Ingmar Bergman's Hour of the Wolf - On Dreams of Violence

SUNDARAM 2014; Volume 2;Issue 2 Published online (http://www.e-sundaramjournal.in) ISSN: 2347-6370 (Online)

SUNDARAM Journal for All Subjects

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VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2, DECEMBER 2014

CONTENTS

TOPIC&SUBJECT AUTHOR/S LANGUAGE PAGE NOS.

THE INNER EMOTIONAL WORLD OF THE CHARACTERS CREATED BY KAMALA MARKANDAYA SUBJECT:ENGLISH

Shyamasree Sur ENGLISH 04

HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO WEST BENGAL

SUBJECT:EDUCATION

Jyoti Narayan Patra

ENGLISH 13

INGMAR BERGMAN’S HOUR OF THE WOLF – ON DREAMS OF VIOLENCE

SUBJECT:ENGLISH

Souvik Biswas

ENGLISH 29

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA: AN ASSESSMENT WITH REFERENCE TO PRESENT CONTEXT OF INDIA

SUBJECT:EDUCATION

Srikanta Nandi, Tanmoy Pandit & Dr.Pankaj Kumar Paul

ENGLISH 35

A HISTORICAL ENQUIRY INTO

THE EDUCATIONAL

BACKWARDNESS OF TRIBES OF

KERALA; SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO MALPPURAM DISTRICT

SUBJECT : EDUCATION

Firoz K.T. & Muhammad K.V.

ENGLISH 41



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TOPIC&SUBJECT AUTHOR/S LANGUAGE PAGE NOS. POSITIVE EFFECT OF USING ICT IN SCHOOL EDUCATION: A MICRO STUDY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE IN THE DISTRICT OF BURDWAN, WEST BENGAL, INDIA SUBJECT:EDUCATION

Srikanta Nandi ENGLISH 50

TIME-OUTS AS A METHOD OF REDUCING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

SUBJECT:EDUCATION

Prarthita Biswas ENGLISH 62

PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE IN EDUCATION: A MICRO SURVEY OF FEW SECONDARY AND HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN WEST BENGAL

SUBJECT:EDUCATION

Dr.Pankaj Kumar Paul

ENGLISH 67

ONGOING SOCIO- CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION OF BENGALI FOOD SUBJECT : SOCIOLOGY

Dr.Susmita Bhattacharyya

ENGLISH 75

THE TRANSCULTURALISM AND

TRANSNATIONALISM IN THE

NEW LITERATURES IN ENGLISH

SUBJECT : ENGLISH

Susmita Bhakat ENGLISH 86



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TOPIC&SUBJECT AUTHOR/S LANGUAGE PAGE NOS.

A CO-RELATIONAL STUDY OF PERSONALITY, SELF-ESTEEM AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AMONG ADOLESCENTS SUBJECT : EDUCATION

Dr.Madhu Salani ENGLISH 92

THE DIGITAL AGENDA FOR EUROPE: SWEDEN’S PATH TOWARDS AN INCLUSIVE DIGITAL SOCIETY

SUBJECT : INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY

Jared O.Odero ENGLISH 106



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THE INNER EMOTIONAL WORLD OF THE CHARACTERS

CREATED BY KAMALA MARKANDAYA

Shyamasree Sur Research Scholar, Dept. of Education, Kalyani University Email address: [email protected]

Abstract: A study of the inner emotional of the characters created by Kamala Markandaya seems to be a

pragmatic critical approach because it helps us explore one of the most important themes of his writer novels and

its creative articulation. This study is based on Robert Nisbet’s view that “At the centre of any given style lies,

what can only be called a theme, or a cluster of themes. Themes carries with it a more active, positive and

dynamic character than does the word style. Implicit in any theme is at once a question being answered, more or

less, and also an ordering of experience and observation in a special focus.”

Kamala Markandaya’s novels reflect her fine sensibility as she adopts various themes and projects a

true picture of life in society. All of her novels reveal her deep pre-occupations with the changing Indian social

and political scene. She excels in recording the inner workings of the minds of her characters, there personal

perplexities and social confirmations. She endeavours to portray them as individuals growing into themselves,

unfolding the delicate process of their being and becoming. In her novels Markandaya presents an India caught

in the vortex of change, a change from the rural society deeply rooted in tradition to the machine based,

materialistic urban society.

Kamala Markandaya’s characters strings to light the basic human emotion. The tensions of East-West

confrontation and of male-female hostility, the racial prejudices, the vulgar economic disparity, and the

momentary sway of emotions blind human values. All her novels revolve around pain and suffering and violence

and death. They invariably leave a tragic note with the undercurrent of a spiritual consolation that seems to make

up for the human failures. It is this triumph of the spirit that marks out Kamala Markandaya’s novels. So, this

paper tries to find out the inner emotional world of the characters in Kamala Markandaya’s novels.

Keywords: Kamala Markandaya , characters, emotional world, novels



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The post-Independence era marks the grand inception of the literary emancipation of women. It

evinces the creative release of the feminine sensibility, which, notwithstanding its relatively later

manifestation, merits recognition by virtue of its self-sufficiency. There germinates an opulent and

convincing crop of women novelists in the terra firma of Indian fiction in English in the post-

Independence era . Several highly talented and prolific women novelists including Kamala Markandaya,

Anita Desai, R.P.Jhabvala, Nayantara Sahgal, Attia Hosain, Santha Ram Rau and Shashi Despande have

enriched Indian fiction in English. Their chief contribution consists of their exploring the moral and

psychic dilemmas and repercussions of their women characters along with their efforts to cope with the

challenges and achieve a new harmony of relationship with themselves and their surroundings. Kamala

Markandaya stands at the head of these women novelists both chronologically and qualitatively.

Being a woman novelist , Kamala Markandaya has brought mostly women characters into being.

As the woman consciousness is central to her world , it is but natural that her key characters should be

women. She has created authentic female characters – flesh-and-blood characters with recognizable

credentials. She has successfully delineated their problems and plights, failures and foibles. In

comparison of the other Indian-English women novelists, she has won the battles for her women

protagonists and has come out with flying colours to be the Victor Queen in the domain of feminine

world. She breathes life in her women characters who with the strength of adaptation, convert the

challenge of life into a pursuit of finer values that make life worth-living. Her women like Rukmani in

Necter in a Sieve, Anasuya and Lady Caroline in Possession, Sarojini in A Silence of Desire, Mira ,

Premala and Roshan in Some Inner Fury, Helen in The Coffer Dams, Jayamma and Nalini in Handful of

Rice, Saroja and Lalitha in Two Virgins , Mrs. Pickerings Vasantha in The Nowhere Man, Mohini and

Usha in The Golden Honeyconb and Mrs.Tully and Mrs.Pearl in Pleasure City are nobler, wiser, stronger

and better than their male counter parts.

Kamala Markandaya uses novel as a befitting medium to reveal different facets of the image of

woman and has shown her own self-definition and her emphatic identification with her characters. It is

true to some extent that she, despite her strongest pretention to objectivity and high imaginativeness, is

subjective and autobiographical, as she has derived nourishment for her novels from life as observed and



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experienced by her. Most of her novels present a clear picture of the inner emotional world of the

characters.

Women novelists generally attempt to project women as the central figure and seem to

succeeded in presenting the predicament of women most effectively. The reason might be their instinctive

perception of and insight into women’s reactions and response, problems and perplexities, and the

complex working of their inner selves and their emotional involvements and disturbances. Woman

responding quiveringly to the sensuous and sensitive surrounded by violent and vicious circumstances,

reacting neurotically to the overpowering by enveloping existentialist problems, appear in the fictional

world of Kamala Markandaya.

Kamala Markandaya is a pioneer member of the Indian Diaspora and her novel, “The Nowhere

Man” foreshadows many diasporic issues. Markandaya’s strength as a novelist comes from her sensitive

creation of individual characters and situations which are simultaneously representative of a larger

collective. In their encounter with an alien political power, the anti-colonial or anti-imperialist attitudes

are powerfully expressed and Markandaya’s major characters project those viewpoints.

“Some Inner Fury” presents Mira’s conflicts as she is divided between her ardent and genuine

love for Richard, an Englishman and the compelling political forces of Indo-British turmoil. These forces

pull them apart and her mind, once revealing in romantic love, returns to the harsh realities of life. “A

Silence of Desire” portrays the clash between faith and reason, superstition and silence. The forces of

tradition and modernity each claim an upper hand over the other. In her novel “Possession” Kamala

Markandaya exposes the obsession for possession and how one cannot possess what one craves for.

“A Handful of Rice” concerns itself with poverty, hunger, joblessness, and a search for identity

which leads a man nowhere in a poverty stricken society. A man becomes basically a face in the crowd

for seeking all he held in high esteem and stooping to do anything – even sell his soul. He is

misunderstood, exploited and cursed to an extent but comes out of it triumphant.

The novel “The Coffer Dams” discusses issues relating to tradition and modernity, scientific

attitudes and human values, a rational thinking approach and the emotional entanglements. It also

discusses the East-West encounter in a rural setting.

“The Nowhere Man” is the only novel where the setting is England. It is the story of an Indian

immigrant who feels he does not belong to England being an Indian and feels too long in England to find

any firm roots in India.



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“Two Virgins” is the story of two sisters who are different from one another. They bath more in

opposite directions, each experiencing and exploring various thoughts and events.

Kamala Markandaya in the novel “The Golden Homey comb” turns her attention to the British

rule and how it affected the princely states and people living in India.

She follows a chronological order for recording the dates and years. Pleasure city is about the

clash between traditionalism and forward marching modernity. The cultural barrier is very much

apparent. Sudden changes are definitely resented.

THE TECHNIQUE IN DETAILING A CHARACTER:

In “Nectar in a Sieve”, Kamala Markandaya dramatizes the breaking up of a rural Hindu joint

family under the impact of industrialization. The novel describes the cycle of birth, marriage and death in

a South Indian peasant family. It is also a tale of the human spirit over poverty and misfortune. Finally it

is the story about the conflicts between a traditional agricultural and growing capitalist society.

Rukmani, the narrator, “Without Beauty and Without Dowry”, was given in marriage “to a tenant farmer

who was poor in everything but in love and care for his wife.” It was only after the birth of five children

and the ravages caused by draught and monsoons that the family has to face starvation. With the

establishment of Industrialization, the disintegration of Rukmini’s family slowly begins. The strength of

family ties is amply illustrated in the novel. In spite of every kind of misfortune the domestic loyalties of

Rukmini’s family remain intact. The novel shows that a spirit of acceptance which is based in the

traditional values offer strength to one in times of adversity. The Indian woman is known for her

endurance and fortitude. These noble qualities almost transform Rukmini into the heroic character. “The

heart that is tempered in the flames of love and faith, of suffering and sacrifice, will not easily accept

defeat.” (Srinivasa)

Change is inevitable in any society and individuals are caught in this change in a variety of ways

“Nectar in Sieve” offers a unique image of the evaluation of the society from the rooted ways of peasant

life to an industrialized urban and impersonal environment where the individual’s power of endurance

and fortitude, capacity for survival and adjustment are tested. Only that individual who has the basic

sense of strength can survive in an altered, new environment.



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“Nectar in a Sieve” is appealing to modern readers for its sensitive and moving portrayal of the

strength of a woman struggling with forces beyond her control. It is a story about

the resilience of the human spirit and the important of values.

The theme of “A Handful of Rice” is not simply the usual conflict between tradition and change.

It is the story of an individual’s desperate bid to find roots in an alien milieu. The novel tells the tale of a

peasant boy who flees the country for the big city hoping for better life. It depicts the strains and

psychological stresses for the Indian Joint Family as well as the temptation to sink into the life of the

city’s underworld and petty crimes. It is a moving tale of morality, failed ambition for disappointment and

suffering.

Ravi, the protagonist of the story, leaves his family and village to migrate to the city when he is

unable to bear starvation. Ravi’s quest for new life in the city lands him in a series of trials and

tribulations. Ravi, the uprooted individual, in his effort to strike roots in the city environment, finds Apu’s

tailoring business convenient though monotonous. In spite of his spirit of rebellion at the injustice of the

World and his contempt for the older generation. Ravi seems to have been influenced, at least to some

extent, by the traditional values upheld by people like his father and Apu. Ravi rose unsteadily. He felt

like retching but he controlled the spasms and went down to the street. Srinivasa Iyengar aptly diagnosed

Ravi’s predicament : “Caught between the pull of the old tradition that all but strangles him and the pull

of the new immortality that attracts as well as frightens him, Ravi lurches now this side now the other side

and had the worst of both,”

The refrain “a handful of rice” – all for a handful of rice – rice, rice, rice.” Is voiced throughout,

is all about background guiding, directing, conditioning the action in the foreground. The mass exodus

from the villages to the city is for a handful of rice. Unscrupulous people like Damodar indulge in black-

marketing in rice resulting in the skyrocketing of process and long queues at the ration shops. Ravi joins

the mob which plunders the rice godowns and the struggle continues.

The protagonist Ravi represents the predicament of the individual in a society changing very fast,

demanding adjustment and compromise from the individual to newer ways of living. The individual’s

capacity for adjustment shows strains of discord, of near break-down. It is in this sense Ravi’s alienation

provides a number of insights into the urban and rural mores of a changing India.

“Two Virgins” tackles the issues of sexuality and sibling bonding. The novel received mixed reaction

from readers. While the novel has been praised in the west as “a compassionate and powerful one,” Indian



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critics and reviewers dismissed it as “a disappointing performance”. “Two Virgins” is about two village

girls. The sisters Lalitha and Saroja, the elder running after a film director and coming to grief, and the

younger (Saroja) moving from innocence to experience by living through the family’s traumatic

experience. The sisters are neatly contrasted, but while Lalitha’s is the budget of experiences, it is

Saroja’s consciousness that observes, considers, weighs and places the developing events.

Saroja, who is a thoroughly traditional, is the role model for the young girl. Apparently, she is not

good looking, yet she possesses the beauty of soul. Lalitha’s physical beauty gets eclipsed before her

inner beauty. She has achieved a wonderful balance and stability. She is the ideal image of innocence and

modesty.

“Some Inner Fury” seems to be essentially the story of an Individual caught in the vortex of the

socio-political forces beyond his control, even though the novelist has attempted to explore the

implications of the East-West encounter without probing its deeper aspects. The novel deals with struggle

in life and death, emotions parallel to a wider struggle such as the freedom movement itself.

Much of the action in “Some Inner Fury” takes place in the historic year of 1942, when the whole

nation joined the India Movement which at some places erupted into violent agitation. But the political

situation serves as a backdrop to the live story of two individuals Mira and Richard, who unfortunately

belong to the two races of the ruler and the ruled. Possession has been discussed by several critics as a

presentation of the conflict between materialism and spiritualism between possession and renunciation:

“The novel asserts the supremacy of the spiritual powers over the temptation of material forces, especially

the West”. A close reading reveals that it appears to relate more to the evolution of the artist. The real

theme of the novel is not economics, politics or even spirituality, but Art. The novel projects ‘woman as

the possessor, as it moves through time and space, and levels of colonial consciousness.

In “Possession”, Caroline Bell, who symbolizes Western materialism tries to possess Valmiki

who represents Indian Spiritualism. As spiritualty values are deep-rooted in Valmiki, he gets success in

liberating himself from the clutches of western materialism.

“The Nowhere Man” examines the violence of racism and other diaspora realities. The novel tells

the compationate and distressing tale of an agent Indian immigrant who becomes a martyr to racial hatred.

“The Nowhere Man” is a psychological study of human relations, which are weakened by the

racial conflict. Srinivas, who regards England as his native country, becomes a victim of this racial

conflict, as the young men hold non-whites responsible for the depression in economy. Now, he feels that

cordial relations are only a dream. He realizes that if he leaves England, he has nowhere to go. This novel



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treats of larger human relations rendering the work an interesting psychological study of human

relationship as well as of the essential loneliness.” – V. Rangam.

Markandaya is not interested or does not set out to explore the complex, tragic predicament of

‘nowhereness’ or being ‘rootless’. As novelist she practices “middle distance realism”, neither too close

to the object or too close to the object nor too distinct. Her interest lies in problems of human, the merely

human, average man’s capacity for survival vis-à-vis, society, technology and the city – the impersonal,

dehumanizing entities that degrade man and defeat him, thwart and threaten his chances of survival. And

her novels are a testimony to here abiding love for the human, the individual, and the non-heroic, average

man.

A journey through the fictional world of Kamala Markandaya leaves one at the end over the

cramping clutches of fate that drive human being from piller to post in search of peace within. This effect

known in common parlance as fatalistic theory leaves all human efforts as a house of cords crumbling

down resulting in tragic waste of human energies. The major conflict that rocks her characters in the

novels is a relentless fight against inevitable disasters that seem to be still avoidable. But still, in the final

round of this fight, her characters come out undauntered, backed by unshakable faith in the success of

spiritualism. She portrays the victory of even the passively suffering soul over the so-called dynamic

progress of materialism. It is here that her characters strike all relevance to the prevailing conditions in

society and to the woman struggling to keep up the strength of invincible human: “A fatalistic attitude to

life and a philosophy of passive suffering are indicated by Markandaya as typical of India.

Her novels can be taken as the authentic commentary on the prevailing sociological conditions;

the different angularities that mar. The union of social life are very well reflected in these novels. These

augularities are neither regional nor caste-based. They pertain to the entire gamut of human life too often

torn as under by the divisive and divergent tendencies. So, Kamala Markandaya’s agility in painting the

human reactions transcend. The barriers of local nostalgia. She is not interested in dwelling at length on

the suffocating stranglehold that the outdated casteism exercises on the society. But she is definitely

interested in projecting the characters that reflect the unbroken chain of India’s culture and tradition

which is in effect the very heart-beat of our country. The novelist’s all out effort is to strengthen the soul

of our country, the breath of united India.” It may confidentially be said that the India of Kamala

Markandaya is a united India with a culture and soul of her own.



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In ancient India a community offered a framework within which the individual could seek self-

definition on self-actualization. The individual was seen as a member of society, as W. Illmann observes,

“the individual did not exist for his own sake, but for the sake of the whole society.” However, the

changes in social organization have resulted in the reversal of the concept of the self.

The individual’s alienation from the traditional systems and affiliations has made him rootless:

“The individuals have no place’, no group or god or tribe with which to identify and through which to

realize themselves”, everywhere the individual feels a sense of insecurity, a sense of displaceness.

Kamala Markandaya dramatizes action in which the self and society are sometimes in conflict and

sometimes in harmony.

All of Markandaya’s novels reveal her deep pre-occupations with the changing Indian Social and

political scene. She excels in recording the inner working of the minds of her characters, their personal

perplexities and social confirmations. She endeavours to portray them as individuals growing into

themselves, unfolding the dedicate process of their being and becoming change is inevitable in a

developing society but its suddenness is unwelcomed. The value of suffering is an important component

of Markandaya’s novels, because she portrays her positive women characters as ideal sufferers and

nurturers. Markandaya achieves the delicate balance between unfolding the individual’s psychological

and social predicaments and portraying a wider cultural and political setting which create these crisis. The

two cultures of the East and the West, have unique socio-political features. But Markandaya envisages

situations where her characters forge deep personal bonds and show possibilities of enduringly

meaningful human relationships.

CONCLUSION:

Kamala Markandaya’s characters find themselves torn between loyalties of conflicting nature.

“Two Virgins” is an interesting story of two sisters entirely different in their attitudes. Through the two

characters, Kamala Markandaya successfully presents the tradition-modernity theme. Lalitha’s quest for a

modern life leads to a lot of pain and a life of loneliness when Saroja’s roots are firmly entrenched in her

village. “Possession” also presents two different views and attitudes through the characters of Caroline

and the Swamy, the former representing pragmatism and the latter idealism.

Kamala Markandaya’s characters string to light the basic human emotion. The tensions of East-

West confrontation and of male-female hostility, the racial prejudices, the vulgar economic disparity, and

the momentary sway of emotions blind human values. All her novels revolve around pain and suffering



12

and violence and death. They invariably leave a tragic note with the undercurrent of a spiritual

consolation that seems to make up for the human failures. It is this triumph of the spirit that marks out

Kamala Markandaya’s novels.

In conclusion, it can be said that “the most gifted is Kamala Markandaya and the uncrowned

queen of the inner emotional world.”

******************************

REFERENCES :

1. Markandaya, Kamala, A Handful of Rice, 1966, New Delhi: Hindi Pocker Books, 1967

2. Markandaya, Kamala, A silence of Desire, 1960. New Delhi: Sagar Publications, 1968.

3. Markandaya, Kamala, Nectar in a Sieve, 1954. Bombay: Jaico Publishing House, 1956

4. Markandaya, Kamala, Pleasure city, London: Chatto and Windus, 1982

5. Markandaya, Kamala, Some Inner Fury, London: Putnam, 1955

6. Markandaya, Kamala, The Coffer Dams, 1969, New Delhi: Hindi Pocker Books, n.d.

7. Markandaya, Kamala, The Golden Honeycomb, London: Chatto and Wiindus, 1977

8. Markandaya, Kamala, The Nowhere Man, 1972, Bombay: Sangam Books, 1975

9. Markandaya, Kamala, Two Virgins, 1973, New Delhi: Vikas Bell Books, 1977



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Introduction: Now it is the time of Globalization. In this globalized world, India is a developing country. However, the

main seed of development of a country always depends on primary education, but Higher Education of a

country always helps to its success. Higher Education is important for the growth of the nation by

Introduction: Now it is the time of Globalization. In this globalized world, India is a developing country. However, the main seed of development of a country always depends on primary education, but Higher Education of a country always helps to its success. Higher Education is important for the growth of the nation by providing specialized knowledge and skilled labor. However, there will remain substantial difference in social and economic status of the family, but everybody should try to take higher education for reaching his \her nation to the top level. Concept of Higher Education:- Higher Education can be broadly summarized as education beyond the school level and it starts

after the higher secondary or after class, 12th. Higher Education helps to acquire knowledge and

understanding, which helps to solve any kind of problem related to the everyday life. Higher education in

traditional method finishes after acquiring a degree of MA/M.Sc./M.Com from any university. Higher

Education includes undergraduate and postgraduate education as well as vocational education and

HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO WEST BENGAL Jyoti Narayan Patra B.Ed. Student, Department of Education, University of Kalyani , B-12/21, Kalyani, Nadia- 741235, West Bengal Email - [email protected]

Abstract: The major concerns of West Bengal higher education have always been access, equity, relevance, equality and resource crunch. The University Grants Commission (UGC) has carried out the responsibility of central government of coordinating and maintaining the standard of higher education in the country, which is the apex model agency of the central government. UGC not only evolves regulations of university and college education but also provides both plan and non-plan grants to universities and colleges covered under section 12 (B) of the UGC Act 1956. Though there is a remarkable progress in terms of growth of university and colleges in West Bengal but this pace of expansion is still not sufficient in view of the size of the population and area of state there is a need to expand the intake capacity by strengthening of existing universities and colleges on large scale and establishing new institutions in large members. This article will try to focus on Higher Education in India with special reference to West Bengal.

Keywords: Higher Education, University, institutions



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training colleges, Universities, and institutes of technology are main institutions that provide higher

education.

Today the higher education landscape distance learning system has been introduced. Distance

education is being given by two modes (IGNOU, NSOU etc.) in single mode and dual mode (RBU, BU,

KU etc.) of late; access to higher education has increased.

Types of Universities:

Affiliating Universities: Their function is to hold examinations of those colleges affiliated to

them. Their administrative and academic control over the college.

Unitary Universities: Such universities exercise complete control over the colleges located at

their own center.

Federal Universities: Colleges linked to them are near the university. Teaching is carried under

the guidance of the university. The colleges are themselves autonomous.

Deemed Universities: Institutions involved in teaching, research, and other academic activities.

Most of the universities in India are affiliating in nature, which foster many undergraduate and

post graduate colleges.

Aim of Higher Education: • To develop the national economy.

• Higher education should aim at national unity and discipline.

• The aim of higher education is "Initiation into a new life,"

• To create new truth and knowledge,

• Universities must aim at intellectual advancement,

• To create a leadership for leading the future society,

• All-round development of a student, who can solve his or her any kind of problem,

• To bring national culture resurgence and to preserve the cultural heritage and unity of not only

West Bengal but, also India,

• To develop respect for humanity at large and to develop human values,

• To create the ability for understanding any kind of facts related to our daily life and to protest

about any kind of antisocial activities through his or her logical reasoning,



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• To be aware about national instigation and to think that not only any bengalee but also any people

of India is "my brother and sister,"

• Equalization of educational opportunity is another important objective of higher education,

Needs of Higher Education: Higher education has significant roles in supporting knowledge driven economic growth strategies and in

the construction of democratic, socially cohesive societies. Higher education is the main seed of a man's

success. IN today lifelong-learning frame work, higher education provides not only the high skill

necessary for every labor market but also the learning and training essential for teacher doctor, nurse,

engineers, civil servants humanists, artists, scientists. It is these trained individuals who develop the

capacities and analytical skills that drive local economics, support civil society, teach children lead

effective governments and make important decisions, which affect the entire society. A university is

clearly part of a tertiary education system.

The institution of higher education plays a very important role for the development of any society. It is

necessary for the man-making, citizenship making of any society. The teaching, research, and extension

activities provide crucial support to the national innovation system. These constitute the backbone of a

country's information infrastructure in their role as repositories and conduits of information. In addition

the norms, values, attitudes and ethics that the higher education institution provide, are the foundation of

social capital necessary for the constructing healthy civil societies and cohesive cultures.

In order to fulfill the educational research extension and information functions successfully in today's

world, universities and other higher education institutes need to be able to respond effective to the

changing education and training needs. IN this rapidly shifting tertiary education landscape, they should

adopt more flexible modes of organization and operation. Thus, institutes are transforming themselves to

respond to evolving educational needs particularly in the context of globalization.

Role of higher education in our State life:-

Present society is too dynamic for adjustment. As a living being, to live successfully in this society

everybody needs not only minimum level of education, but also maximum level of education. Besides it

nowadays we can see a tough competition between state versus state and country versus country. So, as a



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citizen of this country everybody should try to improve their country’s position at the top level in this

world.

Higher Education Report: Table:- 1 Number of Universities& University Level Institutions in West Bengal & India Higher Education Report: Table:- 1 Number of Universities& University Level Institutions in West Bengal & India AT A GLANCE 2011-2012

SLNo Name Central

University State

University Private

University Deemed

University

Institutions Established Under State legislature

Act

Institutional of

National Importan

ce

Total

1 West Bengal 01 15 0 01 0 3 20

2 India 28 222 16 102 05 33 406 Source: - University Grants Commission (UGC).

0

50

100

150

200

250

Central University

State University

Private University

Deemed University

IEUSLA INI

India

West Bengal



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Here is an overall description about the University and University Level Institutions of India and West

Bengal. We can see here that In India there are 28 Central Universities, but in West Bengal only 4% of

that of India. In India, there are 222 no of State Universities, but in West Bengal 7% of that of India.

There is no Private University in West Bengal. In India there are 102 Deemed Universities, however, in

West Bengal only 1 Deemed University. There are only three INI in West Bengal, which is only 9% in

the eyes of India. Intotal we got total 406 Universities and University Level Institutions in India, but in

West Bengal this no is only 20. This is only 5% of total country.

Table-2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COLLEGES IN WEST BENGAL (2010-2011)

Institutions Types of Institutions No.

Government Colleges

General Degree colleges 20

Colleges for Education including for Physical Education

7+4

Art College 1 Law College 1 Engineering & Technological Colleges and

Institute of Jute Tech (Govt. of India) 6+1

Total 35+5 Non-Govt. & Self-financing Colleges

General Degree Colleges 432

Colleges for Education including for Physical education

135++

Law Colleges 22** Art Colleges 3 Music Colleges 2 Business Management / Business Administration

Colleges 42+

Engineering & Technological Colleges excluding University Engineering Colleges

78*

Hotel Management 4 Other Professional Colleges ( Non- AICTE) 84

Total 802 Total Colleges in West Bengal 842

Source: - West Bengal Higher Education Report- (2010-2011)



18

* Excluding University Colleges / Departments of JU, BESU, CU, BU & KU, WBUT ** Excluding University Colleges / Departments

+ Excluding of University Management Depts. and inclusive of Eng. Colleges with

Management Depts.

++ Excluding University Colleges / Departments

Here is a description about the types of higher education institutions in West Bengal. Higher Education

in West Bengal has been totally lead by Gov. as well as Non-Govt. There is only 35+5 different types of

Government colleges. Beside it’s a huge number of different types of colleges in West Bengal, which are

totally controlled by Non-Government agencies. Government has led 5% Higher Education in West

Bengal and 95% is led by non-government agencies. Maximum higher education institutions in West

Bengal depend on Non-government agencies, which are led by self-financing.

Table-3 CUMULATIVE ENROLMENT FIGURE FOR 2011-2012(Under Graduate)

SL No

Name Arts Commerce Science Education/

Teacher Training

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

1

India

2679

564

2092

171

4771

735

1003

820

6216

70

1625

490

1062

430

7434

90

1805

920

2440

52

2222

37

4662

89

2

West Bengal

2432

75

2146

39

4579

14

8226

3

2187

5

1041

38

7382

8

3438

3

1082

11

8252

3882

1213

4

Source: - Statistics of Higher Education & Technical Education 2007-08 From the above histogram, we can see a comparative study of some faculties such as Arts, Commerce,

Science, and Education. The number of enrolled students in 2010-2011 in West Bengal as it had been

recorded, in Arts faculty no of male students are much more in number than female students. In the

above-mentioned session in West Bengal 53% boys and 47%, girls had been enrolled. In the perspective



19

of India 10% students in Arts, 6% in Commerce, 6% in Science and 3%in Teacher Training were

enrolled in West Bengal (2010-2011).

Table-4 CUMULATIVE ENROLMENT FIGURE FOR 2011-2012 (Under Graduate)

Slno

Nam

e

Law Management Engineering Others

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

1

Indi

a

1461

39

6182

7

2079

66

1125

37

7019

5

1827

32

1028

896

4040

43

1432

939

1004

24

5089

7

1513

21

2 W

est

Beng

al

3757

2596

6353

3395

2194

5589

3983

9

1023

5

5007

4

5077

1922

6999

Source:- Annual report 2010-2011 of West Bengal Higher Education

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Law Management Engineering Others

India

West Bengal

From the above diagram, we can see a comparative outlook between India and West Bengal. In the

perspective of India, there are only 3% students in Law, 3% students in Management, 4% students in

Engineering and 5% students in other departments had been enrolled in Higher Education of west Bengal

(2010-2011). In West Bengal in Law, departmentnumbers of male students were more than female

students and the comparative percentages were59% male and 41% female students. In Management

department, there were also 61% boys and 39%girls students enrolled in 2010-2011, In Engineering

there is also a huge gap between boys and girls. Here the enrolment ratio between boys and girls were

80% and 20%. Besides this there is also a huge difference between the enrolment of boys and girls in

other departments of Higher Education in West Bengal. It is 73% boys and 27% girls.

Table-5



20

CUMULATIVE ENROLMENT FIGURE BETWEEN INDIA AND WEST BENGAL FOR -2011-2012(POSTGRADUATE)

Sl N

o.

Nam

e

Arts Commerce Science Teacher Training

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

1

Indi

a

3397

98

3118

33

6516

31

1043

41

8238

3

1867

24

2205

53

1679

89

3885

42

9681

9573

1925

4

2

Wes

t Be

ngal

1019

1

1454

1

2473

2

2229

1054

3274

5688

4411

1009

9

213

160

373

SOURCE: - West Bengal Higher Education Report-2010-2011

The above diagram is about the description of Higher education in India and West Bengal. Here we see

that in West Bengal there is huge difference between the enrolment of boys and girls student. Here in

2010-2011 41% boys and 59% girls students were enrolled which is only 4% of India. In comparative

view with India 2% in commerce, 3% in Science and 2% in Teacher Training were enrolled in West

Bengal.

Table-6 CUMULATIVE ENROLMENT FIGURE BETWEEN INDIA AND WEST BENGAL FOR 2011-2012 (POST GRADUATE)

Sl. N

o.

Nam

e

Law Management Engineering Other

BOYS

GIRL

S

TOTA

L

BOYS

GIRL

S

TOTA

L

BOYS

GIRL

S

TOTA

L

BOYS

GIRL

S

TOTA

L

1

Indi

a

7364

3679

1104

3

7167

8

3304

0

1047

18

5304

6

2144

1

7448

7

2622

1

1734

5

4356

6



21

2

Wes

t Be

ngal

467

285

752

4926

1872

6798

3288

915

4203

647

440

1087

SOURCE- University Grants Commission (UGC)

The above description is about a comparative study between India and West Bengal. Here we can see

in the light of India, that only 6.81% in Law, 6.49% in Management, 5.64% in Engineering and 2.5%

in others department were enrolled in postgraduate in 2011-2012 session. In Law department, there is

a huge difference of enrolment between boys and girls. We can see same result in Management

department. For Engineering, we can also see a conservative attitude of girl students for Engineering

in West Bengal. Here among the total enrolment in engineering there are 24% girls and 76% boys’

students.

Table-7 CUMULATIVE ENROLMENT FIGURE OF SCHEDULE CASTE (SC) STUDENTS BETWEEN INDIA AND WEST BENGAL-(2011-2012)

Sl. N

o.

N

AME

Ph.D /M.Phil Post Graduate Course Under Graduate Courses

BOY

S

GIR

LS

TOTA

L

BOY

S

GIR

LS

TOTA

L

BOY

S

GIR

LS

TOTA

L

1

IN

DIA

3871

2982

6853

1387

99

8037

2

2191

71

9296

33

5758

19

1505

45 2

2

WES

T BE

NGA

L

62

24

86

5223

2869

8092

6619

0

2791

1

9410

1

Source: - University Grants Commission (UGC) From the above diagram, we can see in the light of India that 1.3% of schedule caste (SC) students in

Ph.D. / M.Phil. 3.69 % SC students in post graduate and 6.25% SC students in under graduate were

enrolled in West Bengal in 2011-2012 sessions. The enrolment of girls SC students in West Bengal is

comparatively lower than male SC students. In West Bengal, the sum of total enrolled male students in



22

Ph.D. / M.Phil.Post-graduate and under graduate were 71475 and female students were 30804. There are

70% male (SC) and only 30% female (SC)students enrolled in West Bengal in 2011-2012 sessions. Table-8 CUMULATIVE ENROLMENT FIGURE OF SCHEDULED TRIBE (ST) STUDENTS BETWEEN INDIA AND WEST BENGAL-(2011-2012)

Sl N

o

Nam

e

Ph.D. / M.Phil. Graduate Courses Under Graduate Courses

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

1

IN

DIA

1573

1452

3025

3835

2

2331

3

6166

5

2950

65

1683

76

4634

41

2

WES

T BE

NGA

L

103 48

151

717

442

1159

1791

5

6193

2410

8 Source:-University Grants Commission (UGC) From the following chart, we can acquire a concept about the enrolment of ST students in India and West

Bengal. From the above diagram we can say in the light of India that there were 5% ST students in Ph.D.

/ M. Phil, 2% ST students in post graduate and only 5% ST students in under graduate were enrolled in

West Bengal on 2011-2012 sessions. Numbers of male ST students are more than female ST students.

Total number of ST students enrolled in West Bengal on 2011-2012 is 25418. Among the total number

of enrolled students 74% is boys and 26% is girls. There is huge difference of enrolment between the

boys’ students and girls students.

Table-9 ENROLMENT FIGURE IN OPEN UNIVERSITIES BETWEEN INDIA AND WEST BENGAL-(2011-2012)



23

Sl No Name All Categories Sc. Students St. Students

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys

Girl

s

Tota

l

1 NetajiSubhas Open University, West Bengal

7446

2

3629

2

1107

54

7787

3795

1158

2

2903

1415

4318

2 India

2345

597

1273

807

3619

404

2884

94

1603

86

4488

80

2496

07

1321

90

3817

97

Source: Distance Education Council (DEC) The above diagram is about the enrolment of different categories of students in India and West Bengal.

Here we can see that the total number of student enrolled in India is 3619404 and in West Bengal, this

number is 110754. In the light of India, there are only 2.5% SC students and 1.13% ST students enrolled

in West Bengal in 2011-2012 sessions. There is a huge difference between the enrolment of SC and ST

students. The sum of SC and ST students are 15900, among this total number there is 72.84% SC

students and 27.16% St Students were enrolled. There is also a huge gap of enrolment between the boys

and girls students.

Table-10 ENROLMENT OF SCHEDULE TRIBE STUDENTS (ST) IN POST GRADUATE DEGREE IN WEST BENGAL-2011-2012

Sl No

Mode of Course

(West Bengal)

Boys Girls Total



24

1

Distance 2903 1415 4318

2

Regular 717 442 1159

Source: West Bengal Higher Education -2011-2012 The diagram is about a comparative study between two modes of education. Here the focus is on schedule

tribe students and their enrolment in post-graduate level in West Bengal in 2011-2012 session. Here we

can see that in West Bengal ,the number of students enrolled in distance mode were 4 times, than in

regular mode. Total number of ST students were enrolled are 5477 in 2011-2012. Among the total

number of students 78.86% in distance mode and rest of students in regular mode. Boys students are

almost double than girls students. In distance mode 67% boys students and 33% girls students. In regular

mode 69%male and 31%,female students were enrolled. From the above discussion, we can say that in

West Bengal the opportunities in distance mode are too good to explain.

Table-11 ENROLMENT OF SCHEDULED CASTE (SC) STUDENTS IN POST GRADUATE DEGREE IN WEST BENGAL-2011-2012

SL NO

MODE OF course (WEST BENGAL)

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

1 DISTANCE 7787 3795 11582 2 REGULAR 5223 2869 8092

Source: West Bengal Higher Education Report-2011-2012

From the above diagram, we can see that total19674 students were enrolled in 2011-2012 sessions.

Among the total percentage of enrolment,59% were enrolled in distance mode and 41% studentswere in

regular mode. There is a huge difference between the boys and girls ratio. In distance mode, the ratio of

boys and girls were67% and33% and in regular mode, this ratio is 65% and 35%. There is also a

difference in enrolment between male students in regular and distance mode. Here the enrolment of male



25

student ratio is 60% in distance modeand in regular mode 40%. There is not too much difference of

female students between regular and distance mode Table-13 BUDGET ESTIMATE (2010-2011) AND (2011-2012) OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN WEST BENGAL

Non-Plan (2010-2011)

State-Plan (2010-2011)

Non-Plan (2011-2012)

State-Plan (2011-2012)

Assistance to Universities

725,93,56,000 76,75,90,000 755,95,26,000 84,38,00,000

Government Colleges & Institutes

133,24,02,000 19,90,00,000 133,93,59,000 21,40,00,000

Assistance to Non-Government Colleges

8,00,14,13,000 57,32,00,000 719,53,30,000 59,60,00,000

Institutes of higher learning & other Expenditure

8,43,13,000 11,70,10,000 9,22,10,000 9,42,10,000

Promotion of Modern Indian Languages

64,77,000 34,30,000 71,48,000 36,30,000

Research, Scholarships etc.

29,10,22,000 37,10,000 51,48,82,000 13,70,000



26

Technical Education

35,69,55,000 27,30,40,000 41,03,50,000 36,00,50,000

Physical Education & Youth Welfare

2,73,02,000 2,73,00,000 3,14,43,000 4,55,10,000

Promotion of Art and Culture

6,97,92,000 3,57,20,000 7,92,18,000 4,14,30,000

Surveys & Statistics-Gazettes& Statistical Memories-4354-02-110-NP-002

85,46,000 NIL 99,24,000 NIL

TOTAL

1743,75,78,000 200,00,00,000 1724,29,90,000 220,00,00,000

GRAND TOTAL

(Non-Plan+ Plan )

1943,75,78,000

1944,29,90,000

Source: West Bengal Higher Education Report (2011-2012)

The above chart is about a comparative description of total amount of rupees, allotted for higher

education in West Bengal in 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 sessions. There is not too much difference

in these two sessions. Physical Education and Youth Welfare were more emphasized than in 2010-

2011. Teacher Educationwas also emphasized more in 2011-2012 session. In research, the amount

of rupees is muchlower than 2010-2011 sessions but in non-state plan research in much emphasized.

We can say from this that there is a tendency to take research under non-state plan.

Conclusion It is true that the main objective of this study is to show the overall progress of higher education in

West Bengal in the light of India. It has been fulfilled in satisfactory level. Now-a-days we can

easily say that the higher education in West Bengal is a progressive higher education. With the



27

enrolment of all categories of students and teachers, there is also a gradual increase in the allocation

of rupees for higher education, and with the support of both Central government and West Bengal

State government, it is now transforming into a progressive higher education.

In spite of having many problems like, less opportunity, high paid education, and political

involvement etc. in the higher education in this state, we can easily overcome these with the help of

the following measures:

To provide more opportunities to the teachers, like good job environment, good salary, good

teaching materials, job security etc.,

To expand more enrolment opportunity, seats numbers, hostel facilities, good curriculum etc.

To keep higher education completely detach from politic.

To develop good infrastructure for implementing the curriculum.

To enroll the capable person as teacher etc.

By taking the appropriate action, we must be in the acquired position in higher education in India.

******************************

References:

Agarwall,J.C,(2005) Recent Developments and Trends in Education, Shipra Publication. Delhi. Agarwall, J.C, ( 2007) History of Modern Indian Education, Vikash Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, Delhi. Agarwal, J. C, (2009), Education Policy in India 1992 and review 2000 and 2005, Shipra Publication. Delhi. Banerjee, J.P, (1985), Education in India, Past: Present: Future. Central Library, Kolkata.

Chand, Jagadish.(2007), Education in India after independence, Anghah Publighing House, Delhi.

Gupta, Asha, (2008), Education in the 21st Century Looking beyond University News, 49(06), New Delhi.

Mukherjee, S.N, (1979), Education in India, Today and Tommrow, Acharya Book Depo of Boroda.



28

Naik, J.P, and Nurullah, Sayed, (1974), A Students History of Education in India, Mechmillan Company of India Limited, Shahdara, Delhi.

Naik, J.P, (1997),The Education Commission and After, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.

Purkhit, Dr.B. R, (1992), Milestone in Modern Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, Calcutta.

Rao, V.K, (2008), Modern Encyclopedia of Higher Education Vol-1, Cricis In World Higher Education, Rajat Publications, New Delhi.

Singh, U.K, and Sudarshan, K. N, (1996), Higher Education, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi.

Singh, K. P, and Ahmad, Shakeet, (2011), Issues and Challenges In Higher Education. University News, 49 (10), New Delhi

SUNDARAM 2014; Volume 2;Issue 2 Published online (http://www.e-sundaramjournal.in)

ISSN: 2347-6370 (Online)


INGMAR BERGMAN’S HOUR OF THE WOLF – ON DREAMS OF VIOLENCE Souvik Biswas Guest Lecturer Department of English Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis Mahavidyalaya 111/3 B.T Road (Bon Hoogly), Kolkata-700108, India Residential Address: 65, C Linton Street. Kolkata- 700014 Contact Number: 09804565450

Abstract: My paper looks into the structure of dreams and illusions invested in Ingmar Bergman’s Hour of the Wolf as an integral part of interiorized psychological violence. It traces the madness of an artist isolated and quarantined in his own horrifying imaginings. I contend to show how the disintegration between the real and unreal for the artist is externalized not only in the images of the grotesque but also concretizes the complete annihilation of the physical and psychological cartography of the identity. I have contextualized two other films of Bergman [Persona and Shame] from this period of Bergman’s cinema which also manifest a similar tendency of recording this idea of disintegration.

Keywords : dreams; disintegration; violence; madness; identity

We often live in dreams and when the dreams break, we lose everything that made dreams unreal.

The narration shifts and the brazen surrealism of dreams often congeal time and flow inwards. The soul

and the mind, unrecognized. It is the body tormented, subjected to a slow horizontal sequence of

disintegration. Ingmar Bergman’s tale of horror in Hour of the Wolf worked into the gothic genre of the

disjointed and fractured identity. It escalates reality, dreams conjuring shapes in a mocking pageant of the

human life. Reality sustained in a spiritual and visceral neurosis and what can be traced of the normal

human mind can never be recorded within the parameters of teleological narrative. Dreams as the only

possibility of hypothetical reality provides in the film the major stream of correlating experiential realities

manifested in the psychosis of the central characters and the impossibility of understanding the gothic

elements of horror and terror.



30

It can often be taken as the total impact of the conglomerated symbols that provide a meaning

and conveys the story of the film. It can be pointed out that this tendency quite often overshadows the

simplicity of the narration. Hour of the Wolf (1968) tells a tale of horror of monsters and ghosts haunting

a man with all their terrible devices of fear. But what strike a remarkable note in the film are the unreal

realities that not only shape the characters but also enhance the fearfulness of the story. The whole film

narrated through one of the central characters, Alma Borg, becomes at once a personal anecdote and

distinctly a part of a documentary about the missing artist, Johan Borg. It can be mentioned that in the

opening scene Alma Borg (played by Liv Ullmann) is talking seemingly not to the director but

particularly to the camera. It gave Bergman the agency to convey and tell the audience, in a very personal

way that the whole film will be narrated through the eyes of this woman who is directly related to the

other central character, Johan Borg (played by Max von Sydow) and hence she would be directly affected

by the same sense of neurosis and fear. She becomes a part of this macabre world, participating in the

same horrid images and thoughts that devastate her husband. The only recuperating factor that remains in

the course of these events is her ability to separate herself from this whole dimension of fear and

darkness. In this context, we can refer to Robin Wood’s article entitled as ‘The World Without, the World

Within’ (collected and edited together by Stuart M. Kaminsky and Joseph F.Hill), – “… In Persona

Elizabeth’s horrified apprehension of reality was gradually communicated to her nurse, so that the girl’s

defenses of conventional “normality” were shattered. Here, Johan’s increasing awareness of inner horrors

is communicated, through the medium of love for him, to Alma. The sharing is only partial…” As Wood

points out that Alma’s self questioning is most disturbing - “If only I could have been with him the whole

time.” Johan’s obsession and empathy with his neurosis drives him to a point where, he psychologically

refuses Alma to participate in his dreams. It is from here that his identity is obliterated and he is lost

forever.

It can be suggested that the starting of the film is reminiscent to the opening conglomeration of

the snapshots of moving images in Persona (1966). Hour of the Wolf starts with the implication of a film

set being prepared and we can even hear Bergman directing the cast and the lights and the props, which

makes it evident that a story is being constructed. It is the implementation of this technical device that

bears the impression of the central idea of illusions that feed upon the reality of the characters, especially

Johan who ultimately succumbs to this insecure domain of terrible dreams and disappears. The thematic

use of illusions is closely associated with the understanding of the normal human world plagued by



31

horrible imaginations. The disintegration of the artist’s mind into neurosis is simultaneously accompanied

with the possibility of a gothic reality of demons and monsters. The seeming construction of the film,

with the sounds that we hear at the very beginning, prioritizes an infinite possibility of interpretations.

Hence on one hand, it can be suggested that the dreading fantasies of the artist is what his wife witnesses

in recording his disintegration into madness. On the other hand, there is a greater risk in suggesting the

idea of empathy between the couples. In her love and devotion to her husband, she starts assuming the

illusions, the dreams and the insomnia of her husband, almost to the point of being sensitive of feeling

Johan’s neurosis in her own veins. It is here that the terrifying paradox is struck and the audience keeps

wondering along with Alma about the apparent palpability of those terrible images of horror.

In his autobiography, The Magic Lantern, Bergman writes very distinctly about his childhood

and refers to the impact of the axioms of order that intruded most devastatingly upon the mind of the

young artist. It can be suggested that an artist’s mind responds to realities primarily by sensitizing and

perceiving experiences with an absolute intimacy. For an artist the brutality and the vulgarity of life are

not transitory but eternally fatal. In Hour of the Wolf Bergman follows the pattern of Persona and The

Silence in depicting the predicament of an artist caught in the vortex of his neurosis and the final

disintegration of his mind. It becomes distinctly remarkable how the film works out the several

dimensions of reality. Johan’s hallucinatory world of the demons and the beasts constitute the central

symbol of ambiguity. And again the more ambivalent is Alma’s uncertainty of experiencing and

simultaneously participating in Johan’s images of horror. But again it is Alma who survives and to the

audience she is the narrator, who has travelled back to the island, retelling the story of her husband.

Hence reality slips into each other and it is the shroud of the dark hour that obscures reason and mocks

the last few vestiges of sanity in a possible search of humanity and redemption.

It is quite interesting to point out the continuous interplay of the real and the unreal, the dreams

and the actual lived experiences. The lucid narrative that unfolds the entire fabric of the film is itself

subjected to this ambiguity of the mind. This paradox between illusions and realities are absorbed so

diligently in the narrative that at one point of time it can be suggested that the difference between the two

is completely evaded. It is in this context that we can cite Buñuel’s Belle de Jour (1967), where once

again this slippage from the real to the unreal is treated with tremendous delicate poise and artistic

coherence to prioritize Séverine Serizy’s (played by Catherine Denueve) daydreams to escape from the

boredom of a comfortable bourgeois marriage. What is more significant is the implication that the fear

and the madness that Johan experiences and is brutally subjected to and the sexual fantasies and the fetish



32

of masochism into which Séverine plunges reflects upon the most surreptitious fleeting lapse of the

conscious to the subconscious. There is a continuous exchange of tenderness and contempt that these

characters feel for this dreaming alternate reposition that their mind prepares for their essential survival. It

can be pointed out what Penelope Gilliatt mentions in her reading of Bergman’s Hour of the Wolf in

‘Poems of Square Pegs’ (in Ingmar Bergman: Essays in Criticism) – “The mad painter’s disappearance at

the close of the picture and the well-dressed girl’s wild fantasies of whoring are symbols of torpor

defeated. They express the possibility of winning some freakish victory over a society so congealed and

generalized that to quit it by psychosis or idiosyncrasy has become, in art, a poetic act.”

Gilliatt further points while commenting on the title of the film that the hour of the wolf in

“Swedish folklore is the time when most people die and most babies are born. It is the time when one sees

what one is afraid of: the time that everyone in hospital dreads and the time when it is hardest not to give

up”. The title of the film draws upon an immense significance to understand the distinct moment when

dreams infuses with reality and the subconscious spreads the ripples of an uncertain fear to terrify the

conscious composure of sensibility. Hence it can be mentioned that the title refers to this critical moment

that records this neurotic vulnerability when the artist steadily descends into madness. There is almost a

similar tendency witnessed in Persona and Shame (1968) that captures the ultimate theatre of

disintegration of the human soul. Shame touches upon the humiliation of war as the ultimate social evil. It

continues, as a matter of fact in the following film that Bergman made, The Passion of Anna (1969), that

same cruel relentless study of personality disintegration, where the leading character falls apart. And

essentially this tradition started with Persona and the dream sequence when the nurse, Alma, falls into a

stupor of images where her consciousness fades out and is completely nonexistent. There is a series of

uncertain reality and uncertain identity that she falls in and confronts a terrible psychological

disintegration.

The grotesque in the film is accentuated through Johan’s descent into madness. The more he

loses control of the real, these terrible images and his fearful dreams become far too intense and personal.

Johan’s neurosis can be traced back to the childhood punishments to which he was brutally subjected. In

Images – My Life in Film, Bergman talks about his childhood - “There is no doubt that my upbringing

was a fertile ground for the demons of neurosis.” Johan remembers how he was made to believe of the

frightful little man in a dark closet where he was shut in as a punishment. And later in his fantasy or

hallucination of his confront with the little boy, reiterates the childhood punishment of the small creature



33

biting Johan’s foot. The whole episode as narrated to Alma is steeped in ambiguity as it is not only Alma

and the audience who wonders about the actuality of the past event, but it is Johan himself who wonders

over the validity of this anecdote. The strong erotic undertone of this scene is integral to Johan’s hysteria

and as Bergman insists in Images that both the boy and Johan should have been naked to heighten the

psychosomatic violence of the scene and hence to make it “brutally clear”. The “little demon” (as

Bergman calls him) can be seen as a protrusion of Johan’s subconscious, which like the submerged body

remains at the surface, refusing to sink.

The wounds of the relentless and the sudden spurts of blood rush to Johan’s mind in spaces

that never sustained. Veronica Vogler symbolizes the whole idea of a sterile sensation, a supposed affair

of the past and the morbidity of violent sensuality, which like the “little demon” also refuses to sink in the

muted sea of the past. In the beautifully crafted scene where the painter is drawn to his past lover, he goes

through the most horrifying humiliation and at a certain moment the demons, the inhabitants of the castle,

appears in their unsheathed real selves as monsters. It is again one of those instances where the real and

the unreal, the sane and the insane lose its boundary. But they remain unquestioningly real to Johan when

he witnesses them. It is Johan’s face that shows the concrete disintegration of his conscious self and he

confronts the naked brutality of his subconscious. It is the ultimate breach – “…the limit has been

transgressed”. All the tremors are now no more to be echoed and implied through the dreams but it is the

cathartic madness that releases the suspended reflection as “the mirror has been shattered” and Johan

asks, “But what do the splinters reflect? Can you tell me that?” He keeps talking without words and the

camera dissociates into obscurity, seemingly to dissolve into the sinking body of the “little demon”.

This trend of implementing dreams as the reflective medium of the subconscious can be traced

back to Wild Strawberries (1957), where it becomes symptomatic of vanity and futility. But it can be

mentioned that Bergman’s use of dreams in Hour of the Wolf and in the corresponding films of this later

period is essentially different from his earlier work. It can be suggested that in the later phase, dreams

have taken an ontological existence, mocking and imitating reality and posing a terrible possibility of

assuming and becoming one all by itself.

***************************



34

WORKS CITED: Cinema: Ingmar Bergman –

Persona (1966)

Hour of the Wolf (Vargtimmen) (1968)

Shame (Skammen) (1968)

The Passion of Anna (En passion) (1969)

Wild Strawberries (Smultronstället) (1957)

Luis Buñuel -

Belle de Jour (1967)

Books:

Images: My Life in Film, Ingmar Bergman, Translated by Marianne Ruuth. New York, Arcade Pub., (1994), ISBN 1-55970-186-2

Ingmar Bergman: Essays in Criticism (Galaxy Books), edited by Stuart M Kaminsky and Joseph F. Hill. Oxford University Press, New York (1975)

Magic Lantern, Ingmar Bergman, Translated by Joan Tate. University of Chicago Press, 3rd Edition (2007), ISBN-10 0226043827



35

Educational Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda: An Assessment with Reference to Present Context of India Srikanta Nandi Asst. Teacher, Amrah High School, P.O.-Saktigarh, Dt. - Burdwan, Pin- 713149 West Bengal, India. Guest Lecturer, Bam Vivekananda B.Ed College, Bam, P.O.-Joteram, Burdwan, Pin- 713104 India. Tanmoy Pandit Asst. Teacher, Amrah High School, P.O.-Saktigarh, Dt. - Burdwan, Pin- 713149 West Bengal, India. Dr. Pankaj Kumar Paul Asst. Professor & Head, Department of Education, Gourav Guin Memorial College, Chandrakona Road, P.O.- Satbankura, Dist.- Paschim Midinipur, Pin- 721253, West Bengal, India

Abstract :The present paper tries to analyze the educational theory of Swami Vivekananda and its relevance in the present day world. What Swamijee said and wrote in his various lectures and letters are full of valuable ideas concerning education as an all round development of character enabling the learner to stand on his own feet. Though a thinker of a century ago, his powerful thoughts crossed the boundary of time and they make the educationist, think even today in his light to solve several problems regarding concentration, student-teacher relationship, moral education, mass education, learner-centered education or distance education.

Key Words: Relevance, Enabling, Educationist, Concentration, Relationship, Learner-centered

Introduction Swami Vivekananda, one of the greatest thinkers of the world, left some valuable ideas regarding

education, and surprisingly what he thought a century ago is still not without significance even in present

day computer dominated world. At the outset, the fact should be made clear that the foundation of his

thoughts and ideas is the Vedanta Philosophy of India. In his thoughts, there is a fine blending of East and

West. What Swamijee learned from the Vedanta is the unending potential of human soul. With this

universal Indian Philosophy he mixed western science. So, very recently UNESCO also has acclaimed

Swamijee as one of the greatest educationists of the world. The present paper attempts to discuss

comprehensively covering the definition of education according to Swamijee and his idea about different

arenas of education.



36

The whole paper is divided into three major parts. Excluding the introductory portion, Part-I

describes the objectives and materials as well as methods of the study. Analysis and discussion appear in

Part-II, whereas conclusion comes into view in Part-III of the study.

Part-I

1.1 Objectives

The following objectives are laid down to validate the present discussion:

1) To know the definition of education.

2) To find out the importance of Brahmcharya and Ekagrata.

3) To assess the student-teacher relationship in the light of Swamijee’s idea

4) To analyze the necessity of moral education in present days and its relation with religion.

5) To explore the idea of mass education, importance of travelling and practical education and

distance education

1.2 Materials and Methods The study is mainly analytical in nature. The discussion is prepared based on the collected review of

literature and studies undertaken by various researchers as well as selected books. The whole

discussion is divided into the following two parts-

1) Definition of education according to Swamijee. 2) Various fields of education: Swamijee’s vision.

Part-II

2. Analysis and Discussion 2.1 Definition of Education

Vivekananda defined education as a hidden treasure in human heart that needs only its

manifestations; a bud only to bloom out in time into a full blossom. ---------- “Education is the

manifestation of the perfection already in man”.



37

Swamijee firmly believes that education is not like a garment to be put on from outside; rather it is

related to mind, body and soul. One who acquires it is not definitely like that crow who wore peacock’s

feather. In view of Swamijee, teaching only helps this ‘perfections’ to manifest well. It is like the fire

hidden in a stone which needs certain degrees of initiation to ignite. In touch of education, human mind is

illumined. So, according to Swamijee a human child can’t be taught, as it learns itself and it is more than

more learning, it is a discovery. To quote him – “What a man learns is really what he discovers.”

But this manifestations’ is not an easy task. Surprisingly, though there is an unending treasure of

knowledge in our minds, we are ignorant of it; we can’t realize it due to this ignorance that hides it in the

darkness of unconsciousness. The duty of a teacher or guide is only to remove this veil of darkness from

the learner’s mind and then he will learn everything himself. So, none can teach none, broadly speaking,

he can only guide and the learner learns himself.

The term ‘Education’ derives from a Latin word ‘Educere’

Meaning ‘to draw out’ and obviously in Vivekananda’s definition this is the main objective. To draw out

the perfection from the learner. His idea chose also in the title of Delor’s Commission Report (1993) –

“Learning: A Treasure within”.

So far we have discussed Vivekananda’s educational theory. But the exponent of ‘Practical

Vedanta’ did not restrict his ideas within narrow theoretical boundary. He suggested various ways – how

to implement then for the sake of the betterment of the society.

2.2 Education: Assimilation of Ideas and the value of concentration.

According to Swamijee, the main objective of education ‘Character building’ and ‘Man making’

this can never be accomplished with only book learning and earning higher degrees. Books gives us only

information which we have to assimilate in our mind. He famously said that if information gathering

with book learning can gives a man complete knowledge, then the libraries would have be the greatest

knowledgeable person.

So he commented: “The education which does not help the common mass of people to equip

themselves for the struggle of life, which does not bring out strength of character a spirit of philanthropy

and the courage of a lion – is it worth the name? Real education in that which enables one to stand on one,

own legs.” What Swamijee sought is definitely the education of self-reliance. In his time, during the



38

British rule, education was introduced in the country only to make clerks and officials for using them as

machineries of the empire. Against such background Swamijee spoke for the education of ‘Man making’,

the education that leads one to freedom from slavery: ‘Sa-Vidya-Ya-Vimuktaye’.

2.3 Brahmcharya and Ekagrata (Chastity and concentration) According to Swamijee, the mind of a learner should be cultivated well before starting his learning, and

the most perfect way in this regard is practicing unmixed brahmcharya to quote him – ‘Chastity in

thought, action and word’, out of which what would emerge is the power of concentration – the key to

unlock the storehouse of knowledge. If a child is properly trained, education will be a delightful easy

experience for him. So first of all, the power of concentration in the learner should positively be

developed. 2.4 Student-Teacher Relationship Though education is the learner’s own hidden treasure, for its complete expression a teacher’s guidance

is essential. So there should be cordial affectionate relationship between the teacher and the taught. In

view of Swamijee, a learner achieves true education when he comes in direct contact with his Guru. Here

he lays stress on ashramic gurugrihabas’, and a teacher should never think that he teaches, rather he

should believe that he only guides. Here Swamijee foreshadows the modern theories of education – active

participation of teacher and learner in the process of education. According to modern constructivism what

happens in education is – the learner builds up his own knowledge. Hence Swamijee says, “The true

teacher is one who can immediately comedown to the level of student’s soul, see through and understand

through his mind, such a teacher can really teach one, none else.” The teacher should be eloquent in his

utterance in a simple language – “The greatness of teacher consists in the simplicity of his language.”

Positive Approach: Tagore found nothing negative in Vivekananda who holds always a positive outlook

in his educational theory also. He wanted to free education from all negative method. A teacher should

never discourage his learner. In his view “Negative thought” makes a man weak. On the other hand,

proper cultivation of positive ideas create velour and interest in a learner, with which he can make

everything possible.



39

2.5 Moral Education and Religion Time and again Swamijee emphasized the value of moral education which is essential to load the entire

society. For a right way, and for installing such values into tender minds religion is the best way.

According to him Religion is the Supreme essence of education. For practicing those abstract values the

learner needs living examples before them. Hence, the lives and lessons of the great prophets like Christ,

Buddha or Sri Ram Krishna should be included in their syllabus. Swamijee always thinks religions in its

broadest sense and what he seeks is a unification of religions and he says, “We want to lead mankind to

the place where there is neither the Vedanta’s, nor the Bible, nor the Koran; yet this has to be done by

harmonizing the Vedas, the Bible, the Koran.” Against the background of this terrorist-denominated

present day world his message of universal fraternity is highly relevant.

2.6 Mass Education

Education for all – it was Swamijee’s dream project. For the poor, downtrodden, lower-caste people of

India he had deep feelings in the core of his heart and in search of redress to their social, financial and

spiritual problem he tried to implement education. Followings the motto of Ramakrishna’s “Loke

shiksha” he instructed his followers to visit door to door in the interior rural areas with teachings learning

materials like globe, map, charts etc. to spread education everywhere

2.7 Technical and Vocational Education Though a person who lived a century ago, Swami Vivekananda encouraged technical and vocational

education which enables a learner to develop his skill and solves the problem of unemployment. The

spread of education in this sphere contributes much to the progress of the industries of the nation.

2.8 Importance of traveling and practical education

Himself a globetrotter, Swamijee regarded travel as a true medium of educations. He compared travel to

the flow of water which is totally dirt less. So, for the sake of true education classroom teaching and book

learning is not sufficient, traveling experience is essentially needed. Side by side, practical

experimentations in the laboratories should be practiced regularly. What a scientific outlook he had. Even,

he introduces applied or practical Vedanta to bring the lessons of the Vedas, home from the forest.



40

2.9 Distant Education The concept of distant education was also visualized be Swamijee who tried

to implement his Guru’s motto “As long we live, so long we learn” – learning throughout the life.

Part-III

Conclusion The far-reaching vision of Vivekananda embraces almost every faculty of education. For the betterment

of the present educational system the practice of his ideas should be introduced soon at different levels of

education from elementary level.

**********************

References

Basu. S.P ; Vivekananda O Samakalin Bharatbarsha (Seven Vol.), Mondal Book House.

Chakraborty.M (1995), Pioneers in Philosophy of Education, New Delhi, Concept Publishing

Company.

DuttaRoy.S (2001), Education in the Vision of Swami Vivekananda, www.esamskriti.com

Green Message (2014): The Evergreen Messages of Spirituality, Sanskrit and Nature, Sayings /

Quotes of Swami Vivekananda.

Green Message: The Evergreen Messages of Spirituality, Sanskrit and Nature (Nov.-2014),

What is Education?

Khaitan.B.K :( 2013), Swami Vivekananda,s Views on Education, www.speaking tree. in

Nithiya.P (Vol.1, Issue-6, Nov.-2012), Swami Vivekananda,s Views on Philosophy of Education,

AJMR.

Shinde.P.R ; (2012) , Thoughts of Swami Vivekananda about Education, SRJIS.

Vivekananda.S, (2008) ; My India : The India Eternal – Book – Sulekha.com



41

A HISTORICAL ENQUIRY INTO THE EDUCATIONAL

BACKWARDNESS OF TRIBES OF KERALA; SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO MALPPURAM DISTRICT

FIROZ. K.T

Assistant Professor, Department of West Asian Studies,

EMEA College of Arts & Science, Kondotty, Malappuram. Dist. Kerala

&

MUHAMMED. KV

Senior Research Fellow, Department of Education,

University of Calicut.

Kerala – 673 635

Mob: 09847585258,

Email: [email protected]

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract: The paper tries to explore theoretically and empirically the educational backwardness of tribes in the state of

Kerala with special reference to Malappuram District. The inquiry is based on a qualitative descriptive paradigm. The

investigators employed the technique of interview with the tribes in Malappuram district of Kerala. Field study method, open

ended questionnaire and participant observation were also conducted to explore the issues of tribes. The result of the study

brought out several facts. The teachers and institutions failed to get into the real issues regarding education of tribes. Students

fail to understand the language of teacher since it is different from their language and the classroom culture are not interesting

to them. There are several cultural elements like familial, social, school or educational context which cause formulation of

undesirable attitudes towards education among tribes. The paper will be an eye opener for the teachers and the institutions to

render their pivotal role in creating better educational or school culture among tribes of Malappuram District.

Keywords : Teachers, Institutions, School culture

_____________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Education is an essential tool for improving communities and changing lives. It is essential for

ameliorating the present condition of the weaker sections of the country .scheduled tribes are groups of



42

people who for thousands of years were under the clutches of slavery. They were not given education

which has the monopoly of the elite classes. Adivasi is an umbrella term for a heterogeneous set of ethnic

and tribal groups claimed to be the aboriginal population of India. They comprise a

substantial indigenous minority of the population of India. ‘Tribes’ or ‘scheduled tribes’ in Kerala who

are believed to be the earlier settlers of the region, are generally called ‘tribal’s’, implying ‘original

inhabitants’. The constitution of India in its article 46 that “the state shall provide with special care the

educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the

scheduled castes, and scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of

exploitation”.

The tribal population faces a lot of problems. Educationally, economically, socially and culturally

they were very backward as compared to the rest of the people .lack of education is a major factor for the

slow development programmes among the tribes. For centuries, they lived in isolation and thus could

preserve their social customs, traditions and beliefs to a larger extent. While tracing the history,

interestingly, one can see the life of tribal’s changing in accordance to the socio-economic changes

occurred in the mainstream of the society. During the pre-colonial period, tribal communities in the

region remained most often isolated from the mainstream of the society. But during colonial rule, the

habitat of tribal’s, that is, forest subjected to massive exploitation while the colonial exploitators

recognized that the forests in the peninsular region is an unexploited bundle of natural resources such as

timber and non-timber products as spices, medicinal plants, ivory etc

The poor economic condition is the main problem faced by the tribes. Because of these poor

economic conditions, the children cannot go to school, and this will lead to growing illiteracy, they cannot

take sufficient foods, they will compel to do works for low wages, they would be inferior about their

personality Etc. Most often they detached from their traditional way of life but failed to reach the modern

socio-economic opportunities that have been enjoyed by the mainstream economy as well as society.

They lost their traditional way of livelihood appropriation and remained as low waged, highly exploited

menial labourers in plantation, agriculture, construction etc. They have been being in utter backwardness

and suffered by poverty, landlessness, malnutrition, diseases, sexual and other exploitations.

After the constitution of the independent nation of India the centre and the state governments have

been taking very keen interest in the development and welfare of tribal population. In this view, the

governments decided to initiate several developmental and affirmative programmes exclusively with the



43

same objectives. The present situation of tribes obviously explicates the failures of the governments in a

larger extent to bring the human and intellectual capital of tribal’s in the Endeavour of nation building

along with the other sections of the society. This is the high time for rethinking and restructuring of tribal

welfare and development policies.

Apart from all other elements in the discussion of ‘Kerala model of development’, we can see that

the system of public education has a prominent role in determining all other factors which realized the

higher achievements in social development of Kerala. It can be understood that the higher achievements

in social development without corresponding economic growth have a direct link with people’s attitude

towards modern practice of education. Modern education can be considered as one of the most accepted

agent of our social development. It is a fact that in our society there is high educated unemployment and

we believed that educational attainments definitely provide us a better living condition in the sense that

better job, better earnings, better intellectual support to liberate themselves from exploitations etc. This

kind of a notion prevails in our society strongly. Otherwise we will not go to school and colleges for long

years to appropriate different degrees and diplomas. This is the basic fact which develops such kind of

attitude towards formal education. The notion regarding the complementary relation between education

and betterment of living condition may come from varied socio-religious and political movements

happened in our society. Most of the sections of our society recognized the importance of modern

education and schooling during the end of 19th century itself. The present day educational statistics of

Kerala shows that there still exists a serious gap in the achievements in education by different social

groups. Certain sections of the society remain most backward in educational attainments, especially the

groups such as tribes , to a certain extent Dalits and women from lower class and Muslims. This

backwardness may have different roots. Through this paper to explore theoretically and empirically the

educational backwardness of tribes in the state of Kerala in the above said larger context.

The educational processes in the formal schools are not interesting and useful to the children in

their real life. Present system of education is unable to preserve and transmit culture of tribes .similarly

studying a long duration without income for subsistence at least becomes an obstacle for their education.

The educational and even literacy status of tribal’s in Kerala is highly pathetic when compared to

other sections of population, but at the same time government have spent large volume of fund with the

plan of building better educational infrastructure and related amenities to them. Even though, the high

government expenditure and enhancement policies are there, the material condition to educate tribes have



44

been remained so poor. Most of the educational and social science researchers engaged in the studies on

tribal educational issue pointed out the issue of inadequate infrastructure and other material facilities.

However, while going through the statistics of tribal educational achievements, one can see that there is a

question of under utilization, it may remains hidden. Under utilization of existing infrastructure and other

facilities can be viewed as a serious issue regarding the educational backwardness of the referred group.

The present study enquire what are the major reason for backwardness of tribal education in Kerala.

METHODOLOGY

Background

The present day educational statistics of Kerala shows that there still exists a serious gap in the

achievements in education by different social groups, especially the tribal’s, Dalits and women from

lower class and Muslims.

Aims

The paper tries to explore theoretically and empirically the educational backwardness of tribal’s in

the state of Kerala.

Method

The inquiry has done in a qualitative descriptive method. The crux of this inquiry develops from

conversations and interviews by the investigator with tribal’s and varied other people who engaged with

issues of this section of society, Literally, it can be said that it is a compilation of reflections what the

investigator gets from his field experiences.

Sample

The sample of the study consisted of select tribal Communities in Malappuram district of Kerala.

Tools used for the study

Since this study used a field study method, open ended questionnaire, participant observation and

interviews were conducted among tribal peoples and peoples associated with issues of tribes.

Procedure



45

The problem of this inquiry has done in a qualitative descriptive manner. The crux of this inquiry

develops from conversations and interviews by the investigator with tribal’s and varied other people who

engaged with issues of this section of society..

Results

The teachers and other educational administrators failed to get into the real issues regarding

education of tribal’s because most of them are unacquainted about the specific socio-cultural features of

tribal’s life. Perception of mainstream of ‘society’ towards tribal’s as less competitive and submissive.

According to the 2001 census of India, the Scheduled Tribe population in Kerala is 1.14%.

Wayanad has the highest number of tribes, Idukki and Palakkad districts are the next two that make the

lion portion of the native tribal people groups in the state. The Paniya (Paniyar) are the largest of the 35

major tribe. It is the fact that most of them lost their folk characteristics of life and livelihood

appropriation. It may be as a result of the diversification of socio-economic surroundings and value

system according to the implementation of imparted value system based on colonial notion of modernity.

Some of the tribal’s who still remain in the interior of the forest can retain some elements of their folk

characteristics to an extent. But most of the tribal inhabits in the frinch areas of the forest and townships

mostly changed their manner of life by blending themselves with mainstream society and market. In

Nilamboor most of the non-tribes are migrated farmers and agriculturists. Subsequently they subjugated

the Nilamboor economy and installed new production and distribution system. They commoditized

whatever in Nilamboor area according to the colonial needs and requirements. As part of this shift,

tribal’s of the region were also forced to make shifts in their way of life and way of appropriation of

livelihood. To discuss such an issue of educational backwardness of tribes of Malappuram especially in

Nilamboor valley, the above said context of socio-economic shifts are also important. The shifts in their

lives, whatever it may be forced or not, make changes in their daily life practice, world view, attitude,

perception towards themselves and other sections of the society and awareness towards socio-economic

opportunities (Anandabanu, 1989).

Before coming to the factors which form an adverse attitude among the tribal students towards

education and schooling we want to discuss the possibilities of forming it. In the case of a tribal child,

from the habitual situation, his rationale, attitude, world view etc are evolved. It is very traditional and

strictly in tune with tribal customs and practices. But school is an entirely different institution which



46

formulated under totally modern sense of values, rationale and norms; it is basically constituted as a

modern social space. A child imbibed highly traditional or pre-modern values and rational and formulated

his/her attitude and world view in such a context that has definitely showed some inadequacies and

reluctance to incorporate with school and related practices. It can be understood from the conversations

and dialogues with the students from tribes. They argued that they cannot understand what teacher says in

classrooms, they failed to understand the language of teacher since it is different from their language, it is

not interesting to them what the teacher taught, and there is no need of studying such kinds of things to

live within their settlements/habitat. These are some tips from the conversations which show the issue of

educational backwardness of tribal’s. Here we cannot argue either it is utterly a problem of tribal child or

the teachers or the system of education. But there are some cultural elements to be involved. The issues

which cause formulation of undesirable attitudes and culture of resistance towards education among

tribal’s can be listed under two heads-one is the factors from familial/social context and the other is the

factors from school/educational context.

The important factors from familial/social context can be listed as follows,

Ignorance of parents regarding schooling and educational matters

Lack of proper formal education of parents and siblings.

Utter poverty, it may compel the tribal’s pupils to find earnings in their school age to support

family budget.

Illiteracy of parents and siblings.

Low and menial employment status of parents and siblings.

Lack of desirable and familiar role models regarding education and employment other than

traditional and physical labour from their family and nearest surroundings.

Lack of proper social net-work which can provide awareness on institutional and other support

system and to acquaint with opportunities.

Highly traditional rationality and world-view which the child imbibed from their familial and near

social environment.

Self-perception of tribes towards themselves as not as much of competitive.

Lack of awareness about governmental support and reservation policies as a social and political

right.



47

Perception of mainstream of ‘society’ towards tribal’s as less competitive and submissive.

The important factors from school/educational context can be listed as follows,

Undesirable attitude of other students and classmates towards tribal students.

Tendencies to peer grouping of pupils from same socio-economic status in class room as well as

school.

Unwillingness of tribal pupils to acquaint with strange infrastructure such as building, furniture

etc.

Poor infrastructural amenities of schools.

The teachers and other educational administrators failed to get into the real issues regarding

education of tribal because most of them are unacquainted about the specific socio-cultures

features of tribal life.

Inefficiency of teachers to bring and accustom the students from tribal community to modern

scientific rationality which intended to perpetuate through teaching in schools.

Medium of instruction is one the major issue in educating tribal’s, Even though it is Malayalam,

tribal pupils feel strange because their colloquial language is entirely different.

Lack of better career based awareness programmes in schools.

Lack of assistance to better and effective utilization of governmental provisions to bettering

accessibilities regarding education and schooling.

Psychological reluctance to explore the usual ways of finding enjoyments (plays and games)

available in schools.

Conclusion

The above listed factors are drawn from the conversations and experiences with tribal pupils and

people. It can be effectively illustrated how they formulate a culture of resistance/negation towards

education and school. The familial/social context and school/educational context as above listed finally

get reach the tribal students to formulate a notion regarding their education/schooling among themselves

which causes drop out, stagnation and less achievement. They think that they are not suitable and able to

compete with the pupils from other social backgrounds. Some of them argued that they did not have

enough intelligence to study the things which teacher taught in class rooms. Most of them rightly believed

that educational attainments will not help them to attain a better standard of life as the other non-tribal’s



48

occupy. Most of them blamed government because they strongly believed that the backwardness of their

education is due to inadequacy of assistance, it may financial and other, from government.

There is no doubt that the infrastructural development and other support is very important but the

attitudinal shift of tribes, the teachers and the society is as much as or more important. Without a

desirable attitude whatever the infrastructure and assistance already have has subjected to under

utilization. To make possible the educational mobility of tribal’s and other deprived sections of the

society, as the first step, teachers will be educated with a desirable attitude. The teachers can serve as the

role model to the tribal pupils, to get a better role model from their familial and nearest social

surroundings is hard. To become a good role model, positive attitude towards suffering lives and

knowledge regarding it is important. Teachers have great role in creating positive educational/school

culture among the people.

*****************

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aggarwal, (2004). Basic ideas in education. New Delhi: Shipra Publication.

Anandabanu, B. (1989). The cholanaikans of Kerala. Anthropological survey of India. Culcutta:

Bali Printing House.

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V.(1996). Research in Education (seventh edition). New Delhi: Prentice

Hall of India.

Bindu, S. (2008). Action Anthropology Tribal development Issues. Wayanad: Indigenous People

Service Society.

Kunhaman, M. (1989). Development of tribal economy. New Delhi: Classical Publishing.

Luiz, .A.A.D. (1962). Tribal of Kerala. New Delhi: Bharathiya Adimjathi Sevak Sang.

Mann, R.S. & Mann, K. (1989). Tribal culture and change. New Delhi: Mithal Publication.

Mathur, P.R.G. (1977). Tribal situation in Kerala. Trivandrum: Kerala Historical Society.

Rath Govinda Chandra. (Ed). (2006). Tribal development in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

Sing, K.S. (2002). Peoples of India. New Delhi: East West Press.



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Syamlal. (1989). Education Among Tribes, Jaipur: Jaipur Print Publication.

Verma, R.C. (1990). Indian tribes through the ages. New Delhi: Publication Division, Ministry of

Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.



50

POSITIVE EFFECT OF USING ICT IN SCHOOL EDUCATION: A MICRO STUDY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE IN THE DISTRICT OF BURDWAN, WEST BENGAL, INDIA Srikanta Nandi Asst. Teacher Amrah High School, P.O.-Saktigarh, Dt. - Burdwan, Pin- 713149 West Bengal, India & Guest Lecturer, Bam Vivekananda B.Ed College, Bam, P.O.-Joteram, Dt.- Burdwan, Pin- 713104,West Bengal, India.

Abstract: This present paper attempts to analyze the opinion of teachers about the positive effect of using ICT in school education. The study covers 100 teachers comprising of 50 trained (25 male & 25 female) and 50 untrained (25 male & 25 female) categories. The results of ‘chi-square’ test revealed that trained as well as untrained teachers are almost in the same significant level of opinions about the positive effect of using ICT in school education. From the ‘student’s t test’ it has also been found that the attitude of teachers under male and female categories is significantly positive towards the effect of using ICT in school education. Again from the study, it is evident that male teachers both in trained and untrained categories are more in favor the view that using of ICT in school education improves ‘quality of education’; ‘quality of teaching’; ‘classroom management’; ‘time management during a period’; and ‘enhancement of motivation of student’s towards the subject than female teachers both in trained and untrained categories. Key Words: ICT, Teachers, Chi-square test, Revealed, Student’s t test, Management

Introduction

ICT (Information and Communication Technology or Technologies) is a term which includes any

communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer,

network hardware and software, satellite systems and so other services and applications like

videoconferencing, videotaping and distance learning through modern technological gadgets. The concept

for using ICT in education is not very old. For instance, radio and television have been used for over 40-

50 years for open and distance learning. Now it is the high time for the society to concentrate in the use of



51

modern ICT technologies. From the standpoint of economical background, it is found that still now

printed matter (books, articles, magazines etc.) is used in larger proportion both in developed and

developing countries. Availability and accessibility are another reason for the dominance of printed

matter over ICT. The use of computers and the internet is still in its infancy in developing countries like

India (en.wikibooks.org)

Advantages of using ICT in school education

The following are the advantages of using ICT in school education-

ICT authenticates the knowledge in each subject and it helps to develop certain skills to the

students which is needed for them to cope with the contemporary education system.

ICT allows learners to develop meta cognitive skills. The learner needs to advance its

technological tools. By using such skills, one can perform better in learning.

Since it is easy to access the information’s through ICT, learners are able to update their learning

potentials and creativity.

ICT increases the motivation of students in relation to learning.

Disadvantages of using ICT in school education

It is too important to use ICT in the classroom properly. If the role of teachers is doubtful in

relation of using ICT, students are not motivated.

Certain control is needed over using ICT as any kind of information’s or images can easily access

through it.

In availability of technological tools in schools is one of the constraints against the use of it.

The equipments or tools used in ICT in school education are very costly.

Objectives

The following objectives are laid down to validate the present study:



52

(i) To know the definition of ICT, its advantages and disadvantages;

(ii) To examine the relevance of using ICT in school education;

(iii) To find out the indicators associated with the use of ICT for the development of the present or

contemporary education system.

(iv) To access the view of teachers under trained and untrained categories about the positive effect of

using ICT in school education;

(v) To enumerate the attitude of teachers under male and female categories about the positive effect of

using ICT for the development of present education system followed in school education.

Hypotheses

The hypotheses selected in our study are -

Null hypotheses

The null hypotheses are as follows –

H01: These are no differences in opinion about the positive effect of using ICT in school education among

the teachers under trained and untrained categories.

H02: These are no differences in attitude about the positive effect of using ICT in school education among

the under gender variation i.e. in male and female categories.

Alternative hypotheses

The alternative hypotheses are as follows -

H11: There exists significant difference in opinion about the positive effect of using ICT in school

education among the teachers under trained and untrained categories.

H12: There exists significant difference in attitude about the positive effect of using ICT in school

education among the teachers under male and female categories.



53

Data Source and Methodology

The study is mainly analytical in nature. The primary data has been collected during 2013-2014 from 100

teachers comprising of 50 in trained (25 male & 25 female) and 50 in untrained of education department

and 100 teachers comprising of 50 in trained and 50 in untrained (25 male & 25 female) categories both

in urban as well as rural areas in Burdwan district of West Bengal. A self made structured questionnaire

was used by considering various indicators associated with the positive effect of using ICT in school

education. The indicators selected for the study are as follows-

Quality of education,

Improvement of teaching quality,

Classroom management,

Time management,

Enhancement of motivation of students towards the subject.

Materials and Methods

1. The chi-square test is used to determine any significant variation of opinion among the teachers

under trained and untrained categories about the positive effect of using ICT in school education.

2. The student’s –t test is performed to find out the attitude of teachers under male and female

categories about the positive effect of using ICT in school education.

3. Tabular representations are used to make a comparative static analysis of collected data.

4. Charts and diagrams are used to make more comprehensive for the representation.

Analysis and Discussion



54

Positive effect of using ICT in school education: A Non-parametric Analysis

The present study has attempted to make an assessment of the views of teachers under trained and

untrained categories as well as under male and female categories about the positive effect of using ICT in

school education in terms of non-parametric ‘chi-square’ analysis along with parametric ‘student’s t test’

analysis. The opinions of the respondents collected from the field survey can be expressed in the

following table (Vide table-1).

Table No.1: Opinion of respondents selected for the study

Respondents Types of

teachers

No. of

samples

selected

In favor of

the positive

effect of

using ICT in

school

education

Not In favor

of the

positive

effect of

using ICT in

school

education

Total

Teachers Trained 50 42 (84) 8 (16) 50 (100)

Untrained 50 46 (92) 4 (8) 50 (100)

Total 100(100) 88(88) 12(12) 100(100)

Source: Field survey, 2013-2014 Note: Figures in the bracket indicates the percentage to total. Table -1 describes the opinions of the teachers under trained and untrained categories about the positive

effect of using ICT in school education. From the above analysis (Vide table-1), we can conclude that



55

most of the trained as well as untrained teachers are in favor the view that using of ICT in school

education enhances the quality of education.

Diagram – 1: Opinions of teachers under trained and untrained categories selected for the study

about the positive effect of using ICT in school education

N.B: Series-1 indicates percentage of trained and untrained teachers in favor of opinions

Series-2 indicates percentage of trained and untrained teachers not in favor of opinions

From the diagram-1, it is evident that most of the respondents i.e. the teachers and administrative

personnel’s selected for the study are in favor of the view that using of ICT in school education is

effective in relation to the indicators selected for our study.



56

Table No. 2: Testing of the hypothesis H01 / H1

1

The calculated value and the observed value of chi-square are shown in the table below (Vide table – 2).

Variables compared Calculated

value (X2)

Critical

value (5%

level)

Critical

value (1%

level)

Degrees

of

freedom

Significant level

1%` 5%

Opinion of trained teachers

and untrained teachers about

the positive effect of using

ICT in school education.

1.52 2.70 6.63 1 P>0.01 P>0.05

Source: Authors’ calculation based on field survey 2013-2014

It should be noted (Vide Table – 2) that the observed value of chi-square (x2) i.e. 1.52 is smaller than the

critical value both at 1% and 5% level of significance (i.e., X2,.01, d.f.1 = 6.63 and X2,.05, d.f.1 = 2.70 for

degrees of freedom 1). Therefore the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected

both at 1% and 5% level of significance. So we can conclude that there is no difference in opinion about

the positive effect of using ICT in school education among the trained and untrained teachers. (Devi,

2012)

Table – 3: Attitudes of teachers under trained (M & F) and untrained (M & F) categories towards

the selected indicators associated with the use of ICT in school education. A multiple response

analysis.



57

Respondents Type of

Teachers

No. of

samples

selected

Gender Factors

Qual

ity of

educ

ation

Improve

ment of

teaching

quality

Classroom

manageme

nt

Time

mana

geme

nt

Enhan

cement

of

motiva

tion

Teachers

Trained 25 M 18

(72)

19

(76)

23

(92)

21

(84)

24 (96)

25 F 19

(76)

19

(76)

24

(96)

19

(76)

24

(96)

Untrained

25 M 23

(92)

24

(96)

25

(100)

23

(92)

25

(100)

25 F 21

(84)

22

(88)

22

(88)

22

(88)

24

(96)

Total 100 81 84 94 85 97

Source: Authors’ calculation based on field survey 2013-2014.

Table- 4 describes that the opinion of male and female teachers in trained category almost have no

difference about the indicators ‘improvement of teaching quality’ and ‘enhancement of motivation of

students towards the subject’. But the opinion of female teachers in trained category are slightly more in

favor to the indicators ‘quality of education’ and ‘classroom management’ than the male teachers in

trained category. Again the male teachers in trained category think that the use of ICT is effective for time

management in the classroom during a period. From the study, it is evident that male teachers in untrained

category are more in favor to all the selected indicators than the female teachers in untrained category.



58

Again male teachers of trained as well as untrained categories are more interested to use ICT in school

education for quality development in education than the female teachers of both categories. It has also

been found from the study that trained female teachers are thinking positively about the use of ICT which

is more effective in the classroom management whereas reverse attitude is expressed in case of time

management during a period. Female teachers in both categories are in same level of significance in

‘enhancement of motivation of students towards the subject’, which is really praiseworthy.

Diagram-2: Attitude of trained teachers under male and female categories about the selected

indicators associated with the use of ICT in school education: A comparative analysis

Above diagram shows the attitude of trained teachers under male and female categories about the selected

indicators associated with the use of ICT in school education.



59

Diagram-3: Attitude of untrained teachers under male and female categories about the selected

indicators associated with the use of ICT in school education: A comparative analysis

Above diagram shows the attitude of untrained teachers under male and female categories about the

selected indicators associated with the use of ICT in school education.

Table No. 4: Attitudes of teachers under male and female categories towards the positive effect of

using ICT in school education: Student’s t-test in terms of Multiple Response Analysis. (Testing of

the hypothesis H02 / H1

2)

Teachers Sample(N) Mean S.D. t-value Significant level

5 % 1 %

Male 50 31.82 11.6 0.77 P< 0.05 P< 0.01

Female 50 32.9 9.04

Source: Authors’ calculation based on field survey 2013-2014.



60

From the above analysis (vide table-4), it is clear that calculated value of‘t’ is smaller than the table value

with little variation of Mean and S.D. among the opinions of the respondents. Therefore, we can conclude

that there exists no significant variation of attitudes of male and female categories of teachers about the

positive effect of using ICT in school education.

Conclusion

The opinion of teachers comprising of trained (male and female) and untrained (male and female)

categories about the positive effect of using ICT in school education are considered for discussion. From

the study, it is revealed that untrained male teachers are more interested about the use of ICT in school

education than untrained female teacher. Again, it is also evident from our study that trained male as well

as trained female teachers are almost in the same level of significance towards the indicators selected for

the study. By considering the results of ‘chi-square analysis’ and ‘student’s t’test’, we can conclude that

there exists no difference in opinion as well as attitude of the teachers about the positive effect of using

ICT in school education in terms of the indicators selected for the study. Most of the respondents think

that classroom management and enhancement of student’s motivation, these are very essential for quality

education which is positively affected by the use of ICT. In this regard further study is needed.

***************************

References

1) An ALTEN Group Company (2012), IT/ ICT Adaptation in Indian Higher Education (Calsoft

labs)

2) Department of School Education and Literacy Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt.

of India (2012) , National Policy on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in

School Education

3) Devi.S & et.al (2012), ICT for Quality of Education in India, IJPSS.



61

4) Edison.R (2011), Advantages and disadvantages of ICT integration in the classroom,

EDUCATION FOR A BETTER LIFE.

5) ICT in Education in India. educoop.com

6) Info Dev, ICT in School Education (Primary and Secondary),

PRICEWATERHOUSECOOPERS.

7) Roy.N.K (2012), ICT- Enabled Rural Education in India,IJIET.

8) The Use of Information and Communication Technology in Teaching of Vocational Subjects.

Grossarchive.com

9) www.cenarestgabon.org

10) www.dorabjitatatrust.org/pdf/ITE_Note.pdf

ICT in Education in India: Integrated approach to Technology in Education(ITE)

11) www.literacybridge.org/talking-book/ Talking Book



62

TIME-OUTS AS A METHOD OF REDUCING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

Prarthita Biswas Asst.Prof.,PAILAN COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (Affiliated to the UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA),PAILAN GROUP, Joka,Kolkata

& Research Scholar, Dept.of Education, UNIVERSITY OF KALYANI, Nadia, West Bengal Email Address : [email protected] /[email protected]

Abstract : Disruptive students served in special education programs require special attention from teachers and a wide range

of behavioral management interventions. Many disruptive behaviors can be prevented through the development of proactive

behavioral and academic interventions. Other behaviors can be managed through targeted reactive interventions in which

specific behaviors are assigned specific consequences that are clearly communicated and understood by both the teacher and

the student. There are instances, however, when it is necessary for both the teacher and the student to acknowledge that the

immediate instructional strategy is not working, as evidenced by significant disruptive behavior on the part of the student. An

effective and comprehensive behavioral management plan must include strategies designed to address these instances. Time

out, in its many forms, has proven to be an effective set of interventions for such instances. As with all instructional strategies,

time out interventions must be developed to meet the unique needs of the student and at the same time maintain the integrity of

the classroom.

Key Words: - Timeout, school education, communication, instructional strategies

INTRODUCTION

In general, time-out is the removal of a child from an apparently reinforcing setting to a

presumably nonreinforcing setting for a specified and limited period of time. Time-out is “time away

from positive reinforcement” The definition of time-out includes two important factors:

(1) time-out is contingent on the exhibition of the target behavior, and (2) a discrepancy that is

meaningful to the student exists between the time-in and time-out environments. Such removal can

effectively decrease a target behavior . Teachers of young children used time-out more frequently than

teachers of older children. Ruhl (1985) found that 88% of special education teachers surveyed used time-



63

out with their students. In a similar study, Shapiro and Lentz (1985) found that 85% of school

psychologists used time-out procedures. Jones, Sloane, and Roberts (1992) compared the effectiveness of

time-out and verbal reprimand (“Don’t”) interventions on the oppositional, aggressive behavior of three

preschool children toward their siblings. Mothers of the children were trained and applied the

interventions in the home. The researchers found the immediate time-out intervention to be more effective

than the verbal reprimand.

There are three types of time-out:

1. Observational time-out is a procedure in which the student is withdrawn from a reinforcing

situation by (a) placing him or her on the outer perimeter of the activity, where the child can see

and hear the activity but not participate in it; (b) requesting the child to place his or her head on

the desk (called “head-down”); (c) removing activity materials; or (d) eliminating or reducing

response maintenance stimuli (e.g., room illumination).

2. Exclusion is a procedure in which the student leaves a reinforcing situation to a presumed

nonreinforcing situation while remaining in the classroom. The student is not allowed to observe

the group. An example is placing a screen between the student and the group.

3. Seclusion is a procedure that makes use of a “time-out room.” In this situation, the student leaves

the classroom and goes to an isolated room.

Isolation time-out is a highly controversial intervention (Mayerson & Riley, 2003). It removes the

individual from his or her educational program, even if it is for a brief period of time. The use of time-out

should be carefully reviewed by the IEP team and administrators responsible for the student’s program.

Careful data regarding the application and results of time-out should be recorded.

Example of Time Outs:

Benji is a very active first grader. The boy was having difficulty remaining in his seat and refraining from

impulsive grabbing of persons and objects near him. He was also taking and eating his classmates’

lunches. His teacher realized that these behaviors were interfering with Benji’s classroom progress and

that of his classmates. She attempted several procedures to help Benji control his behavior. Among these

were verbal reprimands, ignoring the inappropriate behavior and reinforcing appropriate behavior, and



64

peer pressure. Observation data revealed that none of these interventions were effective, although her

efforts were sufficient.

A behavior management consultant observed Benji and recommended time-out as a potentially effective

intervention. Together, the teacher and the consultant decided that each time Benji left his seat, he was to

be moved to a separate table for 2 minutes.

This intervention necessitated defining and specifying several factors:

1. Out-of-seat behavior was defined as any time Benji’s posterior was not in contact with his chair.

2. When the unacceptable behavior did occur, the teacher’s assistant was to escort Benji to a separate

table. Benji was to remain 2 minutes; during this time, he had to be quiet.

3. After the time-out period, Benji would return to the group. There would be no discussion or

reprimand.

4. Benji’s desk and chair were relocated in the classroom to ensure that he would not participate in

unacceptable behavior, such as grabbing people and lunches, without leaving his seat.

5. A separate table was placed in the corner of the classroom. A chair was provided nearby for the

assistant who was to monitor Benji whenever he was in time-out.

6. The intervention was imposed, and although the behavior did not cease immediately, significant

progress was observed during the first months.

Benji’s in-seat behavior increased within a period of several months. However, the separate table remains

available for when the undesirable behaviors occur.

The time-out intervention includes the reinforcement of acceptable behavior. A child who is performing

or approximating the desired behavior in the classroom should be reinforced for these efforts. The

effectiveness of time-out as an intervention is contingent on several factors:

characteristics of the individual child;

teacher’s consistent application of the intervention;

child’s understanding of the rules of time-out;

characteristics of the time-out area;



65

duration of time-out; and

evaluation of the effectiveness of the intervention.

Effective use of Time Out

The following guidelines are presented to help teachers, educators and other practitioners

implement timeout procedures appropriately and effectively. These guidelines are not a comprehensive or

a complete explanation of how to use timeout in a given setting. Those who are attempting to implement

timeout procedures for the first time should have supervision and consultation by professionals with

expertise in behavioral intervention procedures, and who have knowledge of the research literature

regarding timeout. Timeout involves removing a student from all sources of positive reinforcement, as a

consequence of a specified undesired behavior. Timeout is only one option along a continuum of

interventions supporting behavior change. Most teachers think that timeout involves placing the student in

an isolated setting (a timeout area) for a period of time. Actually, timeout may be implemented on several

alternative levels, ranging from the student taking timeout at his or her desk (contingent observation

timeout) to removing the student to a separate area. Timeout is a relatively aversive and intrusive

behavior reduction procedure, because it involves the removal of reinforcement and it interrupts the

pupil's instructional program. However, its use may be required when the student's behavior impedes his

or her learning or that of others. Behavior problems will not be positively affected by use of timeout

unless it is used in the context of an appropriate program (e.g., teaching replacement behaviors, high rate

of teacher

reinforcement for appropriate student behavior, etc.). The age of the student is also a key factor in any

decision to utilize time out. Professionals must consider whether timeout is appropriate for children and

youth at both ends of the age continuum (3 - 21). Other strategies or interventions may be more effective

for these individuals in supporting appropriate behavior.

CONCLUSION

Teachers are the masters of multitasking. They are responsible for academics, social skills, and

behavior of each student in their class. In addition to using class-wide techniques to manage student

behavior, a teacher can focus on changing a specific behavior in one student. Measuring a problem



66

behavior in a single student can reveal when, where, and how often that particular problem behavior

occurs. For example, a teacher notices that a student is frequently out of her seat during math. Each time

the student is out of her seat, the teacher writes down the time each day for one week. The results show

that the student is out of her seat most often during independent math practice for an average of 5 times

during the 10-minute work session daily. The teacher infers that the student needs increased supervision,

and possibly academic help, during independent math practice. When the teacher chooses and implements

a behavior management strategy, the teacher can measure the student’s behavior to monitor how the

student responds to the behavior management strategy. With careful monitoring, the teacher can capture

even small steps of progress.

********************

References : Alberto, P., Heflin, L.J., & Andrews, D. (2002). Use of the timeout ribbon procedure during

community-based instruction. Behavior Modification, 26, 297-11.

Betz, C. (1994). Beyond time-out: Tips from a teacher. Young children, 49, 10.

Gartrell, D. (2001). Replacing time-out: part one—Using guidance to build an encouraging classroom. Young Children, 56, 8-16.

Lang, L. (1997). Often effective, timeout target in abuse cases. Education Week, 16, 1.

Marlow, A.G., Tingstrom, D.H., Olmi, D.J., & Edwards, R.P. (1997). The effects of classroom-based time-in/time-out on compliance rates in children with speech/language disabilities. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 19, 1-13.

Shea, T. M., Bauer, A. M., & Walker, J. E. (2007). Behavior management: A practical approach for educators.

*********************



67

PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE IN EDUCATION: A MICRO SURVEY OF FEW SECONDARY AND HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN WEST BENGAL DR. PANKAJ KUMAR PAUL Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Education, Gourav Guin Memorial College, Chandrakona Road, P.O.- Satbankura, Dist.- Paschim Midinipur, PIN – 721253, West Bengal, India

Abstract : The present paper attempts to analyze the problems of discipline in education of students in some selected secondary and higher secondary level schools of Burdwan district in West Bengal. The study covers one hundred students and one hundred teachers both in urban and rural areas of Burdwan district in West Bengal. A binary logit regression model has been fitted to determine the relationship among a set of selected indicators and discipline of students of the studied schools. Moreover, students’t- test has also been applied to examine the assumed hypothesis whether any variation among students about attitude of discipline according to different types of schools (i.e., either boys’ or girls’; secondary or higher secondary; rural or urban) exists or not.

Key Words: - Discipline, school education, binary logit model, students’ t-test

Introduction The term discipline has been derived from the Latin word ‘discipulus’ which means to carry out of rules.

School discipline is the method of rules, punishments, and behavioral strategies appropriate to the

regulation of children or teenagers and the safeguarding of order in schools. Its aim is to manage the

students' actions and behavior. An obedient student is in conformity with the school rules and codes of

conduct. These rules may, for example, define the expected standards of clothing, timekeeping, social

conduct, and work ethic. The term discipline is also applied to the punishment that is the consequence of

breaking the rules. The aim of discipline is to set limits restricting certain behaviors or attitudes that are

seen as detrimental or going against school policies, educational norms, school traditions, et cetera

( Wikepadia encyclopedia, 2014).



68

Under the above background, the present study tries to analyze the problems of discipline of students with

reference to few secondary and higher secondary level schools of Burdwan district in West Bengal.

Objectives

The study focuses on the following objectives-

To analyse the nature and scope of discipline in school education;

To examine the factors which are responsible for deterioration of discipline in schools;

To suggest possible measures for indisciplinary problems in school education.

Hypotheses The hypotheses selected in this present study are- Null Hypotheses H01: There is no significant variation about wakefulness of discipline among the boys’ and girls’ students;

H02: There is no significant variation about understanding of discipline among the students associated in

urban and rural schools;

H03: There is no significant variation about responsiveness of discipline of the students comprising in

secondary and higher secondary schools.

Materials and Methods

The study is mainly investigational in nature. The primary data has been collected during 2013-2014

from 100 students and 100 teachers of Secondary and Higher Secondary school both in urban as well as

in rural areas of Burdwan district in West Bengal. A self made structured questionnaire was used by

considering different dimensions of disciplines in schools. Again, The following factors have been

selected to analyze the possible causes of indiscipline in the studied schools: i) Causes related to students



69

(S) ii) Causes related to teachers (T), Classroom conditions (C), External environment (E), Methodology

of teaching (M) (Mondal and Kar, 2010)

Methodology

The following methodologies have been used to authenticate the present study:

Tables

Binary Logit Regression Model

Students’ t-test

Results & Discussion

The whole discussion of the article has been divided into five broad categories:

i) Discipline: Theory and Scope in School Education

ii) Discipline in Schools: An Analysis of Binary Logit Regression

iii) Attitudes of students about Discipline belongs to different status of schools: An Analysis in terms

of Students’t- Test

iv) Attitudes of students about Discipline belongs to different Locations of schools: An Analysis in

terms of Students’t- Test

v) Attitudes of students about Discipline belongs to different Levels of schools: An Analysis in terms of

Students’t- Test

Theory and Scope of Discipline in School Education

School discipline practices are generally informed by theory. There are a number of theories to form a

comprehensive discipline strategy for an entire school or a particular class.

Positive approach: It is stranded in teachers' respect for students.



70

Teacher effectiveness training: It differentiates between teacher-owned and student-owned

problems, and proposes different strategies for dealing with each. Students are taught problem-

solving and cooperation techniques.

Adlerian approaches: This is an umbrella term for a variety of methods which emphasize

understanding the individual's reasons for maladaptive behavior and helping misbehaving students

to alter their behavior, while at the same time judgment ways to get their needs met.

Appropriate school learning theory and educational philosophy: It is a strategy for preventing

aggression and promoting order and discipline in schools (www.marylandpublicschools.org,

2009).

Causes of Discipline in Schools: An Analysis of Binary Logit Regression

Discipline in school education indicates carry out of rules by the students for their own interest as well as

interest as a whole, framed by the school authorities. Discipline in schools depends on so many factors

associated with the students, teachers, teaching-learning environment, teaching methodologies etc. For the

sake of simplicity, a set of indicators has been chosen to examine the degree and intensity of dependence

of discipline in school education. Now an attempt has been made to explain the determinants of discipline

in school education among the students on the basis of a set of selected variables by a binary logit model.

Table-1: Logit analysis explaining determinants of discipline in school education

D = C0 +C1*S + C2* T + C3*C + C4*E+C5*M

Variable Coefficient Std.

Error Z-Stat Prob. Constant -7.452631 2.475612 -4.142534 0.0000

S 0.124123 0.124531 5.124563 0.0000 T 0.452134 0.142564 0.745213 0.0000 C 4.145231 0.412531 7.254316 0.0000 E 4.154231 1.456231 4.154231 0.2100 M 2.451232 0.452631 3.145632 0.3468



71

Mean dependent var 0.451231 SD dependent var 0.142573

S.E. of regression 0.325142 Akaike info criterion 0.214534 Sum squared resid 14.456235 Schwarz criterion 0.452631

Log Likelihood -43.42513 Hannan-Quinn criter 0.453612 Restr. Log liklelihood -238.2142 Avg. log likelihood -0.023541

LR statistic(5df) 516.4563 McFaddenR- squared 0.214530 Probability (LR

stat) 0.000000 - - Source: Authors’ calculation based on field survey, 2013-14 Dependent Variable = Discipline (D) Total number of observations = 200 Note: S = Causes related to student, T = Causes related to teachers, C = Classroom conditions, E=

External environment, M = Methodology

Table 1 provides an explanation about the role of factors associated with discipline influencing education

of students in schools. It is observed that all the factors (e.g., causes related to student, teacher, classroom

conditions, external environment and teaching methodology) have been found to be positively associated

with the discipline among the students in schools. But it is to be noted that the probabilities of all the

factors except external environment and methodology of teaching have been estimated to be highly

significant. This means that the coefficient of the explanatory variable i.e., external environment of

education and teaching methodology suffers the problem of insignificancy.

Attitudes of students about Discipline belongs to different standard of schools: An Analysis in terms

of Students’t- Test

Discipline in school education varies from one to another. It depends on the location of schools, status

and standard of schools. Let us now examine the variation of nature of discipline in different schools

according to different status (girls’ or boys’), standard (secondary or higher secondary) and location of

schools (rural or urban) in terms of students’t-test.

Table - 2: Attitudes of Secondary and Higher Secondary students towards the formation of discipline in education in terms of calculated mean, S.D., t values and level of statistical significance



72

Source: Author’s calculation based on field survey, 2013-14

Table 2 indicates that students belong to secondary schools have more consciousness about discipline

than that of students belongs to higher secondary schools (since the calculated value of t is greater than

the critical values both at 5 % and 1 % level of significance). During field survey, it has been found that

the students in most of the higher secondary schools are not faithful to the teachers due to lack of mutual

respect.

Table - 3: Attitudes of students about Discipline belongs to different Locations of schools: An

Analysis in terms of Students’t- Test


Table 3 provides an explanation about the virtual comparison of values of mean, S.D. and calculated t

values of urban and rural students. This means that the observed value of t is greater than the tabulated

values at 5 % and 1 % level of significance with significant variation of mean and S.D. Therefore null

hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted indicating that awareness of discipline of

students in education in urban and rural areas is significantly different. During investigation, it is

observed that rural students are much conscious about discipline compared to urban students due to good

teacher-student relationship as a whole. This result is consistent with the study of Nandi, Paul and

Standard of School

N

Mean

S.D.

‘t’ Value

Significant level 5 % 1%

Secondary 100 62.31 8.19 2.56

P<0.05

P<0.01

Higher Secondary 100 43.25 7.58

Locality of School

N

Mean

S.D.

‘t’ Value

Significant level

5 % 1% Urban 100 70.39 11.59 2.74

P<0.05

P<0.01 Rural 100 48.95 9.10



73

Baskey, 2014 about the attitude of parents and teachers about corporal punishment and discipline in

school education.

Table - 4: Attitudes of students about Discipline belongs to different status of schools: An Analysis

in terms of Students’t- Test


Table 4 indicates that students belong to girls’ schools have more consciousness about discipline than that

of students belongs to boys’ school (since the calculated value of t is greater than the critical values both

at 5 % and 1 % level of significance). During field survey, it has been found that students in most of the

boys’ schools are not obedient to their teachers in true sense. On the contrary, students in the girls’ school

are more obedient than the boys due to their shyness and loyalty to the teachers.

Conclusion

The present article discusses the role of determinants affecting degree of consciousness about discipline

in education of secondary and higher level school students of Burdwan district in the state of West

Bengal. The results indicated that there has been significant positive association among a set of selected

indicators and discipline in school education of students although there exists slight variation among

them. It is appealing to note that there is some variation regarding the degree of awareness about the

discipline among the students belongs to different locality of schools (i.e., rural and urban) and standard

of schools (i.e., secondary and higher secondary) and status of schools ( i.e., boys’ or girls’ schools).

Status of School

N

Mean

S.D.

‘t’ Value

Significant level

5 % 1% Boys’ 100 64.95 8.98 2.57

P<0.05

P<0.01 Girls’ 100 44.12 7.90



74

Policy Suggestions

The following suggestions have been recommended to make the more disciplined to the students in

school:

i) Establishment of school clinic ii) Congenial home environment iii) Sympathetic behavior

of the teachers iv) Guidance and counseling of the student v) Improvement of classroom

environment vi) Organisation of co-curricular activities vii) Modification of examination

system viii) Introduce local self-government ix) Democratic management system

Attractiveness of curriculum.

************************

References

Nandi, Paul and Baskey, 2014: ‘A Study of Attitude of Parents and Teachers about Corporal

Punishment in School Education with special Reference to Burdwan District in West Bengal,

India.’

GE-International Journal of Management Research, Vol-2., Issue-6 (June- 2014), IF- 3.142. A

Monthly Double-Blind Peer Reviewed Open Access International e-Journal - Included in the

International Serial Directories.

Mondal, Bhim and Kar, Tuhin, 2010: ‘Management and Technology in Education’, Rita

Publications, Beniatola Lane, Kolkata-9

www.marylandpublicschools.org, 2009



75

ONGOING SOCIO- CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION OF BENGALI FOOD DR. SUSMITA BHATTACHARYYA ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY PRASANTA CHANDRA MAHALANOBIS MAHAVIDYALAYA KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL. Email : [email protected] ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract : Food is recognized as the most significant basic need of human life. It is well known fact that the concept of consuming food varies from one society to another. An evolutionary scheme can be traced through the happening changes in the world of food. Bengal is linked with several inter mixing of all sorts of cultural changes. In the sphere of food a huge variation as well as transformation can be visualized in Bengal. Different kinds of new entries are marked with sufficient interest in this age of cultural globalization and emerging trends of liberalization of economy. The present researcher has undergone a small survey involving 120 respondents of South Kolkata. On the basis of purposive sampling method data collection is done with the use of questionnaire. Result of the survey shows that with the increase in age the urge for home made food increases. Same trend is followed for the love of Bengali food. There are various kinds of food in Bengali culture but some people give stigma on Bengali food as ‘spicy’ and ‘unhealthy’. The specificity of Bengali food was enjoyed by Swami Vivekananda also. Interesting point is that several restaurants are popular now because of their typicality of Bengali traditional food. Macro processes like urbanization, breaking of joint families, migration are coupled with rational concept of health consciousness to give a twist to the entire picture. As a result the attraction of street food in Kolkata becomes questionable now. Concepts of purity and pollution are dissociated with food and cooking field today. The analysis is related with sociology of food obviously. In the broader spectrum this can be associated with sociology of culture with respect to sociology of life style. KEY WORDS: FOOD, COOKING, CUISINE, BENGALI FOOD. _________________________________________________________________________________________ From the dawn of human civilization human existence is completely depended on some basic needs. Food is considered as the

most elementary one. If a vivid invigilation has done on the issue of evolution in the structure of food, then the picture will be more

clarified. Initially food was gathered by hunting – gathering; after that animal became the source of food in pastoral economy.

Thereafter agricultural society begins to exist with all possible ways of getting food. Each and every society has its own rule and

specificity about food. Bengal is no exception. Bengali food has a widespread fame for its renowned range of varieties. People of

Bengal are very proud for their glorious tradition of food. On the basis of several cooking styles the diversities of Bengali food are



76

remarkably increasing day by day. Yet the fact can’t be ignored that from medical point of view the oily and spicy content of

Bengali food can be harmful on the health related ground. Thus it is an accepted truth that food is an inseparable component of

culture. To some specialists food is somewhat related to leisurely aspect of life. The reflection can be seen in the works of Joanne

Finkelstrin [As mentioned by Tasin S. Zaman in Food, Identity and Symbolic Metaphors in the Bengali South Asian Community].

She discussed about the food as a form of entertainment and a pursuit of pleasure in her essay ‘Rich Food: McDonald’s and

Modern Life’. Although it should be remembered that developed countries can enjoy the luxury of food due to their economic

proficiency. In developing countries like India function of food is related with subsistence.

During colonial period specifically in the later half of 19th Century an old version of restaurant was developed in presidency

towns like Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. Socio- cultural investigation reveals that industrialization in its premature form started to

take shape from this time period. Thus there emerged of a new class of workers who had to commute long distance for earning

livelihood. They were depended on external source of food like hotels, restaurants and so on. The list of available food indicated a

clear classification. One set was concerned about snacks with western influence like cutlets, chops, cakes and so on. Other set

included north Indian food like samosas, parathas, puris and similar items. These two components were jointly known as ‘tiffin’ at

that period of time. In the list the absence of specific Bengali food (like luchi, aalur dam) was remarkable. With passage of time

Bengali specific food become able to have their place in the category of snacks. Kochuri, gaja, nimki, chanachur, aalu kabli, fuchka

and similar food item were already very popular among the Bengalis. These types of food business were not properly organized

then. So lack of industrial base became the major hindrance for the development of such food –trade. Evidences showed that

Swami Vivekananda was a great lover of hotel made food then. It can be seen that this kind of food was highly common in Kolkata.

Incorporation of world food in Bengali dish is not a new event. History shows that Swami Vivekananda himself cooked many such

items in 1899 for Sister Nibedita and Sarala Debi Chawdhurani. Sister Nibedita named the event as ‘geographical lunch’ because

there were ‘American fish chowder’, ‘Norwegian fish ball’, ‘ English boarding house hash’ , ‘Kashmiri mixed pie’ and ‘ Bengali

rasogolla’.

In 1960 first recognized Bengali restaurant was established in Calcutta. It was run by a cooperative of women. Then famous

restaurants like ‘Oh Calcatta’, ‘Aheli’, ‘and Mainland China ’, ‘Bhajahari manna’ came into existence. Tea, coffee and snacks

related items are intricately related with College Street ‘Coffee house’. This is not only a place of eating but a sphere of cultural

emergence.

THEORETICAL LINKAGE: There are some aspects of culture which are common for all groups of human society. These

basic needs are known as cultural universals. Food is such an aspect. Theories of culture stress that the way of attaining basic needs

differs from one society to another. These varied styles are known as cultural diversity. Style of preparing food can be of various

patterns. Hence lots of food preparations are available all over the world. On the basis of Exchange theory it can be said that mutual



77

interaction between different societies ultimately results in emergence of new cooking styles. As results of assimilation, absorption,

acculturation and mutual exchange a marked change has been occurred in the periphery of food and cooking. The names like

Margaret Mead, Roland Barthes, Claude Levi Strauss, Mary Douglas, and Marvin Harris deserve attention in discussion of social

aspect of food.

Ritzer pointed out in his theory of McDonaldization [As mentioned by A. Giddens in Sociology] that fast food restaurant

represents contemporary paradigm of formal rationality. Four dimensions are associated with the features of fast food restaurants.

These are efficiency, predictability, an emphasis on quantity rather than quality and substitution of nonhuman for human

technologies. Instead of the human qualities of a chef, fast food restaurants rely on nonhuman technologies like unskilled cooks

following detailed directions and assembly line methods applied to the cooking and serving of food. Interestingly, all the chains of

McDonald’s restaurants have some inherent similarities in the sphere of layouts, the procedures of ordering, staff uniform, tables,

packaging and service with smile. Language and interior décor may be different on the basis of local influence. By analyzing this

approach Ritzer wants to say that society is moving towards highly standardized and regulated model. It is observed that now the

taste of youth is almost same. Hence according to Ritzer McDonaldization is making social life more homogeneous, more rigid and

less personal. In this age of globalization preparation of food is not limited to a particular territory, instead of those eating objects

and eating patterns involve multiple stylizations crossing the national boundary.

Another theoretical context can be linked with food culture of Bengal. In the situations of French bakeries small scale

operations are encouraged in place of standardized mass production. The purpose is the production of fresh bread for local

communities. French culture is linked with freshly baked goods. Hence the attempts to introduce mass production of bread were

unsuccessful. Clegg [As mentioned by A. Giddens in Sociology] pointed out that cultural factor plays the more important role than

rationalization and efficiency. De-differentiation is a characteristic feature of this kind of organization. De-differentiation as a

concept means a trend away from narrowly specialized task towards the development of more diverse skills. This kind of post

modern organization can be visualized in the aspect of Bengali sweets. The theory of food consumption, changing habits and

related issues were discussed by Counihan and Van Esterik {2008] in the work of Food and Culture [As mentioned by Tasin S.

Zaman in Food, Identity and Symbolic Metaphors in the Bengali South Asian Community]. The exploration of relationship

between consumer and consumption with respect to ‘taste’ is analyzed by Morton [2004] [As mentioned by Tasin S. Zaman in

Food, Identity and Symbolic Metaphors in the Bengali South Asian Community] in the work of Cultures of taste. Pierre Bourdieu

[As mentioned by Tasin S. Zaman in Food, Identity and Symbolic Metaphors in the Bengali South Asian Community] defines the

significance of ‘taste’ as acquired behaviour in the production and maintenance of social class.

METHODOLOGY: The study involves the process of conceptualization. Two major concepts related to this study are ‘food’ in

general and ‘Bengali food’ in specific. Research design of this context is completely descriptive in nature. Here main aim of the



78

study is to describe different trends in modern Bengali food culture with respect to relevant factors and consequences of the

emergent focus in relation to cultural globalization. 120 people of different age group are selected as samples of this study.

Purposive sampling method is applied in this research because all of the samples are selected on the basis of their knowledge about

current trend of Bengali food. They are fully aware of today’s regional, national and global food. Data are collected on the basis of

the method of questionnaire. The respondents are residents of South Kolkata. Analysis of data involves tabular representation here.

TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF DATA ON PREFERENCE OF FOOD ON THE BASIS OF AGE

AGE HOME MADE CUISINE STREET FOOD TOTAL

UPTO 18 4 7 9 20

18- 25 5 9 6 20

25- 35 9 7 4 20

35- 45 12 7 1 20

45- 60 14 5 1 20

60 & ABOVE 15 5 0 20

TOTAL 59 40 21 120

From the above table it can be said that with the increase of age the preference of home made food increases. Just reverse

situation is occurred in case of street food. A reason of this may be linked with health. Due to health factor gradually adult people

become disinterested in street food. Actually consciousness of health comes around mid thirties. So the impact of that

consciousness clearly reflects in the survey.

TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF DATA ON PREFERENCE OF FOOD ON THE BASIS OF AGE AND

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

AGE BENGALI FOOD INDIAN FOOD INTERNATIONAL

FOOD

TOTAL

UPTO 18 4 4 12 20

18- 25 5 4 11 20

25- 35 7 4 9 20

35- 45 9 6 5 20

45- 60 9 6 5 20

60& ABOVE 12 6 2 20

TOTAL 46 30 44 120



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From the above table it can be said that with the increase of age the urge of eating Indian food increases. At the same time a

decrease in inclination towards international food is marked. One reason is the love for Indian-ness is felt with the increase of age.

It is also true that exposure towards international food decreases with the increase of age.

Now it is accepted that Bengali food culture has undergone thorough transformation due to several factors. The most

significant trend is the spell of ‘eating out’. Bengali home made food gradually becomes old fashioned and obsolete. Today people

love to go here and there for family eating also. Even small occasions are arranged in eating place by prior booking of tables.

Increasing importance of fast food becomes regular part of diet of mainly Bengali youth. Roll, Chowmin, Pizza, Pasta are getting

immense popularity among them. Continental food and traditional Indian dishes are fighting neck to neck to take major share in the

plate of Bengali food lovers. The situation has culminated with widespread focus of global consumerism. Each and every individual

is now treated as consumer. In the aspect of food items this tendency is highly prevalent now. Various food items are available in

the market. People can select their favourite one from this wide range of food products. Factor of advertisement is mostly essential

for the products of supermarket and the menu of restaurants. Companies related to this sector are highly interested to get the target

consumer like any other product. According to Grunert there are six distinguished seller controlled types of marketing ---

advertising, labels, in – store communication (displays, posters and others), publicity in mass media and sponsoring. Caraher and

Landan recognize that many of the diet foods on the market provide consumers in their target market with a false perception of the

product, buy the product thinking that they will miraculously become thin, with little regard for the intent of the product – which is

to simply be a ‘healthier alternative’ to some other convenience foods. [As mentioned by M. Keller in Advertising and

Consumerism in the Food Industry]

Youth section is highly influenced by global trends of food. Concept of healthy and nutritious food becomes truly popular with

the spread of media. On the basis of empirical data it can be said that youth of low socio- economic class are more influenced by

global media in the context of food. One reason can be easily determined that some of youth are living hostels and similar places,

so frequently they are habituated with eating outside. For them influence of global food is highly obvious.

The concept of self awareness about food related matter has taken more importance now. Previously people eat whatever they

like to eat. Today they become health conscious, so they apply their knowledge of calorie measurement in selecting food items.

This is also true that especially young girls are very much anxious about beauty. Hence they are too much figure conscious. This

attitude has direct relevance as well as connection in selecting food item for them. Indirect reflection of this attitude has been

culminated by the emerging trend of new subculture. The focus is given to beauty oriented representation, not on proper nutrition in



80

most of the cases. ‘Slim- trim’ look is the key demand of upcoming new generation. Gym going group are also going to dietitians

for keeping themselves attractive.

If an analysis is made on nature of Bengali food, then it will be highly prominent that despite of immense diversity they are

interested in all kinds of food from each and every corner of the world. Indians have borrowed heavily, unashamedly and openly

from virtually every corner of the globe [Nandy: 2004]. This fact is also true for Bengali trend of cooking. Bengali food as a whole

is heterogeneous and exogenous on one hand; again these are prototypically authentic in their orientation on the other. The reason

of this uniqueness lies in the style of intermingling of cooking objects in specific Bengali way. Chitrita Banerji [2007] attributes in

her writings that changes in Indian culinary as well as gastronomic preferences mainly came from the influence of English. It was

principally known as British impact in specific but western impact in general. Asish Nandy, Pankaj Mishra and similar personalities

made several observations on the impact of globalizing trends in Indian food. This linkage is applicable in the context of Bengali

food to some extent. Some of the analyses focus on the consequences of cultural globalization on Indian middle class. ‘Like Nandy,

Mishra points out that it is exposure to a globalised Anglo –American culture that has brought in the changes in eating habits.’

[Chakraborty: 1959] [As mentioned by B. Mukhopadhyay in Between elite Hysteria and Subaltern Carnivalesque: The Politics of

Street Food in the city of Kolkata] Historically it was observed that Indian middle class was keenly interested in imitating Anglo –

American lifestyle. Interestingly, Indian version of burger in a roadside shop actually becomes ‘an alu tikki slapped between two

buns.’ Chitrita Banerji also noted this kind of cultural mixing in the matter of food. The perspective of adoption of food style is

different to different thinkers. ‘While Mishra sees this assimilation as duplication, Banerji appreciates the Indian tendency to

appropriate cultural items in order to make them suitable within the given social contexts.’ [Chakraborty: 1959] New market

network with respect to greater exposure to international food is helping the trend of diversification of availability of food circle.

Growth of fast food market is related with processes of industrialization and urbanization. Urban life style can be viewed as an

impetus for changing the value structure of Bengali food network. Dispersion from home made food and inclination towards eating

out frame of mind are consequence of urban mentality undoubtedly. These two processes jointly contribute to the shrinking of time

for cooking. Hence packed food and tined item can easily take place in the list of Bengali food item. Serious changes in the food

structure in Bengali are linked with family factor also. ‘The older models of socialization are becoming recessive in urban, middle

class India and preparation of food is becoming less of a matter of apprenticeship at home or daughters, daughters in law and

younger women in the family and more a matter of cultivated taste and de-gendered expertise for many.’’ [ Nandy: 2004] The

transition from joint to nuclear family is an important cause of change in food habits of the Bengali. Entry of women in the

workplace has been regarded as the sole cause of emerging new food pattern in Bengali culture.

Now there is no one particular kind of Bengali food for the new age people of Bengal. There is a clear demarcation line between

East Bengali food and West Bengali food. Cooking preparation has undergone several transformations since the period of partition



81

of Bengal. The essence of change is centered on the unique blending of recipes of East and West Bengal. In the context of

differentiating East and West Bengali food, ‘it can be said that food from West Bengal is sweetish; from the East, robust, spicy and

full of flavour.

Cooking shows are becoming too popular in urban areas today because of a galaxy of ‘mediagenic’ [Nandy: 2004] famous

chefs like Sanjeev Kapoor are participants of the shows. Significant observation is that women’s magazines are appropriate places

for the advertisements of food companies. New age advertisements focus on not nutrition but distraction regarding food materials.

The example can be given by an advertisement of chocolate showing attractive young smiling girls with ‘thori si petpuja’ [a beat

tummy worshiping]. There are four categories of food related programmes like traditional domestic instructional cooking,

personality driven domestic cooking shows, food travel programmes and avant garde (this is a new genre of innovative food

media). Most of the programmes focus primarily on fantasy material. Vibrant colours as well as attractive décor of kitchen become

centers of attention to the audiences.

From analysis of factors involving the structural as well as functional change of food pattern it is obvious to say that a trend of

duality is very prominent now. On the one hand, lots and lots of varieties are available in the range of Bengali food culture, on the

other hand people become more and more figure conscious.

Philosophically food can be divided into three parts – these are satvik, rajasik and tamasik in nature. Socially there are lots of

rules and regulations regarding food in caste driven Indian society. Till today social and religious rituals play major role in most of

the discourses on food. Philip McMichael (2004) [As mentioned by A. Nandy in The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food]

opines that ‘diets have a political history framed by class, cultural and imperial relations.’ Indian society imposes certain rules and

regulations regarding the acts of eating and drinking. Food and water are susceptible to the ritual of purity and pollution. The rules

involve the matters like from whom he will take food and with whom he will eat. These two facts are related to the status of caste

of the individual. Kitchen is a sensitive area in this connection. Eating together is a sign of equality. So there should be conscious

attempt to select eating partners. Left over food on one’s plate is tabooed to eat for all but leavings from the plate of one’s father or

husband is treated as holy for eating. The concept of pollution is not static; in some situation this can be removable. Certain agents

of purification like fire, sun and Ganges water are available. Mandelbaum [1970] pointed out that living cow related products are

most commonly used for this purpose. Cow dung, mixed with water, is applied as general means for ritual cleansing. Interestingly it

is observed that kaccha food [raw material like vegetable, fruit in holistic form] can be accepted from anyone and everyone. On the

contrary, in case of pakka food [cooked food] the situation is different. Cooked food can be accepted from a selected few on the

basis of caste and ritual identity. It can be said that in the situation of accepting food and drinking water, there are still certain ritual

complications in village India. Urban India is trying heart and soul to eradicate these kinds of restrictions. Urbanites are successful

to some extent in their attempts to do so.



82

On the basis of geographical location, food can be classified as local or regional, national and international category. Bengali

food is categorized as local or regional food. Indian food that is food of north, south, east and western part of India can be come

under national category. Food from all over the world is considered as international or global food. There is a clear distinction

between everyday food and ceremonial food in Bengali culture. Ceremonial food is normally related to social occasions. Initially

ceremonial food was truly Bengali in essence as well as in content but now fusion food takes the share of Bengali dish. In modern

fast life food pattern has taken a completely new turn with ‘ready to cook and easy to eat’ policy. Thus entry of fast food

revolutionizes entire territory of food. People are habituated with fast food (knowing evil effects) due to quick lifestyle. Nandy

points out a status game involving the growing association between contemporary ideas of fast food and certain style of cooking.

Global cosmopolitanism has expressed an assumption that any form of fast food is lowbrow and they can’t get entry in high

cuisine.

Street food is an emblematic feature of Kolkata culture. According to Bhashkar Mukhapadhyay, ‘the marginalized elements are

reconfigured in a new category of anti food—street food – consumed by marginal sections of the population. Anybody familiar

with Calcutta’s street culture would know the inevitability with which street food venders crop up in every nook and corner in

defiance of municipal law, petit bourgeois prejudices and the unanimous disapproval of parents, police and pedagogues.’ Despite

of negative attitudes of schools and guardians about the street food, people are hypnotized by the attraction of the food of this

genre. Frequently people are involved in the unauthorized transaction of mouthwatering dishes like fuchka, alukabli, churan,

pickles and so on. The range of street food is remarkably broad with jhalmuri, bhelpuri, telebhaja and even desi ice cream. All these

food staffs are not related with the contribution of Bengali culture. Huge repertoire of street food is actually the consequence of

assimilation of food pattern of non Bengalis, Marwaris, Gujaratis, Punjabis, Tamils and similar others. Chowmein , entirely

Chinese preparation, turns to be a popular dish of Kolkata people. The history of street food culture mainly started from late 19th

century. Then some famous food items were bulbulbhaja, sarebotrishbhaja and so on. Bhashkar Mukhapadhyay thinks ‘these were

perhaps the predecessors of the present chanachurs and jhalmuries which are still consumed in plenty.’ [Mukhapadhyay: 2004]

The food philosopher Falk [1994] has made a distinction between the pre modern meal ontology as opposed to modern or post

modern snack ontology. [Mukhapadhyay: 2004] According to Falk, modern individual is to some extent alienated. Oral stimulation

can be seen as an attempt to fill inner emptiness. At the same time he says ‘this oral urge is not the manifestation of oral security

but on the contrary a symptom of this absence.’ In normal situation adults are very negative about junk food. This kind of strict

prohibition causes more attraction among the youth.

Place of eating can be different in orientation. Eating at home is also an age old tradition of Bengali. This tradition is going on till

today but simultaneously Bengali culture adopts the trend of ‘eating out’ with an urge of imitating western culture. Interesting fact

is that range of Indian cooked food is also related with resource of western vegetables. Chilli, pineapple, guava and chiku came to



83

Indian dish from South America. Again from China India got peach, pear, cinnamon, blackberry, lychee, cherry and tea. Indian

cultural specificity lies in the matter of openness to accept global trend of cooking objects and patterns ubiquitously. Side by side

of Bengali food, Chinese food becomes favourite eating item. This delicious as well as culture specific food has made their dynasty

in Tangra in Kolkata. ‘The adaptation came in the form of an Indianized Cantonese style, considered more suited to the palates of

Europeans, North Americans and Anglicized South Asians’. [Nandy: 2004] Nandy criticizes media for upholding the influence of

Anglo – American lifestyles. On the contrary, Chitrita Banerji indicates the positive image of India in accepting and assimilating

foreign ways of life. She appreciated the tendency of fast changing consumption patterns which is the consequence of Anglo-

American influence. Chakraborty points out that despite their distinct opinion regarding the consequences of food related

assimilation, they agree on the point that India always strongly embraced other cultures on the aspect of eating. [Chakraborty:

1959] Now there are a number of coffee shop chains like CCDs, Baristas, cake, pastry and patties centers like Monginis, Sugar-n-

spice, Cathleen, Chocolate hut, Pizza hut and similar others. Restaurants have specific orientation in selecting their names. Some of

them are innovative in names focusing on global orientation like Machan, Mainland China, Flotel and others. Few are in the path of

preference of western names like 6th Ballygange place, Red Chilly, Marco Polo. Ethnic identity is prominent in case of Sanja chula,

Ajad Hind Dhaba, Banana Leaf and groups of Bhujiawala like Haldiram. Cuisines like Bhajahari Manna, Tero Parbon, Sholo Aana

Bangali, Bhuter Raja Dilo Bar, Kasturi, Radhuni and so on highlight their Bengali- ness not only in eating items but in ambience

also.

Though public eating places are maintaining their restrictions of caste and religions, a growing tendency of decreasing this rule

is noticed now. Eating places are trying to transcend all kinds of distinctions imposed by society. Food stands in railway stations,

dining cars of trains, clubs, and hostels are examples of places where interethnic and Trans- regional cultural trends become uphold.

Educated middle class is constructing a new ideology and consumption pattern cutting across ethnic, regional and caste restriction.

Modern India is emerging as a place of cultural assimilation in the matter of eating style. ‘This spatially mobile class of

professionals, along with their more stable class peers in the cities and towns of India, creates a small but important class of

consumers characterized by its multiethnic, multicaste, polygot and westernized celebration is said to be complete unless there are a

few dishes of fish served in it’ [ Reejhsinghani : 1975] [ As mentioned by Appadurai A. in How to Make a National Cuisine:

Cookbooks in Contemporary India] . Restaurant culture is linked with upper class whereas street corner eating places are not class

specific in application. Restaurants are marked with specific class and age division tag for some cases. McDonald is still viewed as

moderately fashionable family restaurant with middle and upper middle class orientation. Pizza Hut is principally linked with upper

middle class youth with sufficient money to spare.

Cooking appliances like food blender, spice grinder, micro- oven, toaster, induction oven, coffee maker and similar others are

consequence of new age technology. Instant foods also revolutionize cooking pattern of today. Due to the entry of such instruments



84

for cooking the notion of domestic labour has undergone a thorough transformation. Male members previously were occasional

participant of cooking activity, now they are more frequent with the help of proper technology.

Pitte [As mentioned by P. Kumari and S.K. Dutta in Changing Eating Pattern of Missing Food Culture] said that food stuffs are

characteristics of a particular region or country within it is results of complex inter relations between nature and human. Different

types of intermixing with people have caused transformation in the dietary patterns among all. As a result food fusion takes place.

After the spread of cultural globalization there becomes a need to redefine the trend of global taste and cooking styles all over the

world. A specific research shows that in rural areas of Assam people were not aware of chocolate, chips, maggie, chowmin etc

before globalization. In recent years the picture has changed rapidly. It is observed that a child in remotest village of Assam is now

familiar with chips, kurkure and coke. [As mentioned by P. Kumari and S.K. Dutta in Changing Eating Pattern of Missing Food

Culture] Delicious dishes of specific ethnic communities are also changed in influence of global trend of food. Chitrita Banerji

gave example of ‘Jain pizza’ in this context. This is a preparation of pizza without onions in the topping. It can be taken as

indigenous adaptation, being the other end of the spectrum from the chicken tikka masala pizza. Simultaneously, there is a counter

trend of authentic food based on cultural specificity of a particular region. Slow food movement focuses on traditional regional

food. Chitrita Banerji’s discussion on food emphasizes on the geographical authenticity. Fish of Bengal, biriyani of Hyderabad are

live examples of this. Banerji is interested in assimilation, adaptation and regeneration of different trend in the pattern of

preparation of food. The image of Bengali food is linked with fish and rice principally. Sweets are also known as delicacy of

Bengali culture. Each culture has its own specificity in eating habits like Bengal. Sociologically it can be said that the tastes and

habits of taking food are closely linked with cultural diversity. In today’s world of increasing globalization of culture food habits

also gain a Trans -national identity. In Bengal the co existence of global as well as indigenous food becomes the new stand. Thus

broadly the discussion can be related with sociology of food, sociology of culture with proper emphasis on sociology of life style.

References

1. Appadurai A. (January, 1998), How to Make a National Cuisine: Cookbooks in Contemporary India, Comparative

Studies in Society and History, Vol 30, No 1[ p3-24] [http // www.jestor.org/stable/179020] [ accessed on 20.05.2014]

2. Banerji C. (2007), Eating India: Exploring Nation’s Cuisine, Penguin New Delhi.

3. Giddens A. (2004), Sociology, Polity, 4th Edition.

4. Keller M. (2012), Advertising and Consumerism in the Food Industry, Outstanding student Scholarship [http//www.

scholararchive.jwu.edu.student_ scholarship/3] [accessed on 20.05.2014]



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5. Kumari P. and Dutta S.K. ( 2012), Changing Eating Pattern of Missing Food Culture, International Journal of Humanities

and Social Sciences, Vol 2, No2, [ p211- 219] [ http//www. Republication.com] [ accessed on 11.05. 2014]

6. Mandelbaum D.G. (1972), Society in India, Popular Prakashan, Reprinted 1994.

7. Mukhopadhyay B. (May 2004), Between Elite Hysteria and Subaltern Carnivalesque: The politics of Street Food in the

City of Calcutta, South Asia Research, Vol 24, No1, Sage Publication[p 37 -50] [ http//www.sagepublications.com DOI:

10.1177/ 0262728004042762] [ accessed on 11.05.2014]

8. Nandy A.( May,2004), The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary Notes, South Asia Research, Vol 24,

No 1, Sage Publication ,[ p 3 -24] [http//www.sagepublications.com DOI: 10.1177/ 0262728004042760] [ accessed on

10.05.2014]

9. Sankar (2003), Achena Ajana Vivekananda, Sahityam.

10. Zaman Tasin S. (2010), Food, Identity and Symbolic Metaphors in the Bengali South Asian Canadian Community, Public

Issues Anthropology. [ http// www.uwaterloo.ca] [ accessed on 10.05.2014]



86

THE TRANSCULTURALISM AND TRANSNATIONALISM IN THE

NEW LITERATURES IN ENGLISH

Susmita Bhakat Faculty of English TECHNO INDIA UNIVERSITY Email address: [email protected] __________________________________________________________________________________________

The transcultural and transnational issue in the New Literatures often shapes the narrator’s search for

connection , for the recovery of lost information or repressed experiences for the details of great trauma

or joy that have reduced into the articles of public or private memory. Many of the New Literatures in En

glish like the Australian and Canadian Literatures or African and Carribean Literatures have basically

imbibed the trends of memory novel or history novel.

The intermingling of the historical evidences in such kind of novels with the personality or character of

the protagonist is taken into immense importance at times to rediscover the quintessential essence of

his existence in the society. These anglophone literature of Asia, Africa , Carribean And Canada includ

es Black and Asian British Literature as well. History is the discipline of narratizing time. The public

chronicles of nations are interrogated in the novels by highlighting on one hand the reality of fictions pe

ople create around by recording the verifiable and graphic details of individual memories that do n

ot necessarily tally with the received tension of the history.They challenge the established norms and fight

against patriarchy or heteronormativity and colonialism found in works of writers like Arundhuti Roy

create a land mark in this essence.

Evolving from the theme of search for identity , the concept of a local cultural specificity to oppose to the



87

cultural assimilation of colonial rule or contemporary globalization plays a vital role. In such content it

may be noted that the issues of cultural plurality and hybridity as well as literary negotiations of coloniza-

tion and decolonization, social inequality under the veil of migration and diaspora often leads to history a

nd contemporary transnational and transcultural exchange processes and developments rather than

specific national literature.

The umbrella term “New Literature” further incorporates very different products each with its own cultur

al and geographical specificity highlight especially the struggle for self identity of minority group writers

such as women and queers. It uses a comprehensive approach imbibing Feminism Colonialism or

Post-Colonialism and modernism or Post-Modernism. In teaching or research we foreground the parallel

or intertextual contexts which often reflects in synomity in many of the texts written by various writers be

longing to different genres or altogether different historical and geographical background. These

analyses of texts can also be induced as literary studies from a broad variety of national and cultural

contexts.

It may also be noted that the context of inter textuality termed by Roland Barthes can signify, reflect and

reciprocate the major themes and characters of these various New Literatures. If in the case one considers

Chinua Achebe’s “No Longer At Ease” (1960) the main character Obi Okonkwo, a young man born in

Ibo in Eastern Nigeria is very similar to that of the protagonist Mr. Biswas in the novel “A House

For Mr. Biswas” who is caught eventually in a flux of a generation of change like Obi in Pre- Independen

t Nigeria caught between the two worlds. They find themselves in constant battle between the traditions

of the world into which they were born represented by their traditional African roots and the conven-

tions of the changing world. In the case of Obi since he is educated, he is given a “European post” and

he works in an office whose ethics he finds repulsive. Where as in case of Mr. Biswas is trapped in the



88

Tulsi household which was a symbol of colonial domination and he served as a labourer there which bar

ely left him with any prestige or dignity as an individual. As standing against bribery and opposed to his

boss Obi receives the trauma and guilt as a reward which shatters and eventually haunts leading to his

destruction.This epitomises the evident fate of the colonized in the hands of the colonizer and such

characters in many of the novels of New Literature are witnessed to fall prey to the archetypal figure of

patriarchal colonialism. Such characters though exercises immense power and authority over the colonize

r but gradually become obsolete. Rudyard Kipling's poem "The White Man's Burden" may be taken into a

ccount to signify what the colonizers suffers in relation to the colonised. On the part of both they undergo

certain transcultural and transnational developments in the process.

V.S.Naipaul in the novel "A House for Mr Biswas" (1961) as a post colonial portrays the Indian lives

, the reality of the descendents of the indentured servants by presenting his familial experiences as a

miniature sample of larger truths about the general colonial predicament in Trinidad. It vividly

portrays the concept of alienation and exile of an individual.

West Indies was splintered stage upon which the discontinuous lives of culture have become contaminate

d itemized and commercialized on the alter of politics and tourism.Such prolific Carribean writers like as

Naipaul fails to come to terms with the negro creole world in Trinidad or with the greyness of English

Life or with the life in India itself, where he went in search of his roots. In case of most of such writers

the result is to escape into hallucinations in which "home" is constructed on some dubious model

outside the culture or actual landscapes of the West Indies.In such cases their gaze is fitted with the

hope of departure either to NorthernAmerica, Europe, Asia or Africa.The novel metaphorically is a

miniature world which symbolises the colonial world .Such represents the idiosyncrasy we know

yet an archetypal figure " The third world Everyman" - the stranger searching for his own role in the

universe.



89

Such novels also discovers the relationship and bondings between the various characters at a different

level by the internalisation of received literary paradigm which begins to priviledge the narrative by

allowing the characters to gradually reciprocate to each other's feelings and emotions on a common

ground.At the same time the issue of slavery initiates the quest for existentialism and initiates the

struggle for personality. The aspects of slavery ravishes and corrodes the characters often put minds into

questions regarding their fruitful or purposeful existence in the world. In this context Athol Fugard's

" The Blood Knot" (1963) propounded the concept of Apartheid which turned it into a political play

signifying the distinction between the black and white the humiliation and torture faced by these black

men whose freedom was limited owing to the restriction and discriminations forcefully enforced to them.

The historical significance prevalant in the back drop of his novel portrays Africa which was plagued by

the darkest human feelings and values like fear and irrationality, prejudice , racism, brutality ,

dominance and repression.

The receiving notions of Colonial explotation , oppression witnessed since time immemorial and haunted

the lives of the characters of these New Literature too. During the years the government introduced

several laws to maintain and strengthen its position , such as the infamous Pass Law which forced all

black citizens to carry always a book around with them which had their name, address and working place

in it, or the urban Areas Act which forced blacks out of the big cities as soon as they were finished with

their work there.

Fugard showed he was against injustice on both sides of tbe fence with his play My Children! My Africa!

Where he attacked the African National Congress (ANC) for deciding to boycott African schools as he

realised the damage it would cause a generation of African pupils. With the demise of apartheid, Fugard's

first two post apartheid plays Valley Song and the The Captain's Tiger focused on personal rather than



90

political issues.Such plays during the period of apartheid sought to legitimate black experience as a form

of cultural expression. They focus on the experience of two or three marginalised characters who are

found by the ties of love, blood , friendship in a bleak , arbitary universe. The representation of such mar

ginalised characters through passionately close relationship in no way conceals the tensions operating in

their society. This literary texts of New Criticisms gave a universal and enduring importance to colours

that is the colour beneath the skin, blood ties and not the racial discriminations. This vision create

d a landmark in history as fugard indeed achieved its zenith when in 1990 Nelson Mandela signed

the treaty which officially brought Apartheid to the close.

In the Australian and Canadian Literature the tensions and the trauma experienced by the Irish youth in A

ustralia like the Jewish community in Canada are quite similar. Isolation and frustration often results

from the attempt of any established community to tightly maintain social, moral and religious values that

fail to countenance the crude life of merging communities. A glimpse of such instances can

be found in "The True History Of Kelly Gang" by Peter Carey. The friction between old and new orders

creates in the artist the need to transcend the boundaries of the living present to the mythological past.

In most of the New Literature's region is again not merely a geographical location but a racial or socio-

cultural expanse. Whether it is Jewish - Canadian writer Mordecai Richler or Margaret Lawrence or Peter

Carey vividly portrays the trails of Jewish Community or revealing the Australian experience of an Irish

Community in an alien land, the fact remains that individual character is shaped by the character of the

community or sociocultural situation in which he is placed is strongly stressed.

To combat the sense of alienation the preoccupation that every Australian writer is engaged with is to

create an identity of the nation Australia exploring the flora and fauna of the vast empty land is evident.

A.D Hope and Judith Wright explored the essence of the individual quest for self discovery and the



91

futility in such explorations of existence. The New literatures crosses various boundaries to form connec-

tions to other forms of Cultural productions for example Flims, Photography and painting which a

re also included frequently under the broad and comprehensive dimensions of New Literatures.

********************

References:

1. Walsh, W, Readings in Commonwealth Literature (1973)

2. Neibit, B, Commonwealth Literature(1979)

3. Boris Ford(.ed)-The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, vol. 8

4. Charles R. Larson. The emergence of African Fiction, Macmillan,1978

5. G.D Killam. The Novels of Chinua Achebe. London: Heinemann Educational books.1969.

6. James Booth. Writing and Politics in Nigeria. London: Hodder and Stoughton. 1981.

7. Eustace Palmer. An Introduction to the African Novel. London:Heinemann,1983.

8. Manjit Inder Singh, The Poetics of Alienation and Identity.

9. Andrew Gurr, Writers in Exile.

10. Critical Perspectives on VS. Naipaul, ed. by Robert D. Hammer.

11. Chandra B. Joshi, V.S Naipaul: The Voice of Exile.

12. Christopher Heywood (Ed.), Aspects South African Literature, 1976.

13. Stephen Grey (Ed.)Athol Fugard, 1982

14. Dennis Walder , Athol Fugard,1984

15. Athol Fugard , Three Port Elizabeth Plays, Oxford University Press, london,1974.



92

A CO RELATIONAL STUDY OF PERSONALITY, SELF ESTEEM AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AMONG

ADOLESCENTS

Dr Madhu Sahni Asst. Professor,

Vaish Collage of Education,

Rohtak-124001 (Haryana, India) Email : [email protected]

Abstract The purpose of this research is to determine the relationship between the self- esteem and personality of

students with academic achievement. A sample of 425 students (15-18year old) studying in class X was

randomly selected from various secondary schools of state Haryana. The descriptive statistics such as

frequency, percentages, mean and standard deviation were used to analyze the existing type of self-

esteem and personality among the students. Pearson correlations were used to analyze the relationship

between self-esteem and personality of students with their academic achievement. The research finding

showed the significant relationship of self esteem, extraversion, conscientiousness and neuroticism with

academic achievement. Further, relationship of neuroticism and agreeableness were found to be

significant with negative self and positive self.

Keywords: Self-esteem, personality, academic achievement



93

Introduction

In the modern world academic achievement is considered to be the major indicator of an individual’s

potential, expertise and success Academic achievement has been variously defined: as level of

proficiency attained in academic work or as formally acquired knowledge in school subjects which is

often represented by percentage of marks obtained by students in examinations (Kohli,1975). Researchers

have shown that besides being the criteria of promotion into the next class, academic achievement is an

index of all future success in life. Superior achievers in the academic world generally tend to maintain

their level, of achievement in the occupational field also.

There are several factors which affect academic achievement. This achievement is a function of cognitive

and non-cognitive aspects of personality, and is the resultant of various factors like personal, social,

economic and other environmental factors. Academic achievement has also been shown to relate to

personality. Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts & Fraleigh (1987) stated that, there are opinions

which stated that students who are an extrovert acquire better performance compared to introvert students,

and vice versa.

In the field of Education, the role of self-esteem can also not be ignored .Numerous studies have shown a

positive association between self-esteem and academic achievement (Coopersmith, 1967; Wylie,1974;

Scheire & Krant, 1979; Holly, 1987; Covington, 1989; Reynolds ,1988; Reasoner, 2005;). Erikson

(1968) specifically identified academic achievement as a vital component in forming a healthy self-

image. It has been argued that students have to do well in school in order to have positive self-esteem;

another position is that a positive self-esteem is necessary pre requisite for doing well in school. More

recent studies have begun to show that students must secure high self-esteem before they can hope to

achieve academically (Shokrail-Rees, 2002). Covington (1989) reported that as level of self esteem



94

increases, so do achievement scores; as self-esteem decreases, achievement scores decline. Furthermore,

he concluded that self- esteem can be modified through direct instruction and such instruction can lead to

achievement gains.

Thus, the personality and self esteem are seen as having a relationship with one’s academic performance.

There are several reasons to understand self esteem and personality together. Self esteem is a part of

human personality, and personality provides the context in which self esteem operates. It is believed that,

a person possessing high level of self esteem will be confident, happy, highly motivated and have the

right attitude to succeed. Low self esteem feeds negative thinking and causes to believe the criticism

others make of one self. Understanding self esteem as a part of the broader personality system also can

alert researchers as to what type of personality may influence self esteem, increase its effects, or lower

them.

So it is essential that further analysis be conducted. Despite the many reports on the relationships

between self-esteem, personality to academic achievement, there is scarce if any documentation on

investigating the relationship between personality, self-esteem and academic achievement by using NEO

five factor personality inventory. Keeping this in view the present study was planned.

The study deals specifically with adolescents. Adolescence is an intense time of emotional and physical

change in a young person’s life. It is a time when rapid developmental changes and transitions occur, and

adolescents begin to form and shape into young adults. Physical, psychological, intellectual and social

changes can all be stressful and difficult to manage during this time. Driven by these developmental

changes and by demands for a more adult like behavior, adolescents strive to behave according to adult

values, goals and ideals (Mc Namara, 2000). It is during this period that adolescents’ personality

undergoes change as they begin to develop a positive or negative perception of themselves. In recent



95

years there has been a major increase in stress-related disorders in adolescents, including suicides,

substance abuse, depression and anxiety disorders (Mc Namara, 2000). Adolescents are experiencing

more social and psychological problems than ever before (Mc Namara, 2000). These trends indicate an

increase in the amount of pressure that children and adolescents face. These pressures are the origination

of childhood stress. It is this stress that ultimately tears down the walls of confidence and diminishes

one’s self-esteem (Mc Namara, 2000). A great deal of a child’s day is spent in school. No aspect of

school life, be it in the realm of academic performance, academic achievement or social acceptance,

leaves a child’s self- esteem untouched (Mc Namara, 2000).

The development of positive self-esteem is crucial to the functioning of the adolescent academically,

socially, psychologically and physically (Hamacheck, 1990). Because of the significance of self-esteem,

educators have a need to learn more about its development and how it affects academic achievement

(Hamacheck, 1990). Poor self-esteem during the developmental period of adolescence could result in a

variety of risks, such as juvenile delinquency, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, depression and low

academic success (Hamacheck, 1990). All of these factors combined make adolescence a time in which

awareness and concern with self-esteem is paramount. The development of positive self-esteem and high

academic achievement can lead to an improved quality of life (Shokrail-Rees, 2002).

Hence, self-esteem, personality and academic achievement are critical components in a young persons’

life. There is little research investigating the relationship of academic achievement, personality and self-

esteem of adolescents. Hence the present study was taken up with the following objectives:

Objectives of the Study.

1 To identify the type of self esteem among students.

2 To identify the type of personality among students.



96

3 To identify the level of academic achievement among Students.

4 To study the relationship between self esteem and academic achievement of students

5 To study the relationship between personality and academic achievement of students.

6 To study the relationship between self esteem and personality of students.

Methodology

Sample and Procedure

The State Haryana was divided in to four zones viz. North, East, South and West. Then using lottery

method one district was selected from each zone. A list of secondary schools located in these four

districts was obtained from office of the concerned district education officer. Out of that list eight schools

(two from each district) were randomly selected for collection of data.

The investigators personally visited the schools one by one. The data was collected in three phases. In the

first phase, after apprising the students about the nature and purpose of the study, Self esteem inventory

was administered to students, of class X. In the second phase, all the students were administered NEO

five factor personality inventory. This process was repeated for two days in each school. In the third

phase, marks obtained by the students in their class X examination, were collected from authorities of

respective schools after declaration of the examination result. Finally, incomplete questionnaires were

rejected by the investigator. In this way final sample comprised of 425 students.

Tools Used

1. Self-esteem inventory by M.S. Prasad and G.P. Thakur.

2. NEO five factor personality inventory by Paul T. Costa and Robert R. McCrae.



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Analysis of the Data

Data obtained were processed for the computation of percentage, mean, SD and r.

Result and Discussion

Table 1: Type of self -esteem among students

Types of Self Esteem N Percentage

Positive Self 315 74.12

Negative Self 110 25.88

Balanced Self-esteem 0 0

Total 425 100

Table 1 shows that overall, from the three dimensions of self esteem that is positive self, negative self and

balanced self-esteem, there are 315 students (74.12 percent) out of 425 students who have positive self

esteem, whereas only 110 students (25.88 percent) have negative self esteem.

Table 2: Type of personality among students

Variables Mean S.D.

Neuroticism 28.11 3.48

Extraversion 26.11 4.01

Openness 24.88 4.5

Agreeableness 24.05 3.26

Conscientiousness 24.30 2.77



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Table 2 shows that on neuroticism the mean score of students (M=28.11) indicates that students scored

very high on neuroticism. This means students are not stable and emotionally not well adjusted. On

extraversion mean score of the students (M= 26.11) shows averages scores on extraversion. It indicates

students moderately enjoy being with people, and sometimes tend to be enthusiastic and action- oriented.

On openness, the mean score of the students (24.88) indicates that students reported average level of

openness. This means the students are sometime unconventional, willing to question authority, and are

prepared to entertain new ethical, social, and political ideas. On agreeableness, the mean score M=24.05)

indicates very low agreeableness. This means that students are disagreeable and egocentric, as well as

competitive rather than cooperative. On conscientiousness, the mean of the students (M=24.30) implies

very low conscientiousness which means students act less dutifully, and prefer spontaneous behavior.

Table 3 : Level of Academic Achievement among students

Frequency Percentage

High Achievers 165 38.824

Medium Achievers 233 54.824

Low Achievers 27 6.352

Total 425 100

Table 3 shows that 233 students (54.824 percent) are average achievers, while 165 students (38.824

percent) are high achievers while 27 students (6.352 percent) are low achievers.



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Table 4: Relationship between Self Esteem and Academic Achievement

Self Esteem Measures Coefficient correlation r

Level of Significance

Positive self -esteem .13 .01

Negative self- esteem -.097 .05

Table 4 shows that the coefficient of the Pearson’s correlation for positive self-esteem and negative self-

esteem are .13 and -.097 respectively. It means that there is significant positive relationship between

students’ academic achievement and self esteem’s dimension positive self and significant negative

relationship between students’ academic achievement and self esteem’s dimension negative self.

Table 5: Relationship between measures of Personality with the Students’ Academic Achievement

Academic Achievement

Personality Measures

Neuroticism -.099**

Extraversion -.01**

Openness .075(NS)

Agreeableness .078 (NS)

Conscientiousness .15*

*-Significant at .01 level of significance, **- Significant at .05 level of significance, NS-not significant even at .05 level of

significance



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Table 5 shows significant negative relationship of neuroticism and extraversion with academic

achievement and significant positive relationship of conscientiousness with academic achievement of

students.

Table 6 : Correlations between measures of personality and self-esteem

Self esteem

Measures

Negative Self Positive Self

Personality

Measures

Neuroticism +.14* -.099**

Extraversion -.067 (NS) +.081 (NS)

Openness -.10 (NS) +.08(NS)

Agreeableness -.15* +.013**

Conscientiousness -.087 (NS) +.076 (NS)

*-Significant at .01 level of significance, **- Significant at .05 level of significance, NS-not significant even at .05 level of

significance

Table 6 indicates that correlations between five measures of personality and two measures of self-esteem

in college students are ranging from -.067 to + .14 with 4 of 10 correlations to be significant (2 positive

and 2 negative). Neuroticism correlated positively with negative self (r=+.14) and negatively with

positive self (r=-.099). Likewise Agreeableness correlated negatively with negative self (r=-.15) and has

marked positive association with positive self (r=.013).



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Discussion of the Results

It is apparent from the results that positive self is significantly positively co related with academic

achievement while there is negative significant relationship between negative self and academic

achievement. This might be because of the reason that students having positive self –esteem always

remain willing to express their opinions, initiates friendly contact , sit with others during activities and

speak fluently which in turn may enhance their academic achievement. While on the other hand, students

having negative self-esteem fail to express their views, give excuses for failure and brag excessively

about achievement. Coopersmith (1967) cited evidence supporting the importance of self-esteem.

He concluded that people with feelings of inadequacy and unworthiness see themselves as inferior and

unable to generate inner resources to improve their situation. Feeling of inferiority may result if it

does not meet personal aspirations.

Findings of the study reveal that neuroticism is significantly negatively related to academic achievement.

It is well understandable in terms of the nature of neuroticism being characterized by anxiety, anger and

hostility, depression, impulsiveness and vulnerability that make an individual more emotionally reactive

unproportionately to the external stressors. Reason is obvious that students scoring high on neuroticism

are emotionally unstable, unable to face the stressful situations. The finding is very much confirmatory to

the theory of Eysenck that those who score low on Neuroticism and extraversion are academically more

successful than those who score high. However, Crede and Kuncel (2008) explained this relationship

may be due to neuroticism’s correlation with study attitudes.

Results of the present study indicates that extraversion is significantly negatively related to academic

achievement. This might be because of the reason that extraverts spend more time socializing. Kuncel, et

al. (2005) and Noftle & Robins (2007) explained that there does not seem to be a relationship between

extraversion and college performance, although O’Conner & Paunonen (2007) have found evidence for a



102

small, negative correlation. However, age may moderate the effect of extraversion on academic success.

Entwistle & Entwistle (1970) reported that before the age of 11–12, extraverted children outperform

introverted children. Among adolescents and adults, Furnham & Chamorro-Premuzic (2004) has shown

that introverts show higher achievement than extraverts. This change in the direction of the correlation

has been attributed to the move from the sociable, less competitive atmosphere of primary school to the

rather formal atmospheres of secondary school and higher education, in which introverted behaviors such

as avoidance of intensive socializing become advantageous. The present finding is supported by the above

mentioned observation.

Results have also shown that conscientiousness is significantly positively related to academic

achievement. The reason for this may be high conscientiousness is associated with personal attributes

necessary for learning and academic pursuits such as being organized, dependable and efficient, striving

for success and exercising self-control (Matthews & Deary, 1998). Conscientiousness might even affect

achievement through its effect on the sleep schedule — high Conscientious individuals rise and retire

earlier (Gray & Watson, 2002). The present results get support by the earlier findings that

conscientiousness has consistently been found to predict academic achievement from preschool through

high school ( Noftle & Robins ,2007), postsecondary level (O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007), and

adulthood (Ackerman & Heggestad ,1997 ; De Fruyt & Mervielde 1996; Shiner, Masten, & Roberts,

2003).

As far as relationship between personality and self esteem is concerned the results have shown that

neuroticism is significantly positively related to negative self and negatively related to positive self. The

reason may be that those who exhibit neurotic behaviors tend to be less happy, which influences their

ability to perform well in tasks (Colquitt., LePine, & Wesson, 2009), which may lead them towards

having negative self esteem. Further, agreeableness is significantly positively related to positive self and



103

significantly negatively related to negative self. Agreeable people may often be high-performing

individuals due to their willingness to adapt to and understand their environment (Mkoji &

Sikalieh,2012). The qualities associated with agreeableness — kindness, likeability, thoughtfulness —

enables them to have successful relationships with their mates, which may lead them to have positive self

image.

Educational Implications

Results of the study show that dimensions of self-esteem and personality give a very large impression to

the students’ academic achievement. Thus prevention step can be done by identifying the students with

low self esteem and personality problems.

It is known that home and school are important social agents. Parents are also suggested to consider

important environmental factors that influence their children’s personality and self-esteem. School

counselors need to encourage students towards instilling superior personality, a positive self esteem, and

aiming to achieve excellent academic achievements.

Findings reveal that students scored very high on neuroticism. Thus, it is recommended that teachers

should involve students with the activity-based society, to judge and evaluate them and build a winning

personality to overcome their personality problems. This is because unstable emotions are actually due to

a tendency of wanting to be alone and not wanting to mingle with other students. Furthermore, students

also need to do more activities with their family to maintain good relations between the family members.

Family ties have a great impact on the self esteem and also on their academic achievement. Students

should also be exposed to activities which can enhance their self esteem, identity and the team spirit to

train them to interact with the community. Such activities should be implemented in the co curricular

activities or any special programmed to motivate them.



104

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Esteem. Berkeley, CA: University of Cambridge Press. Crede, M., & Kuncel, N. R. (2008). Study habits, skills, and attitudes: The third pillar supporting

collegiate academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 425–454. De Fruyt & Mervielde (1996). Personality and interests as predictors of educational streaming

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The Digital Agenda for Europe: Sweden’s Path towards an

Inclusive Digital Society

Jared O. Odero Institute of International Education Department of Education Stockholm University Frescativägen 54 106 91 Stockholm Sweden Email: [email protected] _______________________________________________________________

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to review the European Union (EU) strategy for reviving Europe’s economy

through digital technologies, within its flagship initiative of the Digital Agenda for Europe. EU’s strategy

is to increase investment in information and communications technology (ICT), improve digital skills in

the labor market, and to encourage public sector innovation, among other things, so as to achieve a smart,

sustainable and inclusive economic growth in Europe by 2020. The paper has selected and described

Swedenas a casefor good practice in ICT strategies. Relevant ICT policy documents by the European

Commission, the Swedish Government and online literature have been examined. The findings show that

good ICT infrastructure, early adaptation of EU’s policy of de-regulating the telecommunications sector,

political vision, competitiveness, and a commitment to provide ICT access to all households and

businesses, are key attributes of Sweden’s success in the global ICT landscape. However, persons with



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disabilities, low levels of education, the elderly, unemployed youth, migrants, gender disparity in

accessing ICT, and lack of ICT-skilled personnel, still pose challenges to EU’s agenda for an inclusive

digital society.

Keywords: European Union; Digital Agenda for Europe; Sweden; information and communications

technology; e-Inclusion

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Introduction

Information and communications technology (ICT) has become part and parcel of everyday life and is an

enabler for social and digital interaction, leisure and entertainment, political participation, and so forth.

The European Union (EU)Digital Agenda Scoreboard 2014 indicates thataccess to affordable broadband

through several options has reached 100% coverage, and there are 315 million daily Internet users in

Europe. However, “100 million Europeans have never used the Internet” (European Commission, 2014a).

The digital divide illustrates participation for those who have electronic devices for fast Internet

connectivity via broadband, and those who are excluded, due to various reasons (Eurostat, 2013). For

instance, persons with disabilities, the elderly, unemployed youth, migrants and those with low levels of

education, face the risk of digital exclusion. There is also a gender gap in accessing ICT especially among

women wholive in rural areas,and are in the post-retirement age. The demand for ICT practitioners grows

by three per cent annually, yet the number of graduates with ICT skills is gradually decreasing.

“According to a recent estimate, there will be up to 700 000 unfilled ICT practitioners’ vacancies in the

European Union by the year 2015, despite soaring unemployment and the economic crisis in Europe”

(European Commission, 2012, p. 56).



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The purpose of this paper is to review the EU strategy for reviving Europe’s economy through digital

technologies, within its flagship initiative of the Digital Agenda for Europe. EU’s strategy is to increase

investment in ICT, improve digital skills in the labor market, and to encourage public sector innovation,

among other things, so as to achieve a smart, sustainable and inclusive economic growth in Europe by

2020. The paper has selected Sweden as a case for good practice in ICT strategies.

Method and Research Question

This desk research has identified, described and examinedrelevant ICT policy documents by the European

Commission (EC), the Swedish Government and other onlineliterature, to meet its objectives.What is the

progressin applying ICT toolsto promote digital inclusion in the EU?

Europe 2020 Strategy

OnMarch 3, 2010 the EC launchedEurope 2020 as a 10-year strategy to promote economic growth within

EU. It succeeded the 10-year Lisbon Strategy from 2000-2010. Fearing that the global financial crisis

which began in 2008 could wipe out the economic and social gains achieved earlier in Europe,

particularly in the eurozone, it was necessary to “come out stronger from the crisis and turn the EU into a

smart, sustainable and inclusive economy delivering high levels of employment, productivity and social

cohesion” (EC, 2010, 6). The Europe 2020 Strategy is grounded on three priorities: “Smart growth:

developing an economy based on knowledge and innovation; Sustainable growth: promoting a more

resource efficient, greener and more competitive economy; Inclusive growth: fostering a high-

employment economy delivering social and territorial cohesion” (p. 6).



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ICT is a key component in five of the seven flagship initiatives to enhance growth in the EU; namely,

the European Platform Against Poverty and Social Exclusion; An Agenda for New Skills and Jobs; Youth

on The Move; the Digital Agenda for Europe; and the Innovation Union. EU’s support for digital

inclusion has its background in the 2006 Riga Ministerial Declaration on eInclusion and the policy

framework i2010: A European Information Society for Growth and Employment (EC, 2009a).

In this context, eInclusion is basically about using ICTs to enhance social inclusion in a knowledge

society, and about barrier-free ICTs that are usable by all. Going beyond access to ICT tools and

services and even beyond digital literacy, an e-Inclusion policy should focus on people’s

empowerment and participation in the knowledge society and economy. (EC, 2009a)

Similarly, other EU initiatives to promote ICT for social inclusion and culturaldiversity are necessary to

improve life chances for the youth; increase skills for working citizens and migrant workers; support

families who juggle work and elderly care; and increase the capacity for tackling health and demographic

challenges (EC, 2009a).

Europe faces a huge demand for non-formal and informal adult education to increase knowledge and

deepen the processes of democratization (EAEA, 2013). ICT can empower adult learners to develop skills

for problem-solving and communication methods that are important for knowledge creation in the 21st

century knowledge society. It can also improve access to and promote equity in education by availing

opportunities to more people at far distances in rural areas, and those with disabilities.Education provides

citizens with skills and knowledge to build democratic institutions, which are effective in ensuring good

governance. Nevertheless, the EC is concerned that e-Learning is not yet widespread in the education and

training policies of Member States (EC, 2013a).

The distribution of ICT in EU Member States has boosted the productivity and competitiveness of

businesses. Moreover, EU structural funds have supported the supply and demand for ICT products in



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public and private services. From 2007-13, regional funds disbursed for ICT amounted to “EUR 15

billion or 4.4% of the total budget for cohesion policy, with investment priorities shifting from

infrastructure to support for the development of content” (Eurostat, 2013). Recent progress and challenges

in meeting EU’s digital agenda are highlighted in Table 1.

Table 1 EU Digital Agenda Scoreboard 2014 Regular Internet use up: the number of people who use the Internet at least once per week has increased from 60% to 72% since 2010. Most improved: Greece, Romania, Ireland, the Czech Republic and Croatia. Best performers (over 90% using internet) Denmark, Sweden, Netherlands and Luxembourg 87% of US adults use the Internet. Big progress among disadvantaged groups: usage by unemployed people, those with low education levels and older groups, is up to 57% from 41% four years ago. On current trends the target of 60% will be reached before 2015. Non-users are down a third: 20% of people in the EU have never used the Internet (down a third since 4 years ago). If the current trends persist, the DAE target to get the number down to 15% by 2015 will be met. Lots more of us shop online: 47% of EU citizens are now shopping online, up 10 points, meaning the target of 50% by 2015 is likely to be achieved. Access secured: 100% of Europeans now have access to broadband, usually this includes several options (fiber, cable, ADSL or 3G/4G mobile access), but all Europeans have now have affordable access to satellite broadband as a minimum. Fast broadband technologies: 4G mobile broadband availability increased sharply to 59%, up from 26% a year ago. Fixed lined internet of at least 30 Mbps is available to 62% of EU population, up from 54% a year ago and 29% in 2010. Fast broadband is already available to 90% of homes or more in Belgium, Denmark, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands and UK.



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Challenges: Small businesses are missing out: Only 14% of businesses with under 250 employees are selling online. Across the EU, not a single country comes close toachieving the EU average target of 33% by 2015. Europe’s rural areas at risk: only 18% of rural households have access to high-speed broadband. eGovernment services in 2013 stagnated. They were used by only 42% of the EU population. Continuing at this rate will not see Member States achieve the target of 50% by 2015. Source: EC (2014d, p. 2)

Digital Exclusion among Selected Groups

1) Women

It is argued that the participation of more women in digital jobs could increase Europe’s gross domestic

product (GDP)by around €9 billion annually (EC, 2013b).For instance:

Of 1,000 women with a Bachelor’s or other first degree, only 29 hold a degree in Information and

Communication Technologies (ICTs) (as compared to 95 men), and only 4 in 1000 women will

eventually work in the ICT sector.Women leave the sector mid-career to a greater extent than men and

they are under-represented in managerial and decision-making positions (even more than in other

sectors).Only 19.2% of ICT-sector workers have female bosses, compared to 45.2% of non-ICT

workers. (EC, 2013b)

While remarkable steps have been made to improve gender equality through relevant policies, there is

little research to understand if there is a gender gap among those who use and gain from ICT and those

who do not (Fernández& Cantos, 2011).The authors have developed the Gender and ICT Indicators

System (GICTIS) which assesses the use of ICT among men and women in order to reveal gender



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inequalities in Europe. By investigating how men and women use computers, access the Internet, engage

in e-commerce, online banking and other general uses, they found:

There is a high level of ICT use with high e-equality in Northern Europe (Iceland, Finland, Norway,

Denmark and Sweden), France, Slovenia and to a lesser extent Holland. There is high use in

Luxembourg, Germany and the UK but these nations have low e-equality. Hungary, Malta, Portugal

and Slovakia have a medium level of use and e-equality. There is low ICT use in Romania,

CzechRepublic, Bulgaria and to a lesser extent Poland and Belgium but these countries have high e-

equality. Southern Europe (Greece, Cyprus, Macedonia, Croatia and to a lesser extent Italy and Spain)

and Ireland has low use and low e-equality. (ScienceDaily, 2012)

2) The elderly

The number of people ageing in Europe is growing fast and it is projected that in 2050, there will be more

people aged 70-74 years than from 5-29 years old (OECD, 2008). This means there will be fewer workers

to generate income. Between 2010 and 2060, EU Member States will have increased spending on

healthcare, long-term care, unemployment benefits and education, amounting to 20% of their revenues.

Therefore, using ICT innovatively could assist in providing a better quality of life with more efficient

health care for EU citizens (EC, 2012).An elderly population requires a rethinking of traditional models

of education by adapting approaches that are flexible and innovative.

Lifelong learning will play a stronger, even crucial, role in strengthening the human capital of

countries and the skills and abilities of individuals. Access to and participation in formal and informal

education throughout the lifespan will keep our populations healthier, more physically and cognitively

active, and more connected to society. It will also allow the increasingly large proportion of the elderly

to enjoy their later years to the fullest. (OECD, 2013)



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Data from the United Kingdom (UK) Office for National Statistics (ONS) on Internet users and non-users

indicate that:

At Q2 2013, 43.6 million adults (86%) in the UK had used the Internet. 7.1 million adults (14%) had

never used the Internet. Men (88%) were more likely to be Internet users than women (84%).By

region, London and the South East had the highest proportion of Internet users (89%); Northern

Ireland the lowest (79%). (ONS, 2013)

A recent report on Internet usage by older Londoners (55+) indicates that 41% had never used the

Internet, while 78% of those in the 75+ age bracket had never used the Internet. These individuals over

55+ total 661,000 out of the 2.1 million older people living in London (Age UK, 2014).

3) The disabled

Although ICT has improved the socio-economic participation of persons with disabilities, barriers still

exist in accessing and using mobile gadgets, computers, Automated Teller Machines, web services and

television. Poor implementation of policies which should promote ‘user-friendliness’ and the overall costs

of making ICT accessible, are additional hindrances. For instance, according to the ONS, persons with

disabilities in the UK are notlikely to have used the Internet compared to those without disabilities.

At Q2 2013, there were 3.8 million disabled adults, as defined by the Disability Discrimination Act

(DDA), who had never used the Internet. This represents 33% of those who were disabled and over

half (54%) of the 7.1 million adults who had never used the Internet. Of those adults who reported no

disability or a work limiting disability, 9% (3.3 million adults) had never used the Internet. (ONS,

2013)

3) Migrants



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Research shows that ICT is important for the socioeconomic integration of immigrants and ethnic

minority persons in the culturally diverse European knowledge society (D’Alessio,Donnelly, & Watkins,

2010). Nevertheless, more should be done to advance their digital competences, ICT access and usage,

and how they gain from ICT-supported initiatives. The EC (2009b) argues that ICT offers the possibility

of enhancing the participation of migrants in their host countries and communities through learning,

active social life and access to employment. However, there isstill limited evidence on how ICT usage

can support their integration.

4) The youth

Youth unemployment across the EU is around 23.4% and represents those who cannot contribute to

economic growth and personal development (Eurostat, 2014). With the increasing requirement for ICT

application in the public and private sectors, digital literacy is a prerequisite in both wage employment

and personal business. The youth with access to ICT are deemed “digital natives” and are early adopters

who are better positioned to participate in the opportunities availed by the “app economy,” mobile

phones, social media and the game industry. However, many of those with ICT access still lack pertinent

skills, since schools and other education/training institutions face challenges in adapting to the high speed

of technological advancement, due to old methods of instruction. Amismatch of skills in the employment

market also contributes to youth unemployment, as well as the lack of appropriate instructional programs

necessary for launching new businesses(ITU, 2014).

Sweden: Good Practice in ICT Strategies



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The profile of Sweden as aworld leader in ICThas developed over the years from political vision, ideas,

norms and values. The Swedish ICT vision recognizes the country’s position in the global knowledge

domain, which attempts to balance between competitiveness andthe retention of awelfare state. Hall and

Löfgren (2004) refer to it as “classical integrative nationalism” whereby:

The state takes the lead; the citizens follow as a united nation (or to put it differently: everyone is

included); the national level of competition is enforced; equality and welfare within the nation is

encouraged; conflicts and diverging views are opposed in favour of ‘co-operation’. This also reflects

the traditional Swedish Social democratic account of the ‘People’s home’ in which the state includes

all citizens in the nation-building project. (pp. 156-7)

A key goal of the Swedish telecommunications policy isto provide “a high quality infrastructure at low

costs throughout the country” (Lorentzon, 2007, p. 244). In 1993, Sweden de-regularized the

telecommunications sector by ending the monopoly of Televerket (now Telia), which was the State-

owned agency for equipping the telephone network, constructing infrastructure and handling operations,

since 1910s. Lorentzon states that the process was also in accordance with the EUdirective on the

liberalization and harmonization of the European market.

In 2000, the Swedish government passed the ‘An information society for all, IT (information

technology) Bill 1999/2000:86’,to promote ICT as a key platform to leapfrog the country into an

information society. In principle, the Government would deliver a nationwide IT infrastructure with a

high transfer capacity accessible to households and businesses. It was assumed that by subsidizing the

rollout process, many operators and IT companies would use the network and in return, end-user prices

(households and institutions) would became affordable (Granholm,2000).

The second IT Bill presented by the Government since the first one in 1995, was the ‘Broadband Bill’ in

2005. The third one, ‘From IT policy for society to a policy for the IT society’ 2004/2005:175.2, shifted



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from mainly focusing on IT infrastructure, to an “IT policy, which must now become an integral part of

all policy areas that cooperate and fulfil their functions as regards achieving the objective of a sustainable

information society for all” (Government of Sweden, 2006, p. 17).

Sweden’s goal is to have world-class broadband and a nationwide coverage strategy by market players

is for 40% of all households and businesses to have connections at a minimum speed of 100 megabits per

second (Mbps), by 2015. Further,90% of all households and businesses should have broadband access at a

minimum speed of 100 Mbps in 2020 (Government of Sweden, 2009).Most Swedish families own

computers, smartphones and other electronic gadgets, and more than 90% have Internet access.

Nevertheless,according to Findahl (2012), 1.2 million others above age 12 do not or seldom use the

Internet. Findahl puts them into three categories; namely, “those who lack access to and have neverused

computers or the Internet; those who previously used the Internet but no longer do so, and those who have

access to theInternet but do not or very seldom use it” (p. 12). According to the Government of Sweden

(2011):

Digital inclusion is concerned with the possibility of taking part in all aspects of community life and

being able to exercise one’s rights and fulfil one’s obligations as a citizen. It does not involve replacing

other forms of social and physical participation with digital resources, but it is important that everyone

who wishes to has an opportunity to make use of what digitisation offers, regardless of personal

circumstances such as age, disability and level of knowledge or other circumstances that can be

described as economic, cultural and ethnic. The conditions that need to be met to achieve digital

inclusion are many and complex. It may be a matter of actual access to a computer and fixed or mobile

connections with sufficient capacity or the possibility of getting help if problems arise. (p. 20)

The country has translated all the main objectives of EU into national targets under the “National Reform

Program” which is an annual document with policies and measures to sustain growth and create jobs to



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reach the Europe 2020 targets. Sweden, famous for creating brand names like Ericsson, Absolute Vodka,

IKEA, Volvo, SAAB and the Nobel Prize, is renowned too for environmental protection and expects to be

the first country in the world to be “oil-free” by 2020, under its ongoing renewable and sustainable energy

solutions (EC, 2013c).

The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) is Sweden’s innovation

agency and operates under the Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communications. VINNOVA’s vision

is “for Sweden to be a world-leading country in research and innovation, an attractive place in which to

invest and conduct business” (VINNOVA, 2013). The Agency promotes collaborations between

companies, universities, research institutes and the public sector.

Sweden has integrated ICT into education and is a global leader in ICT-related innovations, which results

in the high patenting of many Swedish products. Factors that enable this include: structural conditions,

research funding, the number of innovation companies and production of new products and services.

According to the Innovation Union Scoreboard 2014 (an annual index published by the EC), Sweden was

rankednumber one for the fourth time in EU, as ‘Innovation Leader’, ahead of Denmark, Germany and

Finland (EC, 2014b). “Drivers of innovation in the EU growth include SMEs and the commercialization

of innovations, together with excellent research systems. However, the fall in business and venture capital

investment over the years 2008-2012 has negatively influenced innovation performance” (EC, 2013d).

Sweden was ranked number one among 70 countries in the “Digital economy rankings 2010”by the

Economist Intelligence Unit magazine 2010, for using ICT to promote economic growth. Factors such as

technological infrastructure, political initiatives and consumer attitudes were compared.

Public and private organizations and companies have a long-standing relationship with Swedish higher

education institutions in developing products and services for sustainable growth. For instance,

VINNOVA funds innovation projects within research and development; particularly in ICT,



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biotechnology, working life, product realization, materials and transportation. The success of ICT-based

Swedish companies depicts a general technological know-how in the country. Spotify AB (Company),

which is a legal commercial online music streaming service launched in 2008 by some Swedes, had

around six million paying customers in 2013, and 24 million total active users globally. Skype, the

successful free Internet calling tool, was co-founded by a Swede. Therefore, Swedish companies in the

ICT sector have succeeded because of the government’s heavy investment in ICT infrastructure, and the

huge interest in financing research for technological development.

Sweden’s Performance on the Digital Agenda Scoreboard 2014: Selected Indicators The Government of Sweden (2011) states that:“The purpose of the Digital Agenda for Sweden is to

collate all ongoing activities in a horizontal, cohesive strategy in order to make use of all the opportunities

offered by digitisation to individuals and businesses” (p. 5). Additionally, it is a component for

coordinating Government actions in ICT and charts the path for the country’s global leadership in

maximizing the benefits of digitization. The digital agenda links Sweden with the international

community, and includes future key aspects of foreign trade and development assistance policy.

The following section presents selected ICT indicators which compare Sweden with EU (EC, 2014,

pp. 1-4).

1. Broadband markets

In 2013, fixed broadband covered 99% of homes in Sweden; EU (97%). Coverage for rural homes was

92%. Next Generation Access providing at least 30 Mbps download was available to 71% of homes; EU

(62%). 87% of households had broadband subscriptions by end of 2013; EU (76%). 38% had high speed



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connections (at least 30 Mbps); EU (21%). 31% of all subscriptions had ultra-fast connections (at least

100 Mbps); EU (5%). 4th generation mobile phone was available to 99% of the population. Take-up rate

(subscription per 100 people) of mobile broadband was 110%; EU (62%).

2. Internet usage

In 2013, 92% of the Swedish population used the Internet at least weekly (regular users); EU (72%). 81%

were online daily (frequent users); EU (62%). 4% of the population had never used the Internet; EU

(20%).

3. Digital skills

In 2012, 25% of the Swedish population had low or no digital skills; EU (47%). Disadvantaged people

(aged 55-74, low educated and/or unemployed, retired or inactive) in Sweden were more digitally skilled

than theEU average. 20% of the workforce had low or no digital skills; EU(39%). In 2013, 25% of

households without Internet access reporting lack of skills as a reason, were lower than EU (37%). The

share of ICT specialists in total employment in Sweden was 4.8% in 2012; EU (2.8%).

4. eCommerce

In 2013, 73% of Swedish people had purchased goods or services online. Take-up of e-Commerce was

above EU (47%). Sweden had better rates of cross-border e-Commerce, with 23% of the population

having bought online from other EU countries, compared to EU (12%). In 2013, 50% of large enterprises

were selling online, fewer than in 2012; EU average was 35%. Only 23% of small and medium

enterprises (SMEs)sold online; more than EU (14%).

5. eGovernment



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In 2013, 78% of Swedish people used the Internet for eGovernment services; EU (41%). 46% of citizens

sent filled-in forms, up from 45% in 2012; much above EU average. On the supply-side, the newly

introduced User-centric eGovernment Indicator (which measures the availability of

eGovernment services, their connectedness and their user-friendliness), was at 81 in 2012-2013, much

above the EU average of 70, and the Transparent eGovernment Indicator (which measures the online

transparency of governments on the different aspects of online service delivery, treatment of citizens’

personal data and activities of the public administrations), was at 59, above the EU average of 49.

6. eHealth

In 2013, 100% of Swedish hospitals had a broadband connection >50Mbps; EU (36%). 85% of hospitals

exchange clinical information with external healthcare providers or professionals; EU (55%). For General

Practitioners, the rate is 56%; EU (28%). 8% of hospitals provide patients access to the totality or part of

their medical records; lower than EU (9%).

7. Research and Development (R&D) in ICT

In 2010, Business Expenditure in R&D (BERD) by the ICT sector in Sweden was €2071mn, markedly up

from €1925mn the year before. BERD by the ICT sector represented 25% of total BERD, above the EU

average of 17%. Total BERD was 2.3% of GDP, above EU average of 1.2%. In 2012, Public funding in

R&D in the ICT sector amounted to €551mn, representing 15.4% of total government funding in R&D;

EU (6.6%).

Conclusion

This review has found that although ICT access has improved a lot and its components are ubiquitous in

the EU, there is an increased requirement for high-speed broadband connection. Around 100 million



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Europeans have not used the Internet for various reasons and therefore face digital exclusion, which may

impede the goal of providing ICT for all. The case of Sweden has shown that an all-inclusive policy

which considers public-private partnerships, can shape regulation and promote the uptake of ICT. Sweden

ranks highly in digital technologies because of excellent infrastructures and dynamic innovation systems.

The near universal Internet use boosts innovation performances, and affords the country a competitive

edge in the growing global knowledge society.

There are still many challenges in improving digital literacy and skills among persons who are

excluded due to disabilities, lack of income, orother socio-economic and cultural barriers. To meet the

EUgoals for digital and social inclusion by 2020, the Member States need to promote digital literacy

initiatives and ascertain that their national ICT policies conform to the needs of users.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Ingmar Bergman's Hour of the Wolf - On Dreams of Violence

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