1

LESSON-1

IMPORTANCE AND THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Dr. Ashish Thomas Assistant Professor,

Sri Guru Nanak Dev Khalsa College University of Delhi

TOPIC

Value of biodiversity: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic, andinformational values of biodiversity with examples; sacred groves and their importancewith examples

Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation; Poaching ofwildlife; Man-wildlife conflicts; Biological invasion with emphasis on Indianbiodiversity; Current mass extinction crisis

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity has a very fundamental value to human and our very existence is intricately linked to it. On one hand, we are dependent on biodiversity for our very basic necessities and everyday sustenance, while on the other hand, we are also dependent on it for economic, cultural and environmental well-being. As the biotic component of any ecosystem, biodiversity forms the backbone for ecosystems to thrive and function efficiently. The three components or levels of biodiversity – genes , species and ecosystems – are collectively called as biological resources. All three components provide humans with a wide range of goods and services which together constitute the value of biodiversity. No wonder, that for any nation, their greatest wealth is contained within forests, wetlands, grasslands, mountains, freshwater and marine habitats. All these ecosystems provide invaluable and irreplaceable benefits to humankind.

Unfortunately, this very biological diversity is threatened with extinction crisis due to unregulated exploitation by humans. The threat of a sixth mass extinction seems a reality, that is driven mainly by human activities, with thousands of species facing a bleak future. Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, overharvesting and overconsumption, poaching, animal trade, human wildlife conflict and invasive species are the major threats endangering numerous species. Human beings are intricately linked to biodiversity, and the loss of biodiversity is going to have devastating consequences with respect to our very own survival.

In this section, we will first discuss in detail the various values that biodiversity provides to us humans. This will help us understand and realize the immense importance of biodiversity for our survival and sustenance. Following this, the major anthropogenic threats on

2

biodiversity will be discussed in detail, which will help understand the major reasons for the ongoing sixth mass extinction crisis that earth faces today.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through the lesson you (student) will be able to:

1. Explain in detail the values provided by biodiversity to us humans and the threats that biodiversity faces today due to human activities.

2. Identify the goods, resources and services that you receive from biodiversity on a day to day basis; the human activities that are causing large scale loss of biodiversity across the world.

3. Understand how an individual, a community, a society and a nation benefits from biodiversity; how biodiversity is an integral part our culture and tradition; how indigenous communities have played a major role in preserving biodiversity in India; how your practices, habits, behaviour and perception can impact biodiversity and are resulting in a sixth mass extinction crisis.

1. VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

The value of biodiversity can be broadly divided into two categories- a) direct values and b) indirect values. Direct values are the benefits obtained through the goods provided by biodiversity. Examples of such direct values include food, timber, fuelwood, medicines, linen, wool etc. These goods can be used by humans for their own consumptive needs as well as for generation of revenue through trade and research. Indirect values are those benefits which correspond to the services obtained from biodiversity and which is of much significance to society at large rather than to individuals or corporates. Examples of indirect values include services like pollination by bees, maintenance of water and oxygen cycles by plants, decomposition of dead material by bacteria and fungi, worshipping various animals and plants, sacred groves, aesthetic beauty of fauna and flora etc. It must be indeed clear that these indirect values are as important, if not more, as the direct values. Let us now discuss these various values of biodiversity in detail.

1.1 Consumptive value

Consumptive value refers to tangible resources obtained from biodiversity that are used by humans for their sustenance, day to day activities and other necessities. In other words, these goods are not used for any market value. Such resources include various kind of edible items like fruits, berries, meat, medicinal plants, firewood, timber, wool, linen etc. Such resources are extremely important for communities that live in or near various kinds of forest areas and wetlands as these people directly consume these them. It has been reported that about 80,000 edible plant species are obtained from the wild, 90% of present-day food crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants and 75% of the world’s medicinal demands are dependent upon plants or plant extracts.

3

1.2 Economic (Productive) value

Economic value of biodiversity comprises of all tangible resources that are used for market purpose. These products are sold for profit value and help in generating revenue for individuals, organisations and countries. The economic value of biodiversity helps in providing employment to millions of people. A number of industries like food industry, wood industry, paper industry, silk industry, textile industry, leather industry, pharmaceutical industry etc are dependent on the products obtained from biodiversity. Animal products like tusks, silk, wool, musk, fur, lac, honey are all traded in the market. Scientists and researchers play an important role in utilizing the economic value of biodiversity as they manipulate genes of wild varieties of plants and animals and introduce desirable traits into crops and domesticated animals. An important area of research that has emerged in the last 50 years is that of bioprospecting, which is defined as systematic and organized search for useful products derived from micro-organisms, plants and animals, which can be further developed for commercialization and the overall benefit of society. In this respect, traditional knowledge gathered by localcommunities and people who have been living in forest areas and wild habitats for centuries, also play a vital role. Their knowledge is of immense value in the field of bioprospecting.

1.3 Ecological value

Perhaps the mostsignificant, yet underrated value of biodiversity is related to the ecological services that it provides. These refer to the various processes occurring in an ecosystem that is being contributed, maintained and regulated by biodiversity or the biotic component. Moreover these processes or ecosystem services are extremely vital for the very existence of human society. Ecological services can be generally divided into the following categories

a. Regulation and Stabilisation: These include services like climate regulation, mitigation of storms and floods, erosion control, pest and disease control, regulation of rainfall and underground water recharge.

b. Purification and Detoxification: These services comprise of filtration, purification and detoxification of air, water and soils.

c. Cycling Processes: These include basic ecosystem processes like nutrient cycling, soil formation, nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration etc.

d. Habitat maintenance and interactions: Vegetation supports all the fauna in this world, which in turn are useful to us in myriad ways. Biodiversity is also a storehouse of genetic material that are essential for human sustenance. A number of native insects, birds and other animals help in pollination of agricultural crops, forest trees and native flowering plants through their interactions with flora.

Despite their critical importance, ecological services are many times overlooked in policy decisions as they are not considered to be of much monetary value when compared with the consumptive and economic value of biodiversity. However, it is now being realized that

4

ecological services are much more valuable than economic services. Studies have shown that

ecological functions provide an economic value of US $10.37106 annually.

1.4 Social value

The social value of biodiversity includes cultural and spiritual values that have long influenced the existence of human societies. Many of the beliefs, rituals and customs have passed on through a number of generations and is an indication of how ancient people were closely interwoven with their surrounding environment. The religious texts of all religions emphasize the need for humans to value the environment, to protect, preserve and sustain it. In almost every religion, there are rituals involving animal and plant worship and also glorification of animals and animal related deities.

The religious, spiritual and cultural importance of biodiversity is particularly visible in India, where many plants and animals have ritual significance.Plants and trees like Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), Pipal (Ficusrelegiosa), Banyan (Ficusbenghalensis), Khejdi (Prosopis cineraria) Neem (Azadirachtaindica), Sandalwood (Santalum album) etc. are of immense religious importance to a number of religions. Flowers that are considered auspicious and offered in temples include Lotus to Goddess Lakshmi; Marigold, Hibiscus, Shevanti to Lord Ganesha; Mogra, Jasmine and Parijaat to Lord Vishnu; Datura, Madar and Kaner to Lord Shiva; Indian Magnolias and yellow Palash to Goddess Saraswati; and Hibiscus offered to goddess Kali.A number of animal species are considered sacred on account of their association with different deities. Some animal species are consideredas vehicles (or vahanas) of deities and are hence revered. Important among these are the chariot of horses for Sun God, swan for Lord Brahma and Goddess Saraswati, elephant for Lord Indra, owl for Goddess Lakshmi, the bull for Lord Siva, eagle for Lord Vishnu, the rat for Lord Ganesh and the lion for Goddess Durga.

Furthermore, the life of the indigenous tribes and local communities in many parts of the world, especially in developing nations, still revolves around the forests and other ecosystems where they dwell. In India, we have the Bishnoi community as the best example for their intense connect and devotion to nature and towards its protection. Thus biodiversity has always helped communities in finding a spiritual solace in nature andhas kept societies united through the cultural and spiritual value it provides. One major benefits of such traditional beliefs and rituals is that it has led to preservation of biodiversity in different parts of the world by local communities. An example of such preservation is the case of sacred groves which will be discussed in detail towards the end of this section.

1.5 Aesthetic value

Biodiversity provides a rare beauty aspect to our planet, that differentiates Earth from all other planets and stars of the universe, all of which are barren. Biodiversity enhances the beauty of any landscape and adds immensely to the quality of life through scenic enjoyment and outdoor recreation. Each ecosystem and every species adds to the richness and beauty of life on this planet. They provide opportunities for recreational activities such as bird watching, river rafting, hiking, rock climbing, nature and wildlife photography. Areas such as national parks, sanctuaries, zoological and botanical gardens, butterfly parks, nurseries are all

5

a source of pleasure and aesthetic satisfaction and keep us closer to the rich biodiversity around us. In urban areas, establishment of biodiversity parks is gaining much importance today due to the various benefits that it provides. If not nearby, then people are willing to go far off places to enjoy nature and wildlife. This type of tourism, which is famously referred to as eco-tourism, is gaining much relevance today and has now become a major source of income in many countries which are blessed with immense biological resources, and this includes India as well, which is one of the seventeen megadiverse countries of world. It is also providing employment to thousands of people belonging to indigenous communities living in biodiverse areas. Recent studies have estimated that globally, protected areas receive about 8 billion visits in a year, generating billions of dollars of revenue which is much more than when these same areas are used for economic purposes like production and logging of wood or mining or dam construction. Natural ecosystems, once destroyed, are extremely difficult to re-establish, and a species that becomes extinct, is gone forever, thereby damaging the aesthetic beauty. It is therefore imperative that biodiversity be protected for its aesthetic value as well.

1.6 Ethical value

The world today faces a serious ethical challenge in protecting and preserving Earth’s biodiversity. Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation highlights the importance of protecting all forms of life, since every species and individual has the right to exist on earthandno organism should be harmed unnecessarily. The most fundamental ethical principle to followed here is ‘to live and let others live’.Today, human beings are too much focussed on themselves, using and exploiting the natural resources for our own betterment and development, resulting in irreversible loss of biodiversity. Another ethical principle concerning biodiversity is that every species on this earth has an ‘intrinsic value to the ecosystem’. However, we human beings are more concerned today with the instrumental value of biodiversity, that is, we try to assess how a particular species is of importance to mankind and are more interested in propagating and preserving only those species. The challenge for humanity is to move from a predominantly anthropocentric (human oriented) perspective to a more eco-centric (ecosystem oriented) perspective, and try to reach a balance between the two, in order to counter the current environmental crisis. Achieving this balance also forms the basis for the much endorsed global sustainable development efforts.

Ethical values also include human rights. This is especially important when we take into consideration the millions of indigenous tribes and local communities living in biodiversity rich areas across the world. These indigenous people face exploitation and injustice when their forest areas are destroyed due to activities like deforestation, animal poaching commercial forestry, pollution and mining. They are not given sufficient compensation for their land being used and any monetary benefits generated from the products obtained from these biodiversity rich areas are not equitably shared with them. Many of these people are not allowed any kind of ownership to their ancestral lands. As a result, these communities feel violated and isolated. Taken as a whole, this results in more damage to biodiversity and considerably lowers the success of conservation efforts. The challenge today is to ensure that

6

these communities, their traditions and knowledge are valued as indispensable in biodiversity protection and preservation.

Ethical value of biodiversity, therefore, helps us to realize our co-dependence with nature, which in turn brings about a sense of appreciation for and generosity towards the natural world. Both these virtues are essential if we have to protect, preserve and sustain biodiversity and all its values for future generations.

1.7 Sacred Groves and their importance

The worship of Mother Earth is a universal phenomenon in many cultures across the world and especially in India, where living in harmony with nature has been an integral part of our culture. The large variety of traditional practices, religious beliefs, rituals and folklore are an evidence of the close association of local communities with the nature. One of the benefits of this close association has been the protection and preservation of biodiversity as discussed above in the social values sub-section.

Among the finest examples of cultural practices in India that has contributed significantly to nature conservation has been the maintenance of certain patches of land or forest areas as ‘sacred groves’. The sacred groves are patches of land, mainly forests areas having rich biodiversity, which have been protected by the local people for centuries, as part of their cultural and religious beliefs. Such beliefs can take the form of taboos or as a mark of reverence to deities believed to be residing in these forest patches. As a result, sacred groves have been zealously protected and maintained by the indigenous communities for centuries.

Scientists believe that sacred groves have been a very effective way of preserving tropical biological diversity in India (Gagdil M., 1985). These areas are considered a reservoir of biodiversity, and a number of new species have been discovered in these groves. A number of endangered species remain protected in these areas. Many medicinal plants are preserved in these areas that are not found anywhere else in the wild. There are also examples of sacred ponds attached to temples in many parts of India that have helped in protection of endangered species of certain amphibians, turtles, lizards, snakes, insects, fresh water sponge etc. These groves also provide invaluable ecological services like recharge of underground water, watershed areas for streams and rivers, prevention of soil erosion and air purification. Sacred groves, if present in urban landscapes, provide much needed vegetation cover and also act as ‘lungs’ to the city. An example is Mangar Bani sacred grove in Delhi NCR (located in Faridabad district of Haryana state)

Sacred groves are found all over India, especially in states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Orrisa, Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. These are known by different names given to them by the ethnic people. Some of the local names are; Pavithravana in Andhra Pradesh, Devara Kadu in Karnataka, Kavu, Sarpakavuin Kerala, Devagudi, Devrahati in Maharahstra, Ki Law Lyndoh in Meghalaya, Thukuramma in Orrisa, Deo Bhumi in Uttarakh and and Devban, Dev Kothi in Himachal Pradesh. The largest sacred groves of India are the Deodar grove in Shipin near Simla,

7

Himachal Pradesh and the sacred grove in Hariyali near Gauchar in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand.

Today these sacred groves face threats of urbanization, overexploitation for resources (like excessive firewood collection, overgrazing), environmental destruction due to religious tourism and invasive species that have penetrated into these areas. Despite the destruction of forests in many parts of India, some sacred groves still remain intact that aid in conserving the rich biological diversity. The maintenance of sacred groves by indigenous communities in India can therefore be considered as an outstanding example of a traditional practice that has contributed to biodiversity conservation.

Questions

Fill in the blanks

a) The only sacred grove found in Delhi NCR region is ____________________

b) Ecotourism is based mainly on ______________ value of biodiversity

c) Pavithravana is a local name for ________________ in India.

d) Recharging of underground water is a ___________value of biodiversity.

Answers

a) Mangar Bani b) Aesthetic c) Sacred grove d) ecological

2. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

In the last section, we discussed how biodiversity is both fundamental and vital to our own existence. Biodiversity today is facing an extinction crisis. The world’s flora and fauna is under serious threat from anthropogenic (human) activities. From rainforests to savannahs, from coniferous forests to corals beneath the oceans, millions of species are at risk of extinction. The health of ecosystems is deteriorating rapidly which, in turn, is impacting the very species that depend on them, all of which is largely a result of human actions. This large scale biodiversity loss is gradually having detrimental impacts on livelihoods, economies, food security health and overall quality of life.

Current Mass extinction crisis

The rapid and large scale loss of biodiversity has led scientists to predict that earth today is facing the imminent threat of a sixth mass extinction. A mass extinction is usually defined as a loss of about three quarters of all species in existence across the entire Earth over a "short" geological period of time. Considering that the age of earth is about 4.5 billion years and life first evolved about 3.5 billion years ago, "short" is defined as anything less than 2.8 million years. There have been five mass extinctions till date, the first one occurring about 540 million years ago and the fifth one occurring about 60 million years ago. All these five mass extinctions were a result of drastic, but completely natural, alterations in the environment during the respective time periods. However, according to scientists the current (sixth) mass extinction is different from the previous ones in two aspects: a) the rate of extinction of

8

species is much higher, and b) the current extinction is entirely due to anthropogenic reasons. It has been predicted that more than 1 million species are on track for extinction in the coming decades. Two in five amphibian species one-third of reef-forming corals, one in ten species of insects and close to one-third of other marine species are at risk of extinction. Our planet indeed faces a global extinction crisis that has never been witnessed and the ultimate reason can be attributed to human overpopulation and overconsumption. What is more worrying is that It would likely take earth several million years of evolution to restore the biodiversity that is being rapidly lost due to human actions.

It is therefore imperative that we try to understand the biggest anthropogenic threats that biodiversity faces today. These are habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, overharvesting, invasive species and human wildlife conflicts. A proper understanding of these threats is important for everyone to contribute towards the goal of protecting and preserving the precious biodiversity of this earth.

2.1 Habitat Loss

Habitat loss is one of the biggest threats to biodiversity and the major reason for species going extinct. Habitat generally refers to the part of the ecosystem required by a particular species for food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction. Human destruction of habitats has exponentially increased since the beginning of twentieth century. Cutting down forests for agriculture, plantations, urbanisation and mining, levelling wetlands to build houses and other infrastructure, and creating dams that impact the flow of rivers, forest fires are all examples of habitat destruction. It has been estimated that about 18 million acres of forest are destroyed each year, due to various anthropogenic practices, thereby damaging the ecosystems on which many species depend. The impact is particularly severe in tropical rainforests, which hold a high percentage of the world's known species. For example, the Amazon rainforests have lost 750,000 square kilometres across Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, and French Guiana; in west Africa, 90 percent of the coastal rainforest has already been destroyed while in Congo Basin (Cameroon, Central African Republic (CAR), Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon) deforestation has doubled since 1990; the Western Ghats in India has lost about 33,579 sq km or 35.3 percent of the total forest over the last nine decades; while in Southeast Asia, about 80 million hectares of forest have been destroyed between 2005 and 2015.

Habitat loss is not just restricted to tropical forests. Large areas of temperate forests, grasslands, wetlands, coral reefs (which are also called the "rainforests of the sea") and marine ecosystem have been demolished for developmental activities, meeting various human needs and have been degraded due to pollution. Rivers and streams, which are vital freshwater ecosystems harbouring unique biodiversity have been impacted due to habitat modification. Constructing dams over rivers affects the water flow and modifies the habitat. Altering a flow regime can reduce or eliminate populations that are adapted to seasonal changes in flow. Furthermore, pollution of freshwater and marine water sources due to

sewage and industrial discharge, dumping of waste, mining, oil spills etc of aquatic organisms to a very harmful extent.

Fig 1.Anthropogenic activities resulting in habitat loss are the most significant threat to biodiversity.A) Habitat loss due to deforestation, B) degradation and loss due to forest fires, and D)

Another issue related to habitat loss is once continuous, is split up into smaller patches. lines, clearing of forest patches for construction/ plantation/ grazing etc lead to forest areas getting fragmented. These can leadpatches for food and isolation of individuals and populations from each other that can prevent mating. Thus the survival and reproduction of the species in fragmented habitats is significantly impacted.

2.2 Poaching of Wildlife

Poaching, the illegal hunting or capture of been on the rise for the last many decades. Poaching has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of plant and animal Although poaching is illegal, the huge demand for body parts of specific animals, or need of animals for pet trade and even as source of food has led to growth of this illegal activity.Scientists and conservationist

9

nd industrial discharge, dumping of waste, mining, oil spills etc degrades the habitat of aquatic organisms to a very harmful extent.

Anthropogenic activities resulting in habitat loss are the most significant threat to biodiversity.ss due to deforestation, B) Habitat alteration due to dam construction, C)

degradation and loss due to forest fires, and D) Habitat fragmentation due to road construction.

Another issue related to habitat loss is habitat fragmentation, in which a habitat that was once continuous, is split up into smaller patches. Construction of roads and highways, railway lines, clearing of forest patches for construction/ plantation/ grazing etc lead to forest areas getting fragmented. These can lead to restriction of movement of animals between forest patches for food and isolation of individuals and populations from each other that can prevent mating. Thus the survival and reproduction of the species in fragmented habitats is

the illegal hunting or capture of wildlife for trade and commercial activities, has been on the rise for the last many decades. Poaching has been a significant cause of the

plant and animal species and many more becoming endangered. Although poaching is illegal, the huge demand for body parts of specific animals, or need of

even as source of food has led to growth of this illegal activity.Scientists and conservationists consider that poaching is detrimental to biodiversity both

degrades the habitat

Anthropogenic activities resulting in habitat loss are the most significant threat to biodiversity.

abitat alteration due to dam construction, C) Habitat abitat fragmentation due to road construction.

, in which a habitat that was Construction of roads and highways, railway

lines, clearing of forest patches for construction/ plantation/ grazing etc lead to forest areas to restriction of movement of animals between forest

patches for food and isolation of individuals and populations from each other that can prevent mating. Thus the survival and reproduction of the species in fragmented habitats is

wildlife for trade and commercial activities, has been on the rise for the last many decades. Poaching has been a significant cause of the

ecies and many more becoming endangered. Although poaching is illegal, the huge demand for body parts of specific animals, or need of

even as source of food has led to growth of this illegal activity. s consider that poaching is detrimental to biodiversity both

within and outside protected areas. And as biodiversityproper functioning of ecosystems.

Fig 2. Elephant tusk products are illegally sold for very high prices in many countries of the world

resulting in large scale elephant poaching.

Globally, illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be between $7 billiElephants are killed for ivory; leopards for their skin and for use in medicineregularly since they are used as trhunted for meat; polar bears are killed by indigenous communities as a source of food; and rare timber is targeted for hardwood furniture.species’ populations, especially large charismatic mammal species which are the ones that are most often hunted.

Impacts of Poaching on Biodiversity

Poaching, as mentioned earlier, has profound impact on biodiversity. These include:

a. Loss of population: A number of mammal, reptile and bird species are already in threatened categories (IUCN category CR, EN and VU) and poaching is a constant threat that decreases their numbers steadily. In combination with the threat of habitat loss and human wildlife conflicts, many of these populations can become locally extinct. Thus animal populations in the wild face the threat of possible extinction.

b. Impact on food chain: Since poaching results in decrease in population size of speciesalters the delicate balance of food chains in an ecosystem. Many of the species which are killed are apex predators (an animal at the top of a food chain, which has no natural predators) or keystone species, due to which there is drastic change numbers of organisms

10

within and outside protected areas. And as biodiversity declines, it will ultimately affect the proper functioning of ecosystems.

Elephant tusk products are illegally sold for very high prices in many countries of the world

resulting in large scale elephant poaching. Reference:www.express.co.uk/news/nature/705713

Globally, illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be between $7 billion and $23 billion annually. Elephants are killed for ivory; rhinos for their horns, pangolins for meat and scales; tigers and

and for use in medicine; Elk, musk deer, wolves, and bears are traded regularly since they are used as trophies and in Asian medicine markets; migratory birds are hunted for meat; polar bears are killed by indigenous communities as a source of food; and rare timber is targeted for hardwood furniture. All this has resulted in species’ populations, especially large charismatic mammal species which are the ones that are

Impacts of Poaching on Biodiversity

mentioned earlier, has profound impact on biodiversity. These include:

A number of mammal, reptile and bird species are already in threatened categories (IUCN category CR, EN and VU) and poaching is a constant threat that decreases their numbers steadily. In combination with the threat of habitat loss and

man wildlife conflicts, many of these populations can become locally extinct. Thus animal populations in the wild face the threat of possible extinction.

Since poaching results in decrease in population size of speciesdelicate balance of food chains in an ecosystem. Many of the species which are

killed are apex predators (an animal at the top of a food chain, which has no natural predators) or keystone species, due to which there is drastic change numbers of organisms

declines, it will ultimately affect the

Elephant tusk products are illegally sold for very high prices in many countries of the world

www.express.co.uk/news/nature/705713

on and $23 billion annually. pangolins for meat and scales; tigers and

Elk, musk deer, wolves, and bears are traded ophies and in Asian medicine markets; migratory birds are

hunted for meat; polar bears are killed by indigenous communities as a source of food; and massive decline of

species’ populations, especially large charismatic mammal species which are the ones that are

mentioned earlier, has profound impact on biodiversity. These include:

A number of mammal, reptile and bird species are already in threatened categories (IUCN category CR, EN and VU) and poaching is a constant threat that decreases their numbers steadily. In combination with the threat of habitat loss and

man wildlife conflicts, many of these populations can become locally extinct. Thus

Since poaching results in decrease in population size of species, it delicate balance of food chains in an ecosystem. Many of the species which are

killed are apex predators (an animal at the top of a food chain, which has no natural predators) or keystone species, due to which there is drastic change numbers of organisms

11

below them in the food chain, which ultimately creates an imbalance in the ecosystem. This can have catastrophic impact on the ecosystem.

c. Increasing cases of Zoonotic diseases: Zoonotic diseases or Zoonoses are diseases caused by micro-organisms that are passed between animals and people. These diseases originate in animals and then shift to humans. Zoonotic diseases can be caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites or fungi and occur throughout the world. It may cause mild or severe illness or even death in some cases. Once in humans, the disease may first become a local outbreak, and then subsequently become an epidemic (a disease that affects a large number of people within a community, population or a region) and in some case it can become a pandemic (a disease that spreads over multiple countries and infects a very high proportion of the world’s population). The recent incidences of SARS, Ebola fever, Swine flu and COVID 19 are examples of zoonotic diseases. Scientists believe the major reasons for increase in incidences of zoonotic diseases isincreasing invasion of animal habitats by people, poaching activities and trade of animals, all of which results in more interactions between humans and animals.

d. Decline in wildlife tourism: Areas that are famous for wildlife tourism face a negative publicity due to poaching as the chances of encountering a charismatic animal in these areas decrease. The tourists also face facing security issues and other restrictions. Thus there is a decrease in the tourism based income and job opportunities for local people.

2.3 Overharvesting

Overharvesting, also called overexploitation, refers to harvesting a renewable resource at an unsustainable rate, to the extent that it gradually becomes non-renewable. It is a serious threat to biodiversity as it leads to elimination of plants, animals, and other organisms thereby degrading ecosystems. Overharvesting is particularly damaging to aquatic species. Overfishing and overhunting have been major reasons for loss of biodiversity, killing off numerous species over the past several hundred years.

For example, fishing industry has been a very productive industry for the a very long time. However, the introduction of modern factory trawlers in the 1980s and the pressure on fishery industry due to increasing population and demand has led to fishing becoming unsustainable. Further, the fact that fishing grounds are considered a common resource where anybody can capture fishes, there is no regulation on the amount of fishing. With advanced technology available now, fishermen and companies involved harvest huge number of fishes leading to overexploitation.

Fig 3. Harvesting of plants and animals for declining population of a large number of species and leading them to extinction.

Ref: A) nz.pfolsen.com/market-info

Another example is the case of killed for food in many of the African countriesrural families directly. Among indigenous communities in Africa and China, consuming specific wild animal meat is ascures certain diseases. However,the meat, has led to bush meatThe increased need for protein foods by the growing population further enhanced the demand..This increased bush threatened by the bush meat trade are mostly mammalsmany species of monkeys and the great apes living in the Congo basin.its trade and consumption is also another reason for increasing cases of zoonotic diseases in many countries across the world.

2.4 Human Wildlife Conflicts

Human-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction betweenwhich results in a negative impact on people, animals, resources, and habitats.conflict is one of the main threats affecting not just the survival of many slife and livelihood of local human populations. Human wildlife conflict take place whenever increasing human populations competition for space and resources. urban as well as rural landscapes leading to injury to humans and wild animals, loss of livestock and crops, loss of property and at times loss of lives. conflicts involving leopards, snow leopards, tigers, lionsboars, nilgai are quite common.endangered, are often killed in retaliation or to 'prevent' future conflicts.

12

Harvesting of plants and animals for human consumption in an unsustainabdeclining population of a large number of species and leading them to extinction.

info-news. B) www.zo.utexas.edu/faculty/sjasper/images

Another example is the case of bush meat which is a general term used for wild animals in many of the African countries. Traditionally, bush meat w

. Among indigenous communities in Africa and China, consuming specific wild animal meat is associated with traditional beliefs that it improves health and cures certain diseases. However, recent commercialization of the practice and affordability of

bush meat being available in stores and meat markets in these countries.creased need for protein foods by the growing population further enhanced the

meat harvest rates in a highly unsustainable mannerthreatened by the bush meat trade are mostly mammals, including pangolins, porcupines,

monkeys and the great apes living in the Congo basin.Hunting for bushmeat, its trade and consumption is also another reason for increasing cases of zoonotic diseases in many countries across the world.

an Wildlife Conflicts

refers to the interaction between and humans negative impact on people, animals, resources, and habitats.

conflict is one of the main threats affecting not just the survival of many slife and livelihood of local human populations. Human wildlife conflict take place when

human populations encroach and invade established wildlife competition for space and resources. Human-wildlife conflict is a global issue occurring in

rural landscapes leading to injury to humans and wild animals, loss of livestock and crops, loss of property and at times loss of lives. In India

leopards, snow leopards, tigers, lions, elephants, snakesare quite common. The animals, many of which are already threatened or

endangered, are often killed in retaliation or to 'prevent' future conflicts.

in an unsustainable manner is rapidly

B) www.zo.utexas.edu/faculty/sjasper/images

term used for wild animals , bush meat were hunted by

. Among indigenous communities in Africa and China, consuming sociated with traditional beliefs that it improves health and

and affordability of meat markets in these countries.

creased need for protein foods by the growing population further enhanced the in a highly unsustainable manner. Species

, including pangolins, porcupines, Hunting for bushmeat,

its trade and consumption is also another reason for increasing cases of zoonotic diseases in

and wild animals, negative impact on people, animals, resources, and habitats. This growing

conflict is one of the main threats affecting not just the survival of many species but also the life and livelihood of local human populations. Human wildlife conflict take place when the

established wildlife areas, creating onflict is a global issue occurring in

rural landscapes leading to injury to humans and wild animals, loss of In India, human wildlife , snakes, monkeys, wild

The animals, many of which are already threatened or

Some of the general reasons for increasing conflict are:

a. Reduction in the size deforestation (for urbanization, cultivation, mining etc), linear development projectshuman encroachment for habitationcollection of wood, fodder, fruits etc)

b. Easy availability and abundance of prey and fodder in human inhabited areas, especially those villages which are in proximity to protected areas.

c. Fragmentation of habitatactivities. Movement of wild animals between the fragmented patches often leads to human encounters.

d. Lack of proper awareness among local communities, and people in general, regarding response to wild animal encounters.

e. Delay or lack of proper compenloss of property, crops, livestock or life, due to which people try to ‘tackle the problem themselves’.

Mitigation strategies for managing humanspecific, but some important measures protected areas, effective land useanimals, improving community education timely dispensation of compensation to affected people

2.5 Invasive species

Before we assess the impact of invasive species on the biodiversity, let us first understand what exactly is introduced species. species that have been intentionally or unintentionally introduced by humans into an ecosystem or region in which they were not naturally present previously. Such introductions are always mediated by humans. In cases where species are introduced intentionally, the reasons can include population control of some native species, for boosting agriculture and fisheries, for conservation efforts, for ornamental value or for some economic value. Transportation of goods and people, introduction of non-native species into new ecosystems. Example of unintentional

13

Fig 4. Human leopard encounters in rural as well as urban areas are becoming common in India, due to depleting forest cover suitable habitat for the species.

Ref:www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome /indianews

Some of the general reasons for increasing conflict are:

Reduction in the size and also quality of habitat available for wild animals due to deforestation (for urbanization, cultivation, mining etc), linear development projectshuman encroachment for habitation or for gathering of resources (like grazing, collection of wood, fodder, fruits etc)

Easy availability and abundance of prey and fodder in human inhabited areas, especially those villages which are in proximity to protected areas.

of habitat of animals (that were earlier continuous) due to human activities. Movement of wild animals between the fragmented patches often leads to

Lack of proper awareness among local communities, and people in general, regarding animal encounters.

ack of proper compensation given to people by the government in cases of loss of property, crops, livestock or life, due to which people try to ‘tackle the

Mitigation strategies for managing human-wildlife conflict can be area specific or species but some important measures are erection of fences or other barriers

ffective land use planning and management, translocationmproving community education and their general perception of animals

timely dispensation of compensation to affected people.

Before we assess the impact of invasive species on the biodiversity, let us first understand what exactly is introduced species. Introduced species, also called as Exotic speciesspecies that have been intentionally or unintentionally introduced by humans into an ecosystem or region in which they were not naturally present previously. Such introductions

humans. In cases where species are introduced intentionally, the reasons can include population control of some native species, for boosting agriculture and fisheries, for conservation efforts, for ornamental value or for some economic value.

n of goods and people, and growing pet trade considerably increased the native species into new ecosystems. Example of unintentional

Human leopard encounters in rural as well as urban areas are becoming common in India, due to depleting forest cover suitable

www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome /indianews

and also quality of habitat available for wild animals due to deforestation (for urbanization, cultivation, mining etc), linear development projects,

or for gathering of resources (like grazing,

Easy availability and abundance of prey and fodder in human inhabited areas,

animals (that were earlier continuous) due to human activities. Movement of wild animals between the fragmented patches often leads to

Lack of proper awareness among local communities, and people in general, regarding

sation given to people by the government in cases of loss of property, crops, livestock or life, due to which people try to ‘tackle the

can be area specific or species rection of fences or other barriers around

ranslocation of problematic and their general perception of animals, ensuring

Before we assess the impact of invasive species on the biodiversity, let us first understand Exotic species, are

species that have been intentionally or unintentionally introduced by humans into an ecosystem or region in which they were not naturally present previously. Such introductions

humans. In cases where species are introduced intentionally, the reasons can include population control of some native species, for boosting agriculture and fisheries, for conservation efforts, for ornamental value or for some economic value.

and growing pet trade considerably increased the native species into new ecosystems. Example of unintentional

14

introduction include introductions of aquatic species, both marine and freshwater, through ships dumping ballast water taken on at a port of origin into waters at a destination port. Numerous such exotic species have been introduced into various countries across the globe by humans.

In many cases, exotic species fail to adapt to the new ecosystem and die off. In some cases, they successfully adapt and serve the purpose for which they were introduced. However in few cases, exotic species not just adapt in the new region, but also undergo extensive population expansion. This leads to alteration of the ecological conditions of that ecosystem, to an extent that the exotic species becomes threatening for the native species. In such a scenario, the exotic species is now termed as an invasive species. Invasive species can harm native species through competition for resources, predation or by causing diseases. The introduction and establishment of a species beyond its natural range, where it thrives and expands considerably is called as Biological invasion. Such invasions can harm native species, alter ecological interactions within an ecosystem and even affect socioeconomic conditions of a community or a region.

Impact of Invasive species

Invasive species have some unique characteristics or traits that enable them to become invasive in the environment where it is introduced. These include, fast growth, rapid reproduction rate, high dispersal ability, tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions and some of them produce toxic secretions which keep away any predators.

Invasive species cause harm to biodiversity in many ways. Invasive species often do not have any natural predators in the new environment. The invasive species can out compete native species for food, habitat or other resources, can cause them diseases, prevent native species from reproducing or in some cases, can prey upon the native species. Invasive species can alter the food web in an ecosystem by destroying or replacing native food sources. These species themselves are of little food value for wildlife as they are not the natural preference for native wild species. In such cases, the native species look for easy food options in human habitations, thereby increasing chances of human wildlife conflict. Some invasive species can change conditions in an ecosystem, such as soil chemistry or can increase the intensity of wildfires.

There are various examples of invasive species across the world. Some well-known cases include:

a. Introduction of Kudzu plant (Pueraria lobata), which is native to Japan, to the United States in 1876 for prevention of soil erosion and also as an ornamental vine. The plant adapted so well to its new environment that it grows up to one foot each day. It is now considered a weed species in United States, covering over seven million acres in the southeastern part of the country.

b. Accidental introduction of the Brown Tree Snake (Boigairregularis), native to Solomon islands, to Guam island in 1950. This has led to the extinction of three species of birds and three to five species of reptiles endemic to the island.

Fig 5.A) Kudzu vine grows rapidly and spreads over large areas, covering anything that comes in its waysnake was accidentally introduced into Gaum islands and has become a major threat to native birds

Ref: A) http://eattheinvaders.org/kudzu/;

c. Accidental introduction ofEurope, to the Great Lakesmussels in the Great Lakes have costs to maintain water lakes, thereby threaten

d. Introduction of Cane Queensland, Australia in 1935beetle that was destroying sugarcane plantations in Australia. brought from South America and slowly released in the fields in Queenslandtoads have rapidly multiplied inmillion. The species nowAustralia and has resulted in declining population numbers of a number of native amphibian species.

Fig 6.Cane toad invasion in Australia.thrive and reproduce in any a variety of ecological conditionsexpanded its distribution range since its release in 1935 and is projected to spread to many other areas in Australia, therebeliminating native species.

Ref: A) www.mongabay.com; B) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature;C) www.herpindiego.com; D) https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific

15

A) Kudzu vine grows rapidly and spreads over large areas, covering anything that comes in its waysnake was accidentally introduced into Gaum islands and has become a major threat to native birds.

http://eattheinvaders.org/kudzu/; B) https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment/

Accidental introduction of Zebra Mussel (Dreissenapolymorpha)to the Great Lakes of North America prior to 1988 in ballast water

mussels in the Great Lakes have led to millions of dollars being spentcosts to maintain water quality. The mussels have also altered the ecology of the

threatening native mollusc populations.

ane Toad (Rhinella marina), which is native to South AmericaAustralia in 1935, as a means of biological pest control against the cane

destroying sugarcane plantations in Australia. Around 100 brought from South America and slowly released in the fields in Queensland

have rapidly multiplied in numbers and now have reached a population of 200 species now occupies a range of more than 500,000 square

Australia and has resulted in declining population numbers of a number of native

in Australia. A) This large sized toad was introduced to Australia from south Americathrive and reproduce in any a variety of ecological conditions; C) It produces huge number of offspringsexpanded its distribution range since its release in 1935 and is projected to spread to many other areas in Australia, thereb

A) www.mongabay.com; B) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature; pindiego.com; D) https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific

A) Kudzu vine grows rapidly and spreads over large areas, covering anything that comes in its way. B) The brown tree

), which is native to prior to 1988 in ballast water. These

being spent in clean-up also altered the ecology of the

, which is native to South America, to as a means of biological pest control against the cane

Around 100 toads were brought from South America and slowly released in the fields in Queensland. The

have reached a population of 200 occupies a range of more than 500,000 square kilometres in

Australia and has resulted in declining population numbers of a number of native

from south America; B) It can

C) It produces huge number of offsprings; D) The species has expanded its distribution range since its release in 1935 and is projected to spread to many other areas in Australia, thereby

Some examples of invasive species in India include:

a. Introduction of Lantana plant species is native to clumps or as dense thickets, crowding out native species and decreasing biodiversity. In some rainforest areas of Western prevent the regeneration of the forest. Lalands, forests and fallow areas across the country. It is a major problem in the Western Ghats and the Himalayan forest areas, causing death of native species, forest fires and also leading to human wildlife con

b. Introduction of Water Hyacinth (British officials as an ornamental plant in watersouth America, has beautiful, large purple and violet coloured flowers making it popular ornamental plant. In favourable conditions, this aquatic plantrapidly and form dense mats over water surface. This and dissolved oxygen available to the underwater vegetation. The plant also destroys natural wetlands and causes flooding by blocking rivers and canals. Over a period of time it also leads to death of fishes and other aquatic organisms in water bodies. In India, the water hyacinth menace was nicknamed as ‘Terror of Bengal’ as it large scale death and scarcity fishing is a major occupation and fish is an important food item. The scarcity of fishes caused much panic among the people.

Fig 7: Some invasive plant species found in In(Parthenium hysterophorus) ; C) Water Hyacinth (juliflora), inset showing leaves and flowers.

Ref:A) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:

C) https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/

16

Some examples of invasive species in India include:

Lantana camara in the early 19th century as an ornamental plantnative to south and central America. It can grow individually in

clumps or as dense thickets, crowding out native species and decreasing biodiversity. In some rainforest areas of Western Ghats, they are in such dense population, that prevent the regeneration of the forest. Lantana has invaded a large expanse of pasture

, forests and fallow areas across the country. It is a major problem in the Western Ghats and the Himalayan forest areas, causing death of native species, forest fires and also leading to human wildlife conflict.

Water Hyacinth (Eichhorniacrassipes) in the late 19British officials as an ornamental plant in water bodies. The plant, which

has beautiful, large purple and violet coloured flowers making it popular ornamental plant. In favourable conditions, this aquatic plantrapidly and form dense mats over water surface. This reduces the amount of sunlight and dissolved oxygen available to the underwater vegetation. The plant also destroys

al wetlands and causes flooding by blocking rivers and canals. Over a period of time it also leads to death of fishes and other aquatic organisms in water bodies. In

water hyacinth menace was nicknamed as ‘Terror of Bengal’ as it and scarcity of freshwater fishes in West Bengal, a state where

fishing is a major occupation and fish is an important food item. The scarcity of fishes caused much panic among the people.

Some invasive plant species found in India. A) Lantana camara; B) Congress grass ) ; C) Water Hyacinth (Eichhorniacrassipes); D) Vilayatikeekar (

, inset showing leaves and flowers.

A) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Rickjpelleg; B) https://keys.lucidcentral.org/

https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/; D) https://www.sundayguardianlive.com/

as an ornamental plant. This It can grow individually in

clumps or as dense thickets, crowding out native species and decreasing biodiversity. they are in such dense population, that

ntana has invaded a large expanse of pasture , forests and fallow areas across the country. It is a major problem in the Western

Ghats and the Himalayan forest areas, causing death of native species, forest fires and

in the late 19th century by , which is native to

has beautiful, large purple and violet coloured flowers making it a popular ornamental plant. In favourable conditions, this aquatic plant can grow

reduces the amount of sunlight and dissolved oxygen available to the underwater vegetation. The plant also destroys

al wetlands and causes flooding by blocking rivers and canals. Over a period of time it also leads to death of fishes and other aquatic organisms in water bodies. In

water hyacinth menace was nicknamed as ‘Terror of Bengal’ as it caused in West Bengal, a state where

fishing is a major occupation and fish is an important food item. The scarcity of fishes

; B) Congress grass

; D) Vilayatikeekar (Prosopis

https://keys.lucidcentral.org/

; D) https://www.sundayguardianlive.com/

17

c. Accidental introduction of GajarGhaas, also called as Congress grass, (Parthenium hysterophorus) in the 1950’s. Parthenium hysterophorus, which is a small plant native to South America which, is believed to have accidentally reached India along with wheat consignment imported from south America in 1954, when India was facing acute shortage of food production due to famine and socio-political factors persisting after independence. Parthenium is a rapidly growing medium sized plant that flourishes on any type of soil and in a wide range of habitats ranging from tropical to semi dry areas. The species is now present in almost all states of India, has already taken over about five million hectares of this country's land causing decline of native species and resulting in agricultural yield losses of up to 40%. Recent studies have predicted that as much as 65% of the country could be prone to the spread of Congress grass. The Western Himalayas, the North eastern states and peninsular India are most vulnerable to this invasive species. Parthenium is toxic to livestock, it causes health problems in humans, like skin problems and allergies, and is a major occupational hazard for farmers in India. It is considered as one of ‘100 most invasive species of world’ by IUCN.

d. Vilayatikikar (Prosopis juliflora), which is a plant native to Mexico, was introduced by Britishers to Delhi in 1930s when New Delhi was being constructed, in order to increase greenery of the capital city. It is a drought resistant short tree which is very similar in appearance to the Khejdi tree (Prosopis cineraria) that is native to India. Its roots can grow upto a depth of even 50 metres in search of water. Vilayatikeekar has extensively spread in the semi dry regions of the country which include states of Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. It grows very fast, extracts large amount of water and nutrients from the soil and forms a thick canopy that prevents sunlight from being available to other growing native plant species. Thus it outcompetes the native species of the region it invades, and as the trees disappear the fauna associated with them also slowly disappears, effectively due to habitat loss. Its thorny leaves restrict the movement of animals while its seeds can be poisonous to some of them.

LEARNING OUTCOME (Summary)

1. Biological resources (biodiversity) provide humans with a wide range of goods and services which together constitute the value of biodiversity. All these ecosystems provide invaluable and irreplaceable benefits to humankind.

2. The value of biodiversity can be broadly divided into two categories- a) direct values and b) indirect values. Direct values are the benefits obtained through the goods provided by biodiversity while Indirect values are those benefits which correspond to the services obtained from biodiversity.

3. Tangible resources obtained from biodiversity, like food, medicines, linen, wool, firewood, timber etc, that are used by humans for their sustenance, day to day activities

18

and other necessities are referred to as the consumptive value of biodiversity. If on the other hand, these resources and products sold for profit value and help in generating revenue for individuals, organisations and countries, then it constitutes the economic value of biodiversity

4. Ecological value of biodiversity refers to ecosystem processes or ecosystem services are extremely vital for the very existence of human society. These services can be broadly categorised as: Regulation and Stabilisation services, Purification and Detoxification services, Cycling Processes, Habitat maintenance and interactions services.

5. The social value of biodiversity includes cultural and spiritual values that have long influenced the existence of human societies. Many of the beliefs, rituals and customs have passed on through a number of generations and is an indication of how ancient people were closely interwoven with their surrounding environment.

6. Biodiversity enhances the beauty of any landscape and this is referred to as the aesthetic value of biodiversity. The aesthetic value adds immensely to the quality of life through scenic enjoyment and outdoor recreation as it provides opportunities for recreational activities such as bird watching, river rafting, hiking, rock climbing, nature and wildlife photography

7. Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation highlights the importance of protecting all forms of life, since every species and individual has the right to exist on earth and no organism should be harmed unnecessarily. Also, every species on this earth has an intrinsic value which cannot be neglected. Ethical values also include addressing the of human rights, especially with respect to the rights of indigenous communities.

8. Sacred groves are the finest examples of cultural practices in India that has contributed significantly to nature conservation. These are patches of land or forest areas as that are considered holy by the indigenous communities are hence zealously protected and conserved. Sacred groves serve to function as reservoirs of rich biological diversity, acting as a safe refuge for number of endangered fauna and flora.

9. Earth today is facing the imminent threat of a sixth mass extinction, due to a rapid and large scale loss of biodiversity as a result of human activities.

10. Habitat loss is one of the biggest threats to biodiversity and the major reason for species going extinct or becoming endangered. Poaching is another such threat that has caused significant extinction of many plant and animal species. Overharvesting is a serious threat to biodiversity as it leads to elimination of plants, animals, and other organisms thereby degrading ecosystems.

11. Human-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between and humans and wild animals, which results in a negative impact on people, animals, resources, and habitats. This growing conflict is one of the main threats affecting not just the survival of many species but also the life and livelihood of local human populations.

19

12. Invasive species are species that are introduced into a new ecosystem or region by humans, and which can harm native species through competition for resources, predation or by causing diseases. Such invasions can harm native species, alter ecological interactions within an ecosystem and even affect socioeconomic conditions of a community or a region.

Questions

1. Write True or False

a) Cane toad is an invasive species in India.

b) All introduced species are invasive.

c) Habitat loss is the most significant anthropogenic threat to biodiversity today.

d) Humans are responsible for the ongoing 6th mass extinction.

2. Define

a) Pandemic

b) Human Wildlife conflict

c) Exotic species

d) Biological Invasion

Answers (True or False)

a) False b) False c) True d) True

GLOSSARY

Direct values of biodiversity: These are the benefits obtained through the goods provided by biodiversity.

Indirect values of biodiversity: These are the benefits which correspond to the services obtained from biodiversity and which is of ecological, social, cultural, ethical and aesthetic significance to individual and society at large

Bioprospecting: It defined as systematic and organized search for useful products derived from micro-organisms, plants and animals, which can be further developed for commercialization and the overall benefit of society.

Sacred groves: These are patches of land, mainly forests areas, having rich biodiversity that have been protected by the local people for centuries, as part of their cultural and religious beliefs.

Mass extinction: It is usually defined as a loss of about three quarters of all species in existence across the entire earth over a "short" geological period of time (roughly corresponding to 2.8 million years)

20

Habitat loss: This is condition when natural or anthropogenic activities damage and destroy habitat to such an extent that it is no longer capable of supporting the species and ecological communities that naturally occur there.

Habitat fragmentation: It is the splitting up of a previously continuous habitat or forest cover into smaller patches due to human activities.

Poaching: It is the illegal hunting or capture of wildlife for trade and commercial activities.

Zoonotic diseases: (also called as or Zoonoses). These are diseases caused by micro-organisms that are passed between animals and people

Epidemic: It is a disease that affects a large number of people within a community, population or a region.

Pandemic: It is a disease that spreads over multiple countries and infects a very high proportion of the world’s population.

Overharvesting:(also called as overexploitation). This refers to harvesting a renewable resource at an unsustainable rate, to the extent that it gradually becomes non-renewable

Human-wildlife conflict: This refers to the interaction or encounters between and humans and wild animals, which results in a negative impact on people, animals, resources, and habitats.

Introduced species: (also called as Exotic species). These are species that have been intentionally or unintentionally introduced by humans into an ecosystem or region in which they were not naturally present previously.

Invasive species: These are species that are introduced into a new ecosystem or region by humans, and which can harm native species through competition for resources, predation or by causing diseases.

Biological invasion: The introduction and establishment of a species beyond its natural range, where it thrives and expands considerably is called as Biological invasion.

Terminal Exercise

1. Briefly discuss the values of biodiversity to humankind.

2. What are sacred groves? Explain their importance to biodiversity

3. Discuss the ecological value of biodiversity and its importance to mankind.

4. Briefly describe the sixth mass extinction crisis.

5. Explain why habitat loss is the biggest threat to biodiversity

6. What are invasive species. Discuss an example of invasive species in India.

7. Enlist the major reasons that result in human wildlife conflict in India.

1

LESSON-2

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Dr. Neha Goyal Assistant Professor,

................................................ University of Delhi

Introduction to Environmental Justice

Environmental justice emerged as a concept in the United States in 1980s (Bullard 1990; Lynch et al. 2015). The term refers both, to a social movement dedicated to fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, and to an interdisciplinary body of social science literature (Brisman and South 2019). Environmental justice refers to the distribution of environments among people in terms of access to, and use of key natural resources in defined geographical areas (Brisman and South 2019). The concept also considers impacts of particular political decisions, social practices, and environmental hazards on specific populations. In other words, it refers to the availability of resources that humans want and need (e.g. clean air and water, etc.) and disparate impacts of undesirable environmental burden (e.g. air and water pollution, etc.). The wholesome concept of environmental justice depicts the linkage to an anthropocentric eco-philosophical orientation, wherein the humans are placed at the center of the analysis.

As defined by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. ‘Fair treatment’ means that no population is disproportionately burdened with a range of negative environmental externalities, resulting from industrial, municipal, and/or commercial operations or from the execution of national, state, and local laws, and policies. ‘Meaningful involvement’, however, necessitates effective access to decision-makers for all, and the ability in all communities to make informed decisions and execute positive actions to produce environmental justice for themselves.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. The learner will be enabled to understand the relevance and need for environmentaljustice to deal with varied environmental issues.

2. The learner will appreciate the role of environmental justice as a feedback mechanism,ensuring equitable access to natural resources and their conservation.

3. The learner will appraise the role of National Green Tribunal in ensuring environmentaljustice in India.

2

Historical perspective of the Environmental Justice Movement

The environmental justice movement was started by primarily people of color, to address the inequity of environmental protection in their communities. In 1982, outcry over a toxic landfill in a majority-black North Carolina county, Dr. Bullard and allies pushed the Government Accountability Office study on a disproportionate share of hazardous facilities in black and Latino communities across the South. Delegates to the first-of-its-kind environmental justice summit, First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, held in October 1991, in Washington DC, drafted and adopted 17 principles of Environmental Justice. These principles, since then, have served as a defining document for the growing grassroots movement for environmental justice. To this effect, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency created its Office of Environmental Justice, the following year.

Access to Environmental Justice in India

Access to environmental justice is central to ensuring just and equitable outcomes for sustainable development. National Green Tribunal is the judicial structure that offers access to environmental justice in India.

Genesis of National Green Tribunal in India

The law and policy framework in India sought to become comprehensive and stringent, mainly as a consequence of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, 1984. The ‘Command and Control approach’ was supplemented by Environment Impact Assessments and public hearings. However, contradictions and gaps in institutional mechanisms resulted in poor implementation of legislation (Gill 2013). As a consequence, the Indian judiciary promoted new and unique environmental jurisprudence by securing the enforcement of rights through Public Interest Litigation outside statute law, but within the constitutional mandate. However, a huge backlog of petitions, delayed disposal of petitions, complex technical and scientific issues, individual judicial preferences leading to inconsistent approach followed by the courts, and the issue of ineffective jurisdiction initiated a thought to establish an alternative, nodal agency to deal with environmental matters.

In case of M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1997) 2 SCC 411, honorable Supreme Court of India pointed out that cases involving issues of environmental pollution, ecological destruction and its conflict over natural resources involved assessment and evolution of scientific data and, therefore, according to the court, there was an urgent need of involvement of experts in the administration of justice. The need for a dedicated Environmental Court was reiterated in the cases of Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996) 5 SCC 647, Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996) 3 SCC 212, and in A.P. Pollution Control Board v. M.V. Nayudu (1999) 2 SCC 718. The voice compelled setting up of Green Benches in several High Courts of India. With time, seeking a balanced judicial forum that advances green jurisprudence, the Parliament of India enacted the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010. In

3

effect, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) was formulated in 2010 and started functioning from July 2011 onwards.

National Green Tribunal

The National Green Tribunal is a multi-faceted and multi-skilled nodal body established on October 18, 2020, under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 with the premise of ensuring environmental justice in India. Aiming to strike a right balance between environment and development, it is equipped with the obligatory expertise to handle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues. The Tribunal ensures effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection, conservation of forests, and other natural resources, including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The nature of cases, dealt by the NGT may include environmental clearances for developmental projects including dams, steel plants, hydro-electric projects and thermal power plants, coastal zone regulations, encroachments on the floodplains, waste management, mining, issues relating to pollution, imposition of environmental fines, etc.

As per the mandate, the NGT shall pass orders or decisions or awards in conformity with the principles of sustainable development, precautionary and polluter pays. NGT is set up at five places of sittings including Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai, however, New Delhi is the principal place for the sitting of Tribunal. This is aimed to make NGT more accessible.

Structure of the Tribunal

The Tribunal comprises of the Chairperson, the Judicial Members, and Expert Members. They shall hold office for a term of five years and are not eligible for reappointment. Central Government appoints the Chairperson in consultation with the Chief Justice of India. Selection Committee, formed by the Central Government appoints the Judicial Members and Expert Members. There are 10 to 20 full-time Judicial Members and Expert Members in the Tribunal, as the Central Government notifies from time to time.

Case Studies: a few landmark judgements of NGT

The expertise of the NGT benches is reflected in the Tribunal’s decisions. The Tribunal not only decide matters based on scientific evidence but also make policy suggestions to improve environmental management. Since its inception, the Tribunal has been successfully upholding its mandate as a ‘fast-track Court’ for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation.

2012

POSCO, a steelmaker company signed a MoU with the Odisha Government for setting up a steel project. NGT took a radical step in favor of the local communities and forests and suspended the order.

Almitra H. Patel v. Union of India Case, wherein, NGT gave judgment of complete prohibition on open burning of waste on land, including landfills. This is regarded as

4

the only prominent landmark case dealing with the issue of solid waste management in India.

2013

In Uttarakhand floods case, the Alaknanda Hydro Power Co. Ltd. was ordered to compensate to the petitioner. The Tribunal directly relied on the ‘polluter pays’ principle.

2015

The Tribunal ordered that all diesel vehicles over 10 years old will not be permitted to ply in Delhi-NCR.

2017

Open defecation and waste dumping on Yamuna Floodplains were banned and imposed an environment compensation or penalty of 5,000 INR for those who violate the rule.

The Art of Living Festival on Yamuna Food Plain was declared violating the environmental norms, the panel imposed a penalty of 5 Crore INR.

An interim ban was imposed on the use of plastic bags of less than 50-micron thickness in Delhi. This was done because the dumped plastic bags were causing animal deaths, clogging sewers, and harming the environment.

2018

NGT ordered the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board to issue a directive to all 99 apartment complexes, discharging sewage into Bellandur and Varthur lakes to install modular sewage treatment plants

2019

The Tribunal instructed the Union Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change to notify prohibiting the use of drinking water filtered through reverse osmosis systems in areas where the amount of total dissolved solids was less than 500 mg/l.

Major challenges faced by the Tribunal

Lack of benches and proper infrastructure

Escalating number of environmental cases

No specific guideline or methodology to determine the amount of damages and fine to be imposed leads to ambiguity in decision-making

Lack of effective support from Government both at the centre as well in states

Inefficiency of Central and State Pollution Control Boards delays implementation of the tribunal’s decision

Not having suo-moto powers also restricts its ambit in the area of environment

5

Questions to ponder

Q.1. The National Green Tribunal was established in the year ................... .

(a) 2010 (b) 2011 (c) 2015 (d) 2005

Q.2. Which of the following nodal body ensures environmental justice and handles environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues in India?

(a) Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change

(b) Central Pollution Control Board

(c) National Green Tribunal

(d) None of the above

Q.3. There are four zonal benches of National Green Tribunal. State True or False.

True

Q.4. ............... is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal.

(a) New Delhi (b) Mumbai (c) Bhopal (d) Chennai

Q.5. Which of the following statements is/are correct about National Green Tribunal (NGT)?

1. NGT was formulated in 2005.

2. Lucknow is one of the place of sitting of the Tribunal.

(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2

(c) Both (d) None of the above

Q.6. The National Green Tribunal, in 2017, banned the use of non-biodegradable plastic bags less than .............. microns across Delhi.

(a) 50 (b) 60 (c) 70 (d) 80

Q.7. The Tribunal has banned kite strings made of ............... ?

(a) Nylon (b) Plastic

(c) Any synthetic material (d) All of the above

Learning Outcome

1. The learners will be acquainted with the need for and role of environmental justice in ensuring sustainability and resist environmental injustice in the community.

2. They will be acquainted with the premise and working of nodal body, NGT, dedicated to ensuring environmental justice in the country.

3. They will acknowledge the important judgements by the NGT and its the contribution in protection and preservation of environment.

6

Glossary

Environmental justice The concept holds the principle that all people and communities have a right to equal protection and enforcement of environmental laws and regulations.

Anthropocentrism An anthropocentric perspective is human-centred. Humans are considered the only important beings, all other entities only have instrumental value to humans.

Points to Ponder

Dr. Robert D. Bullard is one of the pioneering scholars and activists in the environmental justice movement and recognized as the Father of Environmental Justice in the United States.

NGT was established under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010.

India became the third country in the world, after Australia and New Zealand, to establish special Environment Courts.

In 1989, Maneka Gandhi, the then Union Minister of Environment, advocated the idea of Environment Courts, however, the National Green Tribunal Bill, 2009 was presented in the Lok Sabha much later on 31 July 2009.

National Green Tribunal (NGT) became operational under the chairmanship of Justice Lokeshwar Singh Panta in 2010.

Currently it is chaired by former Judge of Supreme Court of India, Justice Adarsh Kumar Goel.

The five places of sitting of Tribunal are at Delhi, Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai.

New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal.

Picture Credit: https://drrobertbullard.com/photos/

7

Dr. Robert D. Bullard, Father of Environmental Justice in the US

Dr. Bullard is a Distinguished Professor of Urban Planning and Environmental Policy, Texas Southern University. He has written eighteen books that address issues such as environmental racism, climate justice, disasters, regional equity, and more.

Terminal Exercise

Q.1. Write a short on the role of National Green Tribunal in ensuring environmental justice in India.

Q.2. Taking into consideration, any significant judgement of National Green Tribunal, elaborate on the status and scope of environmental justice in India.

Q.3. Elaborate on the challenges faced by National Green Tribunal in ensuring environmental justice in India.

Q.4. Critically analyze the role of National Green Tribunal in addressing the problem of ineffective waste management in India.

Weblinks

http://www.ejnet.org/ej/principles.pdf

https://greentribunal.gov.in

https://www.energy.gov/lm/services/environmental-justice/what-environmental- justice

https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice

References

Brisman A., and South, N. (2019) Green Criminology and Environmental Crimes and Harms. Sociology Compass, 13: e12650.

Bullard, R. D. (1990) Dumping in Dixie: Race, class, and environmental quality. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Gill, G. (2013) Access to Environmental Justice in India with Special Reference to National Green Tribunal: A Step in the Right Direction. OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, 6: 25-36.

Lynch, M. J., Stretesky, P. B., and Long, M. A. (2015) Environmental justice: A criminological perspective. Environmental Research Letters, 10: 085008.

Suggested Readings

Case summaries of all National Green Tribunals Orders/Judgements pronounced by the Judge and Expert member date wise. Retrieved from http://greentribunal.in/judgement.php on March 17, 2020.

8

Gill, G. N. (2016) Environmental Justice in India: The National Green Tribunal. Routledge Explorations in Environmental Studies, Routledge.

Schweizer, E. (1999) Environmental Justice: An Interview with Robert Bullard. Earth First! Journal http://www.ejnet.org/ej/bullard.html

Shrotria, S. (2015) Environmental justice: Is the National Green Tribunal of India effective? Environmental Law Review, 17: 169-188.

Snorek, J. (2018) Tracking the battles for environmental justice: here are the world’s top 10. The Conversation.

Spector, J. Where America’s poor pay the most for electricity (2016). City Lab.

Trees: A shared good with unequal access (2016) Smart Cities Dive, Deeproot.

1

LESSON-3

ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY: ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS ROLE OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL PRACTICES IN

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Dr. Neha Goyal Assistant Professor,

................................................ University of Delhi

Introduction to Environmental Philosophy

Amid ongoing advancements in science and technology, we also need to articulate and solve issues rooted in political, cultural, and economic realities of the human world to deal with the current global environmental challenges. Incorporating all factors, including human dimensions of global challenges is a key to generating successful solutions to environmental problems. Environmental Philosophy, or sometimes referred to as ‘Environmental Ethics’, relatively a recent branch of philosophy, has been characterized by a variety of theoretical arguments about the best way to provide a philosophical basis for engagement with the environmental problems facing us, at present, and in the future. The concept of environmental philosophy exemplifies a set of principles that could help us deal with our relation to natural world and other life forms.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. The learners will be enabled to raise their understanding of human’s fundamental andethical role towards the natural environment.

2. The learners will realize the importance of ethics in solving global environmentalchallenges.

3. They will be introduced to different ethical approaches to environmental concerns.

4. They will appreciate the role and relevance of environmental ethics, religion, and culturein the present-day scenario of natural disasters and environmental accidents.

5. They will understand the role of inter-religious engagements as an effective, commonplatform for bringing the diverse religious and traditional practices towards protecting theenvironment.

Environmental Ethics: Ethics and Environment

Our ethical and moral values provide a basis to our response to and action towards the world around us. Our view of the society, intrinsic values, religion, and cultural practices influence our perception of the world. Historically, we applied the concept of ethics to our interactions

2

with fellow human beings. Of recent, we have begun applying our sense of ethical conduct to the environment.

The philosophy of environmental ethics puts forth that if something is valuable (or valued), it ought to be generated, maintained, and/or facilitated. Environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human components (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Environmental ethics generate an impetus on concerns for the future, raising more abstract questions concerning the value and moral standing of the natural environment and its non-human components. It asserts respecting the existence of not only humans, but also the non-human entities, and recognizing their right to live. With environmental ethics, morality extends to the non-human components. Ethical considerations on a range of real-world environmental concerns has led to a growing environmental movement which seeks to change people’s attitudes towards environmental degradation, ensuring sustainability.

Eco-philosophical Orientations towards Environment

The distinction between intrinsic value (non-instrumental value) and instrumental value has been of considerable importance in environmental ethics. Intrinsic value refers to the value, which entities hold in themselves, rather than for the purpose of something else. While, the value which things have, so long as they serve a purpose is the instrumental value.

The questions or issues of etiology, impact, response, significance, an /or environmental harm are often approached from different perspectives on the relationship between humans and the natural environment. These eco-philosophical orientations influence one’s understanding of environmental harm or nature of victimization of human populations, specific environments and/or ecosystems. Notable eco-philosophical orientations to environment are as discussed below.

Anthropocentrism

An anthropocentric perspective is human‐centered, emphasizing the biological, mental, and moral superiority of humans over other living and non‐living entities (Halsey and White 1998; White and Heckenberg 2014). For anthropocentrists, humans are the only important beings, while all other things only have instrumental value to humans- as something to be appropriated, processed, consumed and disposed of in ways that best suit human needs in the present (Halsey and White 1998). To elaborate, humans are viewed as separate from, rather than part of ecosystem, and other non-human entities (e.g. air, water, soil, plants, animals, etc.) are of concern only if they to benefit the humans. The philosophy of anthropocentrism considers human welfare is less dependent on the long-term survival of non-human entities. Anthropocentricism is a view of the world reflecting self-interest of humans, wherein, human creativity, ingenuity, and technological innovations employed for the exploitation of nature are considered necessary (Brisman and South 2019).

3

Biocentrism

From a biocentric perspective, humans are considered simply ‘another species’ to be attributed the same moral worth as other organisms (White and Heckenberg 2014). Biocentrists consider non-human species have ‘intrinsic value’ (Halsey and White 1998). To elaborate, non-human species possess moral worth and will continue possessing moral worth irrespective of how insignificant humans may conceive their existence or ‘use value’ to be (Halsey and White 1998). The ideological basis of biocentrism is the preservation and realization of all species. Bicentrism is considered somewhat misanthropic; substantive inequalities among different human populations do not pose a moral problem. Factors causing harm to humans can be considered beneficial to ‘greater number of other life forms’ and in particular, to humans by keeping a check on population numbers (Halsey and White 1998).

Ecocentrism

An ecocentric perspective refuses to place humanity either above or below the rest of nature (White & Heckenberg 2014). Ecocentrists regard that humans and their activities are inextricably interconnected with the rest of the natural world. It associates ‘intrinsic value’ with all living organisms and their natural environment, regardless of their perceived ‘use value’ to humans. The view puts forth that the unique capacity for human beings to develop and deploy methods of production which have global consequences means that humans also have an explicit responsibility to ensure that such production methods do not exceed the ecospheric limits of the planet”-a responsibility that extends to both human and non‐human life (Brisman and South 2019).

These three eco-philosophical orientations not only influence the focus and future of research on environmental ethics, but also the nature and scope of policies and regulatory practices proposed. Certain other paradigms of ethical belief also exist, namely, ecofeminism, holism, speciesism, resourcism, and psychocentricism, etc.

Scope of Environmental Ethics

The tasks of determining what entities in the non-human environment are valuable, how and why they are valuable, and how these values are to be considered in discourse on attitude and action, are central to environmental ethics (Palmer et al. 2104). A particular environmental policy or a strategy for ecosystem management need to be assessed in terms of how responsive they are to what is valuable in the environment. Ethical questions are those about what we ought to do, and ethical claims are prescriptive, rather than descriptive or predictive. Many ethical decisions human beings make each day with respect to the environment. For instance, should humans continue clearing forests for the sake of human consumption? or should humans continue making gasoline-powered vehicles? etc.

There is a need to realize that key environmental issues, e.g., ecosystem degradation and management, endangered species protection, sustainable resource management, pollution abatement, greenhouse gas mitigation, population growth, and chemical contamination, are as much ethical issues as they are economic or legal issues. It is therefore crucial to evaluate the

4

policies and practices regarding them in terms of ethical values. Environmental ethics does not entail a concept of value as a quality independent of human preferences, tastes, interests, etc. However, it aims to develop the ability to identify and analyze ethical issues in attitude and actions pertaining to environment, nature and non-human components to make ethically correct decisions and to act ethically.

Future developments may be included in:

Political sector: Informed by changes in political efforts to improve environmental status

Business sector: Incorporation of business ethics with environmental ethics holds prospects.

Among the masses: Not limited to politics and business, ethical values merged with mainstream can yield ethical thinking and a move towards sustainability.

Environmental ethics has a future as long as there are moral agents on earth with values at stake in their environment (Rolston 2011).

Role of religion and cultural practices in environmental conservation

The increasing awareness and recognition of exacerbating effects of ecosystem degradation by anthropocentric activities continues to bring together different stakeholders, including multiple religions and their cultural practices into the realm of environmental protection and conservation. In the words of philosopher Seyyed Hossein Nasr, the environmental crisis is fundamentally a crisis of values. The religion, being the primary source of ethics and values in any culture is considered to be implicated in individual’s decisions regarding the environment.

Religion, culture, and the Environment

The perception of human communities of their environment is largely driven by their religion and cultural practices. Ethical support for environmental conservation and inculcation of sense of innate environmental responsibility is profound in our religious and cultural beliefs. As defined by UNESCO (2002), culture should be regarded as a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group and that it encompasses in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, tradition and beliefs. In addition, cultural practices and beliefs shape the way the people interpret environmental problems, and provide a historical and social-cultural context in which impacts are experienced and responses are generated.

Almost all religions existent round the globe believe the creation of the universe is an act of God/superpower and hence should be treated ethically and morally. The period between 1997 and 2004 witnessed volumes of series, written by thinkers of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, Hinduism, Jainism, Judaism, Islam, and Indigenous Traditions, etc., putting forth their viewpoint for environmental concerns and promoting environmentally sustainable lifeways. The discussion broadly addresses how different religions and related cultural practices have

5

addressed individuals’ commitments towards the environment (see United Nations Environment Programme).

Buddhism

An important part of Buddha's lessons, the notion of ‘karma’ conveys the values of conservation and responsibility for the future. It is believed that the morality of our actions in the present will shape our character for the future, which somehow conveys the idea of sustainable development.

Christianity

Approximately 100 verses in the bible talk about protection of the environment. Christians therefore have enshrined environmental responsibility and behavioral change in their culture for the good of the future.

Confucianism

Confucianism influenced culture, society, economy, and politics of mainly China, but also Japan, Korea and Vietnam for more than 2500 years. Confucianism was part of the Chinese social fabric and way of living, wherein, daily life was the arena of religion. In the Analects of Confucius, there is a little mention on relation of humans and nature. Nevertheless, some principles followed in Confucianism humanism relate to nature protection and ecology.

Hinduism

Hinduism is considered a religion, deeply rooted in nature. The sacred texts, Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Epics, etc. have many references of divine nature, such as rivers, mountains, trees, animals, and the earth are regarded as creations of God. Hinduism encourages environmental protection, promotes sustainable development, and supports the protection of the environment through awareness campaigns and actions.

Islam

Hundreds of verses in Qur’an support the protection of the environment. Islam approaches environment from a stewardship perspective and the followers promote the relation between Islam and sustainability. It bestows upon humans, the responsibility to protect and ensure the unity of the God’s creation. Islam also prohibits the excessive consumption of resources; the planet provides to the humanity.

Jainism

Originated from India, the main teaching from Jainism is Ahimsa, the non-violence, in all parts of life. Jainism focuses on a peaceful and disciplined life-verbally, physically, and mentally. Kindness to animals, vegetarianism, and self-restraint with the principle of waste avoidance are given due importance.

Judaism

As per the teachings of Judaism, the land and the environment are properties of God, and it is the duty of mankind to take care of it.

6

Sikhism

It is a religion, native to India. The sacred text, Sri Guru Granth Sahib where there mentions of several teachings on environment. The Sikh holy sites and the organizations keeps making ethical decisions for the environment.

Scope for relationship between cultural practices and the environment

Recently, there has been a strong recognition that effective ecosystem management can be achieved through integration of the relationships between communities and nature. The religion and related cultural traditions may equip the individuals and/or groups to reconsider their beliefs on prominent environmental issues, challenge the dominant views, and make ethical decisions on attitude and action towards environmental problems (Watling 2008). In fact, Peter Beyer, sees environmentalism as a way to revitalize religion and address global matters for the sake of humanity. Beyer (1994) opined that religious environmentalism may become a social movement based on religious resources, promising the power to deal with modern-day environmental concerns.

The religions are indispensable in imbibing environmental ethics as they shape an individual’s thinking about the environment. The major challenge, however is to enlarge the ethical concerns to include the more than human world. The integration of key religious concepts and traditional conservation approaches into environmental management plans and conservation strategies can benefit biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, and ecosystem management. The local people also are benefitted from the resultant natural resource conservation. Workers in the field suggest that the long-standing reverence for the environment within religion and culture is a very powerful force to turn the tide of biodiversity destruction. The Governments should ensure preservation, protection, and promotion of the traditional cultures and knowledge of the indigenous people. The conservation of natural resources and culture can be achieved only through the empowerment of indigenous communities.

The challenge for environmental conservation in a changing global environment is that some of the long-held cultural practices can lead to ecosystem degradation, though others play a very relevant role in promoting conservation. Although different religions across the globe make claims about the foundational nature of human-environment interactions, and suggest certain laws and regulations that relate to the non-human, they miss out addressing 'modern' environmental challenges. There is a need for reorienting our cultural practices and beliefs so as to lead environmental conservation to curb the present-day environmental crisis.

Questions to ponder

Q.1. Who of the following authored the book ‘A Sand County Almanac’?

(a) Aldo Leopold

(b) Charles Darwin

(c) Rachel Carson

(d) Mahatma Gandhi

7

Q.2. The discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings, and also the value and moral status of the environment and its non-human contents is _____________.

(a) Environmental psychology

(b) Environmental ethics

(c) Environmental justice

(d) None of the above

Q.3. An anthropocentric perspective considers that humans are the only important beings, and all other entities only have instrumental value to humans. State True or False.

True.

Q.4. How environmental ethics can make us meet emission targets in the current developmental scenario?

Learning Outcomes

The learners will appreciate ethical approach and attitude of dealing with different environmental concerns.

They will be enabled to critically evaluate different eco-philosophical orientations to environmental ethics.

They will be trained to see different perspectives, to apply moral theories and draw ethical conclusions from real-life cases.

They will be able to realize the role of religious teachings and cultural practices in environmental conservation.

Points to Ponder

Environmental ethics examines ethical questions pertaining to human relationships with the non-human environment.

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Muir (1838–1914) did seminal work in environmental ethics.

Aldo Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac, published in 1949 is a seminal work in the field with its essay on the Land Ethic.

An early form of ethical biocentrism, based on the idea of reverence for life, was proposed by Albert Schweitzer in The Philosophy of Civilization.

The period of explicit ecological consciousness on the part of religious traditions and sacredness to nature beyond humanity has been termed as “Greening” of Religions by Roderick Nash. The phenomenon of Greening of Religions, basically involves infusion of religious traditions into “resource” for environmentally sustainable livelihoods and activism.

The Earth Charter, developed in the twentieth century, strives for developing communities that are just, sustainable, participatory, nonviolent, and compassionate. The

8

foundation of the charter is to ensure that people of all religions—and those without religion as well— should live with respect and care for the community of life.

Terminal Exercise

Q.1. ‘An understanding of philosophy improves stakeholders’ decision making on handling major global issues.’ Comment on the statement in light of appropriate examples.

Q.2. Elaborate on how environmental ethics can help us deal with the environmental problems faced at present, and in future.

Q.3. Elaborate on anthropocentric and biocentric eco-philosophical orientations.

Q.4. ‘Environmental Ethics has given a new dimension to the conservation of natural resources and protection of the environment’. Explain the statement, with examples.

Q.5. Comment on the role of religion and culture in environmental conservation, taking appropriate examples.

Q.6. Considering case study of an environmental movement, explain how ethical considerations influence and shape decision-making and develop environmental management.

Q.7. Elaborate on how environmental ethical theory applies to real-world environmental conflicts and issues.

Weblinks

https://philosophynow.org/issues/88/Three_Challenges_For_Environmental_Philosophy

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/

https://youtu.be/78byEWHhUQc

www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101216111701.htm

https://www.unenvironment.org/about-un-environment/faith-earth-initiative/religions-and-environmental-protection

References

Beyer, P., Religion and globalization, 27, Sage, 1994.

Brisman A., and South, N. (2019) Green Criminology and Environmental Crimes and Harms. Sociology Compass, 13: e12650.

Halsey, M., and White, R. (1998) Crime, Ecophilosophy and Environmental Harm. Theoretical Criminology, 2, 345-371.

Palmer, C., McShane, K., and Sandler R. (2014) Environmental Ethics. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 39, 419-442.

9

Rolston, H. (2011) The future of environmental ethics. Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements, 69, 1-28.

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (2002) Records of the General Conference. 31st session, Paris.

Watling, T., The Field of Religion and Ecology: Addressing the Environmental Crisis and Challenging Faiths. In Religion: Beyond a Concept (ed. De Vries, H.), Fordham University Press, 2008, pp. 473-488.

White, R., and Heckenberg, D. (2014) Green criminology: An introduction to the study of environmental harm. Routledge, United Kingdom.

Zalta, E. N. (2006) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A university/library partnership in support of scholarly communication and open access.

Suggested Readings

Attfield, R. (2014) Environmental Ethics: An Overview for the Twenty-First Century. Polity Press, Oxford.

Benson, J. (2013) Environmental Ethics: An introduction with readings. Routledge.

Blackstone, W. (1974) Philosophy and Environmental Crisis. University of Georgia Press, Athens.

Brennan, A. (1995) The ethics of the environment.

DesJardins, J. R. (2006) Environmental ethics: an introduction to environmental philosophy. Belmont, Thomson Wadsworth.

Leopold, A. (1949) A Sand County Almanac, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Nash, R. (1996) ‘The Greening of Religion’. In This Sacred Earth: Religion, Nature, Environment (ed. Gottlieb, R.), Routledge, pp. 194-229.

Schwartz, P. and Randall, D. (2003) An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and its Implications for United States National Security. Jet Propulsion Laboratory Pasadena, CA, California Institute of Technology.