Information and Communication Technologies in Women’s Business Ventures:

Perspectives from Women Entrepreneurs in Nepal and Japan

Brenda Bushell

University of the Sacred Heart

Tokyo, Japan

Momoko Ozawa

Waseda University

Tokyo, Japan

Abstract

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been increasingly promoted in

recent years as “powerful enablers” for women; providing a journey out of poverty and a march

towards equality. This has been highlighted by the Declaration of Agreement in Support of Girls

and Women in Information and Communication Technology, introduced at the United Nations

World Summit in 2005, which stressed that “ICT allows women increased participation in

political, social and economic arenas and supports empowerment for themselves, their families,

and their communities” (World Bank, 2006). Following on the heels of this summit, the first-

ever Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Women in the Economy Summit held in 2011

affirmed the need to build women’s capacities and skills in ICT, underlining the important role

women play in economic development, in developing and developed nations alike. While these

global agreements are indeed promising, it is important to understand the extent to which women

participate and utilize available ICT. It is also important to bring their perspectives to the fore, in

order to ensure effective policy design, as well as to enrich our understanding of ICT in the

context of Women’s Studies in Asia.

This paper investigates the business activities of a selected population of women

entrepreneurs both in Japan and Nepal, focusing on their perspectives of ICT, and the challenges

they face in adopting it. Interviews were conducted with 69 women using a structured

questionnaire. The findings point to the need for caution regarding the potential for ICT in

women’s business initiatives. The findings reveal that women first need to overcome the social

structural constraints that reflect cultural, and in the case of Nepal, religious forms of gender

discrimination need to be addressed, before ICT can be utilized to its full extent.

Introduction

During the last several decades, recognition has been given to women’s enterprise as a

prerequisite for household-level poverty reduction, national economic development, and the

empowerment of women, particularly in developing economies (Mayoux, 2001). A strong link

has been made between women’s business and their ultimate empowerment through the adoption

of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs). Governments and organizations believe

that improving women’s access to ICT has the potential to spur women’s economic advancement

and stimulate wider economic growth. However, research suggests a gender divide preventing

women from accessing full potential of ICTs in achieving their business goals (Appropriate IT,

2007; Hafkin, 2006). For reasons including social, cultural, financial, and the very nature of

design and implementation, women’s adoption of ICTs has been hindered, both in developed and

developing economies. Accordingly, this paper includes research gathered from Japan, a country

with a high penetration of ICTs, and from Nepal, a country with a much lower penetration of

ICTs. Government policies on ICT appear to target women in both countries. Nepal’s ICT

policy calls for the need to harness ICTs in order to become a knowledge-based society and

achieve socio-economic development, poverty reduction and good governance. Special mention

is given to women, who are amongst the marginalize groups, and with whom ICTs are to be

promoted “without barriers” to empower women in business (Pariyar, 2006). Japan’s ICT policy

calls for creative ways to harness ICTs in business. Current Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has set

the empowerment of women as a major pillar to spur economic growth, and has highlighted ICTs

as being critical to their success (Aoki, 2013). Based on these high hopes of bringing women into

the mainstream business sector supported by ICTs, this paper explores the current realities, based

on women’s perspectives of ICTs. For the purposes of this paper, we define ICTs as

communication devices, including computer and network hardware and software, the Internet,

mobile phones, radio and television, and services they enable.

In order to orient our research, we first review the existing theoretical literature to

identify the benefits of ICTs for women and the challenges that deter women from adopting ICTs

in their business practices. Understanding these aspects, we then set out to enrich our

understanding of how women entrepreneurs in diverse environments in Japan and Nepal perceive

ICTs. These women are engaged in enterprises for various reasons, and because of this, they can

provide insight into the realities of ICTs for women’s businesses.

Literature Review: Positive Impacts and Challenges of ICT for Women

The literature is abundant on the potential of ICTs to impact women’s lives, both in

developed and developing economies. ICTs have been heralded as tools for empowering women

in political, economic and social arenas. Specifically, ICTs have been recognized as a valuable

tool for the mobilization of women’s political advocacy and interest groups (Friedman, 2005;

Nath, 2006). Following the second Global Knowledge Partnership Conference in 2000, the

United Nations called upon all nation countries to take action in “enhancing democracy and

women’s participation through electronic connectivity” (United Nations, 2005, 5).

More often the literature cites ICTs as a way to address gender issues. Kelkar and Nathan,

(2002) have emphasized that ICTs have the potential to “redefine traditional gender roles” and

that the spread of Internet services has been enormously beneficial to women, especially those

who have limited opportunities, and or lack of resources to invest in education. Drucker (2001,

31) has called ICTs “the great equalizer,” providing opportunities for women to interact and

compete on an equal basis as men. And ICT has been inextricably linked with lifting women out

of poverty through supporting women’s business initiatives (Nussbaum, 2001; Sen, 2000;

Takamura, 2012). IT skills can afford women greater opportunities in the workforce, both in

developed and developing economies, including upward mobility, and the possibility of starting

their own business, or expanding their existing one (Wamala, 2012). Many emphasize that ICTs

have the potential to increase the equity and efficiency of female participation in the labor force.

A study by Goyal (2006) found that women trained in using ICTs can transcend culturally

embedded gender issues connected to public interaction and limitations on female mobility.

Development agencies and governments have initiated programs such as e-commerce—online

business activities for products and services—so that women can conduct business in the global

economy from their kitchen counter. Finally, information-gathering and networking through

ICTs can increase women’s knowledge about the world, and on a local level; the political,

economic, social and cultural factors that shape their lives (Gurumurthy & Sarkar, 2003; Huyer,

2003; Ng, 1999; Ozawa & Bushell, 2013).

However, the adoption of ICT is not a panacea. Research points out women's unequal

relation with technology including ICT, as gender relations often determine the use and impact

of technologies. Wajcman (1991, 28) for example, argues that "though new technologies do

represent a force for change … the outcomes are constrained by the pre-existing organization of

work, of which gender is an integral part." Similarly, Wambui (2002, 7) notes that “barriers to

effective use of ICTs in developing economies are a microcosm of existing gender relations in

societies where women are socialized towards non-technical careers and away from technical

work such as software development.” In fact there is growing agreement that the impact of ICTs

in developing economies is not gender neutral (Hafkin, 2002, 6). Research shows that women

enjoy fewer benefits from ICTs than men, and that existing gender inequalities are often

unaffected, or even perpetuated, by ICT use. It also finds that gender-based obligations, societal

biases, and even physical strength can restrict women’s ability to learn about or use new

technologies (10). A report from the Commonwealth of Learning on Women and ICT identified

the following challenges when it comes to women and ICT:

ICTs tend to be male-dominated, male-owned which can inhibit women’s access

Without basic education, women cannot access ICT or learn how to use it

The lingua franca of the Internet is often English, which may not be the language of the

woman

Lack of mobility means that women cannot travel freely to take programs that teach them

how to use ICT

Women for the most part have only limited time to learn how to use ICT due to domestic

responsibilities

If ICT cannot directly help women in their business or life, then they will most probably

not pursue it further, due to other pressing factors

While an interventionist gender-focused approach (by governments and institutions) to

using ICTs in women’s businesses has shown success, it cannot always be transplanted to

other contexts

While many argue poverty can be addressed thru ICT, women in business usually have

very little profit to invest in ICT for their company

While the use of ICTs can be transformative, Emdon (2007, 11) emphasizes that, “they remain

tools; they are not a “magic bullet.”

Objectives and Methodology of the Research

The research objectives on women entrepreneurs in Nepal and Japan were aimed at:

1) studying their current use of ICTs

2) identifying the challenges and the realities they face in adopting ICTs

3) considering the benefits of ICTs for their businesses, and suggesting a way forward

As this research was exploratory in nature, we used a multidisciplinary approach to

identify the realities of ICT and women’s business. We drew on two approaches for the data

collection and analysis: 1) a gender-based approach which draws on transformative and

developmental streams within gender studies (Reeves & Baden, 2000); and 2) an enterprise-

based approach which draws on business studies. It focuses particularly on the relationship

between key enterprise success factors and business outcomes (Perren, 1999).

Two main research tools were incorporated: a questionnaire survey consisting of 52

questions divided into 10 categories; and a free-form conversation based on guided questions

around generic themes focusing on the women’s lives and perceptions of their success in the

business world. The findings are drawn from the responses to both the survey and free-form

conversation and are summarized through the key points which the women raised, based on our

research approaches. The research was conducted in Nepal from March 1 to 8, 2013; and in

Japan on August 8, 2013. A total of 69 women were targeted for our research. The women

ranged in age from 20 to 74 years old. Grade 6 was the average education level of the Nepalese

women, while grade 12 was the average of the Japanese women. Their businesses were situated

in: Tokyo, the capital city of Japan; Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal; and in several villages

in tourist areas in rural Nepal. The businesses ranged from retail and food service industry

through to transportation and legal services, and included small grocery and clothing shops,

tailoring, restaurants, taxi services, and fair trade shops.

Findings and Discussion

While governments and NGOs have been eager to promote ICTs as a way to enable

women entrepreneurs in Nepal and Japan, the women in this research felt uncertain about

adopting ICT tools and applications for their businesses. In fact, only three women indicated that

they were using ICTs in their businesses in Japan and six women in Nepal. One Japanese woman

had an online retail business, and two other Japanese women were using applications for

advertising through the Internet directed at mobile devices and computer. The six women in

Nepal were using mobile phones to support their taxi service business. For the majority of

women surveyed however, specific ideological, cultural and social barriers related to a gender-

based approach discouraged them from exploring the possibilities of ICTs for business purposes.

While over 80% of the women believed ICTs could be beneficial for their business, they

indicated that their business was “not that important” or “not developed enough” to justify

investing in the time and money needed to effectively use ICTs (see Figure 1). In fact, the

majority of the women internalized the socio-cultural attitudes that have continued to permeate

both societies for a long time.

Figure 1. Why women do not adopt ICTs in their business

The commonly held belief of the Nepali women interviewed was that they felt excluded

from the “ICT knowledge-based society” and in reality, had no information on what it means and

how it could positively impact their businesses. The women identified the following specific

gender-based barriers embedded in their society as the reasons why they have not adopted ICT

for purpose of their businesses: 1) lack of education (24% of women); 2) lack of opportunities to

learn skills connected to ICT (21% of women); 3) lack of access to ICT relative to their home

and or place of business (10% of women); 4) heavy responsibilities for domestic duties (30% of

women); 5) the lack of financial resources to own ICTs (10% of women); and 6) a lack of control

over ICTs (5% of women). In general, Nepali women did not see the value in using ICTs for

purposes of their business, and furthermore, they were satisfied with their current business

operations.

Japanese women were found to have similar opinions regarding the adoption of ICT.

While ICT is more accessible in Japan compared to Nepal, the Japanese women in this research

did not show high interest in ICT or even knowledge of how it could benefit their business.

0 10 20 30 40

Business not that important

Business not that developed

No information

Feeling of exclusion

Other

When asked to rank the factors what can make a woman’s business a success in Japan, ICTs and

information networks was ranked lowest, based on the average of all Japanese women

entrepreneurs surveyed (see Table 1).

Table 1. Average ranking of factors for business success for Japanese women entrepreneurs

Factors Ranking

Personal characteristics 1

Education and work experience 2

Society and family 3

Materials and inventory management 4

Markets 5

Government and company support 6

ICTs and information networks 7

A sense of satisfaction for their current business situation was implied by the free-form

conversations we had with the women. This sense of satisfaction may have impeded their

motivation to learn about ICTs. Also, they tended to accept the traditional and cultural norms of

Japanese business, which is characterized by considerable conservatism, particularly in the

approach to management workplace practices. These norms could be a reason why women have

not embraced ICTs. One exception to this was the respondent who created an online retail

business. She emphasized that her reason for creating the online business platform was due to the

very fact that traditional Japanese business practices are conservative and from her experience,

gender-biased.

One recurring reason that almost all Japanese women gave for not adopting ICTs was that

they had no mentors— veteran women entrepreneurs—that they could consult with concerning

the best way to use ICTs and applications in their business. They believed they did not have the

business knowledge and “know-how” for incorporating ICTs. Additionally, most often the

women felt pressure when considering the time and effort spent to learn ICT skills and how to

integrate ICTs into their businesses. The prevailing socio-cultural norms were reflected in

women’s feelings of anxiety on how to balance their professional work with their housework,

child care, and responsibilities for their aging family members. Their perception was that they

could not afford the time and effort to adopt ICT, but if they could continue their business in the

future, then perhaps it could be useful.

These findings suggest that gender specific normative institutions, for example socio-

cultural values, business norms, family, and traditions, determine women’s perceptions of ICT to

a large extent. In Nepal, particularly in rural areas, women’s education is not a priority. The

literacy rate for women in Nepal is just over 50 percent, while men’s literacy rate is 73 percent

(Index Mundi, 2013). The average level of education for the respondents was grade six, while the

national average is grade eight. We may assume that the lack of education represents the greatest

deterrent in using ICTs. Furthermore, cultural and social attitudes discriminate against women’s

access to ICTs. With the exception of several ethnic groups, women are limited in their mobility

in Nepal, so they may feel uncomfortable or at risk travelling to workshops offered on ICTs, and

may be restricted by male family members from interacting in their workplace with men who

may be willing to teach them how to use ICTs. If ICT is expected to empower women in

business, then strategies that address these gender-based issues are needed to transform these

long-held beliefs. In Japan, women may not realize the potential of ICTs for their business and

they have few role models to encourage them. Additionally, the traditional work environment

which is deeply ingrained in Japan may deter women from trying new business models that are

“outside the box.”

In 2011, the annual United Nations Conference on Trade and Development boasted the

potential of e-commerce and more generally ICTs for women’s business, particularly in

developing economies. ICT projects initiated by the World Bank have been used as evidence for

the success, with more than 1,000 projects focused on women’s micro-businesses highlighted as

having an ICT component (The World Bank Group, 2006). However, the success of these

projects has been based on only anecdotal evidence.

According to Vidall (2011), integrating ICTs into a small business is particularly valuable

as a way to support the growth and ultimate success of a business. He notes that to strengthen a

business, strategic marketing, inventory control, and communication with customers and

providers are essential. By adopting various ICT tools, he asserts that businesses can strengthen

and prosper. But the essence of “success” for the women in our research was quite different from

the economic model of success he implies. The women in our research emphasized that having a

successful business cannot be measured in monetary wealth, but in human wealth: self-

empowerment; building relationships in the community; finding meaning in life; and

contributing to a better quality of life for their families. The women were not convinced that

ICTs would help them achieve their definition of business success.

One exception was the respondent who operated the online retail business discussed

previously. She emphasized three benefits of using ICT for her business: 1) more flexibility in

how a business is managed; 2) greater potential for a business; and 3) more flexibility concerning

work-life balance. But in fact she placed high value on face-to-face interaction for her business,

especially for building customer loyalty. Her response was not unlike the perceptions of the other

women surveyed. There was unanimous agreement that building good relationships within a

community are critical to the success of a business. The women commented that through human

interaction they can have more certainty on how to manage their business, and can get immediate

feedback on their business from those around them.

These findings indicate that the respondents have little interest or curiosity for how ICTs

can support their business. The reason may be that success is not defined by profit for them,

rather the opportunity for self-improvement, building relationships with others, and ultimately,

self-empowerment.

The Promise of ICT

While there are differences between Nepal and Japan in terms of availability and access

to ICTs, the governments of both countries are promoting ICT as a way to empower women in

business. And while in both countries women are pursuing higher education in greater numbers,

and are highly motivated to use their intellect and creative abilities, a gap exists. Based on our

research, we found that women in Nepal and Japan are compromised due to embedded cultural

norms. In the case of Nepal, religious beliefs lead to gender inequality. The image of the “good

mother” is one of the virtues in society. In Japan, while women are now recognized as a capable

workforce, they are often criticized for wanting to continue their career path after marriage—the

common attitude is that women are sacrificing their family in order to pursue their own interests.

Perpetuating this attitude are Japanese companies which continue to hire women for non-career

tracks, resulting in the “M-shaped” curve career trajectory of women in Japan (Seino, 2010).

These religious beliefs, gender-based obligations, and societal biases prevent women

from achieving their full potential in business. Taken together, these elements embedded in

society take time to change; therefore, policy intervention through affirmative action in the

workplace and society at large may be required. Educational and training opportunities in ICTs

should be targeted at young women and provided for those women entrepreneurs who show

promise, because one of the factors that impede women from adopting ICTs is a lack of

knowledge and training in ICT.

Second, we found that women do not recognize the benefits of ICT for their business,

based on their definition of a “successful business.” Many of the women base success of their

business on their relationships with others and their self-empowerment. Many of them do not

understand that “The power to connect, to mobilize and interact with others is unique to ICTs,

and that ICTs can be used for women’s empowerment” (International Research Development

Center, 11). Women need to know what devices or services can be applied to help them achieve

their goal of success. They also need to be involved in the development of ICT tools and

applications, and be included in the policy-making on how to promote ICTs in women’s business.

In this way they can truly understand ICT technology and make it effective for their businesses.

Conclusion

The aim of this paper was to study how women entrepreneurs in diverse environments in

Nepal and Japan perceive ICTs. In total 69 women involved in various business enterprises were

surveyed using a questionnaire, as well as a free-form conversation. The findings highlight the

importance of government and institutional support in promoting women’s business

achievements. To ensure that ICTs are accessible to women, there is a need to provide

information and training on how ICTs can enhance their entrepreneurial pursuits. Additionally,

the findings suggest that putting women in the forefront of the development and design of ICT

tools has the potential to make ICTs more attractive to women entrepreneurs.

There were several limitations to this research. First, the targeted population did not

include a sufficient number of women who were actually using ICTs for their business. In future

we need to survey women using ICTs to find out how they are using ICTs, and whether these

tools are bettering their businesses and lives. Second, we need to deepen our research to identify

the kinds of ICT training programs available and their effectiveness in training women how to

use ICTs in their business. With this information at hand it may be possible to empower women

in business, both in terms of human wealth and monetary wealth.

Acknowledgements:

The authors appreciate the time and effort the women entrepreneurs took for this research.

The authors acknowledge the financial support for this research from the Japanese Ministry of

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.

References

Afkin, N. J. (2006). “Women, gender and ICT statistics and indicators,” in: Hafkin, N. J. and

Huyer, S. (Eds.) Cinderella and Cyberella? Empowering women in the knowledge society.

Bloomfield, CT. Kumari Press.

Aoki, M. (2013, October 26). “Japan’s poor gender gap worsening, WEF survey finds.” The

Japan Times, pg. 1.

Appropriate IT (2007). “Statistics on gender digital divide.” Retrieved from

http:/www.appropriateit.org/2007/11/gender-digital-divide/. (accessed 25 Oct. 2013)

Arun, S., Heeks, R., & Morgan, S. (2004). Researching ICT-based Enterprise for Women in

Developing Countries: A Livelihoods Perspective, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.

Retrieved from http://www.womenictenterprise.org/. (accessed on 1 Dec. 2013)

Cecchini, S. (2002). “Can ICT applications contribute to poverty reduction? Lessons from rural

India.” Poverty Reduction Group Working Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Cook, J. (2000). “Flexible employment: implications for a gendered political economy of

citizenship.” Towards a Gendered Political Economy, J. Cook, J. Roberts and G. Waylen

(eds.), Macmillan, London.

Emdon, H. (2007). “ITCs are not a magic bullet for women’s empowerment.” International

Development Research Centre (IDRC). Retrieved from

http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/ArticleDetails.aspx?PublicationID=

21. (accessed on 1 Dec. 2013)

Friedman, E. J. (2005). “The reality of virtual reality: The Internet and gender equality advocacy.”

Journal of Politics and Society, 47(3), 1-34. Retrieved from

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2005.tb00317.x/abstract).

(accessed on 20 Nov. 2013)

Gohar, M, Rauf, A., & Abrar, A. (2005). “Making of household entrepreneurs: Lived

experiences of Pukhtoon women entrepreneurs from Peshawar, Pakistan.” Journal of

Entrepreneurs, 8 (2), 120-129.

Goyal, A. (2005). “Developing women: How technology can help.” Retrieved from

http://ssrn.com/abstract=509324. (accessed 29 Nov. 2013)

Gurumurthy, A., & Sarkar, R. (2003). “Poverty reduction through tele-centers.” Bangalore: IT

for change. Retrieved from http://itforchange.net/resources/Pat.htm. (accessed 3 Nov.

2013)

Hafkin, N. J. (2002). “Gender issues in ICT policy in Developing Countries: An Overview.”

United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), Expert Group Meeting.

Nov. 11 to 14. Retrieved from

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/ict2002/reports/Paper-NHafkin.PDF.

(accessed 1 Dec. 2013)

Huyer, S. (2003). “ICTs globalization and poverty reduction. Part 1Poverty reduction, gender

equality and the knowledge society.” Gender Advisory Board, UN Commission on

Science and Technology Development (UNCSTD). Retrieved from

http://gab.wigsat.org/home/. (accessed 3 Nov. 2013)

Index Mundi. (2013). “Nepal school life expectancy.” Retrieved from

http://www.indexmundi.com/nepal/school_life_expectancy_(primary_to_tertiary_educati

on).htm. (accessed 3 Nov. 2013)

Nath, V. (2006). “Empowerment of women through ICT-enabled networks: Towards the

optimum ICT impact model,” in: N. Hafkin & S. Huyer (eds.), Cinderella or Cyberella:

Empowering Women in the Knowledge Society, Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press.

Ng, C. (1999). “Making women’s voices heard: Technological change and women’s employment

in Malaysia,” in Gender Technology and Development, 3 (1), 24 – 31.

Nussbaum, M. (2001). Women and Human Development. Cambridge University Press.

Ozawa, M., & Bushell, B. “Women’s Enterprise in Nepal: Profile, Problems and Prospects.”

Interdisciplinary Environmental Review, 14 (2), 97-105.

Pariyar, M. P. (2006). “e-Government Initiatives in Nepal: Challenges and Opportunities.” High

Level Commission for Information Technology, Government of Nepal. Retrieved from

http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un-dpadm/unpan042241.pdf.

(accessed 26 Oct. 2013)

Perren, L. (1999). “Factors in the growth of micro-enterprises.” Journal of Small Business and

Enterprise Development, 6 (4), 366-385.

Reeves, H. & Baden, S. (2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions. BRIDGE

Report No 55, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex.

Seino, H. (2010) “The M-Shaped curve that is peculiar to Japan.” DawnCenter Newsletter

Retrieved from http://www.dawncenter.or.jp/english/publication/edawn/0112/curve.html.

(accessed on 2 Dec. 2013)

Sen, A. (2000). Development as Freedom. New York: Anchor Books.

Takamura, S. (2012). Economic Empowerment of Women in Japan. 4th

Global Forum on Gender

Statistics, pg. 2. Retrieved from

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/Jordan_Mar2012/Report%20of%204th%20GFGS_2012

_final.pdf. (accessed on 25 Nov. 2013)

United Nations. (2005). “Gender equality and empowerment of women through ICT.” Women

2002 and Beyond. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2000-

09.05-ict-e.pdf. (accessed on 2 Nov. 2013)

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2012). “Technology and innovation in

the 21st century.” Retrieved from

http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/dom2013d1_en.pdf. (accessed on 26 Nov.

2013)

Vidall, A. L. (2011). “Can ICTs help me improve my business?” A Handbook. IDRC Canada, pg.

5. Retrieved from http://www.oitcinterfor.org/sites/default/files/canicthelp.pdf. (accessed

on 26 Nov. 2013)

Walby, S. (2000). “The restructuring of the gendered political economy: transformations in

women's employment,” in: Towards a Gendered Political Economy, J. Cook, J. Roberts

and G. Waylen (eds.), Macmillan, London, 165-188.

Wamala, C. (2012). “Empowering Women Through ICT.” The Swedish Program for ICT in

Developing Countries. Spider ICT4D Series No. 4 | 2012, Stockholm University.

Retrieved from

https://spidercenter.org/sites/default/files/Empowering%20women%20through%20ICT.p

df. (accessed on 3 Dec. 2013)

“Women and ICTs for open and distance learning: Some experiences and strategies from the

Commonwealth.” (2002). Report by the Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver, British

Columbia, Canada.

World Bank. (2006) “Gender, ICT and Entrepreneurship.” Engendering ICT and Development,

New York.