its standardisation’ (Strinati 1995, p. 77).
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Popular culture theorists perceive that studying popular culture is studying the
meaning of things, where that meaning comes from and the role it plays in our lives.
Furthermore, they believe that:
to be made into popular culture, a commodity must also bar the interests of the
people. Popular culture is not consumption, it is culture – the active process of
generating and circulating meanings and pleasures within a social system:
culture however industrialized, can never be adequately described in terms of
the buying and selling of commodities. (Fiske 1989a, p. 23)
Popular culture can be seen as an ever-changing industry.
So it is that multi-million-dollar movies can go unwatched, television series
are cancelled, shelves of romance novels languish unsold, new albums receive
a deaf ear. Similarly, advertisers and their agencies labor [sic] to fabricate the
messages they think will strike home with consumers, only to watch their
product sink in the marketplace. (Fowles 1996, p. 19)
In addition to this, Fiske (1989a) argues that
popular culture is contradictory: It is shot through with contradictions that
escape control. Those who accuse it of being simplistic, of reducing
everything to its most obvious points, of denying all the subtle complexity, all
the dense texture of human sentiment and of social existence, are applying
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inappropriate criteria and blinding themselves to where the complexities of
popular culture are actually to be found. Of course, popular culture does not
resemble a highly crafted sonnet or lyric poem, nor does it attempt to
reproduce the psychological depth and density of texture of a novel by Henry
James. (p. 120)
It is this interpretation of popular culture that highlights the importance of its
understanding, and the effects that advertising can have on it. Therefore, regardless
of the opinion of popular culture itself, it remains to be answered whether advertising
manipulates what becomes part of popular culture?
Tom Bage of the Advertising Association, suggested with the example of an
advertising agency working with British Airways, that advertising professionals
are in the business of brands and making people think great things and feeling
good about them and if that changes society in a small way, then that’s great,
but that’s a kind of side effect and not what they set out to do… I don’t think,
when the agencies sit down, and write an advert, with their clients… and say,
right guys we’re going to change popular culture here – like that’s going to be
the point of your advertising campaign. What the point of your advertising
campaign is, [is] to reflect B.A. products, to inform consumers, to entertain
them, to stimulate some new thinking about their product, for them to build a
bit of a brand relationship. So I wouldn’t say advertising has a goal in
changing popular culture, I don’t think they set out to do that, but I think some
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advertising campaigns in the past have fed in, in a small way in popular
culture. (personal interview with Tom Bage conducted on 18 July 2011)
Furthermore, the popular culture producers (film studios, authors, music industry)
have no other agenda other than for the consumers to find their contributions
attractive and, in turn, be profitable.
1.4 OPINIONS OF THEORISTS
Culture theorists recognize that advertising is a ‘motivating force[s] for audience
behaviour. Scholars examine the relationship that exists between advertising and
popular culture by studying the artifacts [sic] of our society and their users’ (Sayre
1992, p. 74). Furthermore, it is has been recognised that advertisements, by mirroring
popular culture, could be more valuable to future historians than news and editorial
contents in tracing ‘our sociological history, the rise and fall of fads and crazes,
changing interests and changing tastes, in food and clothes, amusements and vices, a
panorama of life’ (Calkins 1946, pp. 222-30). Several theorists have similar opinions:
‘Advertising is a metaphor for the age. Used and abused as the key to private profits,
is still provides the most sophisticated economic and ideological analysis of the
desires, aims and ambitions of that strife-torn plunder pit called Britain’ (Myers 1986,
p.151); ‘Culture is to society what memory is to individuals’ (De Mooji 2010, p. 48);
‘Is is possible to think of print advertising as the family album of society’ (Belk and
Pollay 1985, p. 888); Advertisements ‘send out signals of how our society is
changing, and that signal reflects and does not refract’ (Mendelsohn, 2011).
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Goldman, (1992) who derides advertising, agrees that advertising has a strong effect
on culture, stating ‘whether or not advertising screws up as individual personalities,
its ‘dissolving’ influence on culture may be advertising’s most significant and
haunting historical consequence’ (p. 8).
Fowles’ (1996) view is that advertising simply reflects popular culture.
Typically advertising draws on popular culture’s repository of symbolic
material (images or text or music) in an attempt to fabricate new symbols with
enlivened meanings. The older symbolic material had already been accepted
by people as an ingredient in their culture. All advertisers can do is
recondition the public’s symbols and pray that consumers will supply
agreeable meanings to the new creation. (Fowles 1996, p. 9)
It is argued then that in order to be successful, the advertising agencies must use these
varied symbols to communicate their messages. They need to be recognizable and
understood, but not so predictable that they receive no reaction, or even dismissal by
consumers.
Therefore, to be understood by the largest amount of people, advertisers can ‘turn to a
popular culture that is pleasurable, emotional, noncoercive, accessible, normative,
confirming, polysemous, and every so often slightly didactic’ (Fowles 1996, p. 111).
It is this use of popular culture and its symbolic domain that receives such criticism
and confusion.
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The link between the industries is said to confuse consumers in knowing what is real
and which elements are fictional. According to the Frankfurt School, advertising
shapes the tastes and preferences of the masses, thereby moulding their
consciousness by inculcating the desire for false needs. It therefore works to
exclude real or true needs, alternative and radical concepts or theories, and
politically oppositional ways of thinking and acting. It is so effective in doing
this that the people do not realize what is going on. (Strinati 1995, p. 61)
They believe that it is only the ‘select and enlightened few, by undertaking their
intellectual and cultural practices, [that] can cut themselves off from the mundane
activities of the masses and thereby resist the power of the culture industry’ (Strinati
1995, p. 76). Additionally, it is said that consumers have no chance of combating the
‘false-needs’ imposed by advertising when such familiar popular culture images are
used. It has been said that consumers have become a ‘quiescent, passive mass of
people, an agglomeration of atomized individuals, separated from their position in the
social structure, detached from and unaware of their class consciousness, of their
various social and cultural allegiances, and thus totally disempowered and helpless’
(Fiske 1989a, p. 20).
Furthermore, this mass of ‘helpless’ consumers are having its ‘emotions and
sensibilities manipulated, to have its needs and desires distorted and thwarted, to have
its hopes and aspirations exploited for the sake of consumption, by the meretricious
sentiments, the surrogate fantasies, the false dreams of mass culture’ (Strinati 1995, p.
13). However, a content analysis of print advertising, undertaken as part of this study,
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highlights that only 22% of current advertising suggests the consumer will lack
something without their product – this may be wrinkle-free skin, a stress free life or
some other commodity or value (figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Statistical research from content analysis of print advertising
Despite this, advertising is seen as the main force behind this ‘duping’ of consumers.
Even ‘the great adman Rosser Reeves used to illustrate this. He would hold up two
quarters and then, pointing to one of them, say, ‘my job is to make you think that this
quarter is more valuable than that one’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 11). ‘As Gillian Dyer
(1982) comments, advertising is “an irrational system which appeals to our emotions
and to anti-social feelings which have nothing to do with the goods on offer.”’ (Myers
1986, p. 6). Twitchell (2000) also demonstrates the creation of false needs by arguing
if you go into your bathroom, you will see that almost every product there has
been introduced into common use by generating constructive discontent. Body
odor [sic] came from Lifebuoy soap; athlete’s foot came from Absorbine Jr.;
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“five o’clock shadow” came from Gillette” tooth film from Pepsodent; and
split ends came from Alberto VO5. (Twitchell 2000, p. 62)
Also, ‘the safety razor could not be sold on the basis of its technical attributes alone;
the male populace had to be persuaded that good society in the modern age approved
of the universal clean-shaven look’ (Leiss et al 1990, p. 79). Therefore, ‘advertising
works to create false needs in people (false because they are the needs of
manufacturers rather then consumers)’ (Jhally 1990, p. 3). ‘In the Marxist tradition,
this process is referred to as “reification,” which encourages people to satisfy their
needs with things that can be bought and sold’ (Leiss et al 1990, p. 29).
This argument has great meaning to popular culture theorists who argue that ‘one of
the chief ways the self is defined to oneself and to others is through the adoption and
display of symbol-offering (and in intent, meaning-invoking) goods’ (Fowles 1996, p.
238). Similarly, Bourdieu (1984) recognizes that the consumption of culture is
‘predisposed, consciously and deliberately or not, to fulfil a social function of
legitimating social differences’ (Bourdieu 1984, p. 7). Consequently, if the products
we are conditioned to buy communicate meanings about the consumers themselves,
surely we would all be a uniform society, all living and working in the same way,
wanting the same things, going the same places and living in an Orwellian ‘1984’
vision. However, this is not the case, so there must be a certain element of choice in
our purchases.
Similarly, Bruce Morrison, testifying before the U.S. Federal Trade
Commission in 1971, agreed that advertising may cultivate “dormant or
22
previously unperceived desires” but maintained that it cannot create them or
force people to buy things they do not need… figures point to the successful
functioning of a competitive market, where poor products, regardless of the
amount of advertising lavished upon them, are weeded out by the consumer.
(Leiss et al 1990, p. 37).
This ‘weeding out’ by the consumers is the driving force behind some products being
successful and others failing. If this were not the case, and the advertising agencies
were so adept at manipulating their audience, all advertised products would be
successful, all of the time. Weisz (1994) pointed out that ‘in fact, of the 22,000 new
consumer products introduced in 1994, an estimated 90% failed in spite of
promotional efforts’ (Fowles, 1996 p. 19). ‘Advertisers can pump out as many
messages as they want – we don’t have to pay attention’ (Tungate 2007, p. 268).
Furthermore, a consumer survey conducted for this study showed that only 10% of
consumers said they believe what advertisements say and the information given, 59%
said they do sometimes, and 30% said they never do. This shows that consumers are
not being controlled by the advertising they see. This wariness and awareness extends
significantly to the influence advertising has over other areas of a consumers lifestyle,
notably popular culture.
Historians believe that it may not have solely been advertising that caused this easily
manipulated mass of consumers. Strinati (1995) argues that is was ‘the radical
transformations associated with the rise of large-scale and mechanized types of
industrial production, and the growth of massive and densely populated cities as the
23
forms in which people increasingly come to work and live’ (Strinati 1995, p. 6) which
have
destabilized and eroded the previous social and value structures which held
people together. The eradication of agrarian based work tied to the land, the
destruction of the tightly knit village community, the decline of religion and
the secularization of societies associated with the growth of scientific
knowledge, the spreads of mechanized, monotonous and alienating factory
work, the establishment of patterns of living in large anomic cities populated
by anonymous crowds, the relative absence of moral integration (some of the
things entailed for mass society theory by the processes of industrialization
and urbanization) lie behind the emergence of a mass society and mass
culture. (Strinati 1995, p. 6)
The re-emergence of brands ensured critics of advertising understood the ability for
consumers to choose.
In the 1950s, brands were rediscovered. What was slowly becoming clear was
that (1) brands were being applied not just to the product but to the end-user,
and (2) consumers were eager to enter affiliation with objects, regardless of
how irrational it might appear. People voluntarily wore shirts with small
alligators sewn on them, they drove cars with huge chromium statues on the
hoods, and they would soon wear shoes with giant swoosh marks. More
amazing still, they would pay extra for the magical affiliation, lots extra. A
24
branding joke from thirty years ago: “What’s in a name? A 50-percent
markup.” (Twitchell 2000, p. 138)
Twitchell emphasizes the fact that people ‘voluntarily’ decided to associate
themselves with brands.
It does however, need to be accepted that
unlike any other agency, Saatchi and Saatchi entered the collective
unconsciousness of 80s UK culture. And even more than just standing for
‘every-agency’ they have taken the credit – and the blame – for all that
advertising has done to the culture over the last ten years. Their name became
the flash-point between politics, culture, media and the market-place, none of
which will ever be the same again. (Davidson 1992, p. 77)
Furthermore, ‘an executive at BBDO noted about the advertising art, “We [in the
profession] are always aware that every time we create a campaign, we are doing
more than holding up a mirror to society. We are engaged in changing and leading
that society” (King 1992, p. 103).
While there are studies looking at the influence advertising has on popular culture,
none have definitively answered the question with a full understanding of the
advertising industry. Twitchell (2000) argued that ‘commercial speech – advertising –
makes up most of what we share as a culture. No one is happy about this, not even the
people who make it’ (p. 1). Based on this type of opinion, Ogilvy argued
25
We don’t feel ‘subversive’ when we write advertisements for toothpastes. If
we do it well, children may not have to go to the dentist so often. I did not feel
‘evil’ when I wrote advertisements for Puerto Rico. They helped attract
industry and tourism to a country which had been living on the edge of
starvation for 400 years. I do not think that I am ‘trivializing’ when I write
advertisements for the World Wildlife Fund. My children were grateful when I
wrote an advertisement which recovered their dog Teddy from dognappers.
Nobody suggests that the printing press is evil because it is used to print
pornography. It is also used to print the Bible. Advertising is only evil when it
advertises evil things. Nobody I know in advertising would advertise a brothel,
and some refuse to even advertise booze or cigarettes. (Ogilvy 1983, p. 207)
However, in order to reach a full conclusion, further evidence and opinions must be
gathered.
1.5 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY
It will be also investigated that these ‘atomized’ consumers seem to be, in some way,
making their own conclusions and decisions, however, some advertising agencies are
still admitting ‘fault’ in altering popular culture. It is the aim of this study to research
and conclude that perhaps there are instances when advertising has shaped popular
culture, but it was simply from the choice of the consumers to retain the elements they
wanted to - not from the impositions of the advertising industry manipulating the
desires and values of the consumer.
26
Literature has looked at ‘the increasing extent to which people’s lives in western
capitalist societies appear to be affected by the popular culture presented by the
modern mass media’ (Strinati 1995, p. xiii), however most research in this field
reaches varied and uncertain conclusions. Furthermore, up to this point, Fowles
(1996) confirms ‘a blatantly conspicuous target, advertising remains for the most part
completely undefended’ (Fowles 1996, p. 60).
As such, it is the aim of this dissertation to determine whether advertising shapes or
reflects popular culture, by manipulating and controlling consumers. The study will
concentrate on the area of popular culture rather than general ‘culture’. This will be
achieved by creating a full understanding from both industries and determining what
the opinions are from industry professionals. This will be proved or disproved with
comparison to content analysis of the recent advertisements that have been produced
in print and television. Furthermore, the opinions of popular culture producers will be
examined an addition to analyzing case studies of specific campaigns. The principles
learnt and information gained will then be used to create a portfolio of advertisements
to highlight the research undertaken and the conclusions made. Taking all the research
into account, the study will then end with a final conclusion and any future
recommendations or suggestions.
27
CHAPTER 2: WHY TOPIC IS IMPORTANT
2.1 BACKGROUND
It could be argued that advertising is the most influential institution of
socialisation in modern society: it structures mass media content; it sees to
play a key role in the construction of gender identity; it impacts upon the
relation of children and parents in terms of mediation and creation of needs; it
dominates strategy in political campaigns; recently it has emerged as a
powerful voice in the arena of public policy issues concerning energy and
regulation; it controls some of our most important cultural institutions such as
sports and popular music; and it has itself in recent years become a favourite
topic of everyday conversation. (Jhally 1990, p. 1)
Marxism believes that ‘the subordinate classes gain most of their knowledge of the
world from the mass media’ (Strinati 1995, p. 137) and as such are unable to
distinguish between advertising, popular culture and the real world. Additionally,
Solomon and Englis (1994) believe that ‘if anything, recent trends in the development
of marketing and promotional strategies, especially those emphasizing an integrated
marketing communications approach, have accelerated the confluence between
commerce and popular culture’ (Solomon and Englis 1994, p. 2).
Leiss et al however, feel that the derision of the advertising industry is aimed at the
wrong target:
28
Objections directed at advertisements, the industry, and its alleged social
impacts are often indirect attacks on the so-called materialistic ethos of
industrial society, or on capitalism in general as a social system; these are
critiques of society masquerading as critiques of advertising. We have not
presumed to evaluate their merits, but we do think that when advertising is
used as a surrogate for these larger concerns, its critics are aiming at the wrong
target. (Leiss et al 1990, p. 33)
It is precisely this power attributed and ‘contempt toward advertising and popular
culture… [that] has gone on so long and so constantly that it would seem to have
obliterated other perspectives’ (Fowles 1996, p. 52).
Advertising has also been accused by Pollay (1986) to promote ‘materialism,
cynicism, debased language, perpetual dissatisfaction, conformity, envy, anxiety,
disrespect for tradition and authority, and sexual preoccupation’ (Fowles 1996, p. 62).
But does advertising shape, or simply reflect the popular culture and these feelings the
consumers may already have?
Fowles (1996) notes that through this continued scorn for the advertising industry
from critics and theorists ‘there is little room left for productive debate’ (Fowles
1996, p. 53). It is the aim of this study to finally understand this contempt and
conclude that advertising is simply a complex communication method and perhaps
does not have the ‘power’ and influence over popular culture attributed to it by the
critics. Davidson (1992) also acknowledges that most studies on the influence that
advertising has on popular culture restrict themselves to only ‘half of the story. As a
29
commercial practice, it has a history, a culture and a methodology all its own’
(Davidson 1992, pp. 2-3). This misunderstanding of the advertising industry also
extends, in part, to the consumers themselves. ‘Ads are generally regarded as lies and
‘rip-offs’. Whatever effect advertising has on people, it is true that their ‘conscious’
attitude to it will usually be sceptical’ (Williamson 1978, p. 174).
It is worth noting at this point that such a disapproving view of advertising and even
popular culture does not apply to older instances from each industry. Fowles (1996)
cites that older examples have
not only become harmless, they have become valuable; they are “collectibles,”
for which large markets exist. Displayed, they mark their owners as
sophisticates, not dupes. This suggests that there is nothing intrinsic to the
content of advertising and popular culture that makes them contemptible, even
though the critique often focuses on content. (Fowles 1996, pp. 67-68)
Jhally (1990) blames consumers for this misunderstanding of the industry and states
if we were sensibly materialist, in that part of our living in which we use
things, we should find most advertising to be of insane irrelevance. Beer
would be enough for us, without the additional promise that in drinking it we
show ourselves to be manly, young at heart or neighborly [sic]. A washing
machine would be a useful machine to wash clothes, rather than an indication
that we are forward looking or an object of envy to our neighbors [sic]. (Jhally
1990, pp. 3-4)
30
2.2 THEORIES
Perhaps these objections aimed at the advertising industry are misplaced. Culture and
psychological theorists have agreed that popular culture is constructed by ‘the people’
and not imposed from above. The question is, who decides what becomes part of
popular culture? Could it be the advertising industry, moulding consumers for profit,
or could it be the consumers themselves, choosing the elements of campaigns they
wish to integrate into popular culture? In order for advertisements to be understood,
they are ‘necessarily saturated with references to both what we know about the world
and what we know about advertising’ (Davidson 1992, p. 9), but should this be a
concern? Advertising has its fair share of critics, but a limited supply of advocates to
its benefits. In light of this continued disdain from theorists and consumers, along
with the fact that ‘interest in understandings cultures’ influence on marketing and
advertising is growing’ (De Mooji 2010, p. xv), and the lack of conclusive literature
on the topic, this study is required to produce a complete and fair understanding of the
influence, if any, that advertising has over popular culture.
31
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 OVERVIEW
For the purposes of this study, there will be several different methods of investigation
to ensure a thorough understanding of the topic (see appendix 1). These methods are
felt to be appropriate as they ensure the opinion of, and examples from both the
advertising industry and popular culture industry are taken into account. No study of
this subject has previously undertaken this level of wide-reaching collection of
information.
Using some elements of qualitative research, this methodology incorporates historical
and current opinions and examples, along with future suggestions and ideas. Data
triangulation will be used to gather new and independent pieces of information from
individuals from both industries, in conjunction with the literature already written on
the subject to gain a full understanding of the topic.
3.2 EMAIL INTERVIEW: ADVERTISING PROFESSIONALS
Email interviews were sent to 774 individual named advertising agency professionals
(see appendix 2). To ensure a wide range of opinions were sampled, interviews were
also sent to bodies who protest against advertising such as Adbusters along with
advocates of advertising, the Advertising Association, the IPA, WARC, AAAA and
the AAF.
The following factors were taken into account when choosing email as the method for
administering the interview:
32
• Cost – Emails were the most cost effective method for interview. Alternatives
would have been delivering printed copies.
• Flexibility to alter questions – If printed interviews were the chosen method,
any alterations to questions would have meant reprinting.
• Response likelihood – Due to the nature of the advertising industry and the
level of this study, non-response was taken into account. Email therefore
allowed the largest sample size to be undertaken, reducing the impact non-
response may have.
• Response accuracy – It was expected that a negative aspect to email
interviews was that respondents may answer too quickly, without thought, as
emails are considered to be a rapid and easy method of communication. This
could be overcome by evaluating their depth of answer or the level of
influence they have over the industry by their job title.
• Coverage of the population – emails allows hundreds of interviews to be sent
globally in the most time and cost effective manner.
The sampling frame was generated to ensure data was not included from outside the
targeted population.
In defining this population a varied selection of advertising professionals were chosen
to ensure there were no discrepancies or trends in viewpoint from a hierarchical
standpoint. Quota sampling was used and advertising industry professionals were
contacted from over 40 countries (see appendix 3).
33
Although the sample cannot be considered random, the people selected for contact
were from several areas of the industry to ensure accidental sampling or unreliable
sampling did not occur. Theoretical sampling, although non-representational, was
used to select people within the agencies to contact. The people selected for the
questionnaire were from all areas of the companies who would have an insight,
knowledge or first hand experience in the subject (see appendix 4). Using non-
hierarchical prejudice also allows the sample to incorporate both newcomers and
people who have been in the industry for many years. This will ensure any change in
opinion over time or variations in opinion are included. The email questionnaire also
suggested snowball sampling by forwarding the email to others in their agency that
may be willing to help. Furthermore, emails were sent to the authors of the most
prolific literature in the field.
Email interviews ensured the questions were asked without loading of any agenda.
The email opened with quotes from both sides of the argument, designed to pique the
readers interest but not elicit a time consuming or challenging read. The style of
writing used was specifically friendly but professional and was received well, (see
appendix 5) highlighted with a response from George Martino, stating ‘I’ve been in
marketing, here and in The States, for 30 years. Yours is the most literate piece of
student originated correspondence I’ve ever received’ (personal interview with
George Martino conducted on 30 June 2011).
The questionnaire was set out as a semi-structured interview in free-format so to
persuade open-ended answer. The main question was asked along with several more
34
specific questions on the readers’ beliefs. The questions did not ask the reader about
their behaviour, as it becomes problematic to ensure honest answers about actions.
As part of the data pre-collection activity and in order to improve scholastic methods,
a set of sample emails was sent to ensure understanding of the questions. Several
changes were made to the questions (see appendix 6).
It may be worth noting at this point that the prospect of convenience sampling has
been taken into account. It may be argued that by issuing all questionnaires via email
it is limiting the research to those in the industry with access to the internet. However,
due to the general digitization of the industry and businesses as a whole, it was felt
that this would not impact on the research significantly enough to warrant any other
method that would not be so cost effective.
Observational methods of analysis were considered, but due to the time consuming
nature of creating an advertising campaign, this was deemed an inappropriate method
of understanding the motives behind creating an advertisement.
3.3 EMAIL INTERVIEW: POPULAR CULTURE PRODUCERS
Email questionnaires were sent out to 576 members of the popular culture industry as
it was felt to be important to get the opinion from both industries involved in this
study. Theoretical sampling was used throughout this method of research, as although
it is not considered representational of the industry as a whole, the responses expected
would give an understanding of the influence of advertising.
35
A semi-structured interview in free format via email was used to question the popular
culture industry. This interview was sent to professionals from celebrity agencies,
modelling agencies, record companies, photographers, television production
companies, film production companies, radio stations and DJs, magazines and
publishing houses. Each of these subsets of the popular culture industry received a
specific set of questions relating to their particular trade, along with a general
question (see appendix 7). This stratified sampling was felt to be necessary to be able
to draw any inferences about the specific subgroups. It was also required to enable the
questions to be specified to each subgroup in the industry.
As popular culture can vary dramatically from one country to another, it was decided
to restrict the interviewing of the popular culture industry to 3 countries. The
countries chosen were Britain, USA and Australia. Although not entirely
representational of the worldwide popular culture industry, and not chosen at random,
these countries are seen as some of the most influential countries for popular culture
globally. It is intended to gain a deeper understanding of the popular culture industry,
not to capture all possible variations of opinion (see appendix 8).
3.4 OPEN FORMAT FORUM QUESTIONNAIRE WITH ADVERTISING INDUSTRY
In order to gain a full insight into the advertising industry, the dissertation topic was
posted on a member-only on-line forum via ‘LinkedIn’ for discussion. This method
was chosen to allow free-format discussion between freelancing advertising
professionals from many countries, and allowed for further questions and feedback
(see appendix 9).
36
3.5 PHONE INTERVIEWS: ADVERTISING INDUSTRY
Theoretical sampling was chosen for this method of research as it is deliberately non-
representational, but themes and ideas would be able to be explored in more depth to
give a greater understanding of the subject. Several people were invited to conduct a
telephone interview, but were chosen from advertising researchers and advertising
industry bodies like the IPA and the Advertising Association. It was felt that these
individuals would be able to provide a more in-depth answer to the topic, and
although non-leading questions were still used, ideas could be expanded upon during
the phone call (see appendix 10).
Face-to-face interviews were considered, but it was concluded that they were perhaps
more likely to induce loaded questions and also did not improve the quality or
likelihood of responses. It was also determined that due to the busy nature of the
advertising industry professionals, a phone call would be able to be scheduled (and
rescheduled) more easily.
Phone calls were recorded and participants were advised that in order not to lead
questions, they would be asked a question, but would not get a response from the
interviewer, other than a further question generated from their answer to clarify any
point. Furthermore, they were given a description of the definition of popular culture
being used for this study.
3.6 CONTENT ANALYSIS
An element of content analysis was undertaken on recent advertising campaigns to
confirm any conclusions made and claims of the industries. Content analysis is said to
37
be ‘exploratory in process, and predictive or inferential in intent’ (Krippendorff 2003,
p. xvii). As such, a content analysis was undertaken of print advertising in magazines,
and a selection of television commercials to identify informational content, along with
techniques used, to establish what the aim of the advertisement is. As such, elements
of rhetorical, structuralist and interpretative analysis were used (Neuendorf 2001, pp.
5-6).
The print advertisements in magazines were selected from a sample set of magazines
considered ‘celebrity magazines’. This style of magazine was chosen as it features
many elements of popular culture including television, books, films and celebrities.
Several magazines were sampled from a period of 18 June 2011 to 09 August 2011
(see appendix 11).
The magazines contained 711 individual print adverts (see appendix 12). Of this, 237
were selected for analysis by selecting every third advert (to get a smaller sample size
based on time restrictions, but to ensure a broad time range).
The television adverts were selected from a range of U.K. terrestrial, cable and Sky
television channels (see appendix 13). The sample was undertaken over several days
from 25 June 2011 to 07 August 2011 and at different times to ensure a fair sample
and no bias toward different target audiences. In total, 110 advertisements were
sampled (see appendix 14).
The print adverts (237) and television adverts (110) were deconstructed to consider
the expected reaction from a consumer (see appendix 15 & 16). The advertisements
38
were evaluated on their messages, metamessages and what they were communicating.
This research method is in place to summarise the extent the advertisements appear to
be influencing, being influenced by, or reflecting popular culture.
3. 7 CONSUMER SURVEY
A consumer survey of 10 questions was issued online and via a paper based method
(see appendix 17). Despite the cost and length of time required to decode and analyse
a paper based survey, the two methods were chosen to ensure the survey was as
representative of the population as possible (no bias towards those who have internet
access and those who do not). Although the survey cannot be considered a random
sample, or entirely representative of the population, a variety of different populations
were targeted (see appendix 18). Furthermore, it was felt that the two methods would
increase probability of a wide age, employment status and sex range (figure 3.1 &
3.2). In total, 88 surveys were completed online and 54 by paper-based method (142
in total).
A self-explanatory and structured multiple choice survey was chosen as the responses
of consumers were only required to get a consensus of the average opinion on a given
question, rather than specific opinions from individuals. Classmates from the MSc
Creative Advertising course were not targeted for response as it was felt their answers
might be considerably biased towards the positive aspects of advertising.
39
Figure 3.1: Age of respondents from consumer survey
Figure 3.2: Sex of respondents from consumer survey
Many of the questions asked were in relation to the consumers’ beliefs and attitudes,
which may be met with some concern. As such, respondents may not tell the truth or
consider their response fully which may be limiting to the results. Furthermore, the
40
sex and age questions were specifically chosen to be the last in the survey to ensure
such personal questions did not dissuade consumers from responding to the survey.
3.8 LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to use a data triangulation method of research and identify the academic
research and perspectives already reached, it was necessary to review the literature
and studies on this and relevant topics. Academic and trade journals were researched
in the areas of advertising, marketing, popular culture, psychology and
communication, along with books published on similar subjects.
3.8.1 THE EFFECT OF ADVERTISING ON POPULAR CULTURE IN LITERATURE
An extensive review was undertaken of existing literature that dealt directly or
indirectly with the link between advertising and popular culture. It was clear that there
is a limited amount of literature that studies the link between the two industries
specifically. Fowles’ (1996) Advertising and Popular Culture, written as part of the
Foundations of Popular Culture Series, is one book that does concentrate specifically
on the link between the two industries and the effect they have one each other. His
main theory throughout this book is one of a strong message: advertising and popular
culture are inextricably linked through their use of symbolism and the meanings
attached. He also argues that these symbols can infer meanings, but any connotation
taken from them, are a product of the audience, and their wants and feelings at that
time – advertising cannot impose these meanings wholly. He touches upon the
specific question of social values and advertising but states
Advertising cannot create social actualities out of whole cloth, and it is folly to
think it could. To believe it can impose stereotypes of its own making upon
41
the public is to hold demeaning and, in the end, unsupportable views about the
nature of the public. (Fowles 1996, p. 159)
While there has been a huge shift in the breadth of popular culture that could be
analyzed in today’s world, Fowles’ work on TV, music and film is still applicable in
this research. Danna’s (1992) compilation of essays by advertising and marketing
scholars in Advertising and Popular Culture: Studies in variety and versatility is a
further book that also deals directly with the link of the two industries.
From ‘Subliminal perception’ - embedding thoughts into the subconscious mind of
the consumer, to Luigi Manca’s proposition that ‘advertising functions as a
sophisticated cultural mirror’ (Danna 1992, p. 48), there are many insights into the
link of advertising and popular culture. Using several examples including perfume
advertising, the ‘Gollywog’, the Mona Lisa, the ‘greying of America’ and T-shirt
messages we can see divisive and stimulating interpretations of the question in hand,
some of which I will investigate further in this dissertation. As the essays consist of
no specific topic within the advertising and popular culture area, there are a wide
variety of opinions on the question in hand, which proved very useful and as such,
this book is considered a key text in this research.
A further book which studies the link between the two industries in Fiske’s (1989a)
book, Understanding Popular Culture. Although it is predominantly a popular culture
theory study, Fiske uses many examples of advertising and mass media in his search
to define and understand the link between the people and the ‘forces of commerce and
profit’ (Fiske 1989a, p. 10). His view that ‘all commodities can be used by the
42
consumer to construct meanings of self, of social identity and social relations’ (Fiske
1989a, p. 11) is one that relates hugely to the argument that advertising reflects
popular culture. He believes that popular culture is made by the people out of the way
they use these commodities, and is also determined by the ‘opportunities for resisting
or evasive uses or readings, and these opportunities must be accepted’ (Fiske 1989a,
p. 32). Fiske analyses many complaints from the academics and ‘educated
bourgeoisie’ which state that advertising, mass media and popular culture degrades
‘high class’ and ‘proper’ things, such as language ‘the question at issue here is
whether mass media and popular culture debase our language or revitalize it’ (Fiske
1989a, p. 106), literature and art. At the heart of Fiske’s thoughts is that ‘popular
culture is made by the people at the interface between the products of the culture
industries and everyday life. Popular culture is made by the people, not imposed upon
them; it stems from within, from below, not from above’ (Fiske 1989a, p. 25).
Twitchell (2000) details the link between the two industries with many examples that
clearly show a change in popular culture due to advertising. The almost universally
accepted image of Santa Claus, the acceptability of dyeing your hair, the
exclusiveness of diamonds and even the concept of breakfast, all started with
advertising campaigns. These examples shall be looked at further in this dissertation
as they are of great importance in the argument that popular culture is shaped by
advertising.
Although predominantly a book on how to produce advertising, and get into the
advertising industry, Ogilvy (1983) imparts his opinion on the topic of advertising
relating to popular culture. Ogilvy’s view is that advertising is purely a method of
43
conveying information to consumers. He admits he expresses this communication of
information in a way that makes the consumer more interested in the product, but
feels it would be impossible to influence consumers by getting into their
subconscious. He states
it sometimes happens that advertising campaigns enter the culture. Thus the
musical theme in a Maxwell House coffee commercial became number 7 in
the hit parade, After Commander Whitehead started appearing in Schweppes
advertising, he became a popular participant in talk shows on television. This
kind of thing is manna from heaven, but nobody knows how to do it on
purpose. At least, I don’t. (Ogilvy 1983, p. 20)
The study by Grindstaff (2008) looks at the link of advertising and popular culture
from a social science perspective. In this article, it is proposed that
cultural sociology has theoretical and methodological tools for making
important contributions both to the new media environment and to popular
culture scholarship as a whole, particularly as popular culture seemingly
becomes more influential in arenas of social and political life beyond the
realm of entertainment/leisure. (Grindstaff, 2008)
She addresses the issues of defining popular culture and highlights the difference in
studies from several academic areas.
44
Cronin (2000) herself states that ‘this book is essentially about ‘mediation’ – the ways
in which the visual mediates (or is) action, the ways in which advertising mediates
consumerism, and the ways in which consumerism mediates identities’ (Cronin 2000,
p. 6). As such, the book contains valuable information relating to this study
specifically on the individual nature of using advertising images within the
imagination. Cronin believes that advertising determines and tries to influence our
thoughts and cultural representation, and therefore nationality and citizenship, along
with certain gender values. By making frequent reference to Bauman’s (1992) thesis
she acknowledges that the creation of culture is an individual act, not deployed from
above in the form of advertising.
Cronin also argues against the ideas that consumers use only advertising images to
express and understand themselves and looks at other signifiers and their potential
meanings: she states ‘‘the image’ is not a static, fixed container of meanings – these
meanings are produced in the time of vision’ (Cronin 2000, p. 106). Touching on the
political side of advertising and forming a nationality and therefore a culture, Cronin’s
book serves as a significant source of information in the formation of a full and broad-
ranging study.
A highly balanced study, Leiss et al (1990) have created a book that is invaluable to
this dissertation. Looking at the arguments of how advertising has influenced our
social sphere and culture, they broadly look at each side of the case. Unlike many
other studies, they have a large section on the counter-argument that advertising
persuades people to buy things they do not want to, and this is quite refreshing in a
general consumer driven economy where the ‘rational’ consumer is often overlooked.
45
They do however, miss out the concept of ‘popular culture’ and instead focus on
general culture and social society, but these have similar arguments featured in them.
3.8.2 LITERATURE THAT WAS PARTICULARY BIASED
Much of the literature reviewed that did focus on the influence of advertising on
popular culture tended to have a strong bias toward one argument or another. Fowles
(1996) is one such book with little area of counterargument to his beliefs on this topic.
He carries the view that advertising does not cover every facet of life (in terms of
what is shown in adverts e.g. employment, education etc,) and therefore cannot
influence a life or society as a whole and as such does not seem to believe there is a
need to investigate further. Furthermore, the study by Fiske (1989a) - although a key
text in defining ‘popular culture’ and arguing that popular culture simply reflects
advertising and the mass media - is quick to dismiss any alternative, and the lack of
evidence to discredit any other theories, makes this an unbalanced view.
One area of research focusing on the influence over popular culture and mass culture
is primarily undertaken by The Frankfurt School. Literature and research conducted
since 1923, notably by Adorno, Horkheimer, Marcuse and Benjamin (Adorno &
Horkheimer 1973; Marcuse 1964; Benjamin 1973) views that capitalism (including
advertising) shaped and controlled the ‘masses’ and their tastes and preferences; it
destroyed individualism and creative thinking, and it constructed a homogenized
society who thrived on ‘mass culture’. This work is considered to be particularly one
sided as it lacks balanced arguments and research. Furthermore, much of the work
concentrates on ‘mass culture’ as opposed to ‘popular culture’. It has been regularly
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cited that Adorno’s work specifically contained many errors and misjudgements about
the industry and, as such, is out-dated.
Even prior to reading Twitchell’s Twenty Ads that Shook the World (2000), the
synopsis on the back cover clearly explains his point of view on the subject matter as
it describes him taking a ‘look at the ads and ad campaigns – and their creators – that
have most influenced our culture and marketplace in the twentieth century’
(Twitchell). The titles of his previous books Adcult USA: The triumph of Advertising
in American Culture and Carnival Culture: The trashing of Taste in America also
serve to demonstrate his views on this matter and this book is no different. Seen as a
key text in the understanding of the advertising industry, this book has a particularly
biased view, but with some irrefutable evidence that advertising has shaped certain
elements of popular culture.
There are however, some disparities in Twitchell’s thoughts. He begins by looking at
P.T Barnum, the ‘Prince of Humbug’. He states that
When you hear, “Don’t miss this once-in-a-lifetime-opportunity,” “Limited
edition collector’s item at an unbelievably low special discount price,” or
“Going out of business, last and final liquidation closeout sale! All items must
go! We’re closing our doors forever! Even longer than that! This is it!
Absolutely! You can’t afford to miss it!” you are hearing Barnum. (Twitchell
2000, p. 16)
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He believes that there are many phrases we use in day-to-day life that started with
Barnum, and therefore he shaped our popular culture. It could be argued that these
phrases are however, only used in further advertising, and therefore, Barnum was
simply a forefather in the advertising world. Barnum believed that attaching a story to
a product made it sell, and that creating hype was of crucial importance, and although
we still follow this in advertising today, his insights were simply for advertising, not
for popular culture.
One particularly biased book researched was Myers (1986) Understains: the sense
and seduction of advertising. Myers has a preoccupation with the thought that
‘advertising – the handmaiden of capitalism – is to accelerate the rate of surplus value
and hive off profit for private benefit. The weak-spirited public are encouraged to
acquire unnecessary objects like dish washers, electric tooth brushes and dog hoovers’
(Myers 1986, p. 6). Although the book is mainly centred around political advertising,
it uses an example of cosmetic advertising to highlight and reiterate the ‘black magic
system’ of advertising which ‘attempts to influence the minds and desires of human
beings and to impose on them its own scale of values’ (Myers 1986, p. 83), without
evidence or an attempt at a counter-argument. This book is very one-sided and almost
aggressive in its thoughts and as such is seen as an inferior text in the large selection
of books available on this topic.
Williamson’s (1978) book Decoding Advertisements is considered to be highly
influential in the realm of advertising studies. Although this is correct, the book is
distinctly one-sided. Williamson’s views of advertising are clear from the outset and
she believes that although it is the ‘self’ that creates meanings behind adverts, these
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meanings are pre-formed by carefully constructed advertisements, made by lying
advertising agencies. By citing examples of nature and history, and the meanings
imbedded in the adverts shown, she describes each advert in terms of the meaning
connoted and denoted (which she sees to differ massively). Williamson believes that
everyone shares her thoughts on the subject, and as such is quite a personal book with
a distinct lack of counter-argument. Her arguments seem valid in the sense of
advertising creating meanings for symbols that the self can then construct into
identity, but this is the furthest extent that the book is relevant to this study.
Another particularly biased piece of literature is that of Jhally’s The codes of
advertising: Fetishism and the political economy of meaning in the consumer society.
By Jhally’s own admission, this book was an extension of his previous works, notably
the collaboration with Bill Leiss and Steve Kline on Social Communication in
Advertising: Persons, Products and Images of Well-Being. Jhally broadens certain
aspects he felt were missing in his previous studies, but therefore seems to bring his
biased views on advertising to this study. Even citing lists of those who agree with
him, Jhally, whilst having a structured argument, has a clear path to which we wishes
his study to take. Although he analyses over one thousand TV advertisements, he
seems to take out what he wants from them, and doesn’t look to counter-balance the
study from any other point of view. This seems to be a common mistake in the study
of advertising, and Jhally himself makes note of the one-sided arguments from the
studies taking the opposite opinion to himself. The book is valuable in this
dissertation as it has a large amount of research, albeit from only one side of the
argument.
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3.8.3 LITERATURE THAT LACKED A FULL ARGUEMENT
Additionally, none of the unique studies provided a comprehensive view of the
influence of advertising on popular culture. This lack of a full argument was observed
by Jhally (1990) when he said of the critics and even defenders of advertising, ‘while
they recognize the symbolic element in all human needing, they ignore almost totally
any discussion of the dimension of power or of the social effects of advertising’ (p. 6).
Grindstaff’s (2008) Culture and Popular Culture: A Case for Sociology is one such
piece of literature that omits a conclusion or definition of the link between the two
industries as it sets out to do.
The study by Morris (2007) focuses on modern advertising and the meanings that
people attach to the adverts. Looking at specific examples and the linguistic properties
of adverts, Morris argues that consumers ‘use the products and/or the messages to
signify appropriate meanings for themselves, thereby minimizing the resistance to
traditional positioning that media-literate consumers have developed’ (Morris, 2007).
Although Morris does not balance his examples with any counter arguments, this
article gives a valuable insight into the ‘understanding’ of adverts, and the meanings
denoted by consumers. This is a theme this dissertation will be analyzing at a later
stage.
As the title suggests, Tungate’s (2007) AdLand: A global history of advertising is
predominantly a book about the history of advertising and the people who make up
the industry. This book is a great insight into the way advertising works in general. It
is a very interesting book for anyone wanting to ‘pull back the curtain and take a good
look behind the scenes’ (Tungate 2007, p. 4) but does lack in the substance of
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information about advertising’s impact on popular culture, as it promises. There are
valuable insights into the differences between agencies in different countries and why
they must reflect their culture to be successful, but less on popular culture as
suggested. Still a relevant book for this dissertation, it is one which the themes
provided shall be investigated further.
Another particularly one-sided study was undertaken by Solomon and Englis (1994).
The paper considers consumers are unable to define the difference between reality
and advertising, when marketers are ‘blurring’ the lines between the two. It suggests
that as a message is effectively hidden using semiotics and metacommunication, the
consumers are being imposed upon to purchase and learn their social underpinnings
from these adverts. Solomon and Englis presume that this ‘reality engineering’ occurs
as consumers are unable to differentiate the information received as use advertising to
‘form representations of culture and commercial reality’ (Solomon and Englis 1994,
p. 2). In acknowledging that advertising has played a significant role in popular
culture, the writers have omitted any actual research into an alternative viewpoint,
despite a section titled ‘counterarguments’. There is no statistical research to back up
their argument. As such, it will be the aim of this dissertation to use the information
gained from this study, to conclude with a balanced argument.
Further to this gap of knowledge, it has been argued that ‘much of what is known in
disaggregated, incomplete, inconsistent or quite simply, incorrect’ (Reed and Ewing,
2004). It is the writers aim to ensure this dissertation is unbiased and thorough enough
to bridge the gap left in the presently available literature.
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3.8.4 LITERATURE THAT WAS WRITTEN PRIOR TO 1990
It was also noted that a vast amount of literature available on this subject was written
prior to around 1990, and very little written in the last 10 years. The advertising
industry has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, no more so than with the
digitalization of the industry. The inclusion of the internet in the popular culture and
advertising industries creates a new link together. Many findings from prior to this
alteration of the industry would need to be re-researched to ascertain whether current
views are similar. The issue with out of date literature is that large amounts of studies
concentrate on the findings and opinions of people in their current times. Written in
2000, Twitchell’s Twenty Ads that Shook the World, covers a history of the link of
advertising and popular culture, which is relevant in this study as trends in history
needs to be analysed before an accurate account of modern opinions can be formed.
Leiss et al (1990) also dedicated a large amount of their book to historical examples,
but this was necessary in a grounding for their later arguments.
A further historical analysis is undertaken by Gruber Garvey (1996) in The Adman in
the parlour: Magazines and the gendering of consumer culture, 1880s to 1910s. As
the title suggests, his book primarily focuses upon changing gender roles in history,
contributed, in part, by advertising. Gruber Garvey concentrates on the history of
how advertising came to be an ordinary feature in magazines, even involving the
readers to the extent of competitions and editorial content regarding the ads
themselves, ‘working on advertising, playing at creating advertising, and playing with
advertising slogans were all proposed as worthwhile family pastimes’ (Gruber Garvey
1996, p. 58). Through the example of bicycle riding, Gruber Garvey argues that
advertising was not the only point in making bicycle riding an acceptable pastime for
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females. She points out that by featuring females in print adverts, it altered the
perception of the audience who had previously heard the claims of anti-bicyclers ‘that
riding would ruin women’s sexual health by promoting masturbation, and would
compromise gender definition as well. (Gruber Garvey 1996, p. 106)
She does however, then go on to confirm her beliefs that the readers take from
advertising what they want, to create American culture by stating that
The fears raised by women’s bicycling were too deep and complex to be
countered simply by changing the bicycle saddle or proposing pro-bicycling
health arguments. And strategies used by individual advertisers to visually
demonstrate women’s graceful, feminine riding were insufficient as well.
Instead the threat posed by bicycling was defused through the advertising-
dependent magazines addressed to middle-class readers. (Gruber Garvey
1996, p. 123)
It is all the elements of mass culture that changed such a well known activity that we
know today. She argues that culture cannot be altered by one element alone, no matter
how powerful, as the audience cannot be dictated to in such a manner, even in a turn-
of-the-century world.
Ending the book with further examples of the link between popular culture of genders
and advertising, she ensures this book is an important argument in the wide area we
are looking at.
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Most of the literature pieces regarding the link with advertising and popular culture,
compiled by Danna (1992) are still relevant, but there are several, which are too dated
to be applicable to this dissertation.
Despite being written in 1983, the opinions of Ogilvy in Ogilvy on Advertising, are
still highly relevant to this dissertation. Ogilvy is seen as one of, if not the most
influential person on the topic of advertising. Any thorough dissertation on this topic
requires knowing his opinions on the matter, even in a historical context.
Suffering the fate of many advertising and culture books available, Davidson’s (1992)
The Consumerist Manifesto was written over twenty years ago, and is not as up-to-
date as required for a study of modern or even historical popular culture. This book,
does however, contain a very complete analysis of how advertising and culture are
connected up until the late 1980s, and provides many varied and relevant examples
and points for this dissertation. Davidson is quick to point out that advertising as we
know it, and its relation to popular culture, changed hugely in the 1980s, but this
change has continued to develop and as such, there is a gap in the knowledge. This
dissertation will look to rectify this by following on from the knowledge Davidson
has compiled.
3.8.5 LITERATURE THAT WAS CONSIDERED VERY ‘AMERICANISED’
A further general observation of the currently available literature on this topic is that
the majority is written by and for Americans. American popular culture is deemed to
be varied and rich, but the vast majority of theoretical books on advertising and
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popular culture are centred around Americanised research. This may be due to the
thought that ‘American commercial culture is well on its way to becoming world
culture’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 15).
Two such studies are Twitchell’s (1993, 1996) reports on American culture becoming
consumer culture. Although focusing on culture, many of the examples and theories
investigated are entwined with the changing of popular culture based on
consumerism.
One further study is Rehn’s (2008) Pop (Culture) Goes the Organization: On
Highbrow, Lowbrow and Hybrids in Studying Popular Culture Within Organization
Studies in which he focuses on the link between popular culture and his area of
organization studies, but the article is relevant to this dissertation in a variety of ways.
A frequently disputed area of low vs. high brow popular culture is discussed, but the
article focuses on fusions of these to the ‘hybrids’ that are created with popular
culture and capitalist practices. Rehn refers to several examples including managerial
games such as Railroad Tycoon, the manga bibliography ‘Warren Buffett—An
Illustrated Biography of the World’s Most Successful Investor’ and television shows
such as The Apprentice and argues
for the need to understand more hybrid forms of cultural products, phenomena
that may superficially seem lowbrow but which in fact generate effects on
several levels, being both more properly ‘popular’ and ‘mass’ than, for
example, business magazines, but still more acutely attuned to managerialist
or capitalist practices than ‘mere’ entertainment products. (Rehn, 2008)
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The idea of ‘hybrids’ between popular culture and other areas of industry is a very
useful one in this dissertation as it bridges the gap between the points of view of
advertising shaping or reflecting popular culture. This is an area that will be looked
into more carefully in the research area of this study, despite its bias towards
American examples.
3.8.6 ADDITIONAL LITERATURE
Additionally, there was some literature reviewed that purposefully concentrated on
the popular culture industry, but it was felt necessary to include them to ensure a
thorough understanding of the popular culture term and its industries. One such study
was Strinati (1995). Each chapter focuses on a view of popular culture and how it was
and is viewed. From Marxism, The Frankfurt School and Feminism, Strinati starts the
chapter by detailing their point of view. On first reading this book, I assumed Strinati
felt that advertising shaped, changed and completely altered popular culture and the
consumers. This was not to be so, as the latter portions of each chapter were left for
his point of view and detailing, with examples, why these points of view are dated and
incorrect. Striniati’s arguments are clear and concise and also include several
examples of advertising and other elements of media culture. Although this study
does not concentrate on the topic of advertising’s relationship with popular culture, it
shares great insights into culture and how it can be seen from above, below and
within.
A further example of a relevant book is by De Mooji (2010) that concentrates on
culture, as opposed to popular culture. De Mooji shows some valuable insights into
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the way culture shapes advertising and demonstrates this with many examples. From
gestures and images to banner-ad size and shape the book confirms and validates that
advertising cannot easily cross cultural boundaries, as they are so dependent on the
people and their understanding and liking for what is shown to them. The book looks
at differences in a culture of countries from the U.S, Britain, Europe, Japan and China
and divides them into categories including masculine, feminine, collectivistic and
individualistic societies. There are several themes within the book that will be
investigated further in the realm of culture and popular culture being designed
similarly by the people and for the people, in the research stages of this dissertation.
Several studies were reviewed which concentrated on the link between celebrity
endorsement and its effect on the advertising/popular culture connection. Many
studies agree that celebrity endorsement can be effective as long as local popular
culture is taken into account. Similarly, product type and consumers’ attitude towards
a celebrity can vary the effectiveness of the endorsement (Amos et al 2008; Chao et al
2005; Goldsmith et al 2000; Hsu & McDonald 2002; Tripp et al 1994).
A final theme studied which does not concentrate entirely on the link between the two
industries, was Gelb’s (1997) Creating “Memes” While Creating Advertising. The
hypothesis of memes is one that shall be investigated further in this study after
reading this work by Gelb. The study focuses on the concept of memes with
advertising, and concludes that advertising can penetrate popular culture, by
consumers selecting elements of advertising campaigns that they have a connection
with and replicating them. Using several examples including the ‘milk moustache’
from the Milk Council advertising campaign, Gelb demonstrates the power of
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creating a connection with the consumer so strong, that it will continue through
generations.
3.8.7 OUTLINE OF STUDY BASED ON LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review demonstrates the lack of knowledge and up-to-date research
undertaken in the area of the influence advertising has over popular culture. It also
shows the lack of research in a very broad sense. Much of the literature studied would
benefit greatly from cross-referencing previous studies – there is little evidence to
show that any study has been undertaken which encompasses previous work on the
topic.
Based on this literature review, it is therefore the aim of this dissertation to compile
the knowledge gained from previous research, increase the knowledge of each
industry substantially and produce an up-to-date, original study that contains a
complete argument and conclusion.
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CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION
This chapter aims to evaluate the case studies, current opinions from theorists and
professionals, and research undertaken as part of this study, to ascertain the answers
to the objectives outlined in the introduction. It will begin with an overview of the
historical link between advertising and popular culture before moving to the topics of
celebrity endorsement, product placement and other areas with a link between the
industries. Case studies will then be provided to evaluate and understand historical
and unquestionable examples of advertising shaping popular culture. This section will
then be followed by investigation into the opinion of industry professionals along
with topics such as memes, political advertising and finally a conclusion.
4.1 HISTORICAL ANALYSIS
It has been suggested that forms of advertising go back to Greek public
announcements and Roman street sellers, however, ‘the industry as we know it in fact
took shape in the latter part of the nineteenth century’ (Myers 1986, p.17). It is this
‘modern’ advertising that receives so much criticism. There are of course, many
advocates of advertising and its benefits who feel ‘it funds our creative industries, it
helps businesses compete, it delivers better prices and better products to consumers’
(personal interview with Tom Bage conducted on 18 July 2011).
Despite this, advertising is accused of being able to make consumers purchase
products they do not want due to the values and aspirations added by industry. This
practice of adding values to products began in 1834 by the ‘Shakespeare of
advertising’: P.T. Barnum.
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More than anyone else, P.T. Barnum invented what we now take to be the
commercial exploitation of the human condition. His legacy includes the
manufacture of hype, the conjunction of redemption and consumption, the
colonization of the pseudo-event, the immediate exploitation of new media
and imagery, the exchange of story for value, celebrity endorsements, the
saturation of language with audacious promise, the manipulation of the
carnivalesque, and, above all, the self-satisfied, smugly ironic, and strangely
affectionate relationship between duper and supped, trickster and tricked,
advertiser and audience. (Twitchell 2000, p. 24)
Around Barnum’s time, this advertising was considered ‘a new form of uniquely
American entertainment: the media-made confected event, high on promise, low on
delivery, and probably costing something’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 21). By attaching a
story to a product – adding values, you were more likely to sell it. However, ‘these
added values were the object of the 50s conspiracy theory, 60s satire and 70s
semiology. In the 80s they became all-powerful, and Esperanto of desire and
relevance, the language of the tribe’ (Davidson 1992, p. 23). The 1980’s were
considered as the first time advertising was acknowledged to be ‘symptomatic of the
society that produced it… Advertising became acknowledged as being a sophisticated
cultural product at a time when that was how both ‘popular’ and ‘high’ culture were
being explored and consumed’ (Davidson 1992, p. 61).
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4.2 SEMIOLOGY AND SYMBOLS
The 1970’s semiology and 1980’s awareness and exploration that Davidson speaks of
are areas inextricably linked with advertising and popular culture. As the study of
signs, symbols and images, semiology uses the meanings attached to these signs to
denote and connote particular meanings to consumers and the commodities. In order
for this transfer to be successful, the signs need to be well understood, so that they are
widely known and make sense.
A sign replaces something for someone. It can only mean if it has someone to
mean to. Therefore, all signs depend for their signifying process on the
existence of specific, concrete receivers, people for whom and in whose
systems of belief, they have a meaning. (Williamson 1978, p. 40)
Furthermore, ‘semiology argues that material reality can never be taken for granted,
imposing its meaning upon human beings. Reality is always constructed, and made
intelligible to human understanding by culturally specific systems of meaning’
(Strinati 1995, p. 109).
De Mooji (2010) also believes that for advertising to be successful, it needs to draw
upon these symbols that are easily recognized, but this will only occur within
individuals who share a culture.
Thus, for the advertisement to succeed in turning products from signifieds into
signifiers…it must enter the space of the receiver; it is he or she who
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completes the circuit though which, once started… a current of ‘meaning’
flows continuously and apparently autonomously. (Williamson 1978, p. 41)
Advertising is an ‘ongoing conversation within a culture about the meaning of
objects’ (Twitchell 1996, p.13) and as such, advertising is proposed to be a ‘cultural
signifier not cultural shaper’ (Mendelsohn, 2011). Additionally, in order to penetrate
the consumers’ awareness within a saturated market, these signifiers must be used to
stand out from other campaigns (Solomon and Englis, 1994).
Semiology, therefore, is one of the main areas where popular culture and advertising
can influence what consumers understand from a specific image or symbol. Davidson
highlights this by stating,
drinking an identifiable bottle of Coca-Cola outside on a hot day is not just
drinking a Coke: it’s participating in a paradigm deemed desirable not just by
your betters – the Coca-Cola company – but by your neighbors [sic], who
perceive you are doing something all-American and super-wonderful.
(Davidson 1992, p. 111)
These inferences can be drawn from advertising, but elements are brought by popular
culture:
One of the roles of advertising is to make things seem familiar so when you
come across it on the shelf or whatever, it’s not a complete stranger. That’s
kind of a deep evolutionarily wired reaction that if it’s new and strange, you’re
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suspicious of it. (personal interview with Alex Benady conducted on 22 July
2011)
‘To move your product out of the store, you first need to move it into the consumer’s
imagination’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 102). By using images from popular culture,
advertisers can ensure a certain familiarity with the symbols and images they are
using.
So they are after familiarity and they are also after interest, so you don’t have
to be a rocket scientist to work out that what advertising is doing is borrowing
interest from popular culture… But the reason why they’re borrowing interest,
the reason why its one way rather than two way… is advertising is a really
difficult thing to do, to do well - to get noticed, to be remembered, to have an
effect. And you’re spending a lot of money on it, so the last thing you want to
do… is spend money establishing new ideas in the minds of your consumers.
So…you can use ideas that are already there. (personal interview with Alex
Benady conducted on 22 July 2011)
Hamish Pringle, (2004) also concurred by stating ‘before a product can be bought by
anyone, it has to first find a place on a scale of fame, At the very lowest end of this
scale is simple awareness. At the highest end of this scale is global celebrity’ (Pringle
2004, foreword). In this sense then, advertising is reflecting popular culture: using its
symbols and meanings to construct stories and familiarity in consumers for it’s own
benefit. ‘It is only within the mind of the individual spectator that symbols are turned
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into meanings, that the welcomed content finds its purpose. The level of analysis must
at bottom be that of the individual. (Fowles 1996, p. 104).
In order for an advert to work, the consumers must attribute the same meanings from
the images presented. Using images and meanings from popular culture is a proven
method to ensure all consumers will denote the same meanings. Simon Lendrum
pointed this out when said ‘pop culture is one method of relevance to the consumer,
and if we're always seeking for advertising to be distinctive, ownable and relevant,
then reflecting pop culture is one way to achieve relevance’ (personal interview with
Simon Lendrum conducted on 30 June 2011). ‘Advertisers will appropriate such
popular culture material as celebrities, music, comedic styles – anything that can
drape their products in accepted and enhancing symbols’ (Fowles 1996, p. 103).
There are many examples of advertising utilizing popular culture images, characters
or plotlines for a campaign to be more familiar to, and accepted by, consumers.
Several examples are shown below which are considered very successful, and have
reflected popular culture by using well-known characters, games, toys, and even
colour combinations (images 1-10).
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65
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Similarly, the U.K. Milk Development Council has emulated the success of their US
counterparts by borrowing a similar style to their ‘Got Milk?’ campaign. By featuring
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well-known characters and celebrities, they highlight the benefits of drinking milk.
The campaign is built almost entirely on reflecting popular culture (images 11-18).
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69
Consumers can also use these symbols from advertising and popular culture to signify
a meaning and identity for themselves - similar to the way theorists argue that what a
person consumes and purchases, signifies themselves.
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Wherever fan clubs sprout up or people organize themselves into consumption
communities (as with Pepsi-Colas drinkers in opposition to Coca-Cola
fanciers), then the power of these two symbolic domains is made manifest.
When people increasingly outfit themselves with symbols of their popular
culture teams or heroes (the Raiders, Mickey Mouse, the Power Rangers) or
have the name of particular products legibly featured on their apparel
(Budweiser T-shirts, Gucci glasses, Avon caps) and this becomes their leading
message to the world at large, then it is clear that advertising and popular
culture have become one means for nothing less than signaling [sic] personal
identity. (Fowles 1996, p. 19)
These examples are validation that consumers purchase items that given off the
desired symbols taken from the advertising and popular culture mix (Fowles, 1996).
4.3 THE CREATORS
Despite the similarities between the industries, significant differences exist between
advertising and popular culture. One noticeable difference is the knowledge of the
productions creators.
The makers of adverts (copywriters, models, photographers, art directors, creative
directors) are generally unknown and not acknowledged to the consumer. ‘The
advertiser for the most part does not want any individuals inserted between the
product and the consumer – it must be an unimpeded relationship’ (Fowles 1996, p.
16). Popular culture productions however, gain merit and credibility based on the
team behind it (actors, producers, directors, writers etc). ‘These human heroes lend
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familiarity and weight to the production, which may gain accretions of meaning from
the associations that viewers have with those names. Popular culture is more layered,
advertising less so’ (Fowles 1996, p. 16).
There are, however, individuals who have bridged the gap and been part of a team for
both industries. Sir Ridley Scott, director of Alien and Blade Runner, also created
Apple’s 1984 advert. ‘Peter Jackson Lord of the Rings… and Alan Parker, (Fame,
Mississippi Burning, Evita) learned their skills in the advertising industry. Expertise
also moves in the other direction. US movie directors such as David Fincher (Panic
Room, Fight Club) have also directed commercials’ (Hackley 2010, p. 171).
This link between the industries is also noted by Mike Pascale, who stated ‘many
popular techniques are first tried in commercials before Hollywood gets them (such as
Exxon's "morphing" tiger spot, which influenced a lot of subsequent films)’ (Personal
Forum response from Mike Pascale received on 27 April 2011).
Georges Bermann, producer of Eternal Sunshine of a Spotless mind noted that
Advertising is always a step behind other creative professions. “Advertising
has rarely invented anything. Artistically, it recycles. It’s something I’ve
noticed with videos: we’ll do something and the idea will find its way into an
ad about three years later.” He points out that this is logical, given that
television advertising is mass communication. “A new form needs to penetrate
the consciousness of the public before it can be used effectively in an ad.”
(Tungate 2007, pp. 239-240)
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This theory is similar to the idea that advertising reflects and follows trends in society
and popular culture:
there used to be an unwritten law against showing women in advertisements
for cigarettes. It was not until long after people got used to seeing them smoke
in public that this taboo was lifted. I was the first to show women in liquor
advertisements – 30 years after they started drinking in public. (Ogilvy 1983,
p. 26)
This interchangeability does not extend to all people in the advertising industry. In
order to ensure a consumer is not detracted from the advertisers intended message,
advertisements have a predominantly polished and perfected aesthetic style. As such,
some people featuring in adverts, models in particular, find it difficult to transfer
success from advertising into popular culture. This is thought to be because
appearance is the key to success in advertising, whereas personality is the key
to success in acting. Advertising’s perfected style leads to an emphasis on
surfaces at the expense of all else; popular culture is more complex, dealing
with interior matters as well, and so the dramatic content that exposes the
inner self, and the performers who can personify it, come to the fore. (Fowles
1996, pp. 15-16)
Furthermore, consumers form positive opinions about attractive people and are more
successful communicators than their less attractive or well-known counterparts
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(Ohanian 1991; Chao et al 2005; Amos et al 2008). This is particularly true of
appearance related products (Kamins, 1990). As such, a familiarity is born through
the use of celebrity endorsements in advertising (Amos et al, 2008).
4.4 CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS
Celebrity endorsement not only brings an element of familiarity to an advert, they can
also infer meanings to a product or brand through meaning transfer (McCracken,
1989). Celebrities can be considered from many realms of popular culture (see
appendix 19). Benady also cites benefits for the advertising agencies, ‘you don’t want
to be wasting money in creating personalities when you can pick one off the shelf that
has already been created and everyone understands’ (personal interview with Alex
Benady conducted on 22 July 2011). The use of celebrities also commands higher
attention, effectiveness and recall (Ohanian 1991; Goldsmith et al 2000; Kaikati
1987; Tripp et al 1994). Furthermore, ‘advertising uses celebrities because they attract
groups of people that have the same interest’ (personal interview with Rodrigo Carr
conducted on 30 June 2011). As such it is estimated that approximately 20 to 25 per
cent of advertising in 2009 featured a celebrity as a product endorser (Sliburyte 2009,
p. 934). This is confirmed in the content analysis of print and television advertising
undertaken for this study which showed 23% of print advertising and 25% of
television advertisements currently contained celebrity endorsement (see appendix
20).
Boorstin (1961) argues that previously, in a folk culture these people were called
‘heroes’ but in this mass based culture, we call them celebrities. The billions of
pounds spent each year on celebrity endorsements reflects its importance in the
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advertising industry (Kambitsis et al. 2002, Daneshvary and Keith 2000). Although
the consumer survey conducted for this survey shows that only 24% of consumers
feel that products with celebrity endorsement are, or sometimes are, better and more
trustworthy than campaigns without celebrities (figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: Statistical research from consumer survey regarding celebrity endorsement
To ensure that this response was not biased towards the younger ‘celebrity conscious’
generations the survey response was compared to the 60+ age group (figure 4.2). The
graph shows a slight variation in percentages; however, the overall trend of ‘No’ is
largely similar in that the majority of consumers agree on the answer to the question.
This demonstrates that the age of the consumer can be considered irrelevant when
considering effectiveness of celebrity endorsements.
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Figure 4.2: Comparison of statistical data from consumer survey between age groups
These endorsements rely on “spontaneous trait transference” (Twitchell 2000;
Uleman and Bargh 1989; Uleman and Todorov 2003). Drawing from a series of
performances and appearances, consumers apply a particular personality and qualities.
These traits can be considered positive or negative and as such, they are attributed to
the brand (Amos et al, 2008). Natural guidelines would follow that success comes
from a logical connection between the face and the product (Kamins 1990; Cooper
1984; Chao et al 2005; Misra & Beatty 1990). Advertisers have to assess the
individual's image and character to make sure it matches their products or brands
needs. Fiona Lindsay, Managing Director at Limelight Celebrity Management said of
the Kellogg’s Optivita campaign featuring Aldo Zilli, and the Philadelphia cream
cheese advert campaign featuring Ed Baines (both celebrity chefs) that ‘these are
campaigns my clients have taken part in and all products have seen growth’ (personal
interview with Fiona Lindsay conducted on 30 June 2011). This ‘match-up’
hypothesis highlights the ‘importance of fit between the endorser and the endorsed
product’ (Till & Busler, 1998).
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However, Twitchell commented that these links with celebrities and brands do not
need to make literal sense, ‘all it has to do is link spokesperson and product in an
emotional way. That’s why Michael Jordan, who we usually see covered in a fine
glow of sweat, can successfully sell his own cologne. Logic would suggest he should
sell an antiperspirant’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 42).
Twitchell also commented on brands lending or giving their products to celebrities for
endorsement. ‘Drenching a starlet with brilliant baubles was a way of generating
value by association – for both parties. “Diamonds are a girl’s best friend,” cooed
Marilyn Monroe. To the cartel the refrain continues, “Marilyn is diamonds’ best
friend.”’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 95).
Benady highlighted this mutually beneficial relationship when he cited the example of
Jamie Oliver,
he has had an interesting career, cause his career… kind of depended on the
interaction between advertising and popular culture. He was in advertising
initially because he was popular and part of popular culture, but the
advertising made him more prominent and more famous, which reinforced his
position in popular culture, which made him more attractive to the advertising,
so for him, it was a virtuous circle of the interaction between the two.
(personal interview with Alex Benady conducted on 22 July 2011).
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George Martino highlights this relationship between celebrity and product by
remarking that ‘celebrities become associated with prestige products for their own
egos/careers instead of just ££$$$s [sic]’ (personal interview with George Martino
conducted on 20 June 2011).
Celebrity endorsements use semiology to infer a meaning that should be attributed to
their product. As such, Till and Shimp (1998) suggest that celebrities remain a
liability for the brands they endorse. Nowadays, according to Peggy Walter of Leo
Burnett, it is commonplace that contracts are only offered to celebrities after an
extensive background check (Levenson, 2005). There are several examples where
advertisers have been amiss in their choice of celebrity endorsers to imply cultural
capital. Kate Moss was infamously and publicly dismissed in 2005 from H&M,
Chanel and Burberry after allegedly being photographed using drugs.
Bruce Willis pitched Seagram’s Golden Wine Cooler until it was rumoured in
tabloids that he had a “drinking problem.” Once Mike Tyson and Robin
Givens stopped cooing and started punching, Diet Pepsi headed for the
showers. When Macaulay Culkin, star of the Home Alone movies, said of
Sprite, “I’m not crazy about the stuff. But money is money,” admen reached
for the bourbon. James Garner underwent heart surgery and the beef industry
bled. When Cybill Shepherd, spokeswomen for L’Oreal, admitted she didn’t
dye her hair, many admen pulled theirs. Need I even mention what happened
to the relationship between Hertz and O.J. Simpson? (Twitchell 2000, p. 214)
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These issues have made advertisers wary and a survey conducted concluded that 75%
of marketers were less likely to use a celebrity to promote their brands than 5 years
ago (Morrison, 2003).
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These issues illustrate the advertising industry reflecting consumer attitudes towards a
celebrity. If an opinion of a celebrity may, or has become a negative one, they are
dismissed as the endorser. The advertising itself cannot save or amend a reputation of
a celebrity if the public is aware of their failings. Additionally, the potential over-use
of celebrity endorsers may also alienate consumers and so the format of some
advertising campaigns has altered (see appendix 21).
4.5 CHARACTERS
It is not only celebrities that are used to endorse products, but characters too. One
such example is the Mexican paint brand, Comex. As seen in images 19-21, the
meaning behind the campaign may be lost if the popular culture references of the
characters were not understood.
The positively received Barclaycard adverts featuring a character played by Rowan
Atkinson displays an example when advertising played an alterative role on popular
culture. Throughout the advertising campaign, a bumbling British spy gets into
trouble around the world, paying for everything with his Barclaycard. The character
proved so popular, it inspired the 2003 spin off film, Johnny English (see appendix
22).
Furthermore, following his appearances singing pop songs in the DLKW born Halifax
campaign, Howard Brown, a former customer services representative for Halifax
peaked at number 13 in the U.K. singles chart with his charity single You’re the First,
the Last, My Everything and had a cameo part in The Office 2003 Christmas special.
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Such examples are rare though and are the exception, not the rule. The popularity of
the characters and ‘real life’ people in these examples, was due to the reaction of the
consumers, not imposed by the advertising agency.
Very few of these contrived symbols actually get appropriated by the public;
most are deflected as meaningless and die unlamented deaths along the
roadway of commerce – Bud Man (Budweiser Beer), the Noid (Domino’s
Pizza), the Swedish Bikini Team (Old Milwaukee Beer). (Fowles 1996, p. 9)
If this were not the case, all characters featured in advertising campaigns would have
TV shows, hit records and films written for them and would be shaping popular
culture as we know it.
This fickle nature of the advertising industry being able to ensure celebrity status
through campaigns has made some celebrities wary of appearing in advertising. This
attitude seems to have changed in the last few years. ‘The actress Uma Thurman was
pursued for years by the fragrance brand Lancôme before she finally agreed to feature
in their ads. It is no longer uncool for serious artists to do advertising campaigns’
(Hackley 2010, p. 171).
It is the relationship between the music industry and advertising, which has extensive
examples of songs and bands becoming popular through the use of their tracks in
campaigns.
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4.6 MUSIC
Music in advertising is a further area where advertising is argued to be able to shape
popular culture. In the consumer survey conducted for this study, 63% of respondents
confirmed that they had bought a CD or downloaded a song after hearing it on an
advertisement (figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Statistical research from consumer survey regarding music in advertising
Due to this, there are several examples of failing or unknown artists being propelled
into the charts through the use of a song in an advert. Speaking of the Levi’s
campaigns, Simon Lendrum remarked that they ‘borrowed from the back catalogue of
rock and roll to reflect classic american [sic] teenage rebellion, but in doing so fed
those soundtracks back into 1980s/90s Britain, spawning numerous number ones,
making Nick Kamen famous, etc [sic]’ (personal interview with Simon Lendrum
conducted on 30 June 2011). Channel 4’s Advertising’s Greatest Hits (originally aired
in 2005) compiled a countdown of the top 30 hit records generated from a television
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advert, and includes 15 Number 1’s (See appendix 23). It is interesting to note that the
majority of the songs noted, featured in advertisements for jeans and alcohol.
Notable examples featured of advertising campaigns assisting artists to become
popular were, Should I Stay Or Should I Go which was The Clash’s only chart-topper,
9 years after its original release; Lenny Kravitz achieving his first number 1 after Fly
Away being used in a Peugeot campaign; The Hollies making a triumphant return with
He Ain’t Heavy He’s My Brother, achieving a number 2 hit originally, but 19 years
later reaching number 1 following the Miller Lite campaign (Advertising’s Greatest
Hits, 2005).
Tom Bage also responded with the example of the Dandy Warhols. They
were a relatively minor band in Britain in the late 90s and early 00s, on the
back of that Vodafone advert… they got to number 1 in the charts! And were
third on the bill at Reading Festival, I remember going to see them. And that
was on the back of an advert. And it was because that advert had cut across…
into the mass market, that record labels wouldn’t necessarily get. (personal
interview with Tom Bage conducted on 18 July 2011)
So, does this ability for a song to be featured in an advert and consequently be
successful, mean advertising is shaping popular culture? It is unlikely, as it is clear
that the adverts are unable to tell people that these songs should be bought or
downloaded, they are simply using the songs as a metacommunication method, such
as MOP’s reworking of Foreigner’s Cold As Ice, being used to reinvent a toothpaste
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brand, when hip-hop had just itself become popular (Advertising’s Greatest Hits,
2005).
Pamela Richardson, Commercial Director at Capital FM agreed on this point by
stating that
if a [sic] advertisement ties into a song/band such as Rhianna it creates a
strong & consistent synergy with an already established brand… which makes
the advertising itself more stronger, more coherent & more easily remembered
& allows the product [to be] more sought after. (personal interview with
Pamela Richardson conducted on 8 July 2011)
Despite this potential success, there is still a certain stigma from featuring a song in
an advertising campaign, and as such, bands like Coldplay and Radiohead do not
allow their tracks to be used (Advertising’s Greatest Hits, 2005). This unwillingness
to participate could be ‘because the musicians do not feel that there is an appropriate
fit with the brand making the request or because, on principle, they will not,
countenance what they see as an unacceptable commercialization of their art’ (Pringle
2004, p. 133). This opinion can change depending on the product or brand though.
Bob Dylan last year… let his song be used by the Co-operative and it was the
first time he had let any of his music be used in a British advertising
campaign, but because he believes in Co-operative values and the socio-
democratic, liberal left wing core values that the Co-operative embodies, plus
its record on the environment: he was happy to let them use his music because
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he was happy for his music to be associated with that brand. So it’s all about
context really. (personal interview with Tom Bage conducted on 18 July 2011)
Jim Powers, the director of Minty Fresh (a record label), concurs and was reported as
saying ‘my bands now are completely open to having their songs as part of television
commercials. Seven or eight years ago, it was unseemly to even bring it up. At the
time it didn't seem necessary, because there was still a sense that radio was willing to
take a chance on adventurous music. That's not true anymore, so you have to look for
other ways to get the music out there’ (Kot, 2002).
Unfortunately, many bands that have become popular through the use of their songs
in advertising campaigns have been considered one-hit-wonders. Freakpower and 411
were swiftly dropped by their management flowing the unsuccessful follow up songs
to Turn On, Tune In, Cop Out and Dumb (Advertising’s Greatest Hits, 2005).
Therefore, it appears that the adverts are simply giving exposure to songs, allowing
consumers to hear them, far more than they would on the radio or other media. The
consumers like the songs they hear, purchase them, but have not ‘bought into’ the
band as a whole, simply the song they were exposed to and therefore popular culture
has not been shaped. The content analysis of television advertisements undertaken for
this study showed that 36% of current advertisements contain an already well-known
song, so there is plenty of air-time available for emerging artists (see appendix 24).
The advertising campaigns are not making the band or album part of popular culture,
merely exposing a song to millions of additional consumers than it would have done,
had it not featured on an advert.
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4.7 PRODUCT PLACEMENT
This widespread exposure can also be highlighted in a different format by the success
of product placement within popular culture productions.
There are a number of advantages to product placement as a promotional
technique. One is that, as with sponsorship, the link between the entertainment
vehicle and the placed brand is implicit rather than explicit. This means the
consumer is left to read the association in the entertainment text. (Hackley
2010, p. 167)
Furthermore, with new technologies such as internet on-demand television, Sky+ and
TiVo, consumers are becoming more adept at erasing television commercials from
their programme watching time (Maynard and Scala, 2006). Product placement
allows brands and products to be integrated within the films and television shows they
are watching. Furthermore, ‘when product placement is not perceived as persuasion
but instead as entertainment, it is less likely to draw criticism’ (Maynard and Scala,
2006). This is confirmed in the consumer survey conducted for this study with 74% of
respondents stating that they do, or at least sometimes do, think it is acceptable to
have product placement in films and TV shows (figure 4.4).
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Figure 4.4: Statistical research from consumer survey regarding product placement
As of 28 February 2011, product placement was permitted in the U.K. through
television shows. The first item to be featured was a Nescafe coffee machine on ITV’s
This Morning (Blake, 2011). Nescafe paid £100,000 for the opportunity of featuring
in the kitchen scenes in the show. As these new regulations will be governed by
OFCOM, there are several restrictions on programme format, and several products
which cannot be placed at all such as cigarettes; alcohol; food and drink that is high in
fat, salt or sugar; gambling; medicines; baby milk and weapons (OFCOM, 2011).
Prior to the 1980’s, the placement of products in films was deemed an equal exchange
between popular culture productions and advertisers: ‘the supply of products needed
on a film’s set was provided in exchange for a brand’s exposure among audience
members in the final cut of a film’ (Maynard and Scala 2006, p. 622). It is thought
that consumers recognizing brands and products also creates a more realistic and
credible set for the films (DeLorme and Reid, 1999). The dramatic increase in sales of
Hershey’s Reese’s Pieces following its feature in the 1982 film, E.T. the Extra-
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Terrestrial, encouraged advertisers and marketers to purposefully place and to pay for
featuring their products in popular culture productions (DeLorme and Reid 1999;
Maynard and Scala 2006). Current product placement practices occasionally offer
brands for free or for an alternative benefit.
Some recent examples of product placement are Star Trek (Budweiser, Corvette, Jack
Daniels, Nokia), X-men: Wolverine (Caterpillar, Chevrolet, Ford), Natural Born
Killers (Coca-Cola), Gran Torino (Coca-Cola, Honda, Reebok, Toyota), Minority
Report (Lexus, Bulgari, American Express) and almost every car featured in
Transformers, Bad Boys II and The Matrix reloaded was supplied by General Motors
and in most cases, for free (Hackley 2010; Harlow 2011; Karrh et al 2003; Maynard
and Scala 2006). It has also been reported that the forthcoming untitled 23rd Bond
film, is to receive $45 million (one-third) of the films’ budget from product placement
sponsorship deals (Harlow, 2011).
Contrary to the obvious opinion, the Wilson volleyball (a main character in the 2000
film Cast Away) was not a creation of product placement. It was due to authentic
inspiration from a washed up Wilson volleyball on a Mexican beach found by the
Cast Away writer William Broyles Jr. (Maynard and Scala, 2006). However, as no
money was exchanged, Wilson cannot be measured as product placement (Maynard
and Scala, 2006) but ‘Wilson’ even went on to win the BFCA Critic’s Choice Award
for ‘Best Inanimate Object’ and the Wilson brand was exposed to 100,000,000
million viewers (Maynard and Scala 2006, p. 630). Furthermore, it is possible to buy
a manufactured Wilson volleyball with a hand print face on one side from the Wilson
website. This tie-in advertising can continue to benefit the film production company,
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as long after the film has been removed from cinema screens, the products relating to
the film are being bought (Lehu, 2007). A further example for this is that current Mr.
Potato Heads, as featured in the Toy Story films, are sold by toymakers with eyebrows
– a feature added by the film-makers (Wise, 1999).
Wilson would be considered, according to Russell (1998), as a “Plot Placement”
(where the brand is intertwined into the storyline). Additionally, there are two
alternative methods of product placement. These are “Screen Placements” (the brand
is positioned as part of the scenery or set) and “Script Placements” (the brand is
verbally mentioned). However, it is these plot placements that are deemed to be most
effective. In a similar method to celebrity endorsements, product placement links a
product or brand to a character or plotline that is perceived to be able to conduct a
positive link between the two. This link, and attachment of values can work in a
mutually beneficial way. When Dole bananas were featured in the 2006 film, Curious
George, Dole further advertised the film by placing Curious George stickers on 100
million bananas (Lehu, 2007) and 4.5 million Curious George hangers on pineapples
(Universal Press Release, 2006). Additionally, inside 3 million Curious George
DVDs, Dole placed discount coupons for bananas (Pate, 2006). Furthermore, Dole
products were featured in the Namco Curious George videogame (Universal Press
Release, 2006). Dole were only one of eight brands that were forming extensive
marketing alliances with the film (Universal Press Release, 2006).
However, in fear of a negative connotation, there are also instances of product dis-
placement where the brand names are deleted from products at the brand’s insistence.
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For example, the Oscar-winning movie Slumdog Millionaire featured a
Mercedez-Benz car in a scene in the slums of Mumbai. The manufacturer
decided that the brand logo had to be deleted from the movie. Subsequently,
the movie won multiple Oscar nominations and widespread acclaim. It was
reported that Coca-Cola also refused permission for their brand to appear in
Slumdog. (Hackley 2010, p. 170)
Stolichnaya vodka also refused permission to the producers of Bad Santa in which
Billy Bob Thornton was to play a violent and alcoholic character (Lehu, 2007). In
addition to this, to ensure recruitment levels are not affected, the military only allow
their kit or emblems to be featured in films where a positive image is portrayed. The
military receive no payment for this – any fees are simply billed to the film producers,
which for Black Hawk Down cost the production team US$3 million to move eight
Black Hawk helicopters to Morocco for filming (Lehu, 2007). Conversely, negative
product placement is acceptable to some companies.
Barbie's presence in Toy Story 2 reflects a current trend in American movies:
'ironic' product placement' which is either so entertainingly blatant or so
absurdly negative it simply becomes part of the fabric of the movie and we
forget it's there at all. David Fincher's Fight Club is a good example of the
latter, where the Ikea philosophy is mocked and satirised, particularly in a
scene where the lead character's apartment is blown to smithereens. ('You lost
a lot of versatile furnishing solutions,' Brad Pitt's character notes dryly).
(Wise, 1999)
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Karrh et al (2003) highlight the importance that a product is already established in the
marketplace for product placement to be successful. This confirms that the product
placement method is also unable to shape the popularity of a product simply by
placing it in a film or TV show. The familiarity of a brand or product is heightened by
it being featured in a film, and it may receive added values and status, but it would be
a waste to use an unknown product in a film. ‘Consumption of virtually anything,
then, can tap into symbolic values of social status and identity’ (Hackley 2010, p.
176). Additionally, there are many examples of products or brands being used simply
for realism and credibility, with no monetary value to the brand. The 1997 film
Anastacia features a Chanel shop, which was placed merely by approval and without
payment from Chanel, as they did not seek the placement (Lehu, 2007). Such
placement in a cartoon film did, however, receive criticism. Despite using brands for
authenticity, some consumers believe that advertising is invading their ‘down time’
for profitability. A new genre of product placement received criticism when Nike
started implementing its iconic ‘swoosh’ logo in the ‘New X-Men’ comic by Marvel
Entertainment Inc (Steinberg, 2006) (image 22).
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In advertising terms however, Marvel and DC comics are presenting a way for
agencies to reach an elusive audience – men in their twenties (Steinberg, 2006). Such
product placements are however, said to ‘taint the experience… The comic
environment is designed to take you away from reality for a moment’ (Steinberg,
2006). Although producers at Marvel comics have argued that they will place
products as long as they are not detrimental to the comic or storyline, it is simply a
way of adding an authentic reality into popular culture (Steinberg, 2006). Critics of
this new wave of product placement may however, be surprised to learn that comic
books originally began as an advertising promotional giveaway. Although there were
conglomerations of comic strips prior to 1933, the comic book, as we know it, was the
result of a giveaway of 10,000 copies of Funnies on Parade for a Proctor and Gamble
campaign (Lopes, 2009).
A further hybridization of popular culture and advertising occurs in the 2005 film The
Island. Scarlett Johansson is playing a clone of a famous actress, but only realizes this
when she sees an advertisement for Calvin Klein featuring the famous actress
(herself). With a certain authenticity and mutual benefits, Miss Johansson was, at the
time, the endorser for Eternity Moment, a perfume by Calvin Klein (Lehu, 2007).
Similar hybridizations of popular culture productions and advertising campaigns have
been researched by Solomon and Englis (1994). In this study, Solomon and Englis
perceive that this ‘hybridization’ and blurring of the lines between reality and
advertisements means the consumers are unaware of what is real as they are unaware
‘of the intentions of the image makers’ (Solomon and Englis 1994, p. 1) in a method
they call ‘reality engineering’.
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Figure 4.5: Statistical research from consumer survey regarding ‘reality engineering’
They also argue that ‘very few, if any, audience members are aware of the behind-the-
scenes efforts of public relations or advertising agencies whose goal is to engineer the
social reality portrayed in these media vehicles of popular culture’ (Solomon and
Englis 1994, p.1). Despite this finding, the consumer survey conducted as part of this
dissertation found that 93% of consumers did not find any difficulty in distinguishing
the difference between films, advertising, television shows and real life. Only 2
respondents admitted that they found this to be a challenge (figure 4.5).
This again highlights that in general, advertising is unable to manipulate consumers
through confusing them, or even by advertising being intertwined in popular culture
productions through product placement. It is predicted that this is the same of children
too, ‘when children are young, they sometimes confuse the mediated world and real-
world, but in time they learn to discriminate. The boy who wants to fly off the shed
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roof like Superman seldom needs to learn his lesson a second time’ (Fowles 1996, p.
226). Fowles also continues to hypothesis more fully,
an adult version of the same sort of discrimination in needed to comprehend
the limited impact of the advertising/popular culture mix on such real-world
challenges as the development of self-identity. Although visible, the content of
the media is only symbolic; it is never alive, never palpable. A such, it has
little coercive power and can be accepted or rejected, in whole or in part,
according to the needs or whims of the spectator. The content of the two
symbol domains is far-fetched, and so is the notion of its might. (Fowles 1996,
p. 226)
This noted, consumers therefore are showing that they are capable of making
independent decisions, and furthermore, creating popular culture without sole
influence from advertising, even when it is part of the popular culture productions.
4.8 ART
It has also been argued that by using well-known images such as art, the distinction
between advertising and popular culture is blurred even further. This has been called
‘aesthetic populism’, which ‘refers to how popular cultural elements are inscribed in
‘serious’ works of art or how serious work is adapted to popular contexts’ (McGuigan
1992, p. 3). This juxtaposition of ‘high class’ art has not gone unnoticed by critics
however. It has been said that by associating your mass produced product with objects
in the ‘privileged category of “art”’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 40), it would infer a better
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product or brand. Unfortunately, this is not a mutually beneficial relationship and has
been considered to debase art.
We share a common knowledge of such works as the Mona Lisa,
Michelangelo’s David, Botticelli’s Primavera, Munch’s The Scream, Van
Gogh’s landscapes, Matisse’s cutouts, Mondrian’s squares, Magritte’s
juxtapositions, Seurat’s Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte,
Leutze’s George Washington Crossing the Delaware, Woods’s American
Gothic, Whistler’s Portrait of the Artist’s Mother, or Henri Rousseau’s sad-
eyed jungle cats, not from Art History 101, but from seeing them in
advertisements for what? Beer, cheese, booze, cigarettes. (Twitchell 2000, p.
46)
Bourdieu (1984) argues that ‘a work of art has meaning and interest only for someone
who possesses the cultural competence, that is, the code, into which it is encoded’
(Bourdieu 1984, p. 2). This hypothesis by Bourdieu is perhaps no longer relevant with
the introduction of art into modern popular culture. While all consumers may not be
able to appreciate the artistic nature of a painting, it is likely, due to advertising’s use
of art, that they will understand the connotations and values associated with it.
It also could be argued that regardless of where we are seeing these masterpieces, they
are still getting exposure in a modernized and ‘uncultured’ world. The use of these
pieces in advertising, is integrating them into the world of popular culture, but no
more so that their use in TV programmes or films such as Bean in which the storyline
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focused around Whistler’s Portrait of the Artist’s Mother or the 1999 version of The
Thomas Crown Affair which heavily featured The Son of Man by René Magritte.
Furthermore, pop art, emerging in the 1950s, is thought to ironically emphasize the
use of banal products and brands such as Campbell’s soup cans, Kellogg’s Corn
Flakes, Del Monte Peach Slices, Brillo Pad boxes, Coca-Cola and Volkswagen
camper vans, rather than ‘high class’ images. This statement from pop artists and the
subsequent purchasers of the pop art showed that consumers understand advertising
and brands, and are willing to pay high prices to hang them on their walls.
It is clear to say that television programmes like Channel 4’s and The Sunday Times’
The 100 Greatest TV Adverts, and interest in the Super bowl half-time adverts show
that consumers are aware, and interested in the advertising industry. Consumers, and
even children are conscious of the purposes of advertising and its methods of
integration with everyday life. This is further demonstrated with the arrival of
shopping channels such as QVC, where consumers are asserting their choice to be
advertised to, in a popular culture format by voluntarily watching advertising.
Despite this awareness and understanding from consumers, psychologists and
advertising theorists with a specific interest in psychology, have several differing
opinions on the subject. There are two main areas of psychological research in this
dissertation - psychology of consumers and advertising agency psychology.
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4.9 PSYCHOLOGY OF CONSUMERS
There are several areas of research undertaken on psychology of consumers in
relation to advertising. A large proportion focuses on the power of suggestion and its
effects on choice and decisions. The difference between an individuals mind and the
collective mind, and acquired or natural habits and instincts, are also topics
investigated. (Bowlby, 1993).
Bowlby (1993) cites that there are two types of consumer. ‘One… is the consumer as
dupe or victim or hedonist or any combination of these, infinitely manipulatable and
manipulated by the onslaught of advertising; the other… is the consumer as rational
subject, calculating and efficient and aware of his aims and wants’ (Bowlby 1993, pp.
98-99). The purchase of magazines such as Which?, consumer reports and internet
product forums highlights the second type of consumer - a consumer that is careful
and calculating in his purchasing decisions. Consumers use these reports, past
experiences, advice from friends and relatives, and advertising to create their
knowledge of a product and to determine if they will purchase it (Leiss et al 1990, p.
41).
Even Kevin Roberts, the worldwide CEO of Saatchi and Saatchi, suggests that
consumers are, on average, less confused than advertisers. “Consumers know
exactly what they want… They want it all. They want to read their news in the
newspaper. They want a weekly magazine to give them a bit of perspective.
They want updates on their mobile phones. They want to check stuff out on
the internet. They want to listen to the radio in their cars. They want big
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pictures on their TVs in the evening. They’re not remotely confused”.
(Tungate 2007, p. 259)
The consumer survey conducted for this study also highlights this opinion as 87% of
respondents confirmed that they do (or have done in the past) researched a product
online, asked a friend for a recommendation or opinion, or read a magazine review of
a product before they bought it (figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: Statistical research from consumer survey regarding product research
This intelligent and purposeful consumer was also highlighted by Fiske (1989a) when
he argued that ‘the desire to be oneself does not mean the desire to be fundamentally
different from everyone else, but rather to situate individual differences within
communal allegiance’ (Fiske 1989a, p. 3). This is backed-up with the presence of
subcultures such as ‘punks’, ‘emos’ and ‘goths’. This ‘bricolage’ according to Levi-
Strauss (1968), is
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the means by which the subordinated make their own culture out of other
resources of the “other”… where punks, for instance, can combine
workingmen’s boots with bits of military uniform and mix Nazi and British
insignia into a “new” style that does not “mean” anything specific, but rather
signifies their power to make their own style and to offend their “social
betters” in the process. (Fiske 1989a, p. 150)
Furthermore,
it is perfectly possible to appreciate some forms of popular or mass culture
without accepting it all. Since popular culture is not homogenous, it does not
have to be consumed as a whole. Parts of it can be chosen selectively as a
result of more precise social and cultural factors than are envisaged by mass
culture theory. (Strinati 1995, p. 41)
and the same can be said for advertising. In advertising terms, this choice would
translate to consumers choosing to buy a particular brand, but the ability for several
different brands of the same product to thrive at one time. ‘From this perspective,
advertising cannot increase the total quantity of a particular product type (for example
cigarettes) bought on any day, but it can persuade people who are going to smoke
anyway to buy a particular brand’ (Leiss et al 1990, p. 40).
In consumer psychology terms, this means that some consumers, at least, are able to
make defined decisions on their purchasing, but also on their construction of popular
culture, or even subcultures. It is therefore the role of the advertising agency to
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ensure they are sending the messages to these consumers, that their products are better
than others and that they will benefit from their use. Kevin Roberts coined the concept
of ‘Lovemarks’ to describe the way some brands are able to reach these consumers.
4.9.1 LOVEMARKS
Kevin Roberts, CEO of Saatchi and Saatchi, argues that Lovemarks are more than a
transaction; they are a relationship, a brand that you support, but cannot explain why
(Roberts, 2006). The researchers of Lovemarks do not suggest that this is a ‘duping’
of consumers, but one of acquired love and fond memories. It could be a soap you
used since being a child, and have always bought yourself, but never questioned why.
The founders of the Lovemarks concept believe that emotional communication is the
key link to consumer psychology and advertising, not manipulation (Roberts, 2004).
Roberts believes for brands to be long lasting and successful, advertising agencies
need to take note of this.
4.10 ADVERTISING AGENCY PSYCHOLOGY
One further role of an advertising agency is to ensure their message is being sent to an
appropriate target audience to ensure maximum effectiveness. These target audiences
are defined by the agency by considering elements such as age, gender, income,
nationality, and attitudes. Cronin (2000) argues that this can also benefit consumers.
This differentiated textual address or way of ‘speaking to’ specific sections of
society, in turn offers viewers ways of understanding and redefining
themselves. In effect, the textual address of advertising campaigns can
materialise the social categories incorporation of imaginative practices into
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advertising campaigns and into the potential imaginative practices of viewing
subjects. (Cronin 2000, p. 41)
This practice itself has come under fire from critics, citing that
advertising agencies can be seen to have a powerful ideological role in
normalizing social practices as diverse as cigarette smoking, being cheeky to
parents, playing computer games, being conscious of the status implications of
brands, shouting aggressively at football matches, drinking alcohol and
wearing bikinis. Some of these social practices are controversial in some
cultures, and this illustrates the difficult position advertising agencies occupy
in contemporary culture. (Hackley 2010, p. 98)
However, it could be argued that popular culture and other industries also can have an
equal effect on social practices. David Lowson, Managing Director at Clarity
Advertising and Marketing Agency U.K., cited that in television shows like The
Apprentice and Big Brother, people get a distorted view of life,
the idea that to succeed in business you need to be selfish and ruthless and that
“essex girls” [sic] are aspirational role models. Unfortunately, large parts of
societies [sic] grasp of “reality” is pretty weak and these programmes serve to
weaken it further. (personal interview with David Lowson conducted on 30
June 2011)
It can therefore be argued that the increase of the ‘reality television’ format within
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popular culture has weakened the ability by certain consumers to distinguish between
‘real life’ and popular culture, or even advertising. This is only a small section of the
population and the majority of consumers are more than capable of defining what is
acceptable behaviour without the influence of advertising. Lowson even cites
examples such as Coronation Street which ‘used to reflect British society ie [sic]
sleepy, grounded, community norms, now, you could argue it, it shapes acceptance of
all sorts of behavior [sic] as happening in a street “just like yours” (personal interview
with David Lowson conducted on 30 June 2011).
4.11 MAGAZINES
However, it is not only advertising that is blamed for creating adverse or controversial
social practices. Magazines have two main areas of criticism upon them. One area is
the content which is said to influence gender roles and social practices (see appendix
25), and the other is the advertisements featured in the magazines are reported to
continue blurring the lines between real life and marketing practices. The consumer
survey conducted for this study showed that only 15% of respondents never buy
magazines, with 35% buying them every month (figure 4.7).
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Figure 4.7: Statistical research from consumer survey regarding magazine purchase habits
McRobbie (1991) feels that in the realm of magazines, advertising is even more
effective at shaping popular culture ‘especially if we consider it being absorbed, in its
codified form, each week for several years at a time’ (Strinati 1995, p. 206).
Additionally, ‘magazines remain an excellent mass market medium, with the titles…
reaching 87% of the adult population. To put this into context, in the last year only
74% of the adult population accessed the internet’ (PPA, ‘Effectiveness’ 2011) so
print advertising is reaching a larger proportion of the population.
The integration of advertising into magazines that give us knowledge about topics
such as the latest celebrities, hobbies, travel, films and money matters, appears to be
blended so finely that it is alleged the consumer is unable to tell the difference
between advertising and the editorial content of a magazine. Hayley Granston,
Associate Publisher at SHE magazine admitted that ‘the ad team either pitches to
media agencies and clients for active campaigns or approaches them regarding tactical
opportunities within the magazine’ (personal interview with Hayley Granston
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conducted on 4 July 2011). This insight suggests that these ‘tactical opportunities’ are
set for maximum integration into the content of the magazine; however, Granston
does go on to reveal that in a style similar to celebrity endorsement,
Advertorials (paid advertisements that are written in the style of the magazine
by the magazine writers and identified clearly as advertising promotions) levy
much higher rates than a straightforward ad, because of the perceived editorial
endorsement. (personal interview with Hayley Granston conducted on 4 July
2011)
Aleesha Andrews, Advertisement Manager for Weeklies Creative Solutions with IPC
agrees, stating that ‘Advertorials are still advertising however they sell using the
editorial ethos of the brand generating a closer alliance with the reader’ (personal
interview with Aleesha Andrews conducted on 25 July 2011).
It should be well noted, however, that these ‘advertorials’ are clearly marked as
‘promotion’ so not to confuse consumers. The Advertising Standards Authority
(ASA) has strict guidelines so that consumers are not duped and confused into
thinking these recommendations are the opinion of the magazine, and receiving an
unfair advantage over the other adverts featured in the magazine. ‘In general,
advertising in magazines is viewed as part of the offering and as such is valued and
absorbed by readers’ (PPA, ’Effectiveness’ 2011). Consumers feel that magazines are
able to give them the information they require by picking a specific title of magazine.
This includes the advertising content (PPA, ‘Communications Uncovered’ 2011).
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The consumers expect the content and advertising to be relevant to them.
Starcom asked readers of women's magazines to pull 10 pages from their
favourite magazine. These 10 pages were meant to symbolise the very essence
of the magazine in the view of the reader. 30 per cent of the pages pulled were
advertisements! If you consider a £3 magazine, then the consumer is paying £1
for the privilege of seeing the advertising. It is inconceivable that this could
happen in any other medium. Give a TV viewer the control and they avoid
advertisements. The exact opposite is true in magazines. (PPA,
‘Communications Uncovered’ 2011).
In a content analysis of 27 magazines undertaken for this study, the average number
of advertisements they contained was approximately 26 per magazine. Consumers are
then, voluntarily, absorbing advertising in magazines, making them a particularly
effective advertising medium, but at the same time, they are also well aware they are
advertisements. Consumers are not confusing the adverts with real life or editorial
content, and are therefore well aware of the aims of the advertisements. Elements that
are chosen from the magazine, including advertising, to be read and integrated with
the consumer’s knowledge and life is a further example of them actively choosing
how much they participate voluntarily in advertising. Magazines are an active
medium, and the reader is in control of what they interact with. Furthermore, print
advertising in magazines is unable to impose the purchasing ideals or the shaping of
popular culture on the consumers – and they are not trying to, as can be seen in the
graph below. Only 5 out of the 237 print advertisements analysed for this study were
deemed to be trying to influence popular culture (see appendix 25). Examples of this
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are a L’Oreal campaign encouraging people to dye their hair as ‘this season is about
colour, so don’t be left out’; supersavvyme.com encouraging people to join their
internet forums and chat rooms to increase the use of the internet; Max Factor make-
up range also inciting colourful living as you ‘don’t want to be blending in’.
A further study was undertaken to ascertain whether the results of the magazine print
advertising research are similar in other mediums. It was shown that of the 110
television advertisements analysed, only 2 were considered to be trying to influence
popular culture (both which were encouraging the new method of watching television
– ‘on-demand’).
Both of these studies have shown that current advertising does not appear to be trying
to influence popular culture in its nature. Benady stated that the likelihood of creating
a campaign that will shape popular culture is ‘just like you hoping that you will win
the jackpot, the chances are, you won’t’ (personal interview with Alex Benady
conducted on 22 July 2011) and it is clear that most advertising in unable to do this.
There have however, been several irrefutable instances of advertising shaping
elements of popular culture, and these do need to be looked into. These are the
instances of advertising that critics argue ‘We know them even if we haven’t seen
them, because our culture has been built around them’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 5).
4.12 CASE STUDIES
4.12.1 Coca-Cola and Santa Claus
Ask any child in the Western world to describe Santa, and they will most likely depict
a fat, jolly man with a red suit, black boots, white beard and a sack full of toys. They
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will speak excitedly of his sleigh pulled by Rudolph and the other reindeer, landing on
their roof in order for him to come down the chimney and deliver their gifts. The
majority of people will assume that ‘Santa Claus’ is a traditional myth passed down
from generations ago, but only handfuls of people know its true origins – a 1931
Coca-Cola advertising campaign from D’Arcy Advertising Agency.
Coca-Cola begun their seasonal advertising in the 1920s with a strict looking Santa
Claus. In 1931, D’Arcy commissioned Haddon Sundblom, a Swedish/American
commercial artist, to create a Christmas advert for them (Coke Lore, 2011). The
campaign featured Sundblom’s version of Santa Claus (a combination of Sinterklaas,
St Nicholas, Christ-Kintle and other cultural representations) along with a Coca-Cola
bottle (image 23). It is this image of Santa Claus that children draw and dream of year
after year. Furthermore, to add to the Christmas popular culture, in 1939, copywriter
Robert L. May created Rudolph for Montgomery Ward Department Stores (Twitchell,
2000).
While giving the credit to Coca-Cola for exposing the Santa Claus figure into popular
culture, it should be observed that it was Thomas Nast, a civil war cartoonist who first
drew Santa Claus for Harper’s Weekly as an elf-like figure in a tan suit. He drew St
Nick to accompany Clement Clarke Moore’s poem, now known as ‘Twas the Night
Before Christmas’, which he wrote for his daughters. Despite popular misconceptions,
Santa Claus’s red suit was not influenced by the fact that red is the Coca-Cola colour.
Nast drew his St Nick character for 30 years before finally settling on a red suit and
Sundblom followed (Coke Lore, 2011).
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It is clear therefore, that while there were several representations of Santa Claus or St
Nick, Coca-Cola’s Santa Claus has shaped popular culture immensely. ‘So complete
was the colonization of Christmas that Coke’s Santa has elbowed aside all comers by
the 1940s. He was the Santa of the 1947 movie Miracle of 34th Street just as he is the
Santa of the recent film The Santa Clause. He is that Santa on hallmark cards, he is
the Santa riding the Norelco shaver each Christmas season, he is the department-store
Santa, and he is even the Salvation Army Santa!’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 107).
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But was this image thrust into popular culture by advertisers, without any input from
consumers? Tom Bage proposed with Coca-Cola and Santa that
is not an example of advertising setting out to change popular culture, but it is
an example of how powerful advertising can resonate with people. Popular
Culture comes from people and society and individuals, it’s not… imposed
upon them by companies or advertising from the media, it comes from what
people actually think about stuff… So I would say actually that a lot of those
feelings were perhaps there already, what the agency responsible for that
advert were, and what that brand did was express feelings that people had
sympathy with and things that they liked… rather than imposing upon them.
(personal interview with Tom Bage conducted on 18 July 2011).
If this were not the case, surely all characters from advertising campaigns would be as
powerful as Santa Claus that ‘when kids are told he doesn’t exist, their parents
become depressed’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 104). Although there are instances of
characters from advertising campaigns being used in popular culture, none more so
than Santa Claus, who simply originated from a series of print adverts.
It is not only characters from advertising that have permeated popular culture. The
advertising of diamonds created a phrase and a tradition which have become common
practice and part of popular culture.
4.12.2 DIAMONDS
Historically, sumptuary laws were designed to ensure social hierarchy was regulated
and defined. These luxury items were considered to be unattainable for the
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‘commoners’ and included items such as certain meats, fabrics, beverages, places to
live, rare spices, wigs, precious stones and fashionable livery.
These laws against consuming what was called “luxury” used to be
administered by the ecclesiastical courts. This was because luxury was defined
as living above one’s station, a form of insubordination against the concept of
“copia” – the idea that God’s world is already full and complete. (Twitchell
2000, pp. 90-91)
Diamonds were one such luxury reserved only for the elite classes and royalty.
Then, in 1447, Archduke Maximillian of Austria gave a diamond ring to his
girlfriend, Mary of Burgundy, placing it on the third finger of her left hand,
apparently in honor [sic] of the ancient Egyptian belief that the vena amoris
(vein of love) ran straight from the heart to the tip of the finger. As a distant
harbinger of what was to come, the rock was becoming something more than
political signage; it was becoming a symbol of amorous intention. (Twitchell
2000, p. 91)
It has been stated that after World War I, diamonds were less popular due to their cost
and relative availability. ‘Young swains were promising their undying devotion by
giving automobiles, oceanic travel, watches, and fur coats. Other rocks, such as
rubies, sapphires, turquoise, opals, topaz, and onyx were more romantic, more
colorful [sic], more exotic and erotic than diamonds’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 92).
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In 1938, when diamond company DeBeers approached N.W. Ayer & Sons to create
an advertising campaign to ‘channel American spending toward larger and more
expensive diamonds’ (Kaplan 2011, p. 1) they could only hope that their campaign
would be so successful. At the time, young men purchased 90% of engagement rings
and were to be bombarded with the idea that diamonds were a gift of love, and the
bigger the diamond, the stronger the love (Kaplan, 2011). Also advertisements were
aimed at women with the idea that a diamond was the ultimate signifier in a strong
relationship.
Ayer's marketing plan included public relations, advertising, product
placement in films and on television, radio programs publicizing diamond
trends, portraits of betrothed socialites, stories and photographs of celebrities
for inclusion in magazines and newspapers - all targeted at a specific goal - the
idea that diamonds were eternal, forever linked with romance, emotionally
valued, and a necessary luxury. (Kaplan, 2011)
This set of values and link with romance continues to today with 84% of women aged
18-34 suggesting diamond jewellery or roses as the ultimate romantic Valentine’s
Day gifts (AFNS, 2008) and an estimated 78% of all engagement rings sold today
have a diamond stone (Friar House, 2008). This suggests that the DeBeers campaign
changed the perception of diamonds and popular culture, but their slogan had a more
profound effect.
It was only in 1947, after several unsuccessful attempts to create a slogan for
DeBeers, that Frances Gerety, a copywriter at N.W. Ayer, scrawled ‘a diamond is
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forever’ on a picture of two honeymooners. Since then, the phrase ‘A diamond is
Forever’ was voted by Advertising Age as ‘the most recognized and effective slogans
of the twentieth century’ (Kaplan, 2011), even becoming the name for the 1971 James
Bond film Diamonds Are Forever.
4.12.2 a) POWERLINES
According to Cone (2008) such a ‘powerline’ however rare, is not isolated. Cone
argues that powerlines are words that ‘sell brands, grip fans, and sometimes change
history’ (Cone 2008, p. xv) and cites a further example in ‘when it rains it pours’
originally created for Morton Salt. Cone believes that to understand the mechanism
behind why powerlines work, is ultimately to understand the human condition ‘what
we value and remember and what we discard and forget’ (Cone 2008, p. xv). He
believes that it is human nature to take some of these powerlines on board, use them
in conversations and ultimately end up as part of popular culture. Not only do these
powerlines comes from advertising, but films and television too: ‘In space no one can
hear you scream’ from the 1979 film Alien; ‘Party on, dudes!’ from Bill & Ted’s
Excellent Adventure and ‘D’oh!’ from The Simpsons. It is also said that through the
Fosters campaign, Paul ‘Hogan almost single-handedly introduced the Aussie
salutation ‘G’day’ to the British’ (Tungate 2007, p. 233). To this end, some
advertising phrases have shaped popular culture, but only because the consumers
chose to let it do so. Consumers realize where they come from, and use them in the
context made by the advertising. The example of ‘G’day’ is an important one. The
British public have taken this phrase on board, in the understanding it is an Australian
phrase. It is used as a stereotypical Australian phrase, but the origins are clear, and it
has not entered popular culture now as a typically British phrase. It would be very
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rare for a British person to use this in an everyday context without trying to reference
an Australian. Advertisers can construct jingles, slogans and taglines and bombard
consumers with them, but it is the consumers who choose to replicate and reuse them
in everyday dialogue – in whichever way they choose, be it as part of their popular
culture, or an added symbol in their referencing system.
In a similar way, the traditions and social practice of diamonds signifying love
(constructed by DeBeers campaign) can only be suggested to consumers – it cannot
control what they take from this proposition. Twitchell (2000) however, believes this
to be what advertisers aim for ‘anthropologists call the phenomenon by which one
system is laid down over another syncretism. Advertisers call it nirvana’ (Twitchell
2000, p. 102). Davidson (1992) agrees with this and cites the example of coffee:
Coffee drunk before breakfast is about waking up with a bang, it’s about
energy, caffeine as a stimulant, about starting the day. Coffee drunk during the
day is about a break from routine, about taking stock before recommencing
your work. And drunk last thing at night, it forms the crowning moment for
dinner parties, meals in restaurants and as pretext for seductions. Each
moment involves a completely different mood, and each has been
commandeered by a different coffee brand. (Davidson 1992, p. 30)
In terms of ‘taking over’ these moments in a day, it could be suggested that the coffee
brands are simply being shrewd in their marketing. It would be foolish to compete
against a well-established brand if their niche market was a breakfast coffee, unless
the coffee had a particular unique selling point that required it to be drunk only at
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breakfast. From a marketing perspective, it would seem sensible therefore, to find an
audience who have not yet been targeted, and focus on ensuring they become your
consumers. It is not the aim of advertisers to ‘commandeer’ coffee drinking, but to
simply advertise a product to a particular target audience, in this instance, those who
drink coffee at breakfast.
Similarly, the arguments that, the advertising campaign for Alka-Seltzer doubled the
sales of the product, simply by featuring two tablets being dropped into a glass instead
of one; calling payouts-at-death “life insurance”; encouraging children to eat high
salt, fat and sugar foods; the creation of the concept of breakfast being manufactured
by cereal companies; the cocktail hour was the invention of the liquor industry; the
Ploughman’s lunch was pioneered in the 1960s, not in the sixteenth century;
advertising encourages smoking; candy canes being eaten at Christmas; chocolate
hearts for Valentine’s Day (Twitchell 2000; Leiss et al 1990; Tungate 2007) are
traditions, phrases and concepts chosen by consumers to be retained and integrated
into popular culture, or culture itself.
The argument that advertising has taken over such events as Christmas, Valentine’s
Day and Easter, is one shared by many critics of the industry. ‘The kings of candyland
– Nestle, Mars, and Hershey – have all been able to ‘own these holidays during which
they sell special candy at full retail price. In fact, seasonal sugar accounts for most of
these companies’ profit, with Easter far in the lead with sales of more than half a
billion dollars’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 104).
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While Cadbury do recognize that annually, ‘the U.K. chocolate Easter Egg market is
worth in excess of £220 million’ (Cadbury, ‘History of Easter’, 2011), they do
maintain that they did not create the need for chocolate eggs. Eggs have been
associated with Easter since the early days of the church, with eggs being given to
children as a gift at Easter since the 17th century. Chocolate eggs were introduced in
the early 19th century, and Cadbury became part of this market in 1842 (Cadbury,
‘History of Easter’, 2011; BBC, 2001). This history of chocolate eggs therefore
proves that the advertising industry did not warp and shape Easter for the benefit of
profits to confectionary companies. Many critics seem to be ignorant to the truth of
origins of many practices and popular culture traditions, and as such, blame
advertising for ‘taking over’ these festivals and events.
4.12.2 b) MEMES
It can be stated then that advertising campaigns use varying methods to ‘get to’
consumers and integrate their products in their lives so they are not so alien, but
consumers are savvy. Consumers, whether they understand or are even aware of these
selling techniques, are able to, and do, make up their own minds. The concept of
memes argues that it may in fact be one person who is influenced by advertising, but
the style, behaviour or idea spreads from person to person within a culture. The study
of memetics is based on an analogy within Darwinian evolution (Dawkins, 1976).
‘Dawkins pictured culture as being composed of many individual units (the cultural
analogue of genes) that undergo variation, selection, and retention’ (Heath et al 2001,
p. 1028). One explanation of a meme is one that has entered popular culture wrongly,
a mutation. In the example of Auld Lang Syne, Dawkins states
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the refrain is, essentially always nowadays, sung as ‘For the sake of auld lang
syne’, whereas Burns actually wrote ‘For auld lang syne’. A memetically
minded Darwinian immediately wonders what has been the ‘survival value’ of
the interpolated phrase, ‘the sake of’. Remember that we are not looking for
ways in which people might have survived better through singing the song in
altered form. We are looking for ways in which the alteration itself might have
been good at surviving in the meme pool. Everybody learns the song in
childhood, not through reading Burns but through hearing it sung on New
Year’s Eve. Once upon a time, presumably, everybody sang the correct words.
‘For the sake of’ must have arisen as a rare mutation. Our questions is, why
has the initially rare mutation spread so insidiously that it has become the
norm in the meme pool? (Dawkins 1976, pp. 323-324)
A further case cited by Dawkins is that of Rule Britannia, whereby people frequently
sing the second line as ‘Britannia rules the waves’, although the correct line is
‘Britannia, rule the waves’. These examples by Dawkins show the power of
suggestion by peers, and therefore other consumers, which needs to be taken into
acount.
Heath et al (2001) explored memes in the case of urban myths and these work in a
similar way to advertising memes. It is suggested that urban legend memes ‘succeed
on the basis of informational selection (i.e. truth or a moral lesson) and emotional
selection (i.e., the ability to evoke emotions like anger, fear, or disgust)’ (Heath et al
2001, p. 1028). As part of the study it is investigated ‘what determines which ideas
succeed in the social environment as people exchange information and stories with
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others?’ (Heath et al 2001, p. 1028). It is concluded that social memes (such as
advertising jingles, taglines, ideas or characters) are chosen by consumers on an
informational level or emotional connection – they are selected and retained by choice
based on their ability to tap into emotions or give information (Heath et al, 2001).
Tom Bage similarly remarked if consumers
really like something like whether it be an advert or a book or a film or a
philosophical piece of writing or a politician… then they will vote with their
feet and vote with their wallets…and so the advertising campaign has helped
alter popular opinion because people felt it resonated with them and they felt
they liked it. (personal interview with Tom Bage conducted on 18 July 2011)
The concept of memes – which can be considered as an advertising campaign –
psychologically proves that there are elements of social environments and popular
culture that are passed from person to person, selected for their added values and
preserved as a new element in popular culture. As an additional bonus to advertising
agencies then, ‘if audience members themselves spread images and ideas to others,
the sponsor has to pay for fewer additional exposures’ (Gelb 1997, p. 58). No matter
how hard advertisers will try to create a meme or a campaign that will penetrate
popular culture, it is not them who decide which campaigns or memes are successful -
only consumers have that power.
The more recent creation of a new level of memes would be internet-memes, or virals.
Dobele et al (2005) suggest that ‘successful viral marketing campaigns are comprised
of an engaging message that involves imagination, fun and intrigue, encourages ease
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of use and visibility, targets credible sources, and leverages combinations of
technology’ (Dobele et al 2005, p. 143).
Advertising agencies can create viral videos in the hope that they will be passed
around the globe, but so far, there is no science to guaranteeing this will be the case.
Dennett (1991) sums this up by concluding that ‘every word, picture, name, image, or
combination of those that a sponsor presents to an audience has the capacity to live
on, although few will come to the attention of society as successful memes’ (Gelb
1997, p. 59).
It is worth noting at this point too that memes do not always have to be positive.
Advertising campaigns may mistakenly or involuntarily create a meme that reflects
negatively on the brand. The issue here of course, is that although the campaign may
be removed, the meme will still continue and perhaps reduce consumption of the
product.
Gelb (1997) does however postulate that by using the highest level of creative work a
company can get and afford, they are more likely to produce a successful meme –
resulting in higher profits with less expenditure through the higher exposure by
consumers. Gelb, (although trying herself) also concludes that ‘physical scientists,
social scientists, and philosophers who write about memes neglect advice about how
to create them’ (Gelb 1997, p. 59). While Benady suggests ‘you ask any advertiser or
advertising agency, the dream that they could have with their campaign, is that they
create something that enters popular culture… but you cannot rely on entering culture
in that way’ (personal interview with Alex Benady conducted on 22 July 2011).
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Despite this apparent desire, it is not possible to ensure the consumers will take the
campaign to be a meme or embed it into popular culture.
4.12.3 DOVE CAMPAIGN FOR REAL BEAUTY
One further case study of this topic of advertising shaping popular culture is the 2004
Dove ‘Campaign for Real Beauty’. This ongoing campaign is purposefully setting out
to change the way ‘women and young girls perceive and embrace beauty’ (DSEF,
2011). The extension of the campaign, the Dove Self-Esteem Fund is devoted to
helping women and girls build a healthier body image and self-confidence (as well as
increasing sales of the product of course). This campaign was partly structured on the
scientific research and consumer survey (see appendix 26).
The studies showed that consumers are increasingly concerned about what should and
should not be featured in advertising campaigns. Dove’s ‘Real Beauty’ campaign has
reflected this desire by consumers, and is using this to shape the perception of body
shape in popular culture. But with 90% of American women stating they are satisfied
with their looks, the question was asked ‘Is this claim, driven by marketers, that most
women live in despair about their appearance real or hype’ (Dove Report, 2004). It
seems that the issue is more with the way the media portrays women than the way
women feel about their own looks.
Seventy-one percent of women said they wish the media and advertising could
appreciate the different physical types of women as looking beautiful. More
than half (66%) say media and advertising set unrealistic standards of beauty
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that most women can't ever achieve. Fifty-one percent resent that media and
advertisers place so much emphasis on beauty. Importantly, only seven
percent of women surveyed stated they do not like how they look. (Dove
Report, 2004)
As such, Dove started a two fold attack: by changing the perception of beauty in
women and by featuring women of all shapes and sizes in their advertising campaign
This campaign, by Ogilvy and Mather generated £38million in sales and has been
adapted for worldwide sales, simply by changing the language in the advertisements.
Additionally, the campaign was awarded the silver prize at the IPA 2008
Effectiveness Awards and Dr. Connolly-Ahern insists that ‘you have to give the
company a lot of credit for being able to sell beauty products with the idea that a
woman is already perfect the way she is, without seeming false doing it’ (Brodbeck
and Evans, 2007). Furthermore, the ‘Dove Evolution’ viral video, in which an average
looking girl is made-up then 'photoshopped' into a beautiful looking woman featured
in a fake advertising campaign, was viewed 3 million times in ten days (Schmitt,
2007) and has now received 13,366,092 hits on YouTube since it being uploaded in
October 2006.
The next step to the ‘Campaign for Real Beauty’ was their ‘Pro-Age’ campaign to
celebrate looking good for your age with affirmation and hope. ‘The campaign
features images of real women, literally uncovering all of their age spots, grey hair
and curves, demonstrating that women are genuinely stunning - at any age’ (Dove:
Too young to be old, 2007).
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By reflecting ‘real women’ Dove promotes the awareness that all women, regardless
of body shape or age can be beautiful. Both the ‘Campaign for Real Beauty’ and ‘Pro-
Age’ campaigns show that the Dove advertising was purposefully trying to influence
social perceptions, and in turn popular culture. In order to have a balanced case study
however, it is required to confirm how successful this campaign was at shaping
popular culture and social perceptions of women’s body shape.
Gustafson et al (2008) stated in their research that
While 38 percent of the subjects in this study liked the plus-sized, real women
in the Dove Firming Cream ads, just 13 percent said the Dove ads would make
them more likely to buy Dove products. Again, it should be noted that over 40
percent of the subjects did not like the way the Dove models were dressed and
posed. Also, they felt the Dove message was contradictory by suggesting plus-
sized women are attractive but need firming cream. A number of women also
doubted that firming creams actually work. (Gustafon et al 2008, p. 53)
The study by Gustafson et al therefore shows that while the consumers are
increasingly happy that ‘real’ women are being used in the campaign, it may not be a
significantly successful campaign in the promotion or sales of Dove products.
Furthermore, over seven years since the Dove ‘Real Campaign for Beauty’ was
launched, there are still only rare occasions where other advertising campaigns or
popular culture productions feature these ‘real’ women and young girls. Currently,
‘fashion spread pictures taken inhouse by Dolly magazine, aimed at 13 to 17-year-old
girls, come with a small symbol - a paintbrush with a line through it and the words
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''Retouch Free Zone''’ (Barlass, 2011).
This campaign highlights an instance where the advertising industry was specifically
aiming to change the social perceptions of womens’ body shape in popular and
general culture. It has been proposed previously in this dissertation that the
advertising industry does not have the power to decide what consumers will retain in
popular culture, but this campaign shows that they are still aiming to do this.
At this stage of a hypothesis, it would be wise to analyse the research done for this
study in relation to interviews conducted with members of the advertising and popular
culture industries to confirm this and previous conclusions.
4.13 ADVERTISING INDUSTRY INTERVIEWS, REPONSES AND DISCUSSION
At this juncture of this study, it is suggested that the advertising industry cannot
impose its ideas on the consumers for them to reflect it in popular culture. It is
hypothesized that the consumers retain and use the ideas, themes, characters, music
and images from advertising that they wish to - the ones they feel they have a
connection with. Therefore, advertising is able to shape popular culture, but not
through its own agenda, but by through the consumers shaping popular culture with
the elements they choose to select.
Several email interviews were undertaken to find out the opinion of the advertising
industry. This was carried out to find out their intended purpose with regards to
popular culture – as advertising industry professionals, did they intend to shape
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popular culture, or when creating a campaign, do they reflect popular culture and
why? Some of the collected responses will be analysed in this next section.
One of the main questions asked was trying to establish if the advertising industry as a
whole has the aim to shape and influence popular culture. George Martino, Head of
Client Conversation at McCann Erickson U.K., simply suggests that people within the
advertising industry are simply ‘trying to keep the agencies running, thus keeping
their jobs… it’s about revenue’ (personal interview with George Martino conducted
on 30 June 2011). He believes that there is no ulterior motive, it is about keeping
advertising campaigns profitable and successful, whichever way is necessary. This is
in line with the opinion of Leo Burnett who once proclaimed
Advertising is not the noblest creation of man’s mind, as so many of its
advocates would like the public to think. It does not, single-handedly, sustain
the whole structure of capitalism and democracy and the Free World. It is just
as nonsensical to suggest that we are superhuman as to accept the indictment
that we are subhuman. We are merely human, trying to do a necessary human
job with dignity, with decency and with competence. (Ogilvy 1983, p. 206)
Critics argue this viewpoint and ignorantly cite the advertising industry manipulating
consumers through an even more underhand technique – subliminal advertising.
David Ogilvy debunks the myth of subliminal advertising and a method of
‘manipulation’ he even considered himself in his 1983 book.
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You may have heard it said that advertising is ‘manipulation’. I know of only
two examples, and neither of them actually happened. In 1957 a market
researcher called James Vicary hypothesized that it might be possible to flash
commands on television screens so fast that the viewer would not be
conscious of seeing them, but his unconscious would see them – and obey
them. He called this gimmick ‘subliminal’ advertising, but he never even got
round to testing it, and no advertiser has ever used it. Unfortunately word of
his hypothesis found its way into the public prints, and provided grist for the
mills of the anti-advertising brigade. The British Institute of Practitioners in
Advertising solemnly banned the use of subliminal advertising – which did not
exist.
My only other example of manipulation will make you shudder. I myself once
came near to doing something so diabolical that I hesitate to confess it even
now, 30 years later. Suspecting that hypnotism might be an element in
successful advertising, I engaged a professional hypnotist to make a
commercial. When I saw it in the projection room, it was so powerful that I
had visions of millions of suggestible consumers getting up from their
armchairs and rushing like zombies through the traffic on their way to buy the
product at the nearest store. Had I invented the ultimate advertisements? I
burned it, and never told my client how close I had come to landing him in a
national scandal. (Ogilvy 1983, p. 209)
This proposition by Ogilvy shows that the ‘subliminal advertising’ that critics have
such an issue with, never even occurred and is a further example that advertising does
not aim to shape popular culture or interfere with consumers’ desires or motives.
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Dave Trott, Executive Creative Director at CST The Gate, has a similar belief in that
‘advertising is not on a mission to direct or change public opinion’ (personal
interview with Dave Trott conducted on 30 June 2011). However, when looking at
case studies such as the Dove ‘Real Beauty Campaign’ we see that advertising is
occasionally trying to change the publics’ perception on a topic. Trott agrees with this
and goes on to suggest that ‘advertising only seeks to shape public opinion in the case
of government messages’ (personal interview with Dave Trott conducted on 30 June
2011) and hypothesizes that messages such as ‘Don’t drink and drive, stop smoking
and drive safely’ are designed to change behaviour. Trott’s examples can be expanded
to instances such as British advertising during the World Wars: ‘commercial
advertising’s value in projecting everyday life truly came into its own in wartime
Britain’ (Clampin, 2009). ‘In the post-Word War I years it was assumed that exposure
equaled [sic] persuasion and that media content therefore was the all-important object
of study or censure’ (Krugman, 1965). During the wars, the advertising industry
utilized its skills not only to sell products, but also to sell ideas and public service
announcements such as the example (image 24) below (Richard 1992; Tungate 2007;
Clampin 2009).
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Further examples cited by Ogilvy (1983) concur with this theory that advertising does
aim to change popular culture, but only when it is not selling brands or products.
Some advertising campaigns seem to have been successful in influencing
legislation. Bethlehem Steel, for example, used advertising to win public
support for their position on imported steel. I am told that it helped the passage
of a bill protecting the steel industry. When the forest industry was under
attack by environmentalists for being irresponsible in its use of national
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resources, Weyerhaeuser used television advertising to demonstrate that they
are highly responsible. Research indicated that the advertising worked. The
attacks abated. (Ogilvy 1983, p. 122)
In addition to this, Phil Cowdell, President of Mindshare North America agrees and
confirms there may be some instances where advertising is designed to shape popular
culture by detailing ‘Dove's "campaign for real beauty"... It made a stand and wanted
to ignite conversations and help young women. In doing so you could agree that it
was purposefully trying to influence and shape popular culture’ (personal interview
with Phil Cowdell conducted on 30 June 2011). By analyzing the thought that the
campaign understood two elements: what women wanted from an advertising
campaign and the perceived lack of self esteem in women he said, ‘therefore it both
responds to trends evident within culture, as well as stimulates and prompts
behaviours that become adopted by more people, hence shaping ongoing culture’
(personal interview with Phil Cowdell conducted on 30 June 2011).
Both Dave Trott and Phil Cowdell, as members of the advertising industry, therefore
recognize that there are instances where advertising has tried to shape popular culture.
David Whittle adds ‘Popular culture certainly influences both products and
advertising’ (personal interview with David Whittle conducted on 1 July 2011) and so
believes that it is advertising that is influenced by popular culture. It is important to
note that all the examples found where advertising is trying to change popular culture,
are in campaigns where it is felt that it will benefit the culture or population in some
way, for example, drink driving, self-esteem and so on. Additionally, ‘in recent years
corporations have been using advertising in attempts to influence public opinion on
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such issues as energy, nationalization and foreign imports’ (Ogilvy 1983, pp. 121-
122). There has not been an example found by the advertising professionals, or the
writer of this dissertation where it seems advertising has openly aimed to shape
popular culture, purely for the benefit of a product or brand. Any instances where
popular culture has been influenced by advertising, seems not to be intentional design
or formula by the advertising agency responsible, but a relatively rare instance of
consumers retaining these elements for their own purpose.
Paul E. Niemeyer, an illustration and design freelancer from Chicago, agrees with this
statement to a point. Mr. Niemeyer answered the query with the retort ‘Depends on
who's driving! And, even then, it's only as good as the nut behind the wheel!’
(Personal forum response from Paul E. Niemeyer received on 3 May 2011).
Clarifying the response from Mr. Niemeyer, he was saying that some creatives work
hard to put their heart and souls into advertising in coming up with new ideas, only to
be pushed aside by other creatives simply copying popular culture who are deemed
more successful. He goes on to cite an example of this:
I had a client I worked for for [sic] a long time, and made considerable money
off of over the years. He used to start every "creative" session by bringing in
Annuals, CA magazine, Showcases, etc with post it notes marking the pages.
He'd flip it open on the table and point at the design du jour and say "make
THAT look fit OUR client", with never a moments thought toward being
innovative. And, he was gigantically successful, and there was much rejoicing
in the villages, but we all knew him for the copycat he was. We would sneak
our own things into presentations, in the hopes that it might be picked... and
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sometimes, it was! The business is full of imitators, overflowing with them
(!!), but it's the rare individual that breaks the mold and cuts a new and daring
path. They are the one's [sic] defining the cutting edge. (Personal forum
response from Paul E. Niemeyer received on 12 May 2011).
There is however, a further instance where advertising is seen as trying to shape
popular culture, not for a brand or product, but for the next leader of the country.
Political advertising is becoming more commonplace. ‘Advertising has grown from a
tool used exclusively by presidential candidates to an essential element of campaign
communication at all levels of government’ ((Valentino et al, 2004).
4.13.1 POLITICAL ADVERTISING
David Lowson, Managing Director at Clarity Advertising and Marketing Agency
U.K., stated that ‘political advertising is extremely influential in shaping culture as it
is hugely significant in determining which party will govern and thereby the policies
which shape a countries culture’ (Personal interview with David Lowson conducted
on 30 June 2011).
Lowson cites several examples of political advertising and the shaping of culture,
for instance, without the “Its Scotland’s Oil” campaign of the 70s / 80’s it is
unlikely that we would be governed by the SNP now, Saatchi and Saatchis
“Britain isn’t working” election campaign was instrumental in getting
Thatcher elected in 1979 and the culture of “yuppies”, “no such thing as
society” was born. More recently, the 2007 “We Can” USA electoral
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campaign is attributed as one of the most successful advertising campaigns of
all time – largely because for the first time it used social media / the internet to
mobilise support as well as old fashioned great oratory skills and traditional
advertising. (personal interview with David Lowson conducted on 30 June
2011)
These campaigns have proved to be successful and Margaret Thatcher’s advertiser
Tim Bell of Saatchi and Saatchi went on to set up his own firm on the back of his
success (Porter, 2008) and the ‘Labour isn’t working’ campaign went on to be
Britain’s most famous political advert (Porter, 2008). It could be said that political
advertising is simply informing voters about the parties, much like advertising does
about products and brands, but Lowson’s opinion is that this type of advertising is not
suitable for politics,
this is one area where I would support limiting the role of advertising. Who by
and how a country is run is far too important to be determined by a creative
department in Leith, London or New York and whose slogan catches the
imagination or who buys the most TV spots. (personal interview with David
Lowson conducted on 30 June 2011)
This view is also shared by David Ogilvy (1983) (see appendix 27).
Furthermore, the Frankfurt School believe that political advertising is just another
format of advertising designed to control the way people think by the advertising
industry:
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people who live in capitalist societies ‘are not free, autonomous, independent
human beings, consciously thinking for themselves. Rather their freedom is
restricted to the freedom to choose between different consumer goods or
different brands of the same good, or between political parties who look and
sound the same. The false needs of the customer and voter choice offered by
advertising and parliamentary democracy suppress the real needs for useful
products and genuine political freedom. (Strinati 1995, p. 61)
Historical research on the effects of political advertising however, showed that
exposure to the campaigns proved informative, but did not produce large shifts in
candidate choice (Valentino et al, 2004). Recent research shows that political
advertising, while not having a large effect on the well-informed voters, makes less-
informed voters more susceptible to persuasion by the adverts (Valentino et al, 2004)
and so can win votes. Linder et al (1970) propose the same is also true of non-
political advertising.
As soon as one lacks complete information, one is also exposed to the
possibility of being influenced by advertising. One actually wants to be
influenced by advertising to get an instant feeling that one has a perfectly good
reason to buy this or that commodity, the true properties of which one knows
dismally little about. (Leiss et al 1990, p. 44)
On this basis then, it is shown that consumers use advertising voluntarily to gain
knowledge about a product, brand or political party, without having to spend time
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themselves doing the research, or being manipulated (Leiss et al 1990, p. 44). This is
confirmed in the results of the consumer survey conducted for this study. 63% of
respondents confirmed they do not use advertising such as party political broadcasts
and campaign posters, as their main information source about a political candidate
(figure 4.8). Only 11% of consumers used advertising as the primary source of
information regarding politics, which highlights that consumers rarely construct an
opinion or view based purely on advertising and as such, it would be difficult to
manipulate a consumers’ viewpoint or their creation of popular culture through
advertising.
Figure 4.8: Statistical research from consumer survey regarding political advertising
But political advertising can also have an effect on popular culture in a different
format. During Barack Obama’s election campaign in 2008, American pop band, The
Black Eyed Peas, compiled a song Yes We Can from the fusion of Obama’s influential
speeches, and duetted with celebrities such as Scarlett Johansson, Tatyana Ali and
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Nicole Scherzinger. To date, the video of this has reached 22,537, 634 views on
YouTube.
Popular culture can also be reflected in political advertising. Recent examples of this
include both Labour and the Conservative parties campaign posters created around the
time of ‘Jedward’ featuring in televisions X Factor (images 25 & 26).
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Despite the vast amount of varying people politicians are communicating with, there
is a different set of rules and regulations for British political advertising as opposed to
‘regular’ advertising. ‘Even though the ASA regulates nearly all forms of advertising
across media, when it comes to political ads there are limits on what we can regulate’
(ASA, ‘Political Advertising’). Although the ASA are unable to investigate
complaints about political advertising, they simply expect the advertisers to be
‘guided by the principles in the CAP Code which requires that all ads be created with
a sense of responsibility to consumers and society’ (ASA, ‘Political Advertising’).
This ruling is governed by the 1998 Human Right Act’s freedom of speech ruling,
which states that any ASA rules or restrictions would be considered as interference
with the democratic process (ASA, ‘Political Advertising’). These regulations apply
to posters, print adverts, cinema advertising and leaflets as political advertising is
banned from television and radio, but ‘the Communications Act does require
Channels 3, 4 and 5, and national analogue radio stations, to give airtime to political
parties in the form of Party Political and Party Election Broadcasts’ (ASA, ‘Political
Advertising’). It is thought that this lack of regulation may come under pressure to be
changed in the future based on its ethical concerns (Lock and Harris, 1996).
So, regardless of the ability to tell lies to voters, how much influence does political
advertising have in shaping popular culture? It has been argued that political
advertising can shape a voters opinion of a candidate, without offering much
substantial information and that on this basis, voters tend to distrust these campaigns
(Jamieson 1992; West 1997; McGinnis 1969). The 2004 study by Valentino et al
concluded that opinion formation and candidate preference switching depended on the
type of campaign shown and the type of voter exposed. The voters who were most
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influenced by a campaign, were those who had little, or no prior knowledge of a party
or candidate. The voters who gained most knowledge from the advertising campaigns,
were those who had a complex set of ideas about politics. Sanders and Norris (2005)
also found that political advertising, particularly party election broadcasts, had ‘little
direct affect on voters’ images of the three main political parties’ (Sanders and Norris
2005, p. 534). These theories again highlight the hypothesis of this dissertation: that
consumers, or voters in this case, take what they want from an advert – be it to retain
for use within popular culture, or to decide on their next Prime Minister. The
advertisers for a political party are unable to persuade voters, they can simply inform
(in the most creative way desired) and hope that the voter will choose them, in the
same way a brand wants to get picked from the shelf over its competitors.
4.13.2 ADVERTISING REFLECTS
There were several industry professionals interviewed who felt that advertising
simply reflects popular culture and does not aim to, or ever has, shaped it.
Rodrigo Carr, President of JWT Buenos Aires, proposed that
advertising does not change the cultures nor intends to do so. Advertising
identifies trends and insights from these cultures in order to generate an idea
or proposal that the consumers might feel attracted to or identified with. If
consumers feel we understand what they are thinking or feeling, they will be
attracted to the proposal. (personal interview with Rodrigo Carr conducted on
30 June 2011)
This notion has been highlighted previously in this dissertation, where it was noted
that consumers are more likely to purchase a product if they feel it is not ‘alien’ to
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them.
Simon Lendrum, Managing Director of JWT New Zealand, furthers this proposition
and believes that ‘ultimately, pop culture is one method of relevance to the consumer,
and if we're always seeking for advertising to be distinctive, ownable and relevant,
then reflecting pop culture is one way to achieve relevance’ (personal interview with
Simon Lendrum conducted on 30 June 2011).
Phil Cowdell also mentioned this area of thought, stating that ‘advertising aims to
build off relevant consumer insights and the sum of consumers constitute popular
culture’ (personal interview with Phil Cowdell conducted on 30 June 2011). David
Lowson, expands on this thought that ‘overall, advertising reflects culture by helping
inform audiences about products to fit / enhance their lives. “Shaping” is just too
ambitious for the tools available to advertising’ (Personal interview with David
Lowson conducted on 30 June 2011).
So it comes to light that there are several members of the advertising industry that do
feel that using popular culture references (reflecting popular culture) is the best
method of enticing, standing out to and familiarizing themselves with, consumers.
Another point of view was that of Dave Trott who believes that ‘Advertising reflects
the opinion of the public, and consequently makes money from it’ (personal interview
with Dave Trott conducted on 30 June 2011). John McCallum, Director and Board
member at Levy McCallum agreed, proposing:
the purpose of most advertising is to sell you something, it is generally the
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product or service being sold that shapes popular culture, the advertising is
simply the introduction to it. There are exceptions but that can be said about
many industries… It’s hard enough trying to persuade consumers to ‘buy
products’ without getting deeper. This isn’t a ‘deep’ industry, we’re pretty
superficial. (personal interview with John McCallum conducted on 5 July
2011)
One example of McCallum’s arguments that it is the product that shapes popular
culture would be that ‘we watch more films because of the extended ownership of
VCRs’ (Strinati 1995, p. 224).
McCallum believes that it would not be possible for advertising to shape popular
culture,
people aren’t idiots, they generally know when they are being manipulated, I
think they’d react badly to it. Advertising plays a part, the amount of
advertising plays a part but ultimately all it can do is publicise and introduce
something. (personal interview with John McCallum conducted on 5 July
2011)
David Lowson also concurs with saying, ‘consumers are not daft – if they don’t want
to exercise they won’t buy Nikes’ (personal interview with David Lowson conducted
on 30 June 2011). Drod Tunstall, speaking of brands and shops remarks, ‘people will
do what comes naturally to them anyway, so which ‘shop’ they buy in is just detail’
(personal interview with Drod Tunstall conducted on 30 June 2011). These opinions
demonstrate the thoughts that consumers are unable to be manipulated and controlled
into what they buy and shops they choose to visit, and therefore the elements of
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advertising that they chose to retain for use in popular culture, cannot be imposed
either.
4.13.3 MARKET RESEARCH
Richard Scholey, Creative Director at The Chase U.K., also agrees with this thought
of reflecting popular culture and consumers’ requirements and believes that as long as
the campaign is correctly targeted to the right consumers, it can be a success.
It is vital that advertisers are acutely aware of current trends and cultures
which is why they spend an awful lot of time and money ensuring that they are
extremely well informed. The knowledge they gain into popular culture helps
target their campaigns and optimises the appeal and reach of the campaign to
their target audience. So… yes advertising definitely reflects popular culture.
However it could also be argued that this knowledge is more about the
channels where the campaign is likely to gain the most coverage and then this
allows the advertising to help shape popular culture. (personal interview with
Richard Scholey conducted on 12 July 2011)
Leiss et al (1990) also remarked that ‘marketers are the democrats of the marketplace,
discovering (not creating) consumer needs, designing products to meet them, and
using advertisements to communicate the availability and desirability of products’
(Leiss et al 1990, p. 34). This statement and the response of Scholey can be argued
further in the presence of market research and the account planner teams in
advertising agencies who create briefs full of information about the target audience,
their habits, attitudes and perceptions. ‘Because advertising sells artefacts to people as
social values, it more than any other cultural industry has a vested interest in
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understanding and working the relationship between people, artefacts and society’
(Davidson 1992, p. 99).
Furthermore it is argued that ‘advertising, designed around the basic aim of selling
more products, must be ever responsive to the prevailing mood of whom it targets,
constantly seeking to reflect the everyday life and experiences of consumers’
(Clampin, 2009).
Many agencies employ these planners with backgrounds in cultural anthropology,
ethnography and sociology and these academic backgrounds are perfectly adept at
analyzing a target audience and specifying to creatives what drives them (Cronin
2008; Ritson and Elliot 1999; Sherry 1987; Hackley 2010). This surveying of
consumers began beginning of the twentieth century with academics such as Walter
Dill Scott (1921) and Harlow Gale (1900) who
were encouraging American advertising agencies to combine survey work
with statistical projection and studies on the psychology of media use.
Henceforth, surveys began to do more than count readers or radio listeners;
they started to extract additional information about people’s possessions,
desires, and opinions on existing advertising. (Maxwell, 2000)
If advertising campaigns were able to thrive without reflecting any elements of
popular culture and their consumers through this market research, ‘creatives’ would
not require information like this while making a campaign. It could be argued
however, that it is precisely this research into consumers that has created the idea of a
‘consumer’: a person ready to be duped, ‘locked into a pattern of one-dimensional
development as a consuming subject, with impulses to buy, to be aroused, to become
sedated and apathetic, and so on’ (Maxwell, 2000). So perhaps a consumer, by their
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very title, is someone who is influenced by advertising’s false needs and desires. A
person however, is not. It is simply the title of a ‘consumer’ that puts them into the
category of a person who is consuming i.e. one who is purchasing products, and
therefore fits the mould of the ‘duped’ consumer. Market research simply defines
these consumers and places them into a reachable target groups for specific
advertising.
One such example of successful consumer research is that of the Yorkie bar.
Unlike competing producers Mars and Cadbury, Rowntree was “weak” in the
chocolate bar branch of confectionery. In response to escalating cocoa prices,
Mars and Cadbury had also ironed out the chocolate bar into a broader, thinner
shape. Market research suggested that consumers were unimpressed, and
wanted a bigger bite for their money. Rowntree’s response was to develop a
small, chunky bar, personified in the ensuing advertising campaign by a coast
to coast lorry on a long haul. Names like ‘Rations” and “Trek” were
abandoned in favour of Yorkie, a name that was though to have wholesome
family appeal whilst still being macho enough to pull a man-sized bite. Yorkie
therefore represented not only an attempt to outmanoeuvre Cadbury and Mars
on traditional family ground, but also an effective bid for the male appetite: a
potentially large and lucrative market. (Myers 1986, p.48)
Despite the 2006 pink edition of the Yorkie ‘made for girls’ the current marketing is
still aimed at men. Based on the market research undertaken at the time of the launch
of Yorkie, the size and shape of bar are what made it popular in an overcrowded
chocolate bar market.
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The overall hypothesis that in order to be successful, advertising needs to reflect
popular culture and understand the target audience is confirmed by the thoughts of
Drod Tunstall, Creative Director at Zarafa Advertising Agency U.K. who states that,
as I see it, ultimately the human condition dictates popular culture rather than
the other way about (fashion and trends are just minor details that convince
one generation they are better than the last). The key influencers are probably
Darwinian in nature: tribalism, territorial instincts, sex and procreation
(choosing a mate), greed, ego, perceptions of happiness and wellbeing to cite
just a few. (personal interview with Drod Tunstall conducted on 30 June 2011)
This opinion confirms the thoughts that consumers take what they want from
advertising campaigns (for example, these key influencers described by Drod
Tunstall) and retain what they want for use within popular culture. The advertising
industry is not able to dictate which elements will be preserved by the consumers for
everyday use and understanding.
4.14 POPULAR CULTURE INTERVIEWS AND RESPONSES
As part of this dissertation, members of the popular culture industry were also
interviewed to be able to confirm any hypothesis made. These responses will be
analysed in this next section to check whether the popular culture industry constructs
its productions from the insights of consumers, or even elements of the advertising
industry. Each interviewee was also asked how much they felt their subgenre of
popular culture (music, photography, publishing) shaped or reflected popular culture.
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Pamela Richardson, Commercial Director for Capital FM feels that
Capital FM is a mainstream entertainment brand & it affects popular culture &
represents everything that is current & popular. If a brand is struggling in the
market & wants to reinvent itself or just create a stronger synergy so its
consumers know what it’s about or just to maintain their existing brand then
by partnering with us would present a stronger proposition for them in the
market to do so & in their ability to market the brand as cool, popular & reach
the correct audience to do so. The same applies for us in return, if we partner
with a brand which is the same as us it will allows us to build on our
reputation as mainstream and extend our brand further into the market by
creating that partnership. (personal interview with Pamela Richardson
conducted on 8 July 2011)
Joanna McCulloch, Client Account Manager at Radio Forth similarly stated that ‘the
ethos of the show and personalities in the show massively influence both the client’s
decision to spend… and the listeners to tune in’ (personal interview with Joanna
McCulloch conducted on 30 June 2011).
This is a very similar relationship to the field of celebrity endorsements: a product can
transfer its values to a radio station, and the radio station can transfer its values to a
product. This connection demonstrates the ability for the product (advertising) to
affect the radio station (popular culture) and its values attributed by consumers, and
also the radio station (popular culture) affecting the product (advertising). These
values that are affected by this relationship are however, not popular culture, but the
values of the popular culture media method i.e. the particular radio station, in effect
another brand.
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Richardson also goes on to state, when asked if her opinion on this has relationship
between advertising and popular culture changed over time, to say
in my opinion it has changed, as radio stations have become more brand
focused & targeted audiences as opposed to just playing songs & targeting
everyone, they have become structured & tailored their communications to
suit their audience which is a reflection on the same way brands are marketed
in modern culture, it used to be about just sticking something on TV & Radio
now the consumer has so many avenues to explore there is so many
communication channels radio stations need to maintain their brand & stand
for something which affects which advertisers they appeal too. It’s constantly
evolving. (personal interview with Pamela Richardson conducted on 8 July
2011)
McCulloch also reflected this sentiment by stating ‘in the past generally more
influence was put on the presenters “personality”… and he talked more on air and
was less restricted by policy guidelines’ (Personal interview with Joanna McCulloch
conducted on 30 June 2011). This insight shows that the relationship between
advertising and popular culture has altered somewhat over time. It seems perhaps, this
change is more directed toward the radio industry, as throughout the interview
process, it was not mentioned by anyone in any other popular culture sub-industry.
Several respondents from the magazine sub-industry mentioned the level of choice
they have for which products and brands feature in magazines. It was a generalized
consensus from the people interviewed that the adverts are chosen so that they will be
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of interest to the consumer who chose that magazine title. However, in regards to this,
Hayley Granston, Associate Publisher for magazines such as Company, ELLE, Inside
Soap, Prima, Digital Spy and Esquire, responded ‘It’s rare for us to turn away
advertisers – we would only do so if they failed to get approval from the ASA over
claims they make or if we felt the product (or creative) would be offensive to our
readers’ (personal interview with Hayley Granston conducted on 4 July 2011).
4.14.1 BODIES IN PLACE TO DEFEND CONSUMERS
This failure of approval from the ASA was highlighted recently with some print
advertising campaigns being removed, one for Lancôme featuring Julia Roberts and
the other for Maybelline featuring Christy Turlington (both companies are owned by
L’Oreal) (image 27). The ASA upheld complaints by politician, Jo Swinson who
complained that the advertisements were professing the effects of make up, but the
images themselves had been significantly ‘photoshopped’ and were exaggerated and
misleading (Gibson 2011; Barlass 2011). Both the Maybelline and Lancôme
campaigns were created by New York agency, Gotham (Hall, 2011).
Guy Parker, chief executive of the ASA, told the BBC, "if advertisers go too
far in using airbrushing and other post-production techniques to alter the
appearance of models and it's likely to mislead people, then that's wrong and
we'll stop the ads."(Gibson, 2011)
One of the main points of contention is that L’Oreal would not provide the untouched
images for comparison by the ASA, despite this being a requirement for make-up
advertising (Gibson, 2011).
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Speaking of the Maybelline advert, ‘L’Oreal said the image had been digitally re-
touched to ‘lighten the skin, clean up make-up, reduce dark shadows and shading
around the eyes, smooth the lips and darken the eyebrows’ (Poulter, 2011). So will
this decision to ban these two advertising campaigns alter future make-up campaigns?
This will need to be seen, but these are not the first adverts to ever be banned due to
their unrealistic images, nor will they be the last.
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This example of the banning of certain adverts only highlights one aim of the
Advertising Standards Authority. They are a body, set in place to ensure that
consumers are not being manipulated, lied to or deceived. With such a company in
place, would it be plausible that the advertising industry is trying to manipulate
consumers and in turn, popular culture? Similarly, the Advertising Association state
where people think advertising is annoying or offensive or oversteps the mark,
we help remind businesses that… it’s very important that they advertise
responsibly and are sensitive and aware of their customers… But we also…
are keen to ensure that advertising continues to be a responsible, well
regulated industry which we think it is. (personal interview with Tom Bage
conducted on 18 July 2011)
4.14.2 ADVERTISING IN OUR LIVES
Critics of advertising argue that advertising takes over our lives, that we cannot go
anywhere without it being around, ‘the only ad-free refuge is sleep and prayer’
(Twitchell 2000, p. 2), ‘it surrounds us no matter where we turn intruding into our
communication media, our streets and our very homes’ (Pollay 1986, p. 896). But
there are areas of life that advertising, and even popular culture does not seem to
touch.
For example, the activity of education is little mentioned in popular culture
and rarely depicted in advertising, yet almost everyone is exposed to 12 years
of it, and about half of every generation will attempt to get 4 more years of it
in college, with 10% continuing on after that until they are well into their 20s.
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They do this, day after day from the age of 5, absorbing what they can, with
little to no guidance, no gloss, from the advertising/popular culture mix… The
purported hegemony of advertising and popular culture begins to look less
than total. (Fowles 1996, p. 232)
Another example would be that of regular employment, which rarely appears in
popular culture, and almost never in advertising:
there are great swatches of national life that proceed with vigor [sic] and
purpose and do so uninspired, uninterpreted, and untouched by the imagery of
the two symbol domains. Advertising and popular culture may command the
circulation of symbolic material, but they do not command the sum of national
life. (Fowles 1996, p. 234)
Throughout popular culture productions, the star of the film or television show for
example, tends to be in entertaining and captivating occupations for example,
detective, fashion model, magazine editor, and so on. This is required to be the case in
order for the production to be interesting to a consumer.
Surprisingly, given the apparent disdain towards the advertising industry from
consumers, there is also a large amount of films and television series based around
advertising agencies or advertising professionals. Mad Men is such a series, focusing
on Don Draper, the Creative Director at a fictional advertising agency on Madison
Avenue, New York. The commissioning of a fifth and sixth series and its winning of
multiple awards highlights its popularity. There are also many examples of
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advertising agencies being used as elements of films and other television shows (See
appendix 28).
It seems therefore, that consumers of popular culture and the popular culture industry
observe the advertising industry to be one that is interesting, exciting and noteworthy.
It could be argued that such instances of advertising professionals featuring in popular
culture productions are a way for the consumer to see inside an agency, to understand
how they work and dupe consumers. More plausibly, it is seen as a legitimate
profession, one that is full and fascinating enough to be centre stage for a whole
television series. As such, if consumers really held such a disdain for advertising and
its makers, it is unlikely they would willingly tune in each week, or pay money at the
cinema to watch a production about the industry. A further example of advertising
being seen as a legitimate and honest trade is the phenomenon of the phrase “As seen
on TV”. ‘Somehow we make the connection between a product being advertised and
a product being worthy as one and the same’ (Twitchell 2000, p. 76). This alone
shows that some consumers do see the power in advertising, and do not unanimously
believe it to be false-hoods and deception.
As with any industry, there are critics and due to the encompassing nature of the
advertising industry, it attracts more denigration than most. Even elements of popular
culture receive such criticism such as Adorno’s (1991) fervent attitude on ‘pop music’
saying of its listeners, ‘arrested at the infantile stage… they are childish; their
primitivism is not that of the undeveloped, but that of the forcibly retarded’ (Strinati
1995, p. 65). Adorno cites this disdain to the attitude it is for lower classes based on
their lifestyle: ‘higher pursuits like classical music can only be appreciated by those
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whose work or social position means that they do not need to escape from the
boredom and effort in their leisure time’ (Strinati 1995, p. 65).
4.15 GLOBAL ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS
As advertising is aimed at several target audiences, it is likely that at one point or
another, a campaign will get seen by the wrong audience who may not understand it,
or may be offended at its nature and this may account for some of the level of
criticism. This issue of insult or misunderstanding can happen on several levels. It
may be that someone of an older generation sees an advertising campaign aimed at
teenagers and does not ‘get it’ and as such is alienated from the brand; it could be a
national campaign that requires some general local cultural references from the
Scottish Highlands that would not be understood in the cityscape of London; or it may
be a global campaign shown in a strict religious country, where bikini clad girls
drinking a soft drink on the beach is not acceptable and causes offense. Tungate
(2007) highlighted an example for Japanese advertising practices.
Japanese advertising cannot be approached in a simplistic, catch-all fashion.
There are regional styles. Advertising for a metropolitan, Tokyoite audience –
the heartland of the Kanto region – is glossy and modern. But there’s also
work aimed at the south-central Kansai region, whose capital is Osaka. The
region is considered more cultural and idiosyncratic than businesslike Tokyo.
The advertising crafted for its citizens is more cynical – and often does better
at Cannes. (Tungate 2007, p. 190)
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Lowson also cited an example, stating that ‘Mars “England to win the world cup”
campaign is going to go down pretty well in every region of England, but not great in
Scotland’ (personal interview with David Lowson conducted on 30 June 2011).
However, David Whittle, Managing Director at M&C Saatchi, Australia, believes that
it ‘depends on the nation’ whether regional differences need to be taken into account
(personal interview with David Whittle conducted on 1 July 2011).
During the interview process with members of the advertising and popular culture
industries, participants were asked if, due to the potential for misunderstanding or
offence, could a global campaign truly work?
Throughout this dissertation it has been noted that advertising draws on a wide variety
of popular culture images and references for it to be understood. It is required
therefore to question if a global campaign can be used in globally, for example in
Britain along with Thailand, and Australia along with India. Religion and culture play
a large part in the acceptability of certain practices in different countries, and as such,
a global campaign needs to be noticed, but still within the boundaries of decency for
different countries.
Cultural and popular culture differences between countries are required to be taken
into account to ensure an effective and positively received campaign. This can be very
difficult, as not only do cultural variations exist; in some countries they are the exact
opposite of another.
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An example is the individual freedom-belonging paradox. Individualism is a
strong element of American society, and so is the need to belong. It seems
paradoxical that both freedom and belonging are strong values of a single
culture. The explanation is that in an individualistic society where people want
to “do things their own way” and “go it alone,” people tend to become lonely
if they don’t make an effort to belong. The reverse is found in Japan, where
belonging is an integral part of society, and it takes an effort to behave in an
individualistic way. (De Mooji 2010, p. 3)
So any global campaigns need to take these variations into account, ‘a commercial
where a man breaks out from a group and starts doing something on his own that the
group hasn’t thought of would be seen as positive in the individualistic cultures of the
West but negative in collectivistic Asian cultures’ (De Mooji 2010, p. 224). Similarly,
the differences between British and American advertising reflect differences in
national characteristics…British commercials tend to be less direct, less
competitive, more subtle, more nostalgic, funnier and more entertaining.
Techniques which work well in the United States – like talking heads and
slice-of-life are seldom used in Britain. (Ogilvy 1983, p. 173)
Furthermore some values may not be as consequential for some countries,
values like patriotism and nationalism are more meaningful in some countries
than in others, often depending on their histories. For countries that have
always had open borders, such as the Netherlands, these values are neither
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meaningful nor important. If someone in the Netherlands were to declare
himself ready to die for his country, people would start laughing. (De Mooji
2010, p. 141)
Additionally, global brands or products may be consumed in different ways across
cultures.
What in one culture may be a functional need can be a social need in others.
The bicycle is a functional need to many Chinese, who need it for
transportation, whereas it is a social need to most Americans, who use it for
socializing or fitness. (De Mooji 2010, p. 105)
Regardless of the variations of use, ‘Consumers still buy products whose advertising
promises them value for money, beauty, nutrition, relief from suffering, social status
and so on. All over the world’ (Ogilvy 1983, p. 7). As such, it holds true that
‘advertising works hard to match social differences with cultural differences with
product differences’ (Fiske 1989a, p. 29) to be successful.
There are even smaller variations that need to be taken into account in a global
campaign, and is a further example of culture and elements of popular culture needing
to be taken into account and reflected for a campaign to not cause offense or disdain.
Gestures are incredibly important and as a very effective metacommunication tool,
are widely used in advertising. The difficulty here is that while a gesture can have
positive connotations in one country, it can be a highly offensive sign in another.
Gestures that should be used carefully in global advertising include: the raising of
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eyebrows, meaning ‘a clever idea’ in Germany, but shows scepticism in Britain and
the Netherlands; the American ‘O.K’ sign with the thumb and forefinger making a
circle means ‘zero’ in France and Hungary, but ‘money’ in Japan; thumbs up, which
in the Western world is a sign of positive affirmation, but in Latin America, Greece,
the Middle East and Russia it is a huge insult similar to swearing with a middle finger,
but in Germany and Japan is a signal for the number one; and the summoning motion
with a forefinger meaning ‘come here’ in the Western world, is punishable by arrest
in the Philippines, as it is considered only suitable for dogs (De Mooji 2010; Wong
2007).
With all the variations needing to be taken into account for a global campaign not to
cause offense or misunderstanding based on cultural or popular cultural differences, it
was suggested by Tom Bage of the Advertising Association that global advertising
can sometimes be considered ‘vanilla’ (personal Interview with Tom Bage conducted
on 18 July 2011). That is to say that global campaigns can be considered very
generalized and broad ‘so it won’t offend anyone, but by the same token, it doesn’t
interest anybody, it doesn’t speak to you’ (personal interview with Tom Bage
conducted on 18 July 2011). Bage then cites an example of the 1990s Tango
advertising campaign,
you know, guy dressed in orange paint, running around, slapping people,
pushing them in rivers ‘you know when you’ve been tangoed’… You know,
when I was 12 that was really really funny, but if you had shown that to a 12
year old guy from Singapore, for example, would they have found that funny?
I don’t know, but I’d guess probably not. Because it was a particularly British,
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slapstick, ironic humour. (personal interview with Tom Bage conducted on 18
July 2011)
Rodrigo Carr, President of JWT Buenos Aires, also agrees with this statement by
responding ‘the more targeted you get the stronger the bonding generated. Global
campaigns exist because you can identify consumer insights that are the same around
the world but these global messages have less impact’ (Personal interview with
Rodrigo Carr conducted on 30 June 2011).
These opinions and the example given highlight that in order for a campaign to be
truly global, it needs to take into account many different countries attitudes, opinions
and acceptable practices. ‘the themes need to be broader’ (personal interview with
David Lowson conducted on 30 June 2011). As such, the level of creativeness and
interest appears to dwindle somewhat in comparison to national or regional level
campaigns.
Even the style and format of advertising varies between countries. As such, a
difference in advertising style juxtaposed with the usual format, may appear
unfamiliar and unwanted to a consumer therefore estranging them from the brand.
Highlighting the difference between Western countries and Japan,
Dentsu chief creative officer Kunihiko Tainaka says, ‘TV commercials in
Japan try to place an emphasis on fast, emotional impact. You’ll often find
simple words and phrases, songs, jingles and highly memorable characters.
The aim is to stand out from the other commercials. We have the feeling that
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Western advertising is very rational: it’s marketing oriented and strategic. Our
advertising is media oriented and instinctive. (Tungate 2007, p. 189)
Although it is acknowledged that the ‘longer spots and Western-style, story-driven
ads are beginning to make an appearance, the more caustic tone of British advertising
is unlikely to reach Japanese screens. Sex, politics and religion are strictly taboo.
Political correctness is the rule’ (Tungate 2007, p. 192).
If advertising did not reflect popular culture, then it would offend and confuse
consumers continuously. For instance, ‘In Saudi Arabia it is illegal to use
photographs of women in advertising, but OK to use drawings, provided you don’t
show bare arms or cleavage’ (Ogilvy 1983, pp. 26-28). Therefore, if this element of
culture were not reflected, the advertising industry would be breaking the law. While
this is an example of advertising reflecting culture and following rules, the same
applies for popular culture in order for consumers to connect with the product or
brand. Rodrigo Carr argued that ‘In India you have 29 important languages and more
than 100 dialects, you can talk to them in English and the might understand but it will
be much more effective if you talk to them in their own language’ (personal interview
with Rodrigo Carr conducted on 30 June 2011). ‘Regional ‘differences’ play a big
part in popular culture and you’d be a fool not to take them into account’ (personal
interview with John McCallum, conducted on 5 July 2011). Regardless of this
connection with global consumers by reflecting their national and regional popular
culture, Martino points out that advertising ‘probably doesn’t touch the ‘popular
culture’ of the Taliban or nomadic Inuits’ (personal interview with George Martino
conducted on 30 June 2011).
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Chao et al (2005) also noted that, ‘a non-celebrity spokesperson on purchase intention
actually scored higher than a US celebrity spokesperson in Austria’ (Chao et al 2005,
p. 187). This highlights that even in the celebrity endorsement area, popular cultural
differences between countries need to be considered.
It may be argued that there are few social practices, popular culture images or values
that can be truly global such as family values or good will. However, even this differs
between countries, ‘the happy family is often depicted in advertising in nations where
family coherence is lacking. In countries where family is part of one’s identity,
advertising focuses less on family values’ (De Mooji 2010, p. 1).
4.15.1 BENETTON CASE STUDY
One campaign that managed to be a success globally was the long running United
Colours of Benetton advertising campaign, which focused on the harmony between
people. Since 1985, the campaigns featured ‘images of happy, multicultural groups of
people, often in poses that indicate friendship or love for each other (kissing, hugs,
laughing, handshakes, etc.) which are designed to suggest international peace and
harmony, a united world of equals’ (Morris 2005, p. 707).
With stores in 120 countries globally, Benetton created a truly global advertising
campaign that lasted almost 15 years (About Benetton, 2011). With their ‘multi-
cultural’ campaign, the aim of Benetton was to create an image of a company ‘that
invests in research, is modern and projected towards the future, emphasising its
principal and most important characteristic: uniqueness (About Benetton, 2011).
Benetton was bale to make a global campaign, by ‘touching social themes of wide
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international significance and often in cooperation with renowned international
organizations (About Benetton, 2011). This method of advertising has been very
successful, if not controversial at times. The choice of images used has been criticised
at times, but have not halted the campaign in its entirety.
In 2008, Benetton released their ‘victims’ campaign – a campaign designed to
continue their efforts to highlight poverty, violence and other global issues. The
controversial campaign highlighted the issues between China and Tibet, but also the
recent earthquake in China at the time. David Lowson did comment on this stating
‘They also tried it with Aids awareness and other global issues but, at this point, lost
sight of the fact they only sell wooly [sic] jumpers a bit’ (personal interview with
David Lowson conducted on 30 June 2011).
Despite these controversies, the Benetton campaign is seen as a success story in
global advertising. Unfortunately, this is an exception, not the rule. Based on the need
to reflect popular culture for a campaign to be successful and understood, global
campaigns require to use globally understood elements of popular culture from
various countries, or risk being overshadowed.
4.15.2 AMERICAN ADVERTISING
However, it has been broadly hypothesized that advertising that is successful in
America, does tend to be successful in other countries (Twitchell, 1993). ‘The Esso
Tiger was a success in 34 countries’ (Ogilvy 1983, p. 181). It has been suggested too,
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that ‘American commercial culture is well on its way to becoming world culture’
(Twitchell 2000, p. 15). This is not considered a new phenomenon though. Hoggart
(1958) saw the Americanization of popular culture with the
newer mass arts’ like ‘sex-and-violence novels’, ‘the “spicy” magazines’,
‘commercial popular songs’ and the ‘juke-box’, enticing working-class people
to lose themselves and their culture in a mindless and trivial ‘candy-floss
world’, the ‘hollow brightness’ of a ‘shiny barbarism’, a world brought to
them from across the Atlantic. (Strinati 1995, p. 29)
It could be argued that this current Americanization is due to the saturation of
Hollywood films and American television shows all around the world. American
culture is more and more understood globally based on films, and despite them being
dubbed into other languages, the storyline and culture remains the same. The popular
culture of America is therefore better understood globally than any other countries
culture. This can be shown by an advert created by BBDO Nicaragua for Freightliner
Trucks (images 28-30). The tagline says ‘Freightliner trucks are so powerful, even the
super powerful are intimidated by them’ and the images are of well known American-
based superheroes. It is likely these images would be understood globally.
It is safe to say however, that in general, there will always be a need for variations
between countries or regions in global advertising, or risk alienating consumers by
causing offence, misunderstandings or alienation altogether (Mueller, 1986).
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‘
Advertising’s meaning, then, draws on the cultural environment within which it is
framed’ (Hackley 2010, p. 57). George Martino, Communications Manager at
McCann Erickson confirmed that this is the case, and that advertising agencies do
need to ‘tie into the culture at a regional level. With 135 offices worldwide, we do it
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on a daily basis’ (personal interview with George Martino conducted on 30 June
2011). These variations need to take into account various elements including religion
and culture, but additionally popular culture to be effective. ‘A single global
campaign for anything is almost impossible, not taking into account local culture
would be commercial suicide’ (personal interview with John McCallum conducted on
5 July 2011).
As such, it would be inappropriate to use a popular culture reference from a Chinese
film in a British campaign – people would not understand it, no matter how many
times it was aired. It would only enter British popular culture as a reference from the
advertising campaign, and would not necessarily be linked to, or understood as a
Chinese film reference.
Fowles (1996) agrees with this hypothesis on a global level, but also in the general
link between advertising and popular culture stating ‘contrary to apprehensions,
advertising does not – and cannot – dexterously mold [sic] the symbolic landscape. Its
power is limited to tinkering with extant symbolic elements, cobbling together new
ones, and hoping against hope that they will take’ (Fowles 1996, p. 9).
This additionally proves the hypothesis that popular culture is required to be reflected
in advertising to be effective, but elements are able to shape popular culture, if
consumers to choose them. Manca (1992) also supports this hypothesis, by stating
I am proposing that advertising functions as a sophisticated cultural mirror,
capable of bringing to light images of the American consumer’s most intimate
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motives and desires, secret aspirations, and forbidden fantasies. I submit that
the American consumer is not a passive target of Madison Avenue’s
manipulating appeals, but rather a formidable co-conspirator. I submit also
that, as a whole, advertisers are only acting as catalysts in bringing out the
public’s true feelings and emotions. Ultimately it is not up to the advertisers to
determine what will and will not sell. Consumers make that decision by
rewarding only those images and appeals that they like. Therefore, only those
images and appeals that are consistent with people’s however peculiar needs
and desires would tend to survive and prosper. (Manca 1992, p. 48)
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF PORTFOLIO
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The portfolio section of this dissertation is split into 4 sections to demonstrate the
knowledge gained within researching the chosen topic. Each of these sections shall be
discussed before a final conclusion is reached. For a more detailed explanation of
each advert, see appendix 29.
5.1 SECTION A – ADVERTISMENTS 1-6
These advertisements were created to highlight the importance of choosing the correct
celebrity for endorsing a product or brand, noting the ‘match-up’ hypothesis. It was
noted in this dissertation that it is vital a celebrity has relevance or values attributable
to the product. These examples highlight the ineffective nature of a campaign if the
celebrity chosen does not relate correctly to the product, or if the public opinion of the
celebrity is tarnished. The choice of celebrity needs to reflect public opinion of them,
and therefore popular culture. So if the endorser has a particular set of characteristics
of values, it is vital these are linked correctly with the product. These advertisements
created show examples of incorrect pairings between celebrity and product or brand.
5.2 SECTION B – ADVERTISMENTS 7-11
This smaller section shows examples of advertisements made to highlight a correct
pairing of a celebrity with a product suited to their values, in the opposing way to
section A. It is vital that the opinion of the population is a positive one and the
celebrity is felt to have a connection with the product or brand. As popular culture and
public opinion is formed through a series of performances and appearances by the
celebrity, it may be the case that the opinion is due to a character they have played if
they are an actor, the determination and strength shown as an athlete or the
peacefulness demonstrated through their songs if they are a singer.
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5.3 SECTION C – ADVERTISMENTS 12-24
The largest section in this portfolio is one that highlights the main hypothesis made
within this dissertation. Advertising campaigns were produced to illustrate how an
advert may not be understood if the consumer cannot relate to, or understand the
popular culture reference. This displays the requirement for global advertisers to
ensure they are using suitable popular culture references in order not to alienate or
offend consumers, but similarly, it demonstrates the ability to reflect popular culture
to make a successful campaign. In general too, it demonstrates the need to reflect
popular culture if elements like this are to be used. It would be very difficult to try to
shape popular culture by creating a character, person or image to display the qualities
of a brand, if nobody knew that character created.
5.4 SECTION D – ADVERTISMENTS 25-33
The final section demonstrates a similar opinion to section C, but from the opposite
viewpoint. These advertisements were created using celebrities and popular culture
references, which would not be understood in Britain. This further highlights the fact
that advertising needs to reflect popular culture in order to be the most effective it can
be. If these advertisements were to be shown in Britain, there would be two possible
outcomes. It could be that consumers do not understand who these people are and
what they stand for, feel isolated from the product and its values and do not purchase
the product. Alternatively, it may be that consumers feel drawn to the advertisement –
they like the person or music featured, they pass it to their friends via YouTube, talk
about it at work and eventually and slowly, it becomes part of popular culture. These
adverts highlight that advertising agencies can use new images, symbols and
references that are not within the popular culture framework of Britain, but do risk
alienating their consumers with the campaign not being understood. However, they
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may create a new star or character if consumers decide to retain it within their realm
of popular culture.
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
6.1 CONCLUSION
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The aim of this dissertation was to conclude if advertising shapes or reflects popular
culture by manipulation and control of consumers. It was noted in the literature
review, that there was a lack of conclusive and balanced literature available on the
topic and furthermore, many of the studies carried out were completed over 30 years
ago. It was therefore a further aim of the dissertation to balance these arguments and
produce a thorough and fully understood conclusion investigated from both the
advertising industry and popular culture perspectives.
Following the literature review, this study undertook a brief historical analysis, noting
the changes in the advertising industry with the technique of ‘adding value’ to
products. This was followed by an introduction to semiology and the link between
signs and symbols used by the advertising industry, with the popular culture industry.
It was noted in this, and consequent sections that advertising requires to utilize
popular culture signs and images to ensure that the broadest audience will understand
the metacommunication and semiology used within campaigns, but it is the consumer
who is the creator of these meanings,
he or she is not a simple receiver but a creator of meaning. But the receiver is
only a creator of meaning because he/she has been called upon to be so. As an
advertisement speaks to us, we simultaneously create that speech (it means to
us), and are created by it as its creators (it assumes that it means to us). Thus
we are constituted as ‘active receivers’ by the ad. (Williamson 1978, p. 41)
By analyzing the methods and benefits of celebrity endorsement, characters, music,
product placement and the use of art in advertising campaigns, the study was able to
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conclude that popular culture is required to be reflected in advertising in order for a
campaign to be understood, but additionally, there are examples where advertising has
shaped aspects of popular culture, where the consumers have retained pieces of a
campaign. Examples of this retention by consumers would be songs, characters or
images of art featured in campaigns, becoming part of popular culture i.e. well
understood, well known, well liked and further used in popular culture productions
like magazines, films and compilation albums.
The study then began to analyse the psychology of consumers and advertising
agencies. Both elements were considered necessary for a study of this topic due to the
derision given to advertising by psychologists. It is felt that advertising can be
persuasive and manipulative, but this section of the study showed that consumers,
particularly in the modern world are capable of forming and do form their own
opinions, using advertising as another method of information communication. The
section of advertising agency psychology highlights the criticism advertising receives
for normalizing certain social practices that are seen as wrong or unacceptable. It is
highlighted that this is not just the advertising industry that alters these things that are
acceptable, but elements of popular culture too. It is confirmed that there are sections
of society that are more influenced and persuaded by advertising, but they are also
influenced by popular culture productions like television shows. This section of the
population is unable to distinguish between advertising, films and television shows,
with the ‘real world’. It is argued that it is the increase in the use of television show
formats such as ‘reality television’ that is altering the perceptions of consumers, rather
than advertising, and even so, it is only a small section of the population.
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The study then went on to undertaken a content analysis of print advertising in
magazines and television advertising. This concluded that there is limited proof that
advertising currently produced is trying to shape popular culture. This and the
consumer survey conducted show almost the opposite.
Despite these findings, there are some instances of advertising shaping popular
culture, and these were then analysed as case studies, with the examples of Coca-Cola
and Santa Claus, the perception of diamonds with love and the Dove ‘campaign for
real beauty’. Throughout these case studies, it was clear that there are elements of our
popular culture that have been shaped, or even designed, by advertising. It was
highlighted however, by the relative lack of these examples, that is not through
imposition by the advertising agencies that these instances have occurred, but by the
choice and decision of consumers. It has been noted several times throughout this
study that popular culture is formed ‘by the people’, and because of its very nature, is
formed with aspects of advertising, travel, politics and other elements of everyday
life, by the consumers who retain – voluntarily – what they wish.
At this point in the dissertation, interviews conducted with advertising professionals
and popular culture producers to confirm the hypotheses made. It was understood by
some advertising professionals that advertising is not aiming to change popular
culture, however, they did acknowledge some notable examples. It was also stated by
some that there are occasions, when it is purported to benefit the population, where
advertising has purposefully tried to influence opinions and popular culture. These
instances have been highlighted along with political advertising and the presence of
market research.
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Following the opinions from popular culture producers, who had a mixed view on the
topic, the subject of global advertising was investigated.
At this point, it was concluded that in order for a global campaign to be understood
and not to offend consumers, advertising professionals would be required to reflect
popular culture, religion and cultural practices within the adverts. As these values can
vary hugely between countries, it was noted that a truly global advert could be
considered very bland. It was therefore concluded that successful global campaigns
such as Benetton (which was a further case study) are exceptions, and very rare as
reflecting the popular culture and values of all countries is almost impossible in one
campaign.
The advertisements created for this dissertation also highlighted the elements
discussed within this study. It was shown that advertisements require to reflect
popular culture in order to be categorically understood, however, differences, such as
which country the campaign will be shown in, also need to be taken into account.
Based on all elements of study and research of this topic, it can be concluded that in
order for advertising to be successful and understood, it is required to reflect rather
than aim to shape popular culture. There are however, instances where popular culture
has been shaped by advertising, but this is not due to the imposed values by the
advertising industry, but by the choice of consumers to retain and use an element of a
campaign in their everyday life. The advertising industry does not have the power or
control of consumers to decide what can alter popular culture or what they buy – it is
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simply capable of using, amending and constructing images and signs and hoping that
consumers will retain them and integrate them within popular culture to increase
brand or product recall, awareness and profitability.
Based on the significance of this topic, the conclusions of this study could be of great
use to the advertising and popular culture industries and critics. The study has
discredited many of the perceived negative aspects of advertising, but highlighted its
benefits. Furthermore, advertising professionals and popular culture producers may
not be aware of the significance of their audience and consumers, and how they need
to ensure they reflect what their audience desires and understands.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE SUGGESTIONS
Based on the research undertaken for this dissertation, there are several
recommendations and suggestions for future study.
As the samples and interviews used may not be representative of the general global
population, based on their size and restrictions, it may be worth undertaking a larger
interview and question set. This would determine if there are any larger variations
between opinions from different countries and determine that as most of this study
relates to a society of capitalism, will this conclusion remain the same for non-
westernised cultures?
It would also be recommended to include panel sampling in the interview and
question research stages. By selecting a group of participants through a random
sampling method and then asking that group for the same information, several times
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over a period of time, it would allow researchers to see if there were any changes in
their opinion (Hunt and Tyrell, 2004). Due to the digitization, perceived over
saturation of the market and continuing changes in the advertising industry, this topic
could particularly benefit from panel sampling as opinions may alter. It would be
suggested that the panel sampling would be done over a period of many years.
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PORTFOLIO OF ADVERTISEMENTS CREATED
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SECTION A
172
173
174
175
176
177
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SECTION B
179
180
181
182
183
184
SECTION C
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
SECTION D
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
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APPENDICES
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Appendix 1: List of Methodologies used
• Phone interviews with members of the advertising industry • Email interviews with members of the advertising industry • Email interviews with members of the popular culture industry • Open format forum discussion with advertising industry freelancers • Analysis of print ads in magazines • Analysis of television advertisements • Consumer survey • Literature research and meta-analysis
Appendix 2: Email interview sent to Advertising Professionals Hello! Critics believe advertising has the power to shape social and cultural trends and the way people think and act. It has been said that ‘whether or not advertising screws up as individual personalities, its ‘dissolving’ influence on culture may be advertising’s most significant and haunting historical consequence’ (Goldman 1992, p. 8). Culture theorists, however, state that people only do what they want, and these values cannot be imposed from above. My name is Jacqui Waugh and I am currently undertaking a dissertation on this topic for my postgraduate masters MSc in Creative Advertising at Edinburgh Napier University in Scotland. As an influential figure in the advertising industry, I was hoping to get your opinion on this topic: Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture? I am speaking to people from the popular culture industry (celebrity agents, magazine producers, radio DJs, photographers etc), and am keen to get the opinion from the other point of view, the makers and producers of adverts – you! I expect that you probably get many emails and requests from students etc, but I feel this is a chance for advertising to get back at it’s critics and form a rational and complete argument. This topic has not been investigated before from an advertising standpoint – only from a critic’s viewpoint. I would be very grateful if you would be able to let me know your opinion on the above topic to be able to use within my study. A one-word answer would suffice, but if you are able to elaborate anymore, I would appreciate it very much! If you are able, (or are procrastinating and have some time to spare!?) there are some more specific questions too: Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products or create brand identity, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture?
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Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it were the other way round? Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinion? Do you think it is possible to have a global campaign if popular culture needs to be taken into account for an advert to work? Do you think even regional differences in popular culture need to be taken into account for a nationwide campaign? How much does advertising influence which celebrities, bands, films and books are popular / unpopular? Do you think the answer to the main question of ‘Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?’ depends on the age group, nationality and other factors? I greatly appreciate your time taken to read this and answer these questions. If it would be easier for you I can arrange to call you (just let me know the best time) to go through the questions. If there is anyone else in your agency that would be willing to answer the questions too, I would appreciate you passing this to them too. Thanks again, and please contact me if you have any questions, Jacqui Appendix 3: List of some countries that the advertising professionals work in that email interviews were sent to Britain, France, Germany, Sweden, USA, Australia, Japan, China, Poland, Singapore, New Zealand, Brazil, Argentina, Denmark, Spain, Finland, Puerto Rico, Italy, Portugal, Nigeria, United Arab Emirates, Greece, Lebanon, Russia, Nairobi, Iceland, Israel, Canada, Tanzania, India, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, Korea, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Mexico and Peru. Appendix 4: People selected for interview within agencies Including, but not restricted to, CEOs, Account staff, Creative Directors, Managing Directors, Presidents, Heads of Strategy, Art Directors, Heads of Insight, Media Directors, Public relations Directors, Copywriters and Heads of planning. Appendix 5: People who responded to email interviews David Lowson: Managing Director at Clarity Advertising and Marketing, UK. George Martino: Head of Client Conversation at McCann Erickson, UK. Drod Tunstall: Creative Director at Zarafa Advertising Agency, UK. Dave Trott: Executive Creative Director at CST The Gate, Worldwide. Simon Lendrum: Managing Director, JWT, New Zealand. Rodrigo Carr: President, JWT, Buenos Aires. Phil Cowdell: President, Mindshare, North America. David Whittle: Managing Director, M&C Saatchi, Australia.
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John McCallum: Director and Board member at Levy McCallum Richard Scholey: Creative Director, The Chase, UK. Appendix 6: Changes made to questions for email interview sent to advertising professionals
• Question 1 started as ‘Do you think advertisers are trying to shape popular culture?’ and was amended to ‘Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products or create brand identity, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture?’
• Question 2 started as ‘Do you think it would be acceptable if it was the other way round?’ and was amended to ‘Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it was the other way round?’
• A third question was also introduced ‘Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinion?’ to get an understanding of where the reader felt their opinion lay in the industry.
Appendix 7: Interview questions sent to popular culture producers CELEBRITY AGENTS
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • How much influence does advertising have over celebrities in terms of who is
popular? • What is your/your clients opinions on doing adverts? • Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? • Have any of your clients ever become successful purely on the back of doing
an advert? • Have any of your client’s careers suffered as a result of doing an advert? • Would your client only be willing to appear in an advert if they liked the
product/ if the product was seen as ‘cool’? • Do you think that your clients’ reputation can be of value to the product they
advertise more than the other way round? • How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
MODELLING AGENCIES
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • How much influence does advertising have over models in terms of who is
popular and gets booked more for subsequent shoots? • What is your / your clients opinions on modeling for adverts? • Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? • Have any of your clients ever become successful purely on the back of doing
an advert?
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• Have any of your client’s careers suffered as a result of doing modelling for an advert?
• Do you think that the products’ reputation can be of value to your client? E.g. if the product is seen as ‘cool’, this opinion will be transferred to your client?
• How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
RECORD COMPANIES
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • How much influence does advertising have over what songs / bands become
popular? • What is your / your clients opinions on having one of their songs on an advert? • Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? • Have any of your clients / bands ever become successful purely on the back of
doing an advert? • Have any of your clients’ careers’ suffered as a result having a song featured
on an advert? • Do you think that the products’ reputation can be of value to your client? E.g.
if the product is seen as ‘cool’, this opinion will be transferred to your client and their music?
• How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
PHOTOGRAPHER
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • As a photographer, you photograph the people that are seen to be popular.
How do you judge their popularity? i.e. if they feature on an advert, if they are in previous magazines etc?
• What is your opinion on having one of your photographs featured in an advert?
• Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? • Have any of your photographs / you become successful purely on the back of
doing an advert? • Have any of your photographs / you suffered as a result having a photograph
featured on an advert – perhaps as a result of the product? • Do you think that the products’ reputation can be of value to you and your
photography? E.g. if the product is seen as ‘cool’, this opinion will be transferred to you and your photos?
• How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general?
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• As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
TV PRODUCTION COMPANIES
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • How much influence does advertising have over TV shows in terms of what is
popular? • What is your opinion on TV show sponsorship by products / companies? E.g.
idents rather than regular advertising slots in between shows? • Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? • Do you think that a TV programmes’ reputation can be of value to the product
if they advertise as a sponsor of the show? Does this work the other way round too?
• Can a show’s ratings be affected by the adverts in between the programme? • What is your opinion of product placement? • How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
FILM PRODUCTION COMPANIES
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • What is your opinion of product placement? • How much influence does advertising have over movies? • How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
MAGAZINES
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • How much influence do adverts have in terms of what features you have in
your magazine? • How much say do you have over what adverts for products are placed within
your magazine? • What do you think is more influential to consumers, an advert for a product or
an article or recommendation by your writers for the same product? • If advertising revenue was not as lucrative, would advertising still occupy the
large percentage of magazine space that it currently does? • How influential do you think magazines are as a whole to popular culture /
your specific target market?
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• And your magazine in particular? • How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
RADIO STATIONS AND DJS
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • How influential is advertising in terms of songs / bands becoming popular? • How much influence does advertising have over radio shows in terms of what
is discussed? • Do you think that a radio shows’ reputation can be of value to the product if
they advertise as a sponsor of the show? Does this work the other way round too?
• Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? • Can a show’s ratings be affected by the adverts in between the programme? • How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? • How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
PUBLISHING HOUSES
• Does advertising shape of reflect popular culture? • How much influence does advertising have over which books and genres are
popular? • Are novels written influenced more by popular culture or adverts for current
products / companies? • If advertising does influence fashions for genres e.g romantic, is this reflected
in which books are published / written? • As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to
run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture?
Appendix 8: People who responded to email interviews from popular culture producers Fiona Lindsay: Managing Director, Limelight Celebrity Management, UK. Joanna McCulloch: Client Account Manager, Radio Forth, UK. Hayley Granston: Associate Publisher, SHE magazine, UK. Amanda Searle: Amanda Searle, Photographer, UK. Pamela Richardson: Commercial Director, Capital FM, UK. Aleesha Andrews: Advertisement Manager, IPC, UK. Appendix 9: People who responded via LinkedIn forum
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Mike Pascale: Senior Art Director, (previously) BBDO, McCann Erickson & JWT, USA. Paul E. Niemeyer: Illustrator and design freelancer, USA. Karen Goldfarb: Freelance Copywriter, USA. Raymond Rocan: Creative Director, Rocan Communications, Canada. Appendix 10: People who did phone interviews from Advertising Professionals Tom Bage: Public Affairs Manager, Advertising Association, UK. Alex Benady: Journalist and writer, Coley Porter Bell, UK. Appendix 11: Magazines sampled for content analysis
Title Date Number of advertisements
Reveal 18-Jun 23Look 20-Jun 25Now 20-Jun 30New! 27-Jun 21star 27-Jun 14Now 27-Jun 26OK! 28-Jun 45Cosmopolitan 01-Jul 86Company 01-Jul 44Reveal 02-Jul 21Woman's Own 04-Jul 9star 04-Jul 11New! 04-Jul 13Reveal 05-Jul 22OK! 05-Jul 32Closer 09-Jul 25New! 18-Jul 19star 18-Jul 13OK! 19-Jul 38Now 25-Jul 27star 25-Jul 15New! 25-Jul 18OK! 26-Jul 38heat 06-Aug 25Reveal 06-Aug 22star 08-Aug 13OK! 09-Aug 36
Women’s celebrity weekly magazine circulation 1. New! 577,899
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2. Closer 526, 713 3. OK! 478,878 4. Star 440,862 5. Heat 417,163 6. Hello! 412,1958 7. Now 338,080 8. Reveal 332,212 9. Look 313,358 10. Grazia 228,770 From N&S Celebrity Media Pack 2011: Source ABC Jan-June 2010. Appendix 12: Which adverts were included in the study Advertisements surveyed were only full page adverts including the back page – adverts which were a double facing page were counted as one, but adverts for the same product over two separate pages were considered as two. Appendix 13: Channels selected for TV advertisement content analysis The channels selected were ITV1, ITV2, Channel 4, Channel 5, SKY1, SKY Living, Yesterday and Film4. Appendix 14: Sample times and dates of television advertising
Day Date Time Channel Show Number of adverts
Saturday 25-Jun 3.15pm Film 4 The Nutty Professor 7Wednesday 29-Jun 9.45pm Channel 4 24 Hours in A&E 8Friday 01-Jul 8.20pm ITV2 Penn & Teller Fool Us 6Sunday 03-Jul 8.45pm ITV1 Popstar to Operastar 8Tuesday 05-Jul 6.15pm Channel 5 Home and Away 7Thursday 07-Jul 10.00pm Channel 5 Candybar girls 9Saturday 16-Jul 8.20am ITV1 Ten Mile Menu 6Monday 18-Jul 10.50am ITV1 This Morning 8Thursday 21-Jul 6.20pm Channel 4 Hollyoaks 7Friday 22-Jul 11.15am Channel 4 A place in the sun 8Saturday 23-Jul 3.30pm SKY1 Lie to Me 9Monday 25-Jul 8.20pm Channel 5 Police Interceptors 6
Wednesday 27-Jul 6.45pm SKY Living
Americas Next Top Model 7
Saturday 06-
Aug 10.35am Channel 4 Smallville 6
Sunday 07-
Aug 6.30pm Yesterday Antiques Roadshow 8 Total 110
Appendix 15: Questions analysed for print advertisements
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• Did the advertisement feature a celebrity? • Did the advertisement maintain the consumer would lack something in their
life if they did not have this product? • Was price mentioned? • Was popular culture reflected? • Was the advertisement trying to shape popular culture?
Appendix 16: Questions analysed for television advertisements
• Did the advertisement feature a celebrity? • Did the advertisement maintain the consumer would lack something in their
life if they did not have this product? • Was price mentioned? • Was popular culture reflected? • Was the advertisement trying to shape popular culture? • Did the advertisement feature an already well-known song?
Appendix 17: Consumer Survey
Advertising VS Popular Culture – Consumer Questionnaire
Hello, my name is Jacqui Waugh and I am currently writing a dissertation on the topic ‘Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?’ for my MSc in Creative Advertising from Napier University. As part of my dissertation, I was hoping to get the opinion of the public and consumers and so I would be really grateful if you could spare 2-3 minutes to fill out this questionnaire by circling your answer. (The information collected will only be used in an academic environment and will be treated confidentially).
1. How often do you buy magazines? Every week Every month Once or twice a year Never
2. Do you generally believe what adverts say and the information they give?
Yes Don’t Know Sometimes No
3. Do you think products that have a celebrity endorser are better and more trustworthy?
Yes Don’t Know Sometimes No
4. Do you think it is acceptable to have product placement in films and TV shows?
Yes Don’t Know Sometimes No
5. When choosing a political candidate to vote for, do you use advertising as a main information source e.g. party political broadcasts on TV, campaign posters?
Yes Don’t Know Sometimes No
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6. Do you ever find it difficult to tell the difference between advertising, TV
shows, films etc and real life/documentaries? Yes Don’t Know Sometimes No
7. Have you ever researched a product online / asked a friend for a recommendation or opinion / read a magazine review of a product before you bought it?
Yes Don’t Know Sometimes No
8. Have you ever downloaded a song or bought a CD after hearing the song on an advert?
Yes Don’t Know No
9. What age bracket do you fall into? 18-26 27-40 41-59 60+
10. Are you…? Male Female
Thanks very much! Appendix 18: Populations targeted for consumer survey HM Revenue and Customs offices, friends, Sports Societies, previous employers and colleagues. Appendix 19: Examples of celebrities and the varying areas of popular culture they are from Actors, (Ryan Reynolds), models (Naomi Campbell), so-called-IT-girls (Paris Hilton), athletes (Lewis Hamilton), entertainers (Phillip Schofield), pop stars (Geri Halliwell), businessmen (Sir Alan Sugar) and politicians (David Cameron). Appendix 20: Bar graphs of celebrity endorsement from content analysis
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Appendix 21: Celebrity Endorsement changes The 2011 Garnier Ultralift moisturizer advert features Davina McCall and proves this point. In the advert, Davina is being ‘interviewed’ and states “I want to prove to people that I’m advertising something that I believe in and I think it works, so try it out for yourself”. It seems that this statement, so implicit in ensuring the consumer knows she has chosen to endorse this product because she uses it, is slightly defensive. It may be that in order to have a level of believability nowadays, celebrities are required to make a statement of honest intention and use for consumers to believe them. Appendix 22: Johnny English success The film starred Rowan Atkinson and John Malkovich and grossed £3,435,342 on its opening weekend in the UK (Jonny English, IMDB).
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Appendix 23: Advertising’s Greatest Hits Chart Source: (Advertising’s Greatest Hits, 2005)
Appendix 24: graph of songs on TV content analysis
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Appendix 25: Criticism of Magazines In the opinion of Cronin (2000), women’s magazines are ‘lacking innovation, perpetually re-producing the same genre of editorial approach’ (p. 109). McRobbie (1991) sees the function of young girls magazines ‘as being to ‘position’ girls for their later roles as wives and mothers by means of the ideology of teenage or adolescent femininity it cultivates’ (Strinati 1995, p. 203). Furthermore it is suggested that ‘the young take appearance features from mediated males and females (particularly from advertising and other polished content) and use them in the construction of ideals of attractiveness’ (Fowles 1996, p. 221). However, several theorists argue that mediums such as advertising and magazines are not the place where the young glean their gender role information. ‘In sum, the process of formulating gender, a prime ingredient in the creation of self-identity, draws on several sources. The true hammer and anvil of gender formation is the real world, where the maturing individual comes in contact with flesh-and-blood others who personify or instruct regarding maleness and femaleness. Specifically, the young’s working definitions of masculinity and femininity are forged through interaction with family, peers, and school personnel – all contexts described by vital, physically present, nonmediated interpersonal contact. The symbolic material in the advertising/popular culture mix has only a secondary role, supplying distant and tentative navigational aids’ (Fowles 1996, p. 225). Appendix 26: DSEF Research for Dove Campaign
• 25% of girls surveyed felt that the media pressurized them into having a perfect body
• Girls who viewed TV commercials featuring underweight models were more likely to be dissatisfied with their own bodies
• 47% of women believe that only the most attractive women are portrayed in popular culture
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• 48% of women want to see advertisements using women of different body shape and weight in campaigns
(DSEF, 2011)
Appendix 27: Political Advertising: View of David Ogilvy The opposition of political advertising is a view shared by David Ogilvy. Ogilvy turns his attention to political advertising in America in his book Ogilvy On Advertising (1983). In this, Ogilvy writes that of the nine national advertising regulation bodies, none of them have a say in the political advertising that is broadcast to consumers. Additionally, most television networks do not allow certain advertising campaigns to be broadcast on their channel due to clashes with the network ethos and breaches their codes, but these codes or rules do not apply to political advertising. The reason behind this is that ‘political advertising is considered ‘protected speech’ under the First Amendment of the US Constitution. The networks are obliged to broadcast every political commercial submitted to them, however dishonest’ (Ogilvy 1983, p. 211). Ogilvy then goes on to say ‘In a period when television commercials are often the decisive factor in deciding who shall be the next President of the United States, dishonest advertising is as evil as stuffing the ballot box. Perhaps the advertising people who have allowed their talents to be prostituted for this villainy are too naïve to understand the complexity of the issues’ (Ogilvy 1983, p. 213). In America then, it would be illegal to ban or even regulate the political advertising, based on it violating the US Constitution (Ogilvy, 1983). Appendix 28: Advertising Agencies featuring in popular culture productions Other examples of popular culture productions which include advertising agencies are the 2000 film What Women Want in which Nick Marshall (played by Mel Gibson) tries to win a promotion and the significant Nike brief; the 1997 film One Night Stand in which Wesley snipes plays an advertising agency employee making an Armani advert; and Sol Saks in Bewitched is an advertiser working at a fictional agency. Appendix 29: Detailed explanation of advertisements created for portfolio SECTION A – ADVERTISMENTS 1-6 1. Kerry Katona / RBS: Kerry Katona is a former member of a girl band who has
declared bankrupt once before, and is allegedly nearing a second time. As such, it would be unwise to link her with a bank, particularly as she has no specific links to the financial industry.
2. Lindsay Lohan / AA: Lindsay Lohan, a Hollywood actress, has been caught drink driving several times, and as such, would be an unlikely and unsuitable candidate to endorse a car insurance and roadside assistance brand.
3. Paris Hilton / ASDA: Paris Hilton is the heiress to the Hilton fortune and ASDA is considered to be a budget supermarket. As such, this would be an unsuitable pairing and consumers may feel that she had no relevance to the brand.
4. Top Gear Team / Mascara: Top Gear is a BBC2 show featuring cars and not
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only do the team have no value to attach to a make-up product, they would be unsuitable as endorsers as it is unlikely they would ever use the product.
5. Mr Bean / Gillette: Mr Bean is seen as a comical ignoramus, who would not be suited to a company like Gillette. The values he would add to Gillette would not be acceptable for a company like that.
6. Bruce Willis / L’Oreal Elvive: As Bruce Willis has no hair presently, it would not be a good match for him to endorse a hair care product.
SECTION B – ADVERTISMENTS 7-11 7. Angelina Jolie / Chanel: As Angelina Jolie is a sophisticated Hollywood actress
with almost perfect skin, it seems a natural combination to have her endorsing a high-end brand such as Chanel moisturizer.
8. Ryan Reynolds / Gillette: Ryan Reynolds, a popular Hollywood actor, is famous for previously sporting a beard. As such, he brings relevant values to the brand along with a friendly personality.
9. Pink / L’Oreal hair products: Pink, a well known pop singer, is famous for her ever-changing hair colours. As such, she brings modern, relevant values to the product.
10. Katy Perry / YSL Mascara: Katy Perry is seen as a young, lively and confident pop star, which is a great set of values to attribute to YSL and makeup.
11. Alan Sugar / RBS: Linking RBS with Alan Sugar ensures a link of intelligent and level-headed value. As a successful celebrity businessman, this campaign would be beneficial to RBS.
SECTION C – ADVERTISMENTS 12-24 12. Kim and Aggie / Vanish: Kim and Aggie present a British TV show called
’How Clean is Your House’. They are tasked with going to the filthiest houses and if the popular culture reference was not understood, this advertisement may not be fully understood.
13. Rapunzel / Strengthening Shampoo: Rapunzel is a traditional fairy tale which was recently made into a Disney film ‘Enchanted’. By linking this character to a strengthening shampoo, values are attributed to the product and a familiarity is present.
14. Alan Carr / BT: Alan Carr is a comedian who present a show called ‘Chatty Man’. Well known for his ability to talk, he highlights the old BT adage of ‘It’s good to talk’ and that it is ok to talk on the phone at length. Furthermore, he brings an approachable value to the brand.
15. Madonna / Virgin: One of Madonna’s most successful songs was ‘Like a Virgin’ and she is similarly famous for having a good figure despite her age. Used in this format brings the pairing brings a motivation and positive feeling to the brand as she is still frequently in popular culture productions.
16. Back to the Future / Omega: Back to the Future is a film all about time travel. Although an older film, it is seen as a classic, one that will always be popular, and this link with time and continuing popularity bring the same values to the brand.
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17. Mission Impossible / Berocca: Without the consumer being aware of the scene from Mission Impossible (starring tom Cruise) the advertisement may not be so successful. Films as popular as this are required to be used in order to ensure the most amount of consumers can relate to them.
18. Bob Holness / BirdsEye Peas: Although the TV game show ‘Blockbusters’ was aired in the 1980s, the phrase ‘Can I have a P please Bob’ is a well known phrase in popular culture. As such, this advertisement shows the long lasting values of BirdsEye and an approachable, friendly value from the host.
19. Harry Potter / Coco Pops: The popular culture reference of Harry Potter being a wizard is widely known, contemporary and aimed at children and adults alike.
20. Fight Club / Club biscuits: One of the most famous parts of the movie ‘Fight Club’ (which this is the film poster of) contains the line ‘Rule number one: You do not talk about Fight Club’ as is widely used in popular culture. This would bring more contemporary values to an older generation biscuit.
21. The Hangover / Nurofen: The image in this advertisement is of the Hollywood film ‘The Hangover’. The link between a hangover is implicit without having to be voiced. As such, it would appeal to younger consumers, without alienating older consumers who may be familiar with the actors featured.
22. A-Team / RAC: The popular culture reference that the A team go out to help people needs to be understood for the advertisements to be fully effective.
23. Big Brother / Police: Both the Orwell novel ‘1984’ and the TV show ‘Big Brother’ are referenced here. Without an understanding of the nature of these popular culture productions, the advertisements may not be fully understood.
24. Lord of the Rings / FedEx: With all the films in this trilogy surrounding the safe delivery of the ring, the values of safety and dedication are passed to the brand.
SECTION D – ADVERTISMENTS 25-33 25. S.H.E. / Thomas Cook: S.H.E are a Taiwanese pop group who also appear in
television, films and books. As such, these versatile girls would be well used in this campaign in Taiwan, or other areas they are known, but the brand would risk alienating their consumers in Britain if this was run here. However, with a Taiwanese brand, this campaign could be very successful in Taiwan.
26. Sabrina Sato / Dave Channel: A Brazilian comedian and TV star, Sabrina Sato would not be recognized in Britain an as such, would confuse consumers, potentially resulting in a negative view of the brand. Airing in Brazil with a Brazilian TV channel, this could be very successful.
27. Utada Hikaru / Contact Lenses: Utada is considered one of the most Influential singers of all time in Japan. As such, her career has been very successful and therefore this campaign would be well received in Japan. Used in Britain, however, it may go unnoticed or unappreciated by consumer, ignorant to who the girl in the advertisement is.
28. Kim Yu Na / Activia: Kim Yu Na is a celebrity figure skater in Korea. She would bring a value of naturalness and beauty to this product if aired in Korea, however in Britain, the values would be mislaid and the product confusing.
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29. Neetu Chandra / Tom Tom: Neetu Chandra is a Bollywood star, who famously appeared in the film ‘Traffic Lights’. Without this knowledge of popular culture from India, the advert would be confusing and misunderstood.
30. Michelle Waterson / UFC Trainer for Xbox: Michelle Waterson featured in a USA reality TV show ‘Fight Girls’. As such, in America, this advertisement would be a success and the values understood, however, in Britain, the message would be lost to consumers.
31. Gaby dela Merced / Continental Tyres: An Filipina actress and a Formula 3 racing driver, Gaby dela Merced would be welcomed to a tyre advert in her native country. However, in Britain, the advertisement would be misleading and confusing to consumers, unaware of the popular culture reference.
32. Mariel Rodriguez / Avon Dual Mascara: Mariel Rodriguez is famous in Asia for her appearance of TV show ‘Rouge’ where she played a singer in a girl band who was also a crimefighter. Without this knowledge the advertisement would be misunderstood by consumers.
33. Manu Feidel / Le Creuset: Manu Feidel is a celebrity chef in Australia who also won TV show ‘Dancing with Stars’. If this popular culture reference was not known, the advertisement would not be understood and confuse consumers.
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FURTHER SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
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EMAILS RECEIVED 1: DAVID LOWSON From: David Lowson <[email protected]> Subject: RE: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 13:01:06 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture? Broadly it reflects. Advertising is too focused on selling products and under too much pressure from clients to take time to attempt anything more ambitious. “Reality TV” is a much closer call ie Coronation St used to reflect British society ie sleepy, grounded, community norms, now, you could argue it, it shapes acceptance of all sorts of behavior as happening in a street “just like yours”. The Apprentice and Big Brother are equally strong examples – the idea that to succeed in business you need to be selfish and ruthless and that “essex girls” are aspirational role models. Unfortunately, large parts of societies grasp of “reality” is pretty weak and these programmes serve to weaken it further. Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture? See above answer Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it were the other way round? Not acceptable and mostly not possible. Advertising satisfies existing needs in the main. Where it creates demand, it can only sustain this with a desirable product. Consumers are not daft – if they don’t want to exercise they won’t buy Nikes. Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinion? Both share and disagree. The IPA in London may have some published material on the role of advertising in society that you could get hold of. Do you think it is possible to have a global campaign if popular culture needs to be taken into account for an advert to work? Yes - but the themes need to be broader. Benetons “multi culturalism” worldwide campaign is a good example. Young people everywhere tend to support this and Beneton managed to relate to youth culture everywhere with this campaign. They also tried it with Aids awareness and other global issues but, at this point, lost sight of the fact they only sell wooly jumpers a bit. Do you think even regional differences in popular culture need to be taken into account for a nationwide campaign? Yes and no. As above if the theme is universal, then no. Mars “England to win the world cup” campaign is going to go down pretty well in every region of England, but not great in Scotland.
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How much does advertising influence which celebrities, bands, films and books are popular / unpopular? Not massively, again because most people are not daft and will make up their own minds. Advertising cannot make a poor product a good one. Do you think the answer to the main question of ‘Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?’ depends on the age group, nationality and other factors? Some people are more impressionable than others. In developed societies there are pretty strict rules for advertising to children or other vulnerable groups. Equally the promotion of alcohol, financial products and other products that can get people into trouble are strictly legislated for. Overall, advertising reflects culture by helping inform audiences about products to fit / enhance their lives. “Shaping” is just too ambitious for the tools available to advertising. However, if Maurice Saatchi becomes Prime Minister ……. From: David Lowson <[email protected]> Subject: RE: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 14:04:35 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh [email protected] Hi Jacqui No problem – I hope the comments are of some help. I did an MBA at Napier so I like to help a fellow student if I can. Best of luck with your studies. David From: David Lowson <[email protected]> Subject: FW: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 15:03:29 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh [email protected] Hi Jacqui, I just thought of a slightly different take on your subject which may or may not be within the scope of your dissertation. Political advertising is extremely influential in shaping culture as it is hugely significant in determining which party will govern and thereby the policies which shape a countries culture. For instance, without the “Its Scotland’s Oil” campaign of the 70s / 80’s it is unlikely that we would be governed by the SNP now, Saatchi and Saatchis “Britain isn’t
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working” election campaign was instrumental in getting Thatcher elected in 1979 and the culture of “yuppies”, “no such thing as society” was born. More recently, the 2007 “We Can” USA electoral campaign is attributed as one of the most successful advertising campaigns of all time – largely because for the first time it used social media / the internet to mobilise support as well as old fashioned great oratory skills and traditional advertising. This is one area where I would support limiting the role of advertising. Who by and how a country is run is far too important to be determined by a creative department in Leith, London or New York and whose slogan catches the imagination or who buys the most TV spots. Although this may not be directly relevant to your subject (or it might be), I think you might have to acknowledge that Political advertising is involved in influencing where power resides, which in turn shapes culture, but that you are choosing to include / exclude this from your dissertation and why. Sorry if this last thought is a “spanner in the works”. Hopefully, you can quickly decide if it is in or out of scope for your project. All the best David
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2: GEORGE MARTINO From: Martino, George (BRS-MEW)
<[email protected]> Subject: RE: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 13:07:48 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Hi Jacqui, I’ve been in marketing, here and in The States, for 30 years. Yours is the most literate piece of student originated correspondence I’ve ever received. My responses are below in BOLD TURQUOISE. By the way, Jacqui, these are my opinions, and in no way reflect the policies of McCann Erickson. Enjoy your day. Top Regards, George George Martino Head of Client Conversation McCann Erickson Communications House 125 Redcliff Street, Bristol BS1 6HU SB 0117 921 1764 DL 0117 921 8134 Mob 0797 1589820 Fax 0117 927 6673 [email protected] Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture? NOPE, JUST TRYING TO KEEP THE AGENCIES RUNNING, THUS KEEPING THEIR JOBS. TO A VAST MAJORITY OF AGENCY HEADS, IT’S ABOUT REVENUE Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it were the other way round? NA Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinion? ABSOLUTELY Do you think it is possible to have a global campaign if popular culture needs to be taken into account for an advert to work? YUP, JUST TIE INTO THE CULTURE AT A REGIONAL LEVEL. WITH 135 OFFICES WORLDWIDE, WE DO IT ON A DAILY BASIS
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Do you think even regional differences in popular culture need to be taken into account for a nationwide campaign? ABSOLUTELY How much does advertising influence which celebrities, bands, films and books are popular / unpopular? TO A FAIR EXTENT … DEPENDING ON THE QUALITY. JUST LOOK AT THE CAREERS OF MUSICAL ARTISTS THAT HAVE BEEN ELEVATED AND’OR REVIVED BECAUSE OF BEING PLAYED ON COMMERCIALS. ADVERTISE A MOBVIE ON TV, AND EVEN THE DEADEST DOG CAN MAKE BOX OFFICE REVENUE. OFTEN, CELEBRITIES BECOME ASSOCIATED WITH PRESTIGE PRODUCTS FOR THEIR OWN EGOS/CAREERS INSTEAD OF JUST ££SSS Do you think the answer to the main question of ‘Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?’ depends on the age group, nationality and other factors? DEPENDS ON HOW YOU DEFINE ‘POPULAR CULTURE’. PROBABLY DOESN’T TOUCH THE ‘POPULAR CULTURE’ OF THE TALIBAN OR NOMADIC INUITS 3: DROD TUNSTALL
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From: Drod Tunstall <[email protected]> Subject: Re: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 14:10:19 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Cc: Richard Wilson [email protected] Dear Jacqui, your questions are all interesting and certainly can raise issues beyond the scope of advertising. Without spending too much time analysing each question in detail I would say that there is no absolute yes or no answer to any of them. As I see it, ultimately the human condition dictates popular culture rather than the other way about (fashion and trends are just minor details that convince one generation they are better than the last). The key influencers are probably Darwinian in nature: tribalism, territorial instincts, sex and procreation (choosing a mate), greed, ego, perceptions of happiness and wellbeing to cite just a few (I guess you know all this too). Victor Papanek is worth a quick read if you are interested in a different spin on things from what you might expect from an ad agency. His book: Design for the real world: ‘Human Ecology and Social change’ has a poor view of the advertising industry. Although I agree with some of Papanek’s opinions I think he affords ad agencies with more power than he (or they) think they actually have. People will do what comes naturally to them anyway, so which ‘shop’ they buy in is just detail (obviously not just detail for specific shops). “ People buy things they don’t need, with money they don’t have, to impress people who don’t care”. (Papenek.V.1971) My bet is that most ad agencies will try to convince you that they are really powerful creative innovators (better than all the rest) however the best advertisers are the ones who challenge their own value. Clearly I’ve taken an overview but that’s not the only way to look at it. My business partner Richard Wilson is the best person in Zarafa to answer your questions intelligently as he has given lectures at Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds Universities on these kind of issues. Good luck, Drod Tunstall 4: DAVE TROTT
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From: Dave Trott <[email protected]> Subject: Re: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 15:56:58 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Jacqui, Advertising reflects the opinion of the public, and consequently makes money from it. Advertising is not on a mission to direct or change public opinion. Advertising only seeks to shape public opinion in the case of government messages (COI). These are messages designed to change behavior. Don’t drink and drive. Stop smoking. Drive safely. Hope this helps. dave trott 5: SIMON LENDRUM
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From: Simon Lendrum <[email protected]> Subject: Re: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 20:49:58 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Jacqui A few thoughts for you. • Firstly, make sure you read John Hegarty's latest book. BBH has done more to
reflect and influence popular culture than any other agency in the UK. • The answer, I suspect, is that advertising does both – it borrows from popular
culture, and when successful it also feeds it. Levi's work reflects this – it borrowed from the back catalogue of rock and roll to reflect classic american teenage rebellion, but in doing so fed those soundtracks back into 1980s/90s Britain, spawning numerous number ones, making Nick Kamen famous, etc.
• Have a look at the Hoffmeister Bear campaign – it reflected small town lager mentality, and from memory, was accused of encouraging it.
• In a more modern context, explore memes. Successful memes tap into something current and popular and become self-fulfilling – they become the popular cultural references.
• Ultimately, pop culture is one method of relevance to the consumer, and if we're always seeking for advertising to be distinctive, ownable and relevant, then reflecting pop culture is one way to achieve relevance
Hope that helps (PS – none of this is quote-worthy, just directional pointers), In return, can you let me know how you found me? I know you're sending this to many people, but I get a lot of similar emails – am I on a database? Regards Simon Lendrum Managing Director T: + 64 9 920 3285 M: + 64 21 940 161 W: http://www.jwt.co.nz 6: RODRIGO CARR From: Rodrigo Carr <[email protected]>
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Subject: RE: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 22:39:10 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Jacqui, Please find my response below. Regards Rodrigo Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture? Advertising does not change the cultures nor intends to do so. Advertising identifies trends and insights from these cultures in order to generate an idea or proposal that the consumers might feel attracted to or identified with. If consumers feel we understand what they are thinking or feeling, they will be attracted to the proposal. Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it were the other way round? This is the way it works Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinion? I hope so, if not I am in the wrong business Do you think it is possible to have a global campaign if popular culture needs to be taken into account for an advert to work? The more targeted you get the stronger the bonding generated. Global campaigns exist because you can identify consumer insights that are the same around the world but these global messages have less impact. Do you think even regional differences in popular culture need to be taken into account for a nationwide campaign? No all the cultures are the same. In India you have 29 important languages and more than 100 dialects, you can talk to them in English and the might undertand but it will be much more effective if you talk to them in their own language. How much does advertising influence which celebrities, bands, films and books are popular / unpopular? Advertising uses celebrities because they attract groups of people that have the same interest. Fans will be attracted to any proposal I can generate related to their interest. Do you think the answer to the main question of ‘Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?’ depends on the age group, nationality and other factors? No, its not a matter of age groups, for everybody its the same. The younger groups are more difficult to attract given that they are experts in advertising an have generated natural barriers towards the information overload. 7: PHIL COWDELL From: [email protected] Subject: Re: Advertising Industry Date: 30 June 2011 23:25:39 GMT+01:00
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To: Jacqui Waugh [email protected] Hi Jacqui Hope this is useful:#Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?As with many things it is both. Advertising aims to build off relevant consumer insights and the sum of consumers constitute popular culture. Therefore it both responds to trends evident within culture, as well as stimulates and prompts behaviours that become adopted by more people, hence shaping ongoing culture. #Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture?Dove's "campaign for real beauty" focused on raising awareness of self esteem issues and perceptions of beauty. It made a stand and wanted to ignite conversations and help young women. In doing so you could agree that it has purposefully trying to influence and shape popular culture. #Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it were the other way round?By other way round do you mean, culture first and see stuff second? If so, maybe that's what fashion and music brands try to do. Think Vans, Hiphop, nike etc. #Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinionYou'll know from the sum of your answers, but I'd say so.
Good luck with this project
Phil
Phil Cowdell
Leader, Mindshare N.A.
New York, New York
8: DAVID WHITTLE From: David Whittle <[email protected]> Subject: RE: Advertising Industry Date: 1 July 2011 00:09:19 GMT+01:00
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To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Hello, FYI below. All the best, David. Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture? Yes. Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it were the other way round? Popular culture certainly influences both products and advertising. Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinion? Yes. Do you think it is possible to have a global campaign if popular culture needs to be taken into account for an advert to work? Yes. Do you think even regional differences in popular culture need to be taken into account for a nationwide campaign? Yes. Depends on the nation. How much does advertising influence which celebrities, bands, films and books are popular / unpopular? Significantly. Do you think the answer to the main question of ‘Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?’ depends on the age group, nationality and other factors? It both shapes and reflects popular culture across all of those variables. 9: JOHN MCCALLUM From: John McCallum <[email protected]> Subject: Dissertation Date: 5 July 2011 13:49:12 GMT+01:00
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To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Hello Jacqui Your email has wound its way to my desk, I’m happy to help you. Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture? It can do both but I think it reflects more than shapes. The purpose of most advertising is to sell you something, it is generally the product or service being sold that shapes popular culture, the advertising is simply the introduction to it. There are exceptions but that can be said about many industries. Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture? No I don’t believe so. It’s hard enough trying to persuade consumers to ‘buy products’ without getting deeper. This isn’t a ‘deep’ industry, we’re pretty superficial. Do you think it would be acceptable / successful if it were the other way round? I’m not sure I fully understand this question but if you are asking should advertisers purposely try to influence popular culture to help sell stuff then I’d say no. People aren’t idiots, they generally know when they are being manipulated, I think they’d react badly to it. Do you think there are other people in the industry who share your opinion? The man opposite me just now does beyond that I couldn’t say, sorry. Do you think it is possible to have a global campaign if popular culture needs to be taken into account for an advert to work? A single global campaign for anything is almost impossible, not taking into account local culture would be commercial suicide. Certain ads for global brands have been used internationally but they are the exception not the rule. Do you think even regional differences in popular culture need to be taken into account for a nationwide campaign? Undoubtedly yes. We’ve an office in Belfast, regional ‘differences’ play a big part in popular culture and you’d be a fool not to take them into account. How much does advertising influence which celebrities, bands, films and books are popular / unpopular? Advertising plays a part, the amount of advertising plays a part but ultimately all it can do is publicise and introduce something. If a ‘product’ or ‘brand’ is flawed in some way no amount of advertising can sustain it. Do you think the answer to the main question of ‘Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?’ depends on the age group, nationality and other factors? No, I don’t think that makes much difference. If the ‘product’ is right and the advertising ‘sells’ it correctly the demographics are irrelevant. Advertising mainly reflects no matter the target market. Good luck with your dissertation.
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Regards John McCallum Levy McCallum 10: RICHARD SCHOLEY From: Richard Scholey <[email protected]> Subject: Re: Advertising Industry Date: 12 July 2011 17:31:06 GMT+01:00
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To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Hi Jacqui, to be honest we are not an advertising agency, I guess we are best described as a creative consultancy specialising in brand. However, i have made a few brief comments below in red for what they are worth. cheers and good luck Richard Does advertising shape or reflect popular culture?
It has to be both.
It is vital that advertisers are acutely aware of current trends and cultures which is why they spend an awful lot of time and money ensuring that they are extremely well informed. The knowledge they gain into popular culture helps target their campaigns and optimises the appeal and reach of the campaign to their target audience. So, 1) yes advertising definitely reflects popular culture.
However it could also be argued that this knowledge is more about the channels where the campaign is likely to gain the most coverage and then this allows the advertising to help shape popular culture. On another note todays customer, particularly the youth market is heavily influenced by celebrity and so if a brand spends enough money to persuade a high profile celeb to wear their clothing or adapt their attitude or personality then they will be copied which is a clear example of 2) advertising shaping popular culture.
it is a bit of a chicken and egg question 11: FIONA LINDSAY From: Fiona Lindsay <[email protected]> Subject: RE: Popular Culture - Celebrity Industry Date: 30 June 2011 12:59:13 GMT+01:00
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To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]>
Dear Jacqui Loving your website. Advertising rules!!! Why else would we be buying shed loads of Kelloggs Optivita, Philadelphia and Canderel. (These are campaigns my clients have taken part in and all products have seen growth.) Best wishes Fiona Fiona Lindsay Managing Director Limelight Celebrity Management Ltd 10 Filmer Mews
12: JOANNA MCCULLOCH From: Joanna McCulloch <[email protected]> Subject: RE: Popular Culture - Radio and Music Industry Date: 30 June 2011 13:21:57 GMT+01:00
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To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Hi Jacqui , I have answered your questions below however they are simply MY opinions, not those of Radio Forth or Bauer Media, I am not a spokesman for either . Joanna How influential is advertising in terms of songs / bands becoming popular? You need to speak to Programming controllers and music scheduling teams about that . How much influence does advertising have over radio shows in terms of what is discussed? As I understand it little or no influence at all ..although we would hope that presenters would not discuss harmful gossip / negative PR concerning any major clients …however that does not include news which is impartial . Do you think that a radio shows’ reputation can be of value to the product if they advertise as a sponsor of the show? Does this work the other way round too? Yes, the ethos of the show and personalities in the show massively influence both the client’s decision to spend ….and the listeners to tune in . Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? Yes, in the past generally more influence was put on the presenters “Personality” …and he talked more on air and was less restricted by policy guidelines . Can a show’s ratings be affected by the adverts in between the programme? Yes, in the negative, while people are unlikely to tune in to hear and advert , they WILL tune out for those they find annoying . How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture? The advice I give clients is that it depends on their requirements….this is a specialist area of radio ,…..and one that I couldn’t summarize in one sentence . 13: HAYLEY GRANSTON From: Hayley Granston <[email protected]> Subject: RE: Popular Culture - Magazine Industry Date: 4 July 2011 16:40:08 GMT+01:00
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To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]> Hi Jacqui See below – I have answered a couple of your additional questions but don’t have time to answer all of them Kind regards Hayley Does advertising shape, or reflect, popular culture? Good advertising can shape popular culture especially if it captures the current zeitgeist eg the Levis launderette ad caused a huge spike in sales of 501s. Most advertising will reflect it and truly bad advertising will do neither! How much influence do adverts have in terms of what features you have in your magazine? None! Editorial integrity is sacrosanct. How much say do you have over what adverts for products are placed within your magazine? The ad team either pitches to media agencies and clients for active campaigns or approaches them regarding tactical opportunities within the magazine. It’s rare for us to turn away advertisers – we would only do so if they failed to get approval from the ASA over claims they make or if we felt the product (or creative) would be offensive to our readers What do you think is more influential to consumers, an advert for a product or an article or recommendation by your writers for the same product? A true editorial recommendation is the strongest influence for purchase. Advertorials (paid advertisements that are written in the style of the magazine by the magazine writers and identified clearly as advertising promotions) levy much higher rates than a straightforward ad, because of the perceived editorial endorsement. You might like to look at some of the research the PPA has done into this area (www.PPA.co.uk) If advertising revenue was not as lucrative, would advertising still occupy the large percentage of magazine space that it currently does? Impossible to answer – it depends on the individual revenue model of the magazine ie whether circulation sales revenues or advertising revenues are the key contributor to the profit of the title. In the UK, most publications rely on both areas. For an advertising driven model, if ad revenues dropped the revenues would need to be accrued elsewhere. You could do one or all of the following – decrease the volume of editorial pages, reduce the editorial page rates (ie fewer shoots, more bought in shots etc), increase the advertising page yield, increase the cover price, make redundancies from the team… 14: AMANDA SEARLE From: Amanda Searle <[email protected]> Subject: Re: Popular Culture - Photography Industry Date: 6 July 2011 17:34:42 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]>
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Hi Jacqui, I think advertising shapes popular culture. It has to because it needs to sell something. It tries to shape a culture that needs its products...or thinks it does. Amanda Searle 15: PAMELA RICHARDSON From: Pamela Richardson <[email protected]> Subject: here you go Date: 8 July 2011 11:45:52 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]>
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Hope this helps Good Luck Pam x Does advertising shape, or reflect, popular culture? Advertising is one of, if not, thee major factor affecting popular culture. It comes in various forms; it can be explicit & in your face or it can be seeded & blended into the background of your mind & affect your decision making process without you even realising that it is…a great example of this is McDonald’s use of their famous “I’m Loving It” jingle on radio & TV. It’s a combination of strategic & clever marketing mixed into the advertising which then reflects on popular culture or indeed shapes culture & propels brands into the spot light & allows them to become the popular culture & seeds them in the market & in the consumers mind…which goes a long way in affecting their decision making processes in a positive way. How influential is advertising in terms of songs / bands becoming popular? It has become very influential as it does various things for the brand being advertised, for example, if a advertisement ties into a song/brand such as Rhianna it creates a strong & consistent synergy with an already established brand & piece of popular culture which makes the advertising itself more stronger, more coherent & more easily remembered & allows the product more sought after. Do you think that a radio shows’ reputation can be of value to the product if they advertise as a sponsor of the show? Does this work the other way round too? It does work both ways. Capital FM is a mainstream entertainment brand & it affects popular culture & represents everything that is current & popular. If a brand is struggling in the market & wants to reinvent itself or just create a stronger synergy so its consumers know what it’s about or just to maintain their existing brand then by partnering with us would present a stronger proposition for them in the market to do so & in their ability to market the brand as cool, popular & reach the correct audience to do so. The same applies for us in return, if we partner with a brand which is the same as us it will allows us to build on our reputation as mainstream and extend our brand further into the market by creating that partnership. Has this opinion changed/remained the same over time? In my opinion it has changed, as radio stations have become more brand focused & targeted audiences as opposed to just playing songs & targeting everyone they have become structured & tailored their communications to suit their audience which is a reflection on the same way brands are marketed in modern culture, it used to be about just sticking something on TV & Radio now the consumer has so many avenues to explore there is so many communication channels radio stations need to maintain their brand & stand for something which affects which advertisers they appeal too.
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It’s constantly evolving. Can a show’s ratings be affected by the adverts in between the programme? It can, if a station was targeting young people it would put them off by playing adverts about care homes & if a radio station was targeting 50+’s it would put them off by advertising half price club nights in town! It’s about maintaining that balance with your advertisers so you can maintain your revenue streams as-well-as your audience. How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? It has a massive influence - it can affect what people buy & don’t buy & can make or break you. How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? Massive, advertising is the blood which keeps commercial radio’s heart beating. Without it we wouldn’t be able to operate. Pamela Richardson | Commercial Director 16: ALEESHA ANDREWS From: [email protected] Subject: RE: Popular Culture - Magazine Industry Date: 25 July 2011 15:16:39 GMT+01:00 To: Jacqui Waugh <[email protected]>
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How much influence do adverts have in terms of what features you have in your magazine? Advertiser are unable to influence the editorial content of the magazine. How much say do you have over what adverts for products are placed within your magazine? Each magazine has final approval over what adverts they publish. We can and do turn away advertising from specific brands, that do not match the editorial ethos of that brand. What do you think is more influential to consumers, an advert for a product or an article or recommendation by your writers for the same product? I work within a creative media team selling advertorial and sponsorship. This means that within IPC we create advert for clients, using our editorial teams. meaning we also have complete control over the tone of an advert and how it promotes the brand. This is very different to display advertising whereby a brand send us create and we include this within our brands. I know that readers are more inclined to read through an advertorial more than a display advert. Advertorials are still advertising however they sell using the editorial ethos of the brand generating a closer alliance with the reader. If advertising revenue was not as lucrative, would advertising still occupy the large percentage of magazine space that it currently does? Each magazine is different as well as each publishing house. Some magazines run with higher cover sales that adv revenue. Others producing more ad revenue, that cover sales. It depends on the brand. How influential do you think magazines are as a whole to popular culture / your specific target market? Magazine definitely influential popular culture. The challenge for magazines moving forward however is to continue to move with the times. There are many other media choices that also influence popular culture I.e social media for example. How can magazine include social media within there content and explore this new media channel. And your magazine in particular? The magazine I work on influence popular culture through there editorial content each week. How much influence does your industry have over advertising in general? As one of the biggest publishing houses in the UK, IPC has influence on advertising, through rates charged, channels, opportunities etc. How much influence does advertising have over your industry in general? Advertising has a huge influence over the industry as a whole. This has been reflective in the last 2 year and highlighted through the recession and lack of advertising across various sectors. As a client (if you were trying to advertise your company) would you prefer to run an advert that is explanatory and informational to clients, or one that gets your company’s name and brand into popular culture? As touched upon above an educational advert always tends to reap better rewards for clients, however the above does depend on the specific requirements of the client. I.e sell product, if this is the objective a price promotion inclosing logo may work on a display page. Alternatively if a beauty clients has a new product that needs to be explained to the market an
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advertorial would probably work better. Explaining the sell and inviting emotional engagement. TELEPHONE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS 17: TOM BAGE TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW WITH TOM BAGE - PUBLIC AFFAIRS MANAGER FOR THE ADVERTISING ASSOCIATION JW: Hello Jacqui speaking?
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TB: Hi Jacqui, its Tom here from the advertising association JW: HI there, I’m sorry to have bothered you earlier when you were busy TB: No no! I’m just running around all day in between various meetings, but I’ve got 5 minutes to talk to you. JW: Perfect, thanks. TB: So, just tell me, I sort of read back through the email earlier, you’re doing a dissertation on advertising? JW: Yea, the main topic is to do with advertising and popular culture and how it either reflects or shapes popular culture. People have a lot of different opinions on this to be honest, and I’m kind of trying to stick up for advertising in a sense… TB: So are you in your third year at uni then? JW: No, its actually a masters course, a one year master course TB: and you’ve been working at an agency for the past 2 weeks JW: Yea, that’s right, it was just a placement I was at, so yea, it was good TB: Well, I don’t know how much you know, how did you come across the advertising association, was it just a Google job or…? JW: Yea, well I’m trying to interview people from all parts of the industry, from the agencies and from the popular culture industry, and the things you do, you’ve kind of got a grounding in both almost – you’re representing the industry. TB: Yea, that’s right. Well what I’ll do, is ill tell you al little bit about the AA and what we do as a kind of – oh, I’m just jumping in a lift so if I cut out, I’ll call you back JW: OH right! No problem TB: So the advertising association basically is the voice of the advertising industry in the UK and we speak for our members, to parliament, the press, to society at large and our membership is a tri-partheid organization and we represent three different strands of advertising. JW: OK TB: Most obvious strand is that of the agencies, we represent them through something called the IPA, the Institute of Practitioners of advertising, which is the body that represents advertising agencies, so we represent the agencies. WE also represent the media owners, who are reliant on advertising for their income JW:Yes… TB: SO that’s commercial television, commercial radio, all of the press, so we speak to all of those bodies, on advertising matters aswell and then the third part of the equation is the brands themselves, so the big advertisers, so that’s basically any company that advertises a lot, so its your cokes, your McDonalds, your nestles, all of your big car companies – so all your big recognizable high street brands. So we are, we sit at the top of the tree and speak on all three issues to the government, the public and the media. JW:OK TB: And basically we do this to champion the role of advertising on society, we think it’s a good thing – it funds our creative industries, it helps businesses compete, it delivers better prices and better products to consumers JW: yes TB: But we also, as the voice of the industry remind them of their roles, so, where people think advertising is annoying or offensive or oversteps the mark, we help remind businesses that, you know, its very important that they advertise responsibly and are sensitive and aware of their customers. JW: and keep within those rules… TB: yea, so yea we champion the role but we also, you know, are keen to ensure that advertising continues to be a responsible, well regulated industry, which we think it is
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JW: Yes, TB:Um, so that’s the sort of schpeil about who we are and what we do and I, well I’m in charge of public affairs which is stakeholders and investors primarily… so yea… so what’s the first question then JW: So the main question is does advertising shape or reflect popular culture? TB: I mean I think ultimately it does a bit of both, I mean I was at a talk last week which I think would be really really useful for you and from a dissertation point of view will be an exclusive cause it only happened last Thursday. JW: Oh perfect TB: We organized a debate and for the royal society of arts in London which you have to be a member of it to be there, it’s a prestigious, its basically the worlds oldest think-tank, a prestigious institution run by Matthew Taylor, who use dot run Downing Street under Tony Blair. JW: Oh wow, ok TB: and at the debate we had Nicola Mendelhson who, who’s the new president of the IPA, also the chairman of an advertising agency, we had Lord Watson who is the chief executive of Havas, one of the biggest advertising groups in the world and we had Sam Delaney who is a guardian journalist, used to be editor of Heat magazine until a year ago, and who has written quite extensively about advertising. JW: Oh right yea TB: There is an audio recording of this debate on our website. Now Nicola Medellson from the IPA, her opening remarks, I think would be really really useful to you, it was the history of what advertising has done, and then she talks about the exact question you are asking, you know how does advertising shape our culture, in her argument it usually reflects our culture, so look at the adverts of the 1960s, compare them to the adverts for today, society is changed, and you know, therefore there is pressure on the advertising agencies and brands to kind of keep up with that. JW:Yes, TB: So whereas in the 1960s adverts might em, for example, have women in quite traditional roles, homemakers, or housewives or whatever, nowadays, advertising recognizes that you know, families come in lots of different shapes and sizes, gender roles aren’t as fixed as they were, and thus the content of advertising generally reflects that. JW: Yes TB: So we would say that ultimately advertising is a mirror to society that people live in an people want a lot of the time because if the advertising is really off-key, then consumers don’t like it- they complain to the advertising standards authority if they think its offensive, or they stop buying the product if they don’t want to, you know, be associated with that products JW: Yea TB: We think actually advertising does a very good job in reflecting what consumers want. Partly because there is massive profit intention for them to do it, but if their reflecting stuff consumers don’t want, they don’t like the brand JW: Yes, it’s not going to work TB: Yea, so that would be my slightly long winded answer on that but I would say go back to this audio recording of this debate and I would quote Nicola Mendellson, em, I mean we wrote the speech for her, but quote her, it was quite widely covered, they were talking about it on the Toady programme on Radio 4, News 24, You and yours, Five Live, World at one, and the World service so quite a big deal and it was obviously the same week that all of the advertisers were pulling out of News of the World, JW:Yea, so it’s a huge… TB: Yea, it got quite a lot of coverage. But yea, that will be a good primary source for your dissertation. And she is the woman who is now the face of advertising agencies in the UK JW: So she’s the one to listen to essentially?
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TB: Yea, So that’s certainly one tip for you. You had a lot of other questions, I don’t have them infront of me, but I'm happy to answer those in a more succinct kind of way JW: No that’s perfect, so from this point of view, from an academic reasoning, I don’t want to lead the questions too much, so I’ll just give you the questions and have your answer because I don’t want to give you my opinion too much as that might influence your answer essentially. TB: Yea, no that’s fine JW: So the next question was ‘Advertising is trying to persuade us to buy products, but on a deeper level are advertisers purposefully trying to influence popular culture?’ do you think that is something they aim to do? TB: First there’s two questions there, one I would slightly take contention with your point that advertising is getting us to buy products, because I think that some advertising tries to do that some of the time, but I think its important to understand that advertising doesn’t always do that. JW: Yea TB: A lot of the time, advertising is about building a brand and building a relationship with the brand and about getting people to associate certain values and ideas with the brand and that’s not necessarily just about getting them to go out and you know, spending 50p on a Mars Bar that day. It’s a lot much more of a long-term process. So again, interesting from our point of view, if you really want to see sales of a product spike, and I’m talking going up 25-30 per cent, what you do is not do a really great ad campaign, you do a 2 for 1 in Tesco’s or 50% off and your sales will go through the roof that week. You can’t obviously do that forever, so where advertising comes in, it’s a medium and long-term process that, about getting people to brand switch. So you know, if you make Twix Bars, and your biggest competition is Dairy Milk, then you would use price promotion if you want just to sell a load of Twix bars that week or that month. But if you want more people, long term to like Twix, and buy into the brand then that’s where you spend your money on advertising. So the first point is, yes advertising encourages people to buy things now, today, this week, but a lot of the time, its not doing that at all, Its trying to build long term relationship with the brand. Yea and that is the official view of the AA, so you can quote me on that. JW: Yep, perfect. TB: Another bit, in trying to change popular culture, I don’t think, when the agencies sit down, and write an advert, their clients at the advertisers, so if you’re for example, em, the advertising agency, BBH, one of the best creative industries in London, and you sit down with British Airways, your major client, you don’t sit down and say, right guys were going to change popular culture here – like that’s going to be the point of your advertising campaign. What the point of your advertising campaign is to reflect BA products, to inform consumers, to entertain them, to stimulate some new thinking about their product, for them to build a bit of a brand relationship. So I wouldn’t say advertising has, as a goal, changing popular culture, I don’t think they set out to do that, but I think some advertising campaigns in the past have fed in a small way in popular culture, and nudging us along the way, so… what did you have in mind when you were asking that question? JW: Well, in general there are quite general examples of that like the Coca Cola Santa, you know, they didn’t set out to try to change it, it was part of their campaign, but it has been taken on by people as popular culture, things like that TB: Obviously yea, Santa originally wore a green suit JW: Yea TB: And its fascinating that, I mean I think yea absolutely is not an example of advertising setting out to change popular culture, but it is an example of how powerful advertising can resonate with people. Popular Culture comes from people and society and individuals, its not em, imposed upon them by companies or advertising of from the media, it comes from what people actually think about stuff. JW: Yep TB: and if they really like something like whether it be an advert or a book or a film or a philosophical piece of writing or a politician, whatever it might be then they will vote with their feet and vote with their wallets and that and so the advertising campaign has helped alter popular opinion because people felt it resonated with them and they felt they liked it. So I would say actually that a lot of those feelings
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were perhaps there already, what the agency responsible for that advert were, and what that brand did was express feelings that people had sympathy with and things that they liked, um, rather than imposing upon them, if you see what I mean. JW: Yea, and they didn’t necessarily set out to do that it just so happened that the people liked it TB: Yea, um, if they make great adverts that people like, and they did and therefore that has had a real affect. Because they were great adverts and people liked them. But I wouldn’t say they set out to do it, I mean obviously if an agency says would you like to do a campaign that changes the way society thinks about your brand, then yea, that’s definitely what they are in the business of. They are in the business of brands and making people think great and feeling good about them and if that changes society in a small way, then that’s great but that’s a kind of side effect and not what they set out to do. JW: Yea, yea perfect. Now obviously you were saying earlier in regards to it was mirroring decades, you know were talking about the 60s and things, the next question was to do with is it possible to have a global campaign if cultural differences need to be taken into account for an advert to work? TB: Well I think with big global brands, what we find is that they um, they target their advertising dependant on the market. So we’ve seen brands make mistakes in the past you know when they tried to run adverts in different countries where it’s not actually totally appropriate. So I’m just thinking of an example… excuse me, I’m just going to have a big of lunch too…. JW: No, that’s ok no problem, TB: Have you got an example in mind? JW: Probably from a global campaign I don’t have a particular one, but there’s obviously the argument that global campaigns tend to be a bit more broad and not so specific, they tend to be quite generalized, so like Coca Cola, they are not trying to be specific, or hone in on anyone particular, whereas a lot of adverts to work really successfully need to be quite specific in terms of popular culture. TB: Yea, I think one of the things that um, Sam Delaney said, that’s on our website was that um, is that he finds that some of the global ads are quite boring, you can hear that, but he makes the point that British advertising in the 80s was the best, undoubtedly the best in the world. And we are considered to be one of the top 2 or 3 as an advertising market and as an advertising producer. Sometimes, he contended, because companies are looking to do global campaigns, they go to something that’s quite vanilla, so it wont offend anyone, but by the same token, it doesn’t interest anybody, it doesn’t speak to you. Think about, between you and I, Tango is a really good ad, their adverts, and I’m think particularly of the ones in the 90s when I was growing up, you know, guy dressed in orange paint, running around, slapping people, pushing them in rivers ‘you know when you’ve been tangoed’. JW: Yea TB: You know, when I was 12 that was really really funny, but if you had shown that to a 12 year old guy from Singapore, for example, would they have found that funny? I don’t know, but I’d guess probably not. Because it was a particularly British, slapstick, ironic humour, so I think that, so you know some campaigns are actually less interesting, because they are just too broad. And so on some products, it’s more appropriate to have country-by-country advertising. And similarly, some of the adverts that you might get in say Spain, like if you played them to the market over here, they wouldn’t be appropriate. But I think brands and agencies are pretty good at understanding you know, where it is appropriate and where it isn’t. JW: Yea, and where things would be understood too I guess? TB: I know that’s a bit of a fudge of an answer… JW: No no, it makes sense though! And I do agree. TB: that’s good then
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JW: Ok, so next question and probably the last would be, how much does advertising influence which celebrities, bands, films and books are popular or unpopular? TB: I think advertising has got a real part to play in that definitely. From what we’ve seen in recent years actually, is that, and I cant remember the name of the band, they signed a deal directly with an advertising agency. Who was it… oh it was Seal. I think wrote a song specifically for, a Renault advert, so instead of going to his record label and saying ‘I’m going to record my music for you, give you the rights to you and then you can sell it to brands and agencies’, you’ll have to check it, but Renault came back to him and said ‘well actually we’d like you to do a song and we’ll pay you directly. You know, cut out your record label in the middle. And he did it, and that was quite an interesting thing because it was the first time that a deal like that had been done with a popular artist. It does show that if it’s a popular ad campaign, of course bands want to get involved, cause millions and millions of people watch adverts. Much more people watch adverts than go out and buy records. JW: Yea, TB: You know look at that Dandy Warhols song, ‘Bohemian Like You’ JW: Yea, TB: I remember, you know, Dandy Warhol’s were a relatively minor band in Britain in the late 90s and early 00s, on the back of that Vodafone advert, I think it was Vodafone, with that song in, they got to number 1 in the charts! And were third on the bill at Reading Festival, I remember going to see them. And that was on the back of an advert. And it was because that advert had cut across in a way, you know, into the mass market, that record labels wouldn’t necessarily get. So I would definitely say that good advertising, can make songs really popular, you know, I think the Big Pink, was the song they did for the Xbox advert, a year ago where you’ve got a human head rotating in the back of it was the band playing, that’s another really good example, the amount of, it’s a fantastic song, but I bought that record after hearing that song on the advert. And obviously agencies and brands pay bands a lot of money JW: yea, to be using the song TB: exactly, cause they know that, people, even if they are not watching an advert will hear it, and if they hear something they really like, they’ll go and look it up. And they will associate that kinda cool song with the brand. So yea they do play a big part in that. JW: So its more than just exposure for the bands aswell I guess, they get the attributes of the brand TB: Absolutely, obviously its got to be done right, people don’t like bullshit, they like, I don’t know how much you are into music, but you would never get Kraft, the 70s and 80s hardcore band, you know, ultra left wing, proto communist guys, they’re never going to be advertising Coke, because it wouldn’t be appropriate. But you know, we had Bob Dylan last year, he let his song be used by the co-operative and it was the first time he had let any of his music be used in a British advertising campaign, but because he believes in co-operative values and the socio-democratic, liberal left wing core values that the co-operative embodies, plus its record on the environment, he was happy to let them use his music cause he was happy for this music to be associated with that brand. So it’s all about context really JW: Yea, well that makes a lot of sense… I think that’s about all the questions then to be honest TB:OK JW: But thank you very much for your time I really appreciate it. TB: No problem, so when will your dissertation be out? JW: It due on the 19th august, so a few weeks TB:Yea, you have another month or so to write it…
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Conversation continues for another minute of thanks and general chat. 18: ALEX BENADY TELEPHONE INTERVIEW TRANSCIPT WITH ALEX BENADY, ADVERTISING JOURNALIST WITH THE TELEGRAPH ETC. SEEN ON TV. JW: Hello is that Alex? AB: It is. JW: HI its Jacqui Waugh… AB: Jacqui yes,
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JW: Apologies, I just missed your call AB: I was just writing to you to say I’d rather talk if that were ok JW: Perfect, as I say, I just missed your call just now, but do you have time to speak just now? AB: Yes, yes of course. JW: well I really appreciate your time on this. So it’s a dissertation on advertising and its link with popular culture, and just for the purposes of this, can I just check it’s ok if I record the conversation, rather than having to write everything down? AB: Yea yea of course, of course the problem is, and knowing this as a journalist is that you then have to transcribe everything afterwards JW: Exactly! AB: Bloody nightmare! JW: Yes, it may take some time, AB: But that’s your problem I guess JW: Yes, I’ll deal with that! AB:yes JW: And also from an academic point of view, if its ok with you, I’ll just ask the questions without giving my opinion or leading the question in any way, I don’t want to load the question with my own agenda. AB: Yes that’s fine JW: And also for the definition of popular culture, I will be defining it is things people voluntarily take part in to get pleasure from, so music, TV, fashion, things like that AB: Oh popular culture? I thought it was just general culture. But you mean trash shit culture? JW: Yes essentially! AB:I see JW: So yes, slightly different from general culture in itself. AB: Right JW: But as I say, the main question is ‘does advertising shape or reflect popular culture? AB: Well, first of all, I’ve got to say I think it’s a false dichotomy, it doesn’t have to be either or, I suspect its both, um its chicken and egg stuff, but when you think about it, in terms of whether its shapes popular culture, if your advertising and your spending money, your spending a lot of money, or any money, it really matters and you want to get results from your spend. JW:Yes, AB: We’re in this clotted market place, whatever you do, I don’t know whether you mean literally advertising like above the line television advertising, or as in marketing and propaganda? JW: No I mean general advertising, so TV ads etc AB: Whichever, marketing you are using, you know, it is cluttered, you know that your struggling for the resource, the scarce resource, which is, ah shit, someone has just turned up at my door, I need to see… JW: I can phone back later if that’s easier AB: Yea, can we finish this in about half an hour? JW: OK, I’ll call back then AB: Thanks JW: Thanks, speak soon. AB:Bye
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JW:Bye Conversation ends. I try three more times to get Alex but unsuccessful. On the third time, he picks up. AB: HI Jacqui? JW: HI, Alex, is it ok to talk just now? AB: Sorry about that, yes its fine. JW:ok AB: So I hadn’t realized what you meant by popular culture, so I have to change my answer slightly. If you say culture, I think it is very much an interactive two-way thing, but popular culture, JW: It’s a different matter isn’t it? AB: Yes, I think that the traffic is mostly one-way. Not entirely one-way, but mostly one-way. Which is advertising feeds off popular culture, and the reason it feeds off popular culture is basically familiarity. One of the roles of advertising is to make things seem familiar. JW: yes AB: so when you come across it on the shelf or whatever, it’s not a complete stranger. And that’s kind of deep evolutionarily wired reaction that if it’s new and strange, you’re suspicious of it. It’s like if you meet somebody and maybe they’ve been recommended by a friend, and you’ve met them twice before, you might go out for dinner with them, but you wouldn’t go out for dinner with a man who approaches you on the street that said come out for dinner with me. And it’s exactly the same with brands. JW: Yes AB: So they are after familiarity and they are also after interest, so you don’t have to be a rocket scientist to work out that what advertising is doing is borrowing interest from popular culture. That’s fairly obvious. But the reason why they’re borrowing interest, the reason why its one way rather than two way, if you think about it, as I was saying earlier, advertising is a really difficult thing to do, to do well. To get noticed, to be remembered, to have an effect. And you're spending a lot of money on it, so the last thing you want to do, is have to do is spend money establishing new ideas in the minds of your consumers. So if you can use ideas that are already there, its kind of less money in the bank. JW: So more cost effective? AB: I mean part of it is cost, but also it is just more effective. So I was thinking you were going to ask about general culture, so I was preparing an answer.. so in culture. Advertisers do not want to have to lead attitudes. There is more the thing about should advertisers be leading attitudes, I’m not sure, many are quite liberal, but I’m not sure I want Ultrea, it’s the company name for Phillip Morris, I’m not sure I want them leading attitudes. The problem with commercial operations leading attitudes is primarily they are driven by money, and they may or may not be enlightened. And they don’t care whether they are enlightened or not, all they want is effectiveness, and so the idea that advertisers can change general culture, is not one that you would really welcome. JW: Yes AB: So most of the traffic is borrowing from popular culture, so films, lots and lots of campaigns that are based on production techniques or characters, or plot lines that you know from films. JW: yes AB: the only one I can think of is thirty years old, anyway, another form is music, obviously advertising gets a lot of power from music. And they interchange, I mean it used to be, that advertising would pursue the artist. And so Microsoft would pursue the rolling stones, give them £7 million quid and they can use their song. JW: Yes, AB: Now, its kind of changed, it is not unheard of for bands to pursue the agencies, so one of the things bands do is hawk their music to advertising agencies, cause they know, what they are effectively getting, is free airplay, so it’s a big campaign and your effectively getting your song on prime time TV
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40 times, well that’s a great trailer. There was a song by the Dandy Warhols, been out for years and years and years, and it wasn’t until Vodafone used it that it became a hit. JW: Yes AB: a big hit, so there’s an example of advertising following culture, and taking some culture and contributing to culture where advertising is continuously used to break music. And the relationship between advertising and music has changed completely. It has changed profoundly in the last 10 to 15 years, and the main people behind that were BBH. JW: So its quite a recent change AB: I mean you know all their Levis stuff, all the hits they had, 20 hits or something. 10 number ones or something like that, they showed that advertising can prompt culture, just as culture can prompt advertising. Normally you get the Marvin Gaye song, and you put on the track and you sell more jeans, but now they see, Marvin Gaye, or whoever it is, I mean there were several campaigns later with bands that nobody had ever heard of. Stiltskin and that space one. They were bands that were broken by the advertising. So it works both ways. There are fewer examples of advertising breaking into popular culture; it’s a sweet spot. You ask any advertiser or advertising agency, the dream that they could have with their campaign, is that they create something that enters popular culture. Examples of that are Flat Eric, do you remember him? JW: Yes, the wee yellow puppet? AB: Yes, and before that there were the perpperami animals, you might be too young for that, well they had these sausage characters ‘a bit of an animal’ and they became, I think they had peperami dolls and stuff, in the late 80s and early 90s and obviously the current one is the meerkats. JW:Yes AB: and now they are giving away the meerkats as toys and such. The trouble is, its like winning the lottery, if you told me, iv taken care of financial planning for the rest of my life, iv bought a lottery ticket, I would think you were an idiot. JW: Of Course. AB: And in a way, that’s the same with advertising, you cannot plan on, I mean you can try to get it, but you cannot rely on entering culture in that way JW: Yup, so you think it is something that they do perhaps try to do and that’s their ambition essentially? AB: Yes, but just like you hoping that you will win the jackpot, the chance are, you won’t. JW: yea AB: you know that. But you will certainly try. Anyway, I'm rambling, direct me! JW: So the next questions is, you were saying it does reflect certain areas of popular culture to be successful, do you think its possible to have a truly global campaign if popular culture does need to be taken into account for an advert to be successful? AB: Well I, don’t think it needs to be taken into account, I don’t think it’s a necessary. You can think of lots of companies that other than the fact that they are on telly have nothing to do with popular culture. BT campaign for example, or consumer products, butters.. em my mind goes blank when I think about specific campaigns. When campaigns are particularly reliant on, or creating images in, popular culture, most of us live in a weird, kinda ad world, JW: Almost middle ground essentially? AB: Well certainly its not.. It’s a good thing if you can do it, and it can be very powerful, but it’s just not a necessity, so you can… I’m trying to think of campaigns, global campaigns that have entered popular culture… One I can think of is the McDonalds ‘I’m loving it’ JW:Yes AB:With what’s his name? JW:Justin Timberlake
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AB: Yes that’s the one, all over the world, and annoyingly that present tense reportage of what you are doing, I mean, it has actually become a grammatical construction, you can find anywhere.. ‘How you doing?’ ‘Oh I’m loving this’. So that ‘I am current tensing this’, has become part of speech. Part of speech all over the world. Infact its probably more, used more outside the English speaking language because its kind of weird English, we tend to use it less, I suspect, I mean people do use it, but they use it less than in Germany or Japan, it feels like English so it’s glamorous, but you know… JW: It doesn’t need to make sense for them AB: Yes, I find it quite uncomfortable. It’s a weird bit of language isn’t it? JW: Yes, it is AB: It was created in Germany I think; so that explains why it is slightly off centre english JW: Yes, grammatically it doesn’t quite sit right AB: Yes, I mean technically I think its right, it just feels wrong. And that’s why people use it, I think they use it in an ironic sort of way – I hope for the most part. So I don’t think it’s absolutely necessary to have popular culture and I don’t think it necessarily stops you having a global campaign. JW: Ok, so next question, and probably the last one aswell, how much do you think advertising influences which celebrities, films, and we spoke about music to a certain extent, in terms of celebrities then, how much do you think advertising influences who is and who isn’t popular? AB: Em… I suspect… cause clearly stars have been made, I mean people very often, like the meerkats, flat Eric … well Jamie Oliver to some extent. Now he has had an interesting career, cause his career was, it kind of depended on the interaction between advertising and popular culture. He was in advertising initially because he was popular and part of popular culture, but the advertising made him more prominent and more famous, which reinforced his position in popular culture, which made him more attractive to the advertising, so for him, it was a virtuous circle of the interaction between the two. JW: Yes AB: … Can you ask the question again, I have forgotten what it was? JW: Yes of course, it was to do with how much influence advertising has over which celebrities are popular? AB:I think, generally, it can boost people. It is very rare that it creates celebrities. Its not that often that it creates them from scratch. Although I’m sure it has done, there are puppet type figures, but I’m sure there are people. I guess like the GO Compare: I think that mans got an album deal on the back of the GO Compare ads, JW: Which is surprising really isn’t it? AB:Yes, very! So you can see that advertising clearly can have an effect on popular culture, but I think it is very rare, fairly rare, it’s not the norm. It’s more normal for the reasons we discussed earlier that you don’t want to be wasting money in creating personalities when you can pick one off the shelf that has already been created and everyone understands. So it tends to take what is there and magnify it because you are working ‘with the grain’ then. JW:Yes AB: I mean, I’m thinking, well a lot of the characters that get created like the meerkats and go compare, they are, and I don’t think it a coincidence, in campaigns that get very very high repetition. Advertising campaigns… because advertising is so expensive, they are not as ‘heavy’ as they used to be, I mean it use to be that you would have a 600 rating burst, 6 times a year, and now people can only afford a 200 rating burst for the most part, so its much harder tot establish those sorts of people and figures, but there are some categories, and insurance is one of them, ringtones are another one, do you remember crazy frog? JW: yes AB: I mean one of the reasons that meerkats are so popular, is ok, it’s a great sweet idea, but it is repeated and repeated and repeated, far more than say Persil or coca-cola, or any of those conventional type advertisers, so I think certain categories lend themselves to it more than others. And I suspect its
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categories where you get the high repetition; you get the categories where without repetition you kind of tend to not get that cultural buzz, JW: yes, it doesn’t quite get embedded as much if it’s not on so often. AB: Yes JW: Well, that makes a lot of sense. Well I think that’s all the questions, there was a lot of smaller ones, but we have gone over them in the other answers. I really appreciate your time though AB: to be honest, I enjoy blethering, so … JW: It works for everyone then! AB:Yes… Conversation continues for a minute longer with Thanks and general chat. FORUM DISCUSSION TRANSCRIPT Available at: http://www.linkedin.com/groupItem?view=&gid=75040&type=member&item=51834480&qid=21aa057f-6665-46dd-8185-125659a91411&trk=group_items_see_more-0-b-ttl 19: LINKEDIN Does advertising shape, or simply reflect, popular culture and social trends?
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I am a postgraduate advertising student from Edinburgh currently writing my dissertation on this topic and would be very grateful for any comments or opinions on this question. Thanks! Mike Pascale • The simple answer is YES!It does both. I'd say the most memorable work influences/shapes and the common bulk only reflects. At least in my experience/opinion.Examples of the former: Apple, Google, old VW print, Coke's "Teach the World to Sing", Wendy's "Where's the Beef?", Lyndon Johnson's "Little Girl/A-bomb" ad, "Got Milk"?, Jay Ward's creations, and the American comic-book industry (the popular comic-book format began as a promotional giveaway).Doesn't have to be "good" either--just check out the Ron Popeil/Ronco spots, which had a huge effect on culture: the infomercial!The other influence is technical. Many popular techniques are first tried in commercials before Hollywood gets them (such as Exxon's "morphing" tiger spot, which influenced a lot of subsequent films). Directors like Ridley Scott often got their start in advertising before moving on to film and videos.I highly recommend the PBS special "Art & Copy" which is a marvelous history and addresses just what you're writing about. (It's a bit slow-moving, but the interviews with advertising legends and examples of their work & methods is worth the slog.)Hope that helps. Best of success, Jacqui!--Mike Jacqui Waugh • Thanks Mike! Thats a huge help, I do fully agree that there are elements of both arguments and your examples are a great place for me to look into. I'll check out the PBS special too. Thanks again, a great help! Jacqui
Mike Pascale • My pleasure, Jacqui! I wish you the best with your delightful dissertation. Paul E. Niemeyer • I was just going to say... "Depends on who's driving! And, even then, it's only as good as the nut behind the wheel!" But, then, Mike went all info dude, and made my post look like a dog act following the Beatles! Jump, Spot, jump! Karen Goldfarb • Ditto. I'll get my coat... Mike Pascale • LOL! Paul, your reply would at least have been a lot more entertaining...! Paul E. Niemeyer • This might be peripherally on subject, but what the hell. It's still a humble offering compared to the big brain spewings of Mr. Pascale ... On one of the artsy-fartsy cable channels I watch (I just know where they are on my menu, don't ask me the name...) I recently saw a show called "Lemonade". The show featured art directors/creatives who had put their hearts and souls into the ad business for 20+ years, only to be given their hat and shown the door when someone younger and cheaper came along. They turned to their artistic passions and came up with some really innovative and cutting edge ideas, as I recall. I wish I had seen the whole thing
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(only caught part of it before the kids, in a well planned remote control coup d'etat, put on some Disney dribble, forcing me to tactfully retreat to the relative safety of the man-cave-studio before my mind was turned to mush...). Loved the premise, and the passion it brought out in the participants!! Hence the name... Anyone have a handle on this show? Mike Pascale • Wow, what a great premise. Wish I could have watched it a decade ago! But anyway, here's the link: http://www.lemonademovie.com/ Sounds very cool.Thanks, Paul. Once again I owe you for your enlightening informational "edutainment"!Best, Mike Jacqui Waugh • Paul, you said "Depends on who's driving! And, even then, it's only as good as the nut behind the wheel!" and then about the 'Lemonade' movie about 'art directors/creatives who had put their hearts and souls into the ad business': do you mean that you think some creatives are coming up with some great creative ideas, and being pushed aside by people who are simply copying 'popular culture' and then being replaced by the younger ones doing this? I might be reading too much into your comment, but I'm interested in the idea that it depends on who is making the adverts! thanks! Raymond Rocan • Nothing to add except: Good post Jacqui - that lead to a great answer from Mike Pascale. Thanks for a good read. Paul E. Niemeyer • I believe that was fairly close what I was saying, Jacqui. Perceptively read. I had a client I worked for for a long time, and made considerable money off of over the years. He used to start every "creative" session by bringing in Annuals, CA magazine, Showcases, etc with post it notes marking the pages. He'd flip it open on the table and point at the design du jour and say "make THAT look fit OUR client", with never a moments thought toward being innovative. And, he was gigantically successful, and there was much rejoicing in the villages, but we all knew him for the copycat he was. We would sneak our own things into presentations, in the hopes that it might be picked... and , sometimes, it was! The business is full of imitators, overflowing with them (!!), but it's the rare individual that breaks the mold and cuts a new and daring path. They are the one's defining the cutting edge. As for the pushed aside thing... well, that's more about me being pissy about competing with people half my age!
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TV SHOWS
Advertising’s Greatest Hits Channel 4. Originally aired 2005, rewatched 25 June 2011.
The 100 Greatest TV Adverts Channel 4 and The Sunday Times, 29 April 2000.
IMAGE SOURCES IMAGE 1: TVA / MICKEY MOUSE – CINEMANIA http://zero-zed.blogspot.com/2007/10/cinemania.html IMAGE 2: TVA / MATRIX – CINEMANIA http://zero-zed.blogspot.com/2007/10/cinemania.html IMAGE 3: TVA / KILL BILL – CINEMANIA http://zero-zed.blogspot.com/2007/10/cinemania.html IMAGE 4: TVA / MARGE SIMPSON – CINEMANIA http://zero-zed.blogspot.com/2007/10/cinemania.html IMAGE 5: CHUPA CHUPS / BARBIE - DIGITAL MARMELADE http://www.digitalmarmelade.com/2010/08/et-maintenant-elle-suce/ IMAGE 6: TOP INTERIEUR / TETRIS – ADLAND http://adland.tv/content/tetris-visual-where-does-idea-go IMAGE 7: L’ILLA / MICHAEL JACKSON – INSPIRATION ROOM http://theinspirationroom.com/daily/2009/michael-jackson-accessories-are-everything/ IMAGE 8: MEGASTAR / JAWS – COLORIBUS http://www.coloribus.com/adsarchive/prints/megastar-cineplex-megastar-cimeplex-jaws-10111005/ IMAGE 9: MARANI EYEWEAR / HARRY POTTER – ADS OF THE WORLD http://adsoftheworld.com/media/outdoor/marani_eyewear_harry_potter IMAGE 10: TAIBA HOSPITAL / KERMIT THE FROG – COLORIBUS http://www.coloribus.com/adsarchive/prints/taiba-hospital-kermit-11403055/ IMAGE 11: MILK COUNCIL / GREEN LANTERN – FAMILY AFFAIRS http://www.familyaffairsandothermatters.com/green-lantern-tickets-250-spending-money/
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IMAGE 12: MILK COUNCIL / RONALD WEASLEY – ADRANTS http://www.adrants.com/2011/05/harry-potters-rupert-grint-dons-milk.php IMAGE 13: MILK COUNCIL /BATMAN – SEEKERS OF THE BAT http://seekersofthebat.com/tag/got-milk/ IMAGE 14: MILK COUNCIL / MARIO – I REALLY LIKE FOOD http://www.ireallylikefood.com/731374268/got-milk-my-20-favorite-campaign-faces/ IMAGE 15: MILK COUNCIL / SUPERMAN – WIZBANG POP http://wizbangpop.com/2006/04/18/supermans-milk-mustache.php IMAGE 16: MILK COUNCIL / AUSTIN POWERS – COOL SPOTTERS http://coolspotters.com/characters/austin-powers/photos_videos/746933#medium-746933 IMAGE 17: MILK COUNCIL / WOLVERINE – MAVRIX ONLINE http://mavrixonline.com/2009/04/16/got-milk-mutants/ IMAGE 18: MILK COUNCIL / A-TEAM – CAEBLOGS http://caeblogs.wordpress.com/2011/05/19/caeblogs-got-green-milk/batman-got-milk/ IMAGE 19: COMEX / SMURFS – ADVERTOLOG http://www.advertolog.com/comex/print-outdoor/smurf-blue-13329255/ IMAGE 20: COMEX / PINK PANTHER – ADVERTOLOG http://www.advertolog.com/comex/print-outdoor/panther-pink-13329155/ IMAGE 21: COMEX / GARFIELD – ADVERTOLOG http://www.advertolog.com/comex/print-outdoor/garfield-orange-13329205/ IMAGE 22: NIKE / X-MEN – ADPUNCH http://www.adpunch.org/entry/product-placements-in-comic-books/ IMAGE 23: COCA-COLA / SANTA CLAUS – DECK THE HOLIDAYS http://decktheholidays.blogspot.com/2010/11/yes-virginia-coca-cola-created-santa.html IMAGE 24: DIG FOR VICTORY – WOODLANDS JUNIOR http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/Homework/war/campaigns.htm IMAGE 25: CONSERVATIVE / JEDWARD - TELEGRAPH http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/x-factor/6632328/X-Factor-Conservatives-make-Jedward-jibe-at-Labour.html IMAGE 26: LABOUR / JEDWARD – MIRROR http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top-stories/2009/11/13/dave-n-george-in-jedward-ad-115875-21818106/ IMAGE 27: JULIA ROBERTS / CHRISTY TURLINGTON – STYLEFRIZZ http://stylefrizz.com/201107/julia-roberts-ad-banned-too-photoshopped/ IMAGE 28: FREIGHTLINER / HULK – TRENDHUNTER http://www.trendhunter.com/trends/man-of-steel-afraid-freighliner-trucks-make-even-superman-sweat-with-intimi IMAGE 29: FREIGHTLINER / SUPERMAN – TRENDHUNTER http://www.trendhunter.com/trends/man-of-steel-afraid-freighliner-trucks-make-even-superman-sweat-with-intimi IMAGE 30: FREIGHTLINER / STAR WARS – TRENDHUNTER http://www.trendhunter.com/trends/man-of-steel-afraid-freighliner-trucks-make-even-superman-sweat-with-intimi
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