17-19 May 2012 ICIB

Conference Proceedings

Edited by Aristidis Bitzenis

Vasileios A. Vlachos

Εργαστήριο Διεθνών Σχέσεων και Ευρωπαϊκής Ολοκλήρωσης του Πανεπιστημίου Μακεδονίας © 2013

International Conference on International Business

(www.icib.eu)

Thessaloniki, 17-19 May 2012

Proceedings edited by

Aristidis Bitzenis and

Vasileios A. Vlachos

© 2013 «Εργαστήριο Διεθνών Σχέσεων και Ευρωπαϊκής Ολοκλήρωσης του Πανεπιστημίου Μακεδονίας» Πανεπιστήμιο Μακεδονίας Οικονομικών και Κοινωνικών Επιστημών, Εγνατία 156, Τ.Κ. 54006, Θεσσαλονίκη. http://www.diethneis-sxeseis.gr Τμήμα Διεθνών και Ευρωπαϊκών Σπουδών Τηλ. 2310 891498 | Fax: 2310 891465 Μπιτζένης Π. Αριστείδης, Ph.D. ISBN 978-960-98740-4-5 ISSN 2241-5645 Απαγορεύεται η με οποιονδήποτε τρόπο αναπαραγωγή του συνόλου ή μέρους του παρόντος με οποιοδήποτε μέσο, μηχανικό, ηλεκτρονικό, φωτοτυπικό, ή άλλο, χωρίς την γραπτή άδεια του συγγραφέα, σύμφωνα με τον Νόμο 2121/1993 και τους κανόνες του Διεθνούς Δικαίου που ισχύουν στην Ελλάδα.

International Conference on International Business Chair Dr. Aristidis Bitzenis, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Heads of Scientific Committee Dr. Aristidis Bitzenis, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Dr. John Marangos, University of Crete (Rethymno, Greece). Head of Organizing Committee Dr. Aristidis Bitzenis, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Members of Organizing Committee Mr. Charisios Kafteranis, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Dr. John Marangos, University of Crete (Rethymno, Greece). Mr. Vasileios A. Vlachos, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Scientific Committee Members Dr. Evaghoras L. Evaghorou, University of Piraeus (Piraeus, Greece). Dr. Konstantinos Hazakis, Democritus University of Thrace (Komotini, Greece). Dr. Petia Koleva, University Paris Diderot (Paris, France). Dr. Ilias Kouskouvelis, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Dr. Eric Magnin, University Paris Diderot (Paris, France). Dr. Ioannis Papadopoulos, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Dr. Georgios Rizopoulos, University Paris Diderot (Paris, France). Dr. Bruno Sergi, University of Messina (Messina, Italy). Dr. Ioannis Tampakoudis, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Associated members Dr. Achilleas Anagnostopoulos, Technological Education Institute of Larissa (Larissa, Greece). Dr. Nikolaos Konstantopoulos, University of the Aegean (Chios, Greece). Ms. Christina Sakali, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece). Mr. Vasileios A.Vlachos, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece).

Organizers Department of International and European Studies, University of

Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece).

International Relations and European Integration Laboratory, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki, Greece).

Department of International and European Studies, University of Piraeus (Piraeus, Greece).

European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Thessaloniki, Greece).

Faculty of Political Science, University of Messina (Messina, Italy).

UMR LADYSS, University Paris Diderot (Paris, France).

School of Business and Economics, Winston-Salem State University (Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA).

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Contents page Preface 7 SESSION 1: POLICY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION How dirty can the PIGS get? Formatting a contemporary social welfare state under economic crisis. 8

Examining the linkages between growth and sustainable development in the eurozone. 37

Reinforcing EU law: The opportunity of a unique European tax. 38

H ελληνική κρίση και η κρίση του συστήματος διακυβέρνησης της ευρωζώνης 45

SESSION 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY Intelligence and IR theory: The cases of covert action and economic espionage 65

Ahmet Davutoğlu's strategic depth in the light of international relations theory. 81

Energy diplomacy as a tool of foreign policy: A theoretical approach. 89

SESSION 3: CAPITALISM Capitalism in transition – Old and new issues. 98 Determinants and types of capital movements in the global economic crisis 109

Emigrants’ remittances and economic growth in small transition economies: The cases of Moldova and Albania. 129

The development ethics alternative to neoliberal capitalism. 130

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SESSION 4: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY & METHODOLOGY

Studying international relations at the systemic level. 144 Βαλκανικά επιστημονικά μονοπάτια; Δύο παραδείγματα της διεθνολογίας της περιφέρειας. 156

Here and there in international relations theory. 165 O πολιτικός χαρακτήρας της επιβίωσης – και ορισμένες επιστημολογικές συνέπειες. 178

SESSION 5: EUROPEAN UNION Is the European Union moving towards a fiscal union? 180 E-commerce in international and European Union law: The policy of the European Union on digital agenda and strategy 2020.

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Applying a comprehensive approach to international crisis management: the case of EEAS. 214

Regulatory governance of public finances: The Greek case in the EU context. 215

SESSION 6: NEW TECHNOLOGY Δελφική ιεραρχική προσέγγιση: Μία μεθοδολογία για την επίλυση των προβλημάτων αξιολόγησης της ποιότητας της εταιρικής διακυβέρνησης.

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Ηλεκτρονικό εμπόριο στην παγκόσμια οικονομία. 218 Ηλεκτρονική διακυβέρνηση κοινωνικών υπηρεσιών: Η περίπτωση των γραφείων κοινωνικής εξυπηρέτησης. 224

Cosmetics’ companies, e-commerce and social media in Greece. 225

SESSION 7: FDI & ENTREPRENEURSHIP Gearing entrepreneurial ventures for success: The hybrid model of a Finnish startup accelerator. 241

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An exploration of FDI determinants in central and eastern Europe during the global economic crisis. 243

Do FDIs enhance growth in central eastern European economies? Evidence from panel cointegration analysis. 263

Bulgaria’s inward FDI and EU accession. 264

SESSION 8: INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY Η διεθνής πολιτική οικονομία της ελληνικής οικονομικής κρίσης: Ο μηχανισμός πρόκλησης της κρίσης. 265

Η πολιτική και θεσμική ανάπτυξη στην Ελλάδα και η ελληνική κρίση. 286

Διεθνής πολιτική οικονομία της τεχνητής νοημοσύνης – ρομποτικής. 288

Εκπαίδευση και μισθολογικές ανισότητες στην Ελλάδα. 294 Ο ρόλος των BRICs στους διεθνείς οικονομικούς οργανισμούς 295

SESSION 9: ENTREPRENEURSHIP & ECONOMIC GROWTH Establishing sustainable entrepreneurial learning networks: A longitudinal study. 316

Operational barriers and corruptibility of Greek firms: Evidence at the sub-sectoral level. 317

Modeling economic growth policy interaction with local government reform: Evidence from eastern Macedonia and Thrace.

318

The impact of local government institutional reform on regional economic development: Α normative game approach.

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Entrepreneurship in Greece: a way out of the crisis or a dive in? 328

SESSION 10: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

How can CSR contribute to sustainable development? A mesoeconomic perspective. 329

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The institutional determinants of MNCs’ corruption practices. 330

Diversity of capitalism and sustainable development: from institutional arrangements to business models. 331

Corporate social responsibility in central and eastern Europe: between imported and local models. 332

SESSION 11: INDONESIA Managerial decisions in the garment industry. 333 The relationship between customer satisfaction and company profitability in Indonesian minimarket. 353

Adoption of environmental strategy: Case of big hotels in west Sumatra, Indonesia. 354

The form of entrepreneurial orientation and innovation: A case study of Indonesian SMEs. 378

SESSION 12: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Revisiting trust at the later stages of international joint ventures: The role of longevity, interdependence and risk of opportunism.

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Predicting seaweed selling price with data mining. 398 The changing of consumer shopping pattern in Indonesian retail. 400

Greek direct investments in Turkey: a questionnaire survey of the incentives and entry barriers. 401

SESSION 13: BANKING INSTITUTIONS AND EMPLOYMENT A decision-tree induction approach to assessing comparatively the performance of non-banking financial institutions in Romania

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Corporate environmental responsibility. The business case for the banking sector in Bulgaria. 416

The public expenditures on labour market programmes in a pre-crisis period: The case of Greece. 417

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Quality of institutions and integration in the world economy: Applied study on Egypt. 425

The applicability of the high performance organisation framework in Africa: the case of financial institutions in Uganda.

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SESSION 14: EDUCATION Η πανεπιστημιακή έρευνα ως «εφαλτήριο» ανάπτυξης των μικρομεσαίων επιχειρήσεων. 445

Training university students on entrepreneurship via virtual platforms: The case of technical university of Crete. 460

Languages for business and employability. 462 Internationalization of higher education: challenges and opportunities for Greek higher education in a time of crisis. 463

Ο θεσμός της χρηματοδοτικής μίσθωση (leasing) στην ελληνική οικονομία: Ζητήματα που προκύπτουν κατά την εφαρμογή του.

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Ιχνηλατώντας τις θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις της ετερόδοξης πολιτικής οικονομίας στην ανάλυση του φαινομένου των παραγώγων χρηματοοικονομικών προϊόντων.

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TELECONFERENCE SESSION 1 School to work transition in Saudi Arabia: a case study of youth cohorts. 493

Theoretical perspective of social entrepreneurship: A study of determinants of social entrepreneurship in the context of Saudi Arabia.

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Testing the viability of bankruptcy in petro-chemical industries in Saudi Arabia. 523

The predictability patterns in Saudi stock market. 532 The financial globalisation and its after effects. 540

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TELECONFERENCE SESSION 2 Comparative study of the main determinants of domestic migration in Romania and Spain. 549

Should corporate tax in Europe be treated as shelter or as liability? 574

Management practices in small tourism enterprises. 576 Organizational changes in small enterprises and the key role of strategic choices: The Greek case. 586

The use of e-commerce in Greek tourism enterprises. 594 Intra-organizational development strategies of SMEs. 602

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Dr. Foteini Asderaki Lecturer,

Department of International and European Studies University of Piraeus

80, Karaoli and Dimitriou Str., 185 34 Piraeus

GREECE e-mail: asderaki@unipi.gr

Internationalization of higher education: challenges and opportunities for Greek higher education in a time of crisis

Abstract Crisis is a Greek word which refers to a turning point in a disease, used as such by Hippocrates. It implies that players are at a turning point and should take crucial decisions under a condition of deep uncertainty. Crisis, like Janus has two faces, the first linked with “threat” and the second with “opportunity”. As Greece faces the deepest economic crisis after the Word War II the cut of public spending for higher education could be perceived as a “threat”. However, this negative aspect could also motivate higher education institutions to seek for a way out through the elaboration of an Internationalization policy. Internationalization is a considerable part of the modern higher education policy agenda at global, regional, national and institutional level. In Greece, although some measures have been taken, there is neither a national nor an institutional strategy towards internationalization although some institutions face the risk of closure. The main purpose of this study is to explore challenges and opportunities for the development of a dynamic and coherent internationalization policy in Greek higher education in a time of crisis. Key words Internationalization, Greek higher education, higher education institutions, crisis, threat, opportunity

1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose of the Study

Internationalization is an important axis of higher education strategies. Reputation, visibility and attractiveness of higher education systems are linked with cultural aspects and the “soft power” of nation states. However, nowadays, the economic dimension of internationalization is at the spotlight, dominating the discourse. Its importance became greater after the inclusion of higher education services under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) regime and the creation of a “quasi market” for higher education services worldwide. The “new face” of internationalization includes a tremendous expansion towards the “digitalisation” of higher education that means the development of “digital universities” and online programmes (Asderaki and Mamakou, 2012, Brown and Day, 2011). Hence, internationalization strategies are mainly focused on mobility of

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students and higher education services through the mobility of institutions and programmes.

The Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) figures show that the expansion rate of international students has almost doubled between 1995 and 2008 thus creating major opportunities for countries and institutions. In particular, the Anglo-Saxons countries (i.e. USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand) -especially after the establishment of the English language as an international one- have developed offensive internationalization strategies in order to attract more and more foreign students. However, some other countries seem to develop proactive marketing and internationalization policies aiming for a piece of this growing global pie. All these activities involve not only governments and higher education institutions but also a variety of actors such as promotion agencies, private corporations and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) enterprises. At the European level the new agenda for the modernization of Europe's higher education systems suggests that a specific strategy for the internationalization of higher education should be elaborated. This agenda is supported by the creation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) which along with the European Research Area (ERA) and various programmes enhances students’, researchers’ and programmes’ mobility.

As the economic importance and the demand for higher education rise, and universities are seen as economic drivers for growth and development they have to behave as ‘market players’ within a competitive global market. Moreover, as states are experiencing severe budget shortfalls due to the economic crisis, both governments and institutions have to develop marketing policies and act as hunters for fee-paying international students and new sources of revenue (WTO, 2010). In Greece, although some measures have been taken, there is not a national or institutional strategy towards internationalization while at the same time some higher education institutions (HEIs) face the risk of closure. The main purpose of this study is to explore challenges and opportunities for the development of a dynamic and coherent internationalization policy of higher education in Greece. 1.2 Research Question

The main research question of this policy paper is how Greek HEIs could exploit their potential in order to survive through the current economic crisis and at the same time to contribute to the economic recovery of the country by means of the development of an internationalization policy. 1.3 Structure of the paper and methodology

This paper has the following structure: at the beginning the internationalization of higher education and its economic benefit are discussed; the strong European interest in the ‘brain business’ is also pointed out; a definition of the “crisis” and its multidimensional consequences in Greek society and economy are following. Then the “crisis” in higher education is explored at its three fold meaning (as a relation, an identity and an economic crisis); the consequences of the financial crisis on higher education are questioned if perceived as a “threat” or as an

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“opportunity”. Finally, the challenges and opportunities for the development of a dynamic and coherent internationalization policy in Greece are examined.

The study follows a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis of the Greek higher education system towards internationalization. Strengths and weaknesses of the system at the national and the institutional level are highlighted. Moreover, taking into consideration the exogenous factors stemming from the current crisis opportunities and threats for both the system and the institutions are presented. In the end the author makes some recommendations in order some deficiencies to be addressed. 1.4 Literature Review

Many scholars have studied the internationalization of higher education (Altbach, 2001; Stier, 2002; Altbach and Knight, 2006; Brandenburg and De Wit, 2012; De Wit, 2010; Teichler, 2008; 2009) though a few refer to the internationalization of the Greek higher education (Kontogiannopoulou-Polydorides et al. 2005; Asderaki and Mamakou, 2012; Asderaki and Maragos 2012). The implications of the economic crisis on higher education is the main issue in recent articles and reports of various International Organizations and European Associations (EUA, 2010; ESU 2010; UNESCO, 2009; World Bank, 2009; Varghese, 2009). This paper intends to contribute to this literature focusing on challenges put by internationalization of higher education policies with a special reference to the Greek case. 2. Internationalization of Higher Education 2.1 Higher education internationalization policy to the spotlight

Internationalization of higher education has become an issue of the European discourse since the mid 1980s but in fact it came to the spotlight during the 1990s (deWit, 1995; Knight and deWit, 1999). At mid-1990s the new term ‘globalization of higher education’ also emerged (Scott, 1998; Sadlak, 2001; Enders and Fulton, 2002), causing a lot of confusion between scholars (Altbach, 2004; Van Vaught et al., 2002). Since then the meaning of internationalization became broader and blurred and its rational was reconsidered several times (de Wit, 2000; 2002; Knight, 2004; Wächter, 2008). This is due to major global changes that took place which facilitated the circulation of persons and services linked with ICTs and transportation developments as well as the establishment of global markets that caused or followed the deregulation of several public policy sectors. Higher education is one of the sectors that were affected by these global developments. Its services became a controversial issue during the GATS negotiations and mobility of students, programmes and educational material became the object of marketing policies (Asderaki, 2008a, pp. 267-362). As universities became more and more “entrepreneurial” internationalization policies have been developed as a tool for fund raising.

According to Teichler “internationalization is generally defined as increasing cross-border activities amidst persistence of borders, while ‘globalization’ refers to similar activities concurrent to an erosion of borders”

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(Teichler, 2009). Teichler stresses that ‘internationalization’ means that national and institutional actors and policies “continue to play a prominent role” while “globalization puts the emphasis on market mechanisms and global players” (Teichler, 2008, p.364).

In this paper the term “internationalization” is used instead of the term “globalization mainly for two reasons. Firstly, it takes into consideration the existence of diversity and particularities of higher education systems for the cross-borders activities. Secondly, it puts the emphasis of policy making and implementation to the actors belonging to the formal education system like governments, agencies and HEIs rather than other for-profit providers (i.e. off-shore companies). Moreover, the term ‘globalisation’ puts the emphasis to the economic aspect which is not the unique reason behind the development of internationalization strategies. Some governments develop internationalization policies for higher education not only for the economic benefits but also as part of their foreign policy and the increase of their “soft power” (i.e. USA, UK, France, Germany, Turkey). For the latter various national agencies and institutes (Fulbright Foundation, British Council, Institut Francais, DAAD) promote both the HEIs and study courses as well as the national culture abroad.

However, as the economic importance of the higher education sector and the demand for higher education rise, national actors need to act as ‘market players’. Consequently, internationalization policies and strategies with concrete aims are elaborated at national and institutional level. These strategies go beyond the idea of international activities (Knight 2004, p.13) and are oriented more and more to for-profits activities. As states are experiencing severe budget shortfalls due to the economic crisis, both governments and institutions have to develop marketing policies and act as hunters for fee-paying international students and new sources of revenue (WTO, 2010, p.6). As Jane Knight (2004, p.5) aptly mentions “internationalization is changing the world of higher education and globalization is changing the world of internationalization”. Recently, a “new face” of internationalization (term quoted by Brown and Day, 2011) has been emerged and linked with the new modes of delivery of higher education through online courses, the new kind of “learners” (i.e. Generation Y) and the emergence of the “digital university” in a global web interconnected world (Asderaki and Mamakou, 2012). 2.2 The economics of internationalization: the “brain business” 2.2.1. Higher education, a growing economic sector

Internationalization has become a substantial part of the modern higher education policy agenda at global, regional, national and institutional level. One of the main reasons is the increasing economic importance of higher education which became a dynamic export sector for some countries (i.e. New Zealand, Australia, U.K., U.S.). According to the World Bank the ‘brain business’, namely the global spending on higher education, amounted in 2005 up to $300 billion a year, or 1% of global economic output (Economist, 2005). UNESCO reports that there is a strong demand for higher education: 177 million tertiary students have been enrolled around the world in 2010, an increase of 77% since 2000 (OECD, 2012). The most

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increased enrolment rate is observed in developing countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa (Teixeira, 2009, p. 239). OECD estimates that “an average of 62% of today’s young adults in OECD countries will enter tertiary-type A (largely theory-based) programmes over their lifetimes, and 49% before the age of 25” (OECD, 2012).

Following OECD (2012, p. 362) definition, international students are those “who have moved from their country of origin with the purpose of studying” while foreign students are those who are not citizens of the country where they are enrolled but may, be long-term residents or have been born in the country”. According to the same source (see table 1) Luxembourg and its newly established university has the largest percentage of enrolled international students followed by Australia, U.K, Austria, Switzerland and New Zealand while France, the Czech Republic, South Africa and Greece have a relevant high percentage of foreign students. Table 1:

Source: OECD, 2012, p.368, Chart C4.4. Year of reference 2009

As far as mobility of international students is concerned the OECD and UNESCO Institute for Statistics found that there is a dramatic growth in foreign enrolments during the past three decades from 0.8 million international students worldwide in 1975 to 4.1 million in 2010 – a five-fold increase (OECD, 2012, p.360). The Global Student Mobility 2025 Report in 2002 predicted that the demand for international education will increase to 7.2 million students in 2025 (IDP, 2002). Students from Asia -mostly from China, India and Korea- constitute the largest group (52%) of all students studying abroad (OECD, ibid).

The major destinations of all foreign students worldwide in 2010 are by far the United States (17%) and the United Kingdom (13%) (OECD, 2012, p. 363). Australia (7%), Germany (6%), France (6%) and Canada (5%) follow. Australia, Korea, New Zealand and the Russian Federation seem to develop proactive marketing internationalization policies. However, some other countries like Malaysia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Singapore, Cyprus, Turkey are trying to

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attract world known institutions and become also international students’ destinations.

An important feature of international education is the increasing mobility of programs (i.e. ‘virtual learning mobility’, joint/twinning programmes) and institutions (i.e. branch campuses, franchise institutions, joint ventures). Although comparable data, according to a WTO (2010) report do not exist yet, some studies show that the vast of this kind of mobility is observed in Asia and the main providers are institutions from U.K., Australia and the U.S. Recently, free online courses delivered by world class universities such as Stanford, MIT, Harvard, Yale as part of their internationalization strategy inaugurate “the golden age of online education” (Asderaki and Mamakou, 2012). All these activities involve not only governments and higher education institutions but also a variety of actors such as promotion agencies, private corporations and ICT enterprises.

In U.S. internationalization policies are in the core of institutional culture. In Europe, these policies are usually part of a national governmental strategy and since 1999/2000 have become also part of the Bologna Process. In the new agenda for the modernization of Europe's higher education systems, the Commission stressed that a specific strategy for the internationalization of higher education will be elaborated. 2.2.2 A strong European interest in the ‘brain business’

Internationalization of higher education is enhanced in Europe by the creation of the European Higher Education Area through the Bologna Process. EHEA in conjunction with the ERA became the drivers for the encouragement of cross-border activities and inter-institutional synergies that lead to: the evolution of the ‘knowledge alliances’; the development of joint programmes; the promotion of geographical and inter and trans-sectoral mobility of students, academics, researchers and knowledge (the ‘fifth freedom’) [Asderaki and Maragos, 2012]. The Erasmus Programme along with the 7th Framework Programme are the flagships of these policies which mainly promote the European dimension of internationalization (intra-European mobility), while the Tempus Programme (Tacis/Cards/Meda) and the Erasmus Mundus Programme support mobility from third countries (external mobility) [ibid]. Moreover, several bilateral programs, run by different Commissions’ Directorates, promote internationalization of the European HEIs and contribute to the attraction of international students (i.e. EU-U.S. Atlantis programme, EU-Canada, EU-Australia, EU-India, EDU Link, Asia-Link, EU-Korea Cooperation, EU- Japan, EU-New Zealand) [ibid]. All the above programmes will be included in the Erasmus for All programme (2014-2020) for education and the Horizon programme (2014-2020) for research respectively.

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Europe, as a whole is a net receiver of international students. According to OECD, Europe is the top destination of all international students (41%) far ahead from North America (21%) (OECD, 2012 p. 361). These flows are mainly intra-regional flows. As analytical data show 76% of students come from the other twenty one European OECD countries (EU21) [ibid, p.363]. Even so, in the EU21 “there were 2.7 foreign students per each European citizen enrolled abroad”. The European Commission estimates that the number of non-EU students has been doubled during 2000-8 -from less than 500,000 to almost 1 million- while students from India and China grew six-fold at the same period (EC, 2011b, pp. 51-53). At the same time U.S. lost almost 6% of its share during the last decade (from 23% to 17%). Nevertheless, U.S. remains the preferable destination for Chinese students.

The European Commission is more than interested in the ‘brain business’. In the new agenda for the modernization of Europe's higher education systems, the Commission stresses that “a specific strategy for the internationalization of higher education will be elaborated” (EC, 2011a, p. 14). Brazil, Russia, India, China (BRICs) are seen as new competitors into the global market place for higher education (EC, 2011b, p. 51); the ‘market share’ on foreign student flows is examined compared with the main Europe’s competitors (ibid, p.53). However, OECD indicates that there is a strong competition stemming from Latin America and the Caribbean, Oceania and Asia, due to the internationalization of HEIs of these regions (OECD, 2012, p.361). 3. Higher Education through crisis 3.1 Crisis’ definition

According to Boin and Rhinard (2008, p.3) a crisis is defined “as a threat to core-values or life-sustaining systems, which requires an urgent response under

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condition of deep uncertainty”. The political leaders should take critical decisions in order to respond to these challenges. They have to restore legitimacy or handle the “new order” while they face tragic dilemmas stemming from reversal and uncertainty (ibid). One of the most difficult tasks is to handle “change”, especially when this change is associated with reductions of acquired rights, privileges and attitudes. The higher education sector is often seen as a one that resists change. Nowadays, the reduction of rights and privileges in higher education that were granted by the welfare state in the postwar Europe fuels institutional and social reactions.

Another characteristic of the current economic crisis is that it includes ‘‘transboundary threats’’ and a “domino effect” or a “snowball effect” (Boin and Rhinard 2008, p.4). The “domino effect” refers to the geographical diffusion of the crisis from country to country (geographical dimension) as well as the functional one from the one economic sector to the other (functional dimension). Thus, the suffering of higher education is treated as a side effect both of the reduction of public spending and the downgrading of enterprises’ and households’ income. Is this totally true or is there a strong need for major changes in higher education notably in Greece? 3.2. Financial crisis and its multidimensional consequences in Greek society and economy

The financial crisis heated Greece in 2009. The austerity programme has been adopted by the Greek government since 2010 and supervised by the so called ‘troika’ (representatives from the International Monetary Fund, the European Commission and the European Central Bank) set several conditions and borrowing terms such as the cut of public spending in various sectors (i.e. health, pensions, education), the reduction of the labor cost, tax increase, the implementation of structural reforms etc. However, while the financial measures have a direct application, the structural changes take too long to be implemented.

Three years later as the European Commission reports “Greece is going through an economic and social crisis which is unprecedented in Europe in modern times” (EC, 2012). The recession is almost -6% in 2012, unemployment is extremely high up to 25.1% in July 2012 (compared with 17.8% in July 2011) and youth unemployment has increased dramatically (up to 54%). Greek population is threatened by poverty since the country has the highest percentage of poor and socially excluded (27.7% namely 3.03 million people) in the EU-27 countries, after Bulgaria, Romania, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary and Poland.500 However, Greece concluded a significant reduction in the general government deficit from 15.8 % of GDP in 2009 to 9.1 % in 2011. 3.3 Higher Education through “crisis” in Europe

Higher education went through at least three types of crises during the last decades in Europe: a relation, an identity and recently an economic crisis. Τhe relation crisis, as explained below, began in the early 1980s. The identity crisis took

500 Data provided by the Hellenic Statistical Authority and Eurostat

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place after the collapse of the bipolar international system, the establishment of globalised trade relations and the emergence of the knowledge economy. The European reaction to globalisation was the establishment of a pan European intergovernmental and transnational cooperation (Bologna Process) which brought major reforms in European higher education systems. Similar regional attempts worldwide, nevertheless not so successive is the ENLACES in Latin America, the harmonization strategy in the African Union and the Brisbane Communiqué initiative in the Asia-Pacific region (Altbach et al. 2009). The third phase is affected by the current economic crisis and in particular the Eurozone debt-crisis. 3.3.1. A relation crisis

The relation crisis refers to the transformation of the relations between the HEIs and the state, the society and the stakeholders involved in higher education. The relation crisis between the HEIs and the nation-state was emerged during the 1980s as a consequence of the erosion of the welfare state in Europe (Brown et al. 1996). During these years of “eurosceptisism” the member states passed through a severe economic crisis as a consequence of the oil crises (1973, 1979) and the lost of their competitiveness in comparison with U.S., Japan and the emerged Asian ‘tigers’ (Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore). Thus, while higher education was in a transformation itself from “elitist” to “mass” education, at the same time, it had to face less financial public resources. The ‘evaluative state’ which ‘steered at a distance’ succeeded the welfare state (Neave and Van Vught 1991, Goedegebuure et al 1993), enhanced HEIs autonomy, focused on efficiency and accountability and encouraged the development of the ‘Entrepreneurial University’ which could attract its own resources (Clark 1998a, b, Slaughter 1997, Rinne and Koivula 2005). During the nineties, the globalization’s effects and the modification of higher education within the GATS promoted even more this market-oriented mentality. Competition not only for academic achievements but also for funding and international students became an integral part of institutions’ life. As a consequence, HEIs – society relations were disrupted since institutions and academics became funding ‘seekers’ and students became ‘clients’ instead of ‘learners’. In addition, the relation between academics and stakeholders became a problematic one since the latter ‘invade’ in higher education governance structure and evaluation processes. Stakeholders participate in governing boards which share competences with academic senates as well as in quality assurance agencies. 3.3.2. An identity crisis

During the last decades universities passed through an “identity crisis”. Promoting academic teaching and research is not universities’ exclusive mission anymore and their activities are no longer restrained by local or national borders. The universities also have to contribute to the economic growth and sustainable development; to prepare individuals for the labour market; to contribute to the upgrading of human resources through lifelong learning programmes; to enhance research and knowledge transfer to the economy; to attract international students and public and private investments; to respond to global challenges, networking and the request for excellence (EC, 2006).

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In order to fulfil these multiple tasks the New Public Management rationale has been adopted in several countries. Governments introduce laws that promote management instead of academic governance, which include goal-setting, measurement (inputs and outputs), performance (benchmarks and indicators), accountability and self-evaluation processes (Talib, 2003). At the European level the motto “think public and act private” is advertised by the European Commission (2006). In addition, rankings and league tables put some extra pressure on HEIs which have to prove their excellence and enjoy a global visibility. 3.3.3. An economic crisis

The current economic crisis started in USA in 2008 by the banking sector and was rapidly spread to Europe and to all sectors of the economy. As Varghese (2009) points out although the crisis started from the developed countries it spreads to both middle- and low-income countries (also World Bank, 2008). The economic crisis is mainly seen as a “threat” for higher education sector. Its negative implications are observed more or less in several countries and different regions of the world. Some of them are: the reduction of public and private funding (by governments, enterprises, households), the shortage of loans due of the collapse of the banking system, the lack of scholarships, the reduction of new student entrants positions, the cut of the academic staff seats, the freeze of the wages of the academic and administrative staff, the downgrade of quality and student support, young graduates’ unemployment, migration of high skilled personnel and brain-drain. The economic crisis and its consequences in higher education have been studied by International Organizations (IOs) and European associations (UNESCO 2009, World Bank 2009, European Student Union 2010 EUA 2011).

In Europe, the economic crisis affected higher education in almost every country independently of its participation to the Eurozone. Ireland, the ‘Celtic tiger’ and a member of Eurozone, was one of the first countries which were affected by the economic crisis. The international rescue package worth eighty five billion euros stemming from the European Union member states and the International Monetary Fund (22.5 billion) was approved in 2010. However, the National Recovery Plan predicted savings amounting to nine percent of GDP for the period 2011-14, the two-thirds of which would be achieved by reducing public expenditures.501 A more than nine per cent (-9, 4%) cut of public funding in higher education in 2010 was followed by an extra seven per cent (-7%) cut of universities’ subsidies in 2011 (EUA 2011). Latvia, the ‘Baltic tiger’ with a nine per cent growth in 2000-07 faced a severe economic problem in 2009. Even if the country received an international support package of 7,5 billions euros, higher education lost a forty eight percent (-48%) cut of public funding in 2009 and an extra reduction of eighteen per cent (-18%) in 2010 while IMF and WB put pressure for structural reforms (EUA 2011). Higher education has also suffered from major budget cuts in the United Kingdom (-40% of public spending for higher education till 2015) and

501 Data provided by the IMF website http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2010/car121610a.htm (available at 15 March 2012).

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Italy (-20% by 2013). Only in a few countries like France or Germany public spending for higher education has been increased. 4. The economic crisis and its implication on Greek higher education 4.1. The Greek higher education system

Higher education in Greece is provided, according to the Constitution by fully self-governed, legal entities under public law (Article 16 par 5) which are supervised by the Ministry of Education, Religious Affairs, Culture and Sports. Establishment of private higher education institutions is strictly forbidden (Article 16, par 8). Higher education is comprised by two parallel sectors, the university and the technological sector (Kyriazis and Asderaki, 2008). Nowadays, there are twenty three public universities and the School of Fine Arts that compose the university sector and 15 Technological Educational Institutions (TEIs) along with the School of Pedagogical and Technological Education that constitute the technological sector. The expansion of Greek higher education started during the ’80s following a regional approach. This means that universities and TEIs were founded within a region and their faculties or departments were spread in the capitals of the prefectures or other cities (i.e. University of Thrace, University of Macedonia, University of Aegean, TEI of Crete, TEI of Ionian Islands, etc). The International Hellenic University located in Thessaloniki was founded in 2005 in order to attract international students from South East Europe and across the world.

The enrollment rate in higher education for 2012 reached sixty nine per cent (2012: 69%; 2001:62%) of upper high school graduates. The entrance system is centrally regulated, organized and supervised by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry also defines, on an annual basis, the new student positions after a consultation with higher education institutions. Still the demand is so high that Greece is an exporter of students towards U.K., Germany Italy, France, Cyprus, Bulgaria and Romania. Admission to a particular department is the result of the combination of students’ achieved grades and registered preferences of all candidate students. The main criterion for students’ preferences used to be employability ensured by the awarded bachelor’s degree (Asderaki, 2010). Recently, students’ preferences have been influenced by the institution’s distance from the place of abode and the accommodation expenses. Anyhow, HEIs are not involved in the selection procedure for the undergraduate students, so with few exceptions, they do not develop strategies in order to attract the most qualified students. The total number of students for the academic year 2010-11 was 587,245. Nevertheless, 220,211 students are out of their proper year of study since the system allowed this possibility (ADIP, 2011). A set of laws is trying to rationalize the period of stay within higher education and eliminate this phenomenon.

Greek higher education is mainly public-funded based on the notion that “Education constitutes a basic mission for the State” (Hellenic Constitution, Article 16 par 2). All undergraduate study programmes are free of charge.502 The majority of post-graduate programmes are also free of charge as well as the doctoral

502 With the exception of the programmes of the Open University.

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programmes. Students used to enjoy several benefits (healthcare, scholarships, interest free loans, free accommodation and board or a housing grant, depending on their income, free text books, reduced ticket prices for means of transport, theatres, cinemas, etc). All the above are under consideration due to major cuts in public spending. According to Eurostat data (2008) Greece is the country with the highest participation of public HE funding with a percentage of over 98% (EE-25: 82.8%), whereas household contribution is almost minimal (EU-25: 12.1%) and private funding is below 1% (EU-25: 5.1%). Professors according to the Constitution are public functionaries while the administrative staffs of HEIs are civil servants.503 Till 2011, Professors were ranked in four grades (Professors, Associate Professors, Assistant Professors, and Lecturers). Law 4009/2011 abolishes the introductory grade of the Lecturers.

Until recently there was no link between state funding and any performance indicator. Moreover, there were many regulative obstacles that restrained HEIs’ funding from other resources. Recent laws which reform the institutional framework and the structure of HEIs (Law 3549/2007, Article 19, Law 4009/2011 Article 63 para 2, Law 4076/2012) introduce the social accountability rationale for HEIs. This process assess higher education’s efficiency under certain measurement according to the achievements of goals, however as the Hellenic Quality Assurance Agency reports, “still there is no clear linkage between extra (state) funding and performance” (ADIP, 2011). Moreover, the new framework actually encourages HEIs to find supplementary financial resources. 4.1.1. Weakness and deficiencies of the Greek higher education system towards internationalization

Greek higher education system was till the end of 1990s rather introvert than internationally oriented. Some university and TEI departments developed a range of cooperative activities with foreign institutions, mainly due to the active participation and the personal relations of their academic and administrative staff, rather than to any concrete institutional strategy or state motivation (Asderaki, 2008b). The participation of Greece in the Bologna Process in 1999 provided an opportunity for national reforms in higher education sector. The inter-university cooperation was enhanced across Europe due to the harmonisation of higher education structure and the establishment of common principles for quality assurance and recognition of degrees. In addition, the expansion of European programmes offered to HEIs the “windows of opportunity” for improved inter-university relations and mobility of students and staff.

However, the Bologna Process was treated with skepticism and suspicion as the unanimous statement of the 37th Session of the Rectors’ Conference (Olympia 10-11 November 2000) demonstrates. Most of the Bologna reforms were

503 The total number of academic staff was 10,430 within universities and 2,115 within TEIs. There were also teachers under a contractual status 2,628 for universities and 8,767 for TEIs. See the Annual Report of The Hellenic Quality Assurance Agency (2010-2011) available at http://www.hqaa.gr/ (retrieved on 20.3.2011).

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introduced in Greece after 2005 (Asderaki, 2011). In 2005 a quality assurance system was launched nevertheless its implementation is a rather slow process. Many difficulties also appeared with the implementation of various European tools such as the European Transfer Credit System (ECTS) and the award of the Diploma Supplement (DS) although their application was obligatory by law. Moreover, the only language of instruction within the study programmes was Greek and the use of any other language was not allowed by the law. A positive evolution, due to Erasmus Mundus Programme, was the adoption of laws that regulated joint postgraduate and doctoral programmes with foreign HEIs and the allowance of the use of a foreign language as a language of instruction of a joint programme.

For many years the European programmes were the main elements for HEIs’ internationalization. However, their implementation was assigned to the Ministry or several decentralized bodies (i.e. the State Scholarship Foundation, the National Youth Foundation, the Organization for Vocational Training) which, in many cases, did not coordinate their actions (Asderaki, 2011). The institutional deficiencies within the Ministry, the various agencies and the HEIs and the lack of information and substantive support for the completion of the rather complex applications for the EU programmes discouraged Greek academics to apply. A relevant lack of coordination and information also applied within the HEIs and in particular within faculties and departments that were spread in various cities of a region. 4.1.2. Strengths of Greek higher education system towards internationalization

Just before the crisis Greece spent 1.46 per cent of GDP (2008) for higher education but only 0.58 per cent GERD for research funding. Public funding supports the free-of charge system and facilitates student’ access in higher education. According to the Global Competitiveness Index issued by the World Economic Forum 2012 Greece is ranked 27th in EU-27, and slipped from the 83rd place to 90th globally in terms of competitiveness. However, looking at the fifth pillar which refers to higher education and training Greece holds the third position worldwide as far as tertiary education enrolment gross percentage is concerned. As the report refers “Greece has a number of strengths to build upon, including a reasonably well educated workforce that is adept at adopting new technologies for productivity enhancements.” Eurostat reports that “Greece had in 2007 the highest share, relating to the population aged 20–29, studying science, mathematics and computing, with 6.9 per cent while 7.3 per cent were studying engineering, manufacturing and construction” (Eurostat, 2009, p.69). Moreover, Greece has the second highest proportion of science doctoral students (44%) in EU (ibid, p.72). A significant part of this well educated scientific workforce could contribute to the development of the international dimension of both higher education and research along with the Greek scientific diaspora spread all over the world.

The establishment of the International Hellenic University (IHU), the first public university where programmes are exclusively taught in English is a major step towards internationalization. IHU offers postgraduate courses mainly to international students. The expansion of its programme at the undergraduate level

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could be a positive evolution. In addition, the Greek report (2009-2012)504 on the Bologna reforms refers that the percentage of institutions that award joint degrees or they are involved in at least one joint programme climbed on 10-25 percent. However, there is not a national strategy for mobility and there is still a significant imbalance within ingoing and outgoing mobility of students.

Moreover, though many things have to be done in order to improve quality of the whole educational system, Greek universities’ achievements are not so bad compared with other universities from bigger countries. At the Shanghai Jiao Tong Academic World Ranking (2011) there are two Greek universities, the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. At the Ranking Web of World Universities (2012) five Greek Universities (Aristotle, Patras, Athens, Technical of Athens, Crete) are at the top three per cent of 20,300 Universities worldwide, while at the top five per cent are three more (Ioannina, Aegean, Democritus) and at the top ten per cent six more (Thessaly, Economic and Business-Athens, Technical of Crete, Macedonian, Piraeus, Agricultural). According to the Hellenic Federation of University Teachers; Associations (POSDEP) there are 7.3 Greek publications per million of spending for research while the European average is 1.7 publications. Moreover, there are 820 Greek publications per million of inhabitants, more than those of Italy or Spain. Nevertheless, all the above achievements are poorly known since there is not a promotion or a marketing strategy at the national or the institutional level.

4.2 The economic crisis as a “threat” for Greek higher education

In Greece public spending for higher education has been reduced up to 30% (EUA 2011). Student support financing was decreased, staff salaries were cut and new academic and administrative personnel positions were freezed. Moreover, expenses for infrastructures’ development have been also reduced. Hence, human resources and funding deficiencies constitute major obstacles to any developmental attempt towards internationalization undertaken by the HEIs.

Some structural changes as far as the governance system of the HEIs were set forth by a new law (Law 4009/2011). The law modified the way the Rector is elected and introduced a Board comprising of academics and external stakeholders in order to supervise the efficient operation of the institution and build up the institutional profile and strategic plan (Kyriazis and Asderaki, 2012). However, HEIs were reluctant to implement the new structures and they passed through a two-year period of operational stagnation and inertia. At the same time the plan ATHENA concerning mergers or elimination of institutions or departments looms as a threat over HEIs. In addition the abolition of the Lecturers’ grade caused turmoil in the academic community since it was perceived as an attempt of reducing staff numbers.

504 Greece: National Report regarding the Bologna Process implementation 2009-2012 available at http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/National%20reports/Greece.pdf (retrieved on 20 April 2012).

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This bleak landscape is deteriorated by the tremendous figures of youth unemployment (up to 54%) and the mass phenomenon of youth migration and brain-drain. According to the Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011 issued by the World Bank, Greece is included in the Top 10 emigration countries with an emigration rate of tertiary-educated population twelve per cent (12%). According to OECD (2012) Greece is still the sixth European student-exporter country but the number of students studying abroad has dramatically diminished (2011: 22,000, 2010:33,500, 2009:34,200).505

The university degrees and in particular the postgraduate degrees seem to facilitate the entrance and the holding of a work place. According to the Hellenic Statistical Authority in July 2012, the highest unemployment rate represents those who have not attended school (35,8%) followed by secondary education graduates (26,0%). The lower rate is observed on those who hold a master or a doctoral degree (12, 9%) followed by higher education graduates with a bachelor degree (16,2%). Higher education graduates within the labor market in Greece, according to Eurostat account for twenty eight per cent (28%) in 2010 (EU-27 29%). This percentage is not absolutely accurate since many graduates are appointed in places with lower job requirements. 4.3. The crisis as an “opportunity” through the Internationalization of Greek higher education system

The current crisis had a significant leverage effect towards the openness of the Greek higher education system. The recent law on higher education put an emphasis on internationalization.506 It provides as main aspect of HEIs’ mission the promotion of international cooperation and the mobility of their staff, students and graduates in order to contribute to the establishment of the European Higher Education and the European Research Area (Law 4009/2011 Article 4 para e). The law also predicts some extra funding according to some criteria giving thus an extra motivation for the development of institutional strategies. One of them refers to the internationalization of the institution, measuring the number of international students, the incoming and outgoing number of students who participate in various European programmes and the number of domestic and international collaborative agreements.

As stressed above, nowadays, all HEIs are suffering from cutting of the public budget while some institutions face the risk of closure. Nevertheless, with the exception of some more active institutions or departments there is no undergraduate programme offered in English or other international language and, comparatively, few postgraduate programmes. As a result, Greece has a negative ratio of receiving and outgoing students compared for example with New Zealand where there are twelve foreign students for each domestic student studying abroad (OECD, 2012, p.370). Moreover, Greece is the lead country along with Korea who attracts

505 Top destination for Greek students is HEIs located in U.K. (36,1% ), Germany (15,8%), Italy (9,2%), France (5%), U.S. (4,8%) and Turkey (2,6%) [OECD, 2012]. 506 Law 4009/2011, Structure, Operation, Quality Assurance and Internationalisation of Higher Education Institutions, OJ 195 Α/6-9-2011.

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international students from neighbouring countries (79%) mainly from Cyprus and Albania. This is an indication that Greek higher education system is not open and internationalised, especially taking into consideration that Cypriots speak Greek and most Albanians are living as economic immigrants in Greece. The total percentage of international and foreign students enrolled as a percentage of all students is just four percent (4% ). International students could become a significant source of revenue for the Greek HEIs.

Greece has a lot to learn from neighbouring countries. Looking southern of Greece a small country, Cyprus intends to be an educational destination for international students. Cyprus opened pace towards internationalization by expanding mostly the private sector in higher education. According to the Cypriot Ministry of Education “Government policy as regards to higher education aims to fulfil the local needs for higher education and to establish Cyprus as a regional educational and research centre, a hub for international scholars and students alike”.507 Most international students in Cyprus stem from India and Bangladesh (table 2). The vast majority of European students are from Greece. China Education Association for International Exchange (CEAIE) visited Cyprus in order to explore ways of further cooperation in higher education sector.

Table 2: International students in Cyprus (2007-09)

Source: Ministry of Education and Culture (http://www.highereducation.ac.cy/en/international-students.html retrieved on 15.04.2012)

507 Information retrieved from http://www.highereducation.ac.cy/en/index.html (20.03.2011).

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In Turkey the number of international students is increasing rapidly. According to Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) figures there were 15,481 students studying in Turkish universities in 2005-06 and reached 26,228 in 2010-11. The Foreign Economic Relations Board’s (DEİK) Business Education Council aims to raise this number up to 100,000 by 2015, which is expected to contribute an extra four billion dollars to Turkey’s economy.508 Turkish higher education system consists of one hundred seventy seven HEIs in total, one hundred eight of which are public and sixty nine private non profit institutions. An emerging competition exists between public and private universities. The former increased their quotas for international students and the latter intensified their efforts to promote themselves abroad in order to attract foreign students.509 5. Concluding proposals

The Greek higher education system has both strengths and weaknesses as far as the development of a coherent internationalization strategy is concerned. The lack of a strategic planning at national and at institutional level which would explore the opportunities for internationalising Greek HEIs should be a high priority.

At the national level the Greek Ministry of Education along with the Rectors Conference, and the Associations of HEIs’ teachers and students should deploy a coherent national strategy for the internationalization of higher education by setting up concrete targets and timelines. The role of a national agency, such as the Greek State Scholarship Foundation for the diffusion of the information and good practices and the coordination of the national strategy is rather critical. Institutional autonomy and extra-funding opportunities for those institutions wishing to move on are also crucial. Moreover, the Hellenic Quality Assurance Agency should be at the centre of such policy ensuring the quality of institutions and programmes.

At the institutional level, an institutional strategic plan should be elaborated according to the institution’s profile, mission and potential. This plan should include certain guidelines as some essential priorities for each institution. Administrative structures and capabilities should be enhanced. International Offices and the Quality Assurance Units should be at the heart of this strategy.

The primary emphasis in an internationalization action plan should be put on quality assurance of both programmes and institutional services. Accredited offered programmes should be delivered in foreign languages. As far as institutions’ services are concerned they should become less bureaucratic and more student-friendly. Moreover, institutions should: explore ways in order to exploit the international, European, bilateral and national exchange and research programmes; implement the Bologna reforms and make usage of the European tools (ECTS, DS, learning outcomes, qualifications, joint degrees, QA standards, etc) in order to

508 Newspaper Today’s Zaman, 18 March 2012 509 Information retrieved from ICEF Monitor (available at http://monitor.icef.com/2012/04/turkeys-growing-appeal-as-a-study-destination/ 20.03.2011).

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establish cooperation with foreign institutions and research centers; exploit the Greek academic diaspora by developing networks and cooperation; elaborate a promotion campaign emphasizing their comparative advantage according to their profile and location place (i.e. the Philosophical School in the University of Athens; the Maritime School in the University of Piareus); communicate with the relevant European web portals and social media platforms in order to enhance their visibility abroad; upgrade staff and students’ language skills; develop lifelong learning programmes and in particular on-line programmes in foreign languages; exploit EU funds for higher education and research.

Another fundamental aspect for international student recruitment is the openness of institutions towards society and the linkage with the regional authorities and enterprises, the local cultural life, the environment and the natural and historical heritage. Enhancement of universities’ International and Career Offices could decisively contribute to the ‘survival’ and ‘visibility’ of the institutions. Greek paideia since the ancient academies had been open and internationalized. Autonomy and strategic planning along with quality assurance are sine qua non prerequisites for the elaboration of an internationalization policy. References ADIP (2011), Quality Assurance Report on Greek Higher Education 2010-11, Athens Altbach, P. G. (2001), The Rise of Pseudo-universities. International Higher Education 25 (Fall), 2-5. Altbach, P. G. (2004), ‘Globalization and the university: Myths and realities in an unequal world’, in National Education Association (ed.), The NEA 2005 almanac of higher education, Washington, DC: National Education Association, 63-74. Altbach, P and Knight, J (2006), "The Internationalization of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities", The NEA 2006 Almanac of Higher Education, 1-11. Altbach, G. Ph., Reisberg, L. and Rumbley, E.L. (2009), Trends in Global Higher Education: Tracking an Academic Revolution. A Report Prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education, Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Asderaki, F. and I. Mamakou (2012), “Going digital or not? Internationalising Higher Education in Greece through Online Learning, paper presented at Conference on Informatics in Education 2012, University of Piraeus, 5-7 October 2012. Asderaki F. and Maragos D. (2012), The Internationalization of Higher Education: The added value of the European Portals and Social Media Pages for the National and the Institutional Internationalization Strategies. Paper presented to ICICTE 2012, Rhodes, Greece. Retrieved from http://www.icicte.org/Proceedings2012/Papers/13-1-Asderaki.pdf Asderaki, F. (2011), ‘The Europeanisation of the Greek Higher Education (1999-2009)’ in N. Maravegias (ed.), Europeanisation in the Mediterranean Area, Nomiki Vivliothiki, 297-326 [in Greek]. Asderaki, F. (2010), “The Bologna Process and the enhancement of Employability” in Papadakis, Ν. and Μ. Spyridakis (eds), Labor market, Training and Employment

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