identification of leadership style of

IDENTIFICATION OF LEADERSHIP STYLE OF

ENROLLMENT MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONALS

IN POST SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS IN

THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES

by

TANYA GWEN HUGHES, B.B.A., M.Ed.

A DISSERTATION

IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Approved

Bonita Butner Chairperson of the Committee

Valerie Paton

Krista Cohlmia

Accepted

John Borrelli

Dean of the Graduate School

AUGUST, 2005

ii

For my husband, Steve Our children, Heather and Ty

And, the memory of my parents.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I offer my sincere gratitude to Drs. Bonita Butner (Chairperson), Valerie Paton,

Jo Temple, and Krista Cohlmia. Their guidance and expertise enabled me to complete

this study. Dr. Butner’s unwavering support and encouragement created in me a belief

that I could conquer this project. She is a consummate professional whose dedication to

students is evident. Dr. Butner is truly an asset to the discipline of Higher Education.

Dr. Temple’s faith and insistence that I could indeed perform statistical calculations gave

me the courage to persevere. Dr. Paton’s energy and insight to the enrollment

management concept made this study stronger. She challenged me to think beyond the

obvious and explore alternate explanations as I analyzed results of this study.

Dr. Cohlmia kept me focused on statistical procedures that were pertinent to the study.

She was calm, cheerful, and always confident that I would successfully complete this

venture.

I also wish to acknowledge my employer, Odessa College. Dr. Vance Gipson,

President, supported my educational endeavors by sharing wisdom that comes from years

of educational leadership experience. To my friends and co-workers, Penny Boss, Becky

Miller, Kristi Munoz, Gail Nash, Leslie Neiman, and Dee Nesmith, thank you for your

unfailing support and confidence in me. Just as important as your encouragement, I knew

that I could always count on you guys to keep things going during my absences. I must

also acknowledge many others who had a direct impact on this study. They are: Clayton

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Alred, Sue Blair, Virginia Chisum, Ralph Ford, Mike Haynie, Martha Kunkel, Sherrie

Lang, Robert Munoz, Pat Quintero, Mary Roach, and Kim Rodriquez.

For me, the pursuit of higher education was not just an individual commitment,

but also a family commitment. Therefore, I must thank my family for embarking on this

journey with me. To my husband, Steve, thank you for the emotional and financial

support that allowed me to complete this process. To my children, Heather and Ty, I am

so glad that God placed each of you in my life. To Stephenie, Brandon, Garrett, and

Bailea, thank you for making me smile. To my sister and best friend, Carla, thank you

for always listening and believing in me. To my brother, Eddie, you live in my heart. To

my parents, who now watch from Heaven, I am grateful to them for instilling in me a

love of learning. To my granddaddy and extended family, thank you for your support

and encouragement. Last, but not least, I would be remiss if I did not give credit to my

personal Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................. xi

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1

Enrollment Management..............................................................................2 Enrollment Management Structures and Models.........................................4 Leadership....................................................................................................7 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................9 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................10 Significance of the Study ...........................................................................10 Research Questions....................................................................................11 Research Hypothesis..................................................................................12 Delimitations of the Study .........................................................................13 Assumptions and Limitations of the Study................................................13 Definition of Terms....................................................................................14 Conclusion .................................................................................................15 Organization of Remaining Chapters.........................................................15

vi

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.................................................16

Enrollment Management............................................................................16 Enrollment Management Defined..............................................................17 Responsibilities of Enrollment Management.............................................18 Leadership..................................................................................................22 Definitions of Leadership ..........................................................................23 Trait Theory ...................................................................................25 Behavioral Theory .........................................................................26 Iowa State University Studies........................................................27 Ohio State Leadership Studies .......................................................27 University of Michigan Studies .....................................................29 Managerial Grid .............................................................................30 Contingency Theories ....................................................................32 Fiedler’s Contingency Model ........................................................33 House and Mitchell Path-Goal Theory ..........................................35 Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model ...................37 Vroom and Yetton..........................................................................38 Transactional Leadership ...............................................................39 Transformational Leadership .........................................................41 Full-Range Leadership Theory ......................................................43 Leadership Models.........................................................................46 Conclusion .................................................................................................48 III. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................49

Participants.................................................................................................49 Instrumentation ..........................................................................................50 Validity ......................................................................................................53 Reliability...................................................................................................54 Research Hypotheses .................................................................................54 Procedures for Data Collection..................................................................55

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Confidentiality ...........................................................................................55 Data Analysis .............................................................................................56 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA.....................................................................58 Introduction................................................................................................58 Review of the Research Hypotheses..........................................................58 Population and Sample ..............................................................................59 Classification of the Participants ...............................................................59 Summary Statistics.....................................................................................60 Gender............................................................................................61 Two-Year/Four-Year Institutions ..................................................62 Public/Private Institutions..............................................................64 Educational Level ..........................................................................65 Supervisory Experience .................................................................66 Institutional Enrollment .................................................................67 Statistical Findings.....................................................................................68 Hypothesis 1...................................................................................68 Hypothesis 2...................................................................................69 Hypothesis 3...................................................................................71 Hypothesis 4...................................................................................73 Hypothesis 5...................................................................................74 Hypothesis 6...................................................................................77 Hypothesis 7...................................................................................80 Conclusion .................................................................................................81 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................83 Summary of the Study ...............................................................................83 Discussion..................................................................................................86 Research Question 1 ......................................................................86 Research Question 2 ......................................................................90 Research Question 3 ......................................................................92 Research Question 4 ......................................................................94 Research Question 5 ......................................................................96

viii

Research Question 6 ......................................................................97 Research Question 7 ....................................................................102 Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................103 Conclusions..............................................................................................106 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................110

APPENDICES

A. PERMISSION TO COPY-THOMPSON PUBLISHING SERVICES....121

B. PERMISSION TO COPY-MIND GARDEN ..........................................123

C. SURVEY LETTER..................................................................................124

D. SURVEY QUESTIONS ..........................................................................125

E. SURVEY FOLLOW-UP LETTER..........................................................127

ix

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated leadership style of enrollment managers employed at post

secondary institutions in the southern United States. Enrollment management seeks to

influence enrollment by analyzing and monitoring the size and characteristics of the

student body. Enrollment managers coordinate numerous functions associated with

recruiting, retaining, funding, and tracking students. Individuals who supervised both the

undergraduate admissions office and student financial aid office were included in the

study. The sample size was 397, of which 203 (51%) responded by submitting a

completed survey. Of the 203 responses, 118 (58%) met the selection criteria and were

used in the data analyses. Participants completed the Multifactor Leadership

Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5X – Short (Revised), developed by Bruce J. Avolio and

Bernard M. Bass, and were categorized as having either transactional leadership style or

transformational leadership style. Transactional leadership is based on exchange and

uses reward or punishment to manipulate followers into performing tasks.

Transformational leadership seeks to influence the values, attitudes, beliefs, and

behaviors of followers by working with and through them to accomplish the college’s

mission and purpose. Additionally, leadership style was compared with the participant’s

gender, type of employing institution, level of education, years of leadership experience,

and student enrollment at the employing institution. Results gleaned from this study

suggest there is not a statistically significant association between leadership style and the

participant’s gender (p = 0.276), their type of institution (either two-year or four-year, p =

x

0.412; public or private, p = 0.685), and their levels of education (p = 0.635).

Additionally, an independent samples t-test demonstrated that leadership style and fall

2004 student enrollment at the employing institution were not correlated (p = 0.335).

There was, however, statistical support of a dependent relationship between an

enrollment manager’s years of supervisory experience and their leadership style (p =

0.032). This finding supports the theory that leadership behaviors and characteristics can

be learned. It provides a basis upon which administrators may justify the allocation of

resources for leadership development.

xi

LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Percent of Population for Ages 5 to 19........................................................2

1.2 Live Births per 1,000 ...................................................................................2

2.1 Ohio State Leadership Study Quadrants ....................................................28

2.2 Situational Leadership in Eight Octants ....................................................35

2.3 Taxonomy of Decision Processes in the Vroom-Yetton model.................38

4.1 Gender by Leadership Style.......................................................................62

4.2 Highest Academic Credential Offered.......................................................63

4.3 Two-Year or Four-Year Institution by Leadership Style...........................64

4.4 Public or Private Institution by Leadership Style ......................................64

4.5 Educational Level by Leadership Style .....................................................66

4.6 Years of Supervisory Experience by Leadership Style..............................67

4.7 Years of Supervisory Experience by Leadership Style..............................68

4.8 H02 Cell Counts (Expected Cell Counts)...................................................71




4.12 H06 Cell Counts (Expected Cell Counts) – Using a Combined Category of More than 1 But Less than 12 ................................................79 4.13 H06 Cell Counts (Expected Cell Counts) – Omitting Years of Experience Less than Eight........................................................................80

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Managerial Leadership...............................................................................30

2.2 The Managerial Grid..................................................................................31

2.3 Contingency Leadership Model.................................................................33

4.1 Leadership Style by Gender.......................................................................70

4.2 Leadership Style by Two or Four-Year Institution....................................72

4.3 Leadership Style by Public or Private Institution ......................................74

4.4 Leadership Style by Educational Level .....................................................76

4.5 Leadership Style by Years of Experience..................................................78

4.6 Headcount by Leadership Style .................................................................81

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Educators have sought to manage enrollment since the establishment of

postsecondary institutions (Black, 2001). The quest to enroll an appropriate student

population is not new to higher education and has for decades caused institutions to

evaluate admission standards and academic programs. Black (2001) explains that

institutions, beginning with colonial colleges, “have wrestled with the twin prongs of the

admission dilemma: the quantity and quality of students” (p. 4). Many colleges and

universities today continue to struggle with maintaining quality, while striving to achieve

the desired quantity of students.

Summerskill (1962) recognized student attrition as a problem for higher education

and advised postsecondary institutions to evaluate admission policies, quality of

instruction, and reasons for student departure prior to graduation. However, it was not

until the early 1970s, when projections of pending enrollment declines began to be made,

that institutions attempted to influence student persistence. Shulman (1976) and Florio

(1976) reported a reduction in population between the ages of 18 and 22 that would have

dire consequences for postsecondary institutions if enrollment patterns remained

unchanged. Between 1990 and 2000, the total population has increased 13.2%, but

college enrollment increased only 10.8% (U.S. Census Bureau).

2

Since the 1950s, the percentage growth rate of the total U.S. population continued

to increase, but at a slower rate (U.S. Census Bureau). However, the growth rate of

children between the ages of 5 and 19 has decreased since 1970 as depicted in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Percent of Population for Ages 5 to 19

Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Percent of 5-19 year olds

27.2% 29.4% 24.8% 21.3% 21.8%

As evidenced by Table 1.1, the prospective pool of students declined since 1970.

While the population grew slightly from 1990 to 2000, the growth rate was lower than in

previous decades. Additionally, Table 1.2 demonstrates that live birth rates in the U.S.

have also decreased since 1960.

Table 1.2: Live Births per 1,000

Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Live Births 23.7 18.4 15.9 16.7 14.7

As a result of the changing demographics, college enrollment as a percent of the

population has continued to decline, and institutions searched for new ways to exert more

influence over students. Administrators began to view student enrollments as a resource

more directly influenced by the institution than a resource primarily determined by

external environments (Dolence, 1993).

Enrollment Management

During the 1960s and early 1970s, colleges and universities were blessed with a

natural abundance of students as a result of post World War II baby boom and the general

3

admiration of higher education by the public (Hossler, 1986). Colleges and universities

often enjoyed the role of gatekeepers as students competed for admission to selected

schools (Jonas & Popovics, 2000). Many educators characterize this period as one of

significant enrollments with no aggressive efforts necessary in recruitment (Croomes,

2000).

In the early 1970s, enrollment management emerged as an important concept as

college officials began to address the decline in the number of high school graduates who

planned to attend college (Penn, 1999). In the current college climate, enrollment

management is the process of defining enrollment goals and establishing procedures to

reach these goals, thereby providing an institution with the mechanisms to control its

size, shape and character (Mabry, 1987). The essential components of enrollment

management are: (a) knowing why students choose to attend a particular institution;

(b) understanding why students enroll, withdraw, and persist; (c) knowing how students

finance educational expenses; (d) strategically preparing for future enrollment and

financial requirements of an institution; and (e) linking enrollment management with

retention (Dennis, 1998). Enrollment management requires talented and energetic leaders

who must be able to bring out the best in their staffs, to focus on strengths, and “to rise

above campus politics and to never forget to smile” (Dennis, 1998, p. 18).

Enrollment Management Structures and Models

Enrollment management models are generally designed to help an institution

achieve its mission and stated goals. However, Black (2001) states that most

4

organizations are not designed to provide leadership that promotes an optimal enrollment

management atmosphere. Prior to adopting an enrollment management model,

institutions must be cognizant of strategic goals, organizational designs, and desired

outcomes. Adoption of a model should be given careful consideration to ensure that it

provides strategies that strengthen the enrollment management function.

Henderson (2001) explains that the following enrollment structures will facilitate

development of an enrollment management model:

1. Enrollment management committee is noted for its convenience because it is

comprised of representatives from relevant departments; the establishment of a

committee does not require additional funding or the hiring of additional

personnel. While this model does promote discussion, it usually does not have

the authority to affect change. The enrollment management committee serves as a

signal that the institution is beginning to evaluate enrollment in a systematic

manner. The committee’s broad constituency provides a mechanism of

communication to multiple areas of campus. In turn, this informal

communication effort may serve to build support for the enrollment management

plan.

2. Enrollment management coordinator may be more adept in understanding student

theory and enrollment management concepts, but success in implementing

strategies will depend upon support from administration. An enrollment

management coordinator may be a drawn from the enrollment management

committee or a mid-management level employee of the institution. However, the

5

coordinator lacks authority to formally influence institutional policy because

enrollment management is viewed as a concern for a mid-level office and not

senior leadership.

3. Enrollment management matrix appoints administrators from areas that directly

support the enrollment management function; an enrollment manager coordinates

these activities. The matrix is responsible for making enrollment management a

responsibility of administration. However, it usually requires an existing vice

president to assume additional enrollment management duties. While this does

shift emphasis to senior administration, enrollment management must still

compete with other offices for resources.

4. Enrollment management division supervises offices that contribute to the

enrollment function. A shared goal of advancing and maintaining enrollment is

central to all participants. While a division provides the most comprehensive and

concerted effort, it may also create the most problems. The establishment of a

division requires restructuring the organization. Other administrators may view

reorganization as threatening to their jurisdiction and create barriers that impede

the implementation of an enrollment management plan. This resistance may

lower morale and support for the new enrollment management initiative.

Whichever reporting structure is selected, enrollment management must respond

quickly to students and other departments within the organization. Huddleston (2001)

suggests an ideal enrollment management structure should support a model that impacts

students’ decisions to enroll, persist, and graduate (Huddleston, 2001). While the scope

6

of enrollment management structures and subsequent models vary, they should support

the values and needs of the institution.

The following enrollment management models may be established based on the

above-mentioned structures:

1. Vice president of enrollment management. This model approaches enrollment

management as a campus-wide initiative and encompasses a broad range of

activities. This level of commitment ensures institutional marketing, development

of academic programs, research, and all components of enrollment management

are at the forefront of activities. The focus includes market position and

prominence, as opposed to merely supporting enrollment.

2. Dean of enrollment management. This model approaches enrollment

management by providing quality service to students. The dean of enrollment

management coordinates areas such as admission, academic advising, financial

aid, and student activities to provide superior service to prospects and students.

3. Director of enrollment management. The director of enrollment management has

a limited scope of authority. While this individual may coordinate numerous

enrollment management functions, the reporting structure communicates the

institution’s level of commitment to enrollment management. This model serves

to impact daily operations and not market position.

4. Enrollment management committee. This model uses a committee structure to

formulate an institution’s enrollment management plan. It is a loosely coupled

model that does not place great emphasis, at least in structure, on enrollment

7

management. This model does not encourage a concerted enrollment

management effort, but instead allows each function to operate independently.

Leadership

If institutions hope to influence enrollment, thereby shaping the academic culture

and population of their campuses they must have dynamic leaders who can successfully

implement change and coordinate the diverse functions that make up enrollment

management. Effective leaders are vitally important to higher education as they define an

institution and its practices (Fairholm, 1998). Good leaders must be enthusiastic about

their work and the potential of the institutions that employ them (Dessler, 1995).

Furthermore, good leaders are confident in their judgment, and they hold themselves and

their followers to high expectations (Hoover, 1991).

Early leadership studies focused on trait and behavior theories. This body of

literature suggests that great leaders possess a trait or characteristic that creates an innate

ability to lead (Chemers, 1997). However, Stogdill (1948) conducted a survey of the

literature that focused on identifying reliable differences in personal characteristics

between leaders and followers in a variety of organizational settings. While he found that

many personality traits are related to leadership, the link is not strong enough to provide

an explanation of leadership emergence. Stogdill’s evaluation of the literature and

subsequent conclusions encouraged researchers to pursue alternate explanations of

leadership. New models began to materialize as researchers sought to identify

8

characteristics of effective leaders. Two prominent theories were transactional and

transformational leadership.

Transactional leadership, which is based on exchange, uses reward or punishment

as incentives to manipulate followers into performing tasks (Avolio & Bass, 2002) and

served as the basis for the development of transformational leadership (Avolio, 1999;

Avolio, Waldman, &Yammarino, 1991). Transformational leadership has been ascribed

with effecting change by influencing values, attitudes, and behaviors of others (Avolio &

Bass, 2002). Furthermore, transformational leaders have been credited with converting

followers into leaders and are able to generate commitment, satisfaction, and excitement.

The rapidly changing environment of postsecondary education calls for leaders

who are more adaptive and flexible (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003). Adaptive

leaders, also known as transformational leaders (Bass, 1985), work with followers to

enhance performance and generate creative solutions to complex problems (Bass, 1985;

Bass, et al., 2003; Burns, 1978; Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002). Transformational

leadership, although an extension of transactional leadership, provides an alternative to

contingent reward, and is credited with enhancing performance and exceeding

expectations (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Day, Zaccaro, & Halpin, 2004; Dvir et al. 2002).

Transformational leadership theory was selected for evaluation in this study

because it reportedly produces exceptional performance from subordinates. Because

transformational leadership evolved from transactional leadership, evaluation of the two

methods provided pertinent information regarding appropriate leadership models for

enrollment managers. Burns (1978) conducted a comprehensive study of leadership and

9

categorized individuals as either transactional or transformation. This study, while not a

replication of Burns’ work, also evaluated participants and categorized their leadership

style as either transactional or transformational.

Statement of the Problem

Dwindling resources, declining enrollments, underprepared students, demands for

accountability, competition from other institutions and increased government regulation

are just a few of the issues facing enrollment managers (Anderson, 1997). Due to

numerous challenges and sometimes seemingly insurmountable obstacles, enrollment

managers must be effective leaders who are capable of creating environments that are

proactive and beneficial for students, faculty, staff, and the community. Dessler (1995)

maintains, “Good leadership is more important than it has ever been before, because it is

the leader who must initiate change, and provide a unifying vision” (p. 365).

While research on enrollment management is still emergent, leadership has been

the focus of extensive research in the private sector. More recently, in higher education,

leadership has come under scrutiny as well. However, a clear understanding about the

nature of educational leadership has not emerged (Cohen & Brawer, 1996; Roueche,

Baker, & Rose, 1989). Sergiovanni (1992) suggests that researchers have failed to

develop a comprehensive definition because leadership continues to be evaluated on

behavioral or trait theories and contingent reward styles.

10

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the leadership styles of currently

employed enrollment management professionals within the Southern Association of

Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (SACRAO) region, which is part of the

American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (AACRAO).

The following states are included in SACRAO and are subject to inclusion of this study:

Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina,

Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. Additionally, leadership

style was evaluated in conjunction with personal and employment characteristics (i.e.,

age, gender, level of education, type of institution).

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) by Avolio and Bass, which

categorizes leaders into either transformational or transactional leadership styles, was

used to determine leadership style of current enrollment managers.

Significance of the Study

“Declining enrollments are second only to declining appropriations as the reason

for colleges’ and universities’ financial problems” (Penn, 1999, p. 2). In 1994,

62 percent of college administrators responding to a survey conducted by the American

Council of Education cited sustaining a suitable enrollment as one of the most important

challenges facing their schools (Dennis, 1998). Private industry has long recognized the

importance of leadership, however, Bryman (1986) notes that only recently has higher

education begun to focus on leadership and its impact on an institution. In this effort,

11

existing leadership theory has been applied and adapted to higher education. Dean

(1986) reminds us that higher education administrators have altered leadership theories to

fit the characteristics of postsecondary institutions.

More recent research studies have been conducted regarding leadership within

higher education; however, most work has focused on university and college presidents

or vice presidents. There are comparatively few studies that have examined leadership

style of college personnel at the department chair or dean level. However, no studies

were located that focused on leadership styles of enrollment managers. Results of this

study led to a better understanding of leadership styles for enrollment management

professionals who are currently employed within higher education.

Research Questions

The premise of this study is to determine transactional or transformational

leadership styles of enrollment management professionals. The following questions will

be used to facilitate the study.

1. What are the leadership styles of enrollment managers?

2. Is there a relationship between leadership style and gender in enrollment

managers?

3. Is there a relationship between leadership style and two-year/four-year institution

status in enrollment managers?

4. Is there a relationship between leadership style and private/public institution


12

5. Is there a relationship between leadership style and leadership experience level in

enrollment managers?

6. Is there a difference in leadership style between enrollment managers with

differing years of leadership experience?

7. Is there a difference in the actual enrollment (student headcount) of the institution

and the institution’s enrollment management leadership style?

Research Hypothesis

H01: There is no statistically significant evidence to conclude that there are more

transactional leaders than transformation leaders acting as enrollment managers.

H02: There is no statistically significant dependence between leadership style of

male and female enrollment managers.

H03: There is no statistically significant dependence between leadership styles of

enrollment mangers at two- and four-year institutions.


enrollment mangers at private and public institutions.


enrollment managers who have differing levels of education.


enrollment managers who have differing years of leadership experience.

H07: There is no mean difference in the actual enrollment of the institution and the

institution’s enrollment management leadership style.

13

Delimitations of the Study

Inherent to the study are certain delimitations that must be noted.

1. The study is limited to individuals who hold job titles that contain the word(s)

enrollment, enrollment management, or enrollment service and supervise the

undergraduate admission and financial aid offices.

2. The study is limited to enrollment management professionals in the SACRAO

region.

3. The study is limited to the evaluation of transformational and transactional

leadership styles.

4. The study is limited to self-reported data by participants.

Assumptions and Limitations of the Study

1. Participation in this study was voluntary and inference cannot be drawn to all

enrollment managers.

2. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was a valid and reliable survey

instrument that correctly identifies transactional and transformational leadership

styles.

3. Enrollment management professionals honestly evaluated their leadership style.

4. Enrollment management professionals exhibit either transactional or

transformational leadership behavior.

14

Definition of Terms

This study used the following terms in the literature review, interpretation of the

data, and in concluding remarks. The terms were defined in relation to the nature of this

study.

Enrollment Management – “An organizational concept and a systematic set of

activities designed to enable educational institutions to exert more influence over their

student enrollments. Organized by strategic planning and supported by institutional

research, enrollment management activities concern student college choice, transition to

college, student attrition and retention, and student outcomes” (Hossler and Bean as cited

in Henderson, 2001, p. 15).

Enrollment Manager – An individual who effectively and efficiently integrates

often disparate functions in an effort to influence enrollment (Black, 2001; Dennis,

1998).

Leadership – “The process of influencing the activities of an organized group in

its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement” (Stogdill, 1974, p. 57).

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) – a survey instrument to measure

leadership style.

Transactional Leadership – Leadership that is based on exchange. Reward or

punishment is used as incentive to manipulate followers into performing (Avolio & Bass,

2002).

15

Transformational Leadership – “The ability to influence values, attitudes, beliefs,

and behaviors of others by working with and through them to accomplish the college’s

mission and purpose” (Roueche, Baker, & Rose, 1989, p. 11).

Conclusion

The underlying premise of this study involved the evaluation of leadership styles

of enrollment managers. This chapter provides an introduction to enrollment

management, explains its importance in maintaining an appropriate student enrollment,

and argues the necessity of employing enrollment managers who are also talented

leaders. The MLQ was used to survey participants regarding leadership style; subsequent

data analyses led to an improved understanding of leadership styles of enrollment

management professionals.

Organization of Remaining Chapters

Chapter II includes a literature review of enrollment management and leadership

theories and styles. Chapter III explains the research methodology used to conduct the

study, including an explanation of the survey instrument. Chapter IV includes survey

results and data analyses. Chapter V provides a summary of the study, conclusions, and

suggestions for further study.

16

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Enrollment Management

During the last twenty-five years, reductions in the number of graduating high

school seniors and an erosion of trust in all types of public entities have posed challenges

for higher education (Penn, 1999). This decline in prospective students spurred

competition among institutions, while the call for greater accountability has increased the

burden of state and federal reporting.

“Declining enrollments are second only to declining appropriations as the reason

for colleges’ and universities’ financial problems” (Penn, 1999, p. 2). If administrators

are to manage enrollment and curtail attrition, they must understand the current student

population and use research to project future enrollments (Hossler & Hoezee, 2002). An

enrollment management plan that is creative, innovative, and concise can support

institutional efforts to manage student enrollment.

During the late 1970s, John Maguire and Frank Campanella of Boston College are

credited with coining the term enrollment management. In an effort to combat declining

enrollments and retention rates at Boston College, Campanella (as cited in Henderson,

2001) approached colleagues with the concept of enrollment management. Campanella

wrote, “I am convinced that enrollment management will shortly be the ‘name of the

game.’ I am equally convinced that it will require a coordinated and integrated effort of

the highest order” (Henderson, 2001, p. 6).

17

Crockett (2003) explains that enrollment management is more than granting

admission to students. Enrollment management has expanded from primarily facilitating

enrollment, to include marketing, recruitment, financial aid, advising, registration,

retention, and even instruction. Don Hossler as cited in Henderson (2001) believes that

enrollment management is “reaching its adolescence as an industry” (p. 3). According to

Owens (2001), the evolution of enrollment management has been one of the most

significant developments in the administration of higher education. Fewer students

graduating from secondary schools caused concern among private institutions, which

were the first to use enrollment management as a way to attract and retain new students

(Owens, 2001). Soon after, public universities, colleges, and community colleges

embraced the enrollment management concept as strategy of competing with other

institutions, and enrolling and retaining a desired student population. Enrollment

management is no longer just the responsibility of a few, but a campus-wide endeavor.

Institutions must develop an evolving, integrated plan to attract and retain students.

Enrollment Management Defined

Enrollment management has been a viable approach to managing enrollment for

about thirty years. Because educators were unsuccessful in reversing enrollment declines

of the 1970’s, they began to seriously consider enrollment management (Dixon, 1995).

“Enrollment management is a process that brings together often disparate functions

having to do with recruiting, funding, tracking, retaining, and replacing students as they

move toward, within, and away from the university” (Henderson, 2001, p. 7). Enrollment

18

management, as defined by Crockett (2003), is a systematic and integrated approach to

achieving enrollment goals by exerting control over factors that shape the size and

characteristics of the student body. Dennis (1998) defines enrollment management as

understanding why students enroll or withdraw, knowing how students finance

educational expenses, connecting enrollment management with retention, and strategic

planning to enable the institution to meet future enrollment and revenue requirements.

Enrollment management is most likely to succeed when the president supports the

endeavor and faculty are sympathetic and involved. Because an enrollment management

plan encompasses many functions of the college, it will have greater success if it receives

full administrative support (Dolence, 1993). The president of the campus must not only

endorse the enrollment management program verbally, but also allocate sufficient

funding (Penn, 1999). Successful implementation of the plan requires a concerted effort

that receives campus-wide support (Dolence, 1993). Bradica (2001) cautions enrollment

managers that interdependence may be necessary to attain goals. Because not all

personnel may cooperate in implementing the plan, it is necessary for the enrollment

manager to be able to influence others. Cross training and communication may aid this

process.

Responsibilities of Enrollment Management

An effective enrollment manager must have a global perspective of the institution.

Additionally, those who practice enrollment management must be well versed in state

and federal legislation, funding formulas and the general state of higher education.

19

Furthermore, these individuals must be able to gain support of administration and faculty

and secure necessary resources to fund the effort. Penn (1999) believes the success of a

plan may rest with the enrollment manager’s ability to communicate, persuade, and

collaborate with others. “Enrollment management changes the way colleges and

universities approach the business of higher education” (Penn, 1999, p. 3). With

appropriate strategic planning, assessment, fiscal and personnel resources, and trained

professionals, enrollment management helps postsecondary institutions meet challenges

of increased competition and reduced funding. Institutions with a viable enrollment

management program report greater success in meeting goals.

As competition for students becomes stronger, the role of the enrollment manager

will continue to increase in importance. Few colleges can afford to operate status quo,

but must aggressively recruit and retain students. An effective enrollment manager, by

anticipating change and planning appropriately, can help an institution achieve and

maintain enrollment goals. Although application of enrollment management plans varies,

the basic need to manage enrollment from initial contact through graduation has become

evident.

Dixon (1995) as cited in Penn (1999) posits that enrollment management has four

objectives: (a) to define the mission, characteristics, and promote the institution to

appropriate markets; (b) secure campus-wide participation and support of enrollment

management activities; (c) to strategically award financial aid to maximize enrollment;

and (d) to designate sufficient personnel, fiscal, and technical resources to the enrollment

management plan. An integrated enrollment management plan requires new levels of

20

trust and cooperation between participants. Its success rests on sound, ongoing planning

and evaluation based on criteria established in the development phase of the program

(Dolence, 1993).

Enrollment management must be holistic in nature (Dolence, 1993). Faculty play

an important role in enrollment management, and it is a mistake for enrollment

management to ignore this group. Hossler (1986) admits that it would be a grievous

error, and impossible on most campuses, to attempt to dictate policy to faculty. Yet the

faculty has a direct influence on student enrollments in a variety of ways. Student-faculty

interaction has a powerful impact on student persistence (Tinto, 1993). The enrollment

manager must successfully communicate to faculty how they can support the campus

enrollment effort. For example, Dixon (1995) suggests that faculty participate in

enrollment management activities such as phone banks, open house, panel discussions

and workshops, both on and off campus.

Effective enrollment management relies upon a steady flow of information

(Dolence, 1993). For example, developing an enrollment management plan that predicts

future enrollment will assist administration in planning construction, altering the

curriculum, or expanding services (Hossler & Hoezee, 2002). Research is such an

important component that a researcher should be assigned to the enrollment management

team (Dennis, 1998). Enrollment management uses data to support decisions and to

assist with the development of an appropriate plan. Long-range enrollment management

plans must be reconciled with the strategic goals and mission of the institution.

21

Enrollment management has been charged with analyzing, monitoring and

shaping the size and characteristics of the student body (Dennis, 1998). Enrollment

management seeks to improve the quality of services, programs, and student activities.

Students are coming to college campuses with high expectations of receiving a

comprehensive educational experience that is rich in academics and extracurricular

activities. Enrollment management must ensure students’ needs are met within the

context of the institutional culture and mission, otherwise the probability that a student

will depart prior to degree attainment is greatly increased (Crockett, 2003). Educational

institutions must do more than just teach, but also must help students achieve educational

and career goals. Enrollment management is an evolving process that seeks to enhance

not only recruitment, but also retention.

Because enrollment management is paramount to an effective recruitment and

retention initiative, leadership becomes an integral part of successful implementation.

Enrollment managers must be creative “super stars” who are futuristic in thinking and

planning, expect excellence, and utilize a humanistic approach when solving problems

(Dennis, 1998, p. 15). Given the importance of enrollment management to the

maintenance of an organization, the individual selected to lead the enrollment effort must

be energetic, calm during a crisis, a strategic thinker and planner, and able to garner

support and participation from the entire campus.

“Managing enrollments is a way of managing the business of higher education”

(Henderson, 2001, p. 6) and is utilized in many institutions. Enrollment managers know

that to have successful retention rates, the institution must provide superior service and

22

exceed expectations of students and their families. Student needs are more important

than personnel needs, desires, and agendas (Dennis, 1998). Henderson (2001) explains

that enrollment management is more than admitting students, but “encompasses a cradle-

to-endowment mentality that starts with recruitment before students even know they want

to come, flows into retention, and renews itself with satisfied alumni ready to contribute

to the institution” (p. 35).

Leadership

Dwindling resources, declining enrollments, underprepared students, demands for

accountability, competition from other institutions and increased government regulation

are just a few of the issues facing enrollment managers (Anderson, 1997). Leaders are

challenged to create an environment that is good for students, faculty, staff, and the

community. Being an effective leader is no easy task; good leaders must be enthusiastic

about their work and the potential of the institutions that employ them. Furthermore,

good leaders are confident in their judgment and hold themselves and followers to high

expectations (Hoover, 1991).

Early leadership studies focused on traits or personality characteristics as

determinants of effective leadership (Bhal & Ansari, 2000; Bryman, 1986). This research

suggested that leaders are born and not made (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Frederick

Taylor’s rigid scientific management theory was utilized from about 1910 until 1935. It

focused on lowering cost of factory production, increasing efficiency, and was often

referred to at the classical era of organizational theory (Fairholm, 1998; Wallin & Ryan,

23

1994). Effective leadership was associated with effective management (Fairholm, 1998).

The mid 1930s through the 1950s saw human relations infiltrate the world of leadership.

Human and interpersonal factors were introduced into management theories as leaders

sought to boost employee satisfaction, dedication and performance (Wallin & Ryan,

1994).

Behavioral theories began to emerge during World War II as trait research failed

to explain leader effectiveness (Bass, 1990). These studies evaluated behavior rather than

traits of leaders; in other words, “leadership may be defined as the behavior of an

individual while he is involved in directing group activities” (Bass, 1990, p.14). The

1950s and 1960s recognized an effort to combine classical management and human

relations management. Classical management assumes that the average person dislikes

work and will avoid it whenever possible (Wallin & Ryan, 1994). During this era,

researchers also studied how followers perceived leaders. Leadership traits were

influenced by various situations and each called for different responses and actions

(Roueche, Baker & Rose, 1989). Situational theories, or contingency models, followed

trait and behavioral research. The focus of situational theory involved analyzing the

situation in which leadership behavior occurred (Daft, 1999). Transformational

leadership research pursued a new area of study by comparing relation al behavior of

leaders and followers.

Definitions of Leadership

Leadership has many definitions. The similar definitions make it difficult to

differentiate between leadership styles. Therefore, Bass (1990) suggests the meaning of

24

leadership may depend upon the type of institution in which it is found. Leadership is

more than measuring output or enforcing rules; it also involves the development of others

(Fairholm, 1998). “Leadership occurs when one person influences another to work

toward some predetermined objective” (Dessler, 1995, p. 364). Birnbaum (1992) posits

that leadership is more than a measurement of leadership activity, but also includes the

follower’s interpretation of a leader’s behaviors. Hollander (1978), as cited in Bryman

(1986), defined leadership as a process of influence between a leader and followers.

Stogdill (1974) described leadership as “the process of influencing the activities of an

organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement” (p. 57).

Nahavandi (1997) offered the following definition of leadership, “a person who

influences individuals and groups within an organization, helps them in the establishment

of goals, and guides them toward achievement of those goals, thereby allowing them to

be effective” (p. 4).

Despite numerous definitions of leadership, a frequently cited component is the

concept of “influence”. Tannebaum and Massarik (1968) support the notion of influence

when defining leadership as “interpersonal influence exercised in a situation and directed,

through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specialized goal or goals”

(p. 34). Gulley (1960) provided a commonly held view of leadership in stating,

“Leadership… means influencing others within a particular situation and social context in

a way that induces them to follow, to be modified, to be directed” (p.74).

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Trait Theory Early studies analyzed leadership based on hereditary attributes (Bass, 1990) and

compared traits of leaders with those of followers. Trait theory argued that psychological

or physiological characteristics determined leadership style and leaders shaped an

organization according to their ability (Lipham, 1973). By identifying specific traits or

characteristics of leaders, one could distinguish a leader from a follower (Bryman, 1986).

General Archibald Wavell (1941), as cited in Bryman (1986), summed up the foundation

of trait leadership with the following comment, “No amount of learning will make a man

a leader unless he has the natural qualities of one” (p. 18).

Research concerning trait theory concentrated on the following factors:

(a) physical factors such as age, height, weight, physique, health, and appearance;

(b) ability factors such as fluency of speech, tone of voice, academic performance,

intelligence, judgment and decision, insight, and initiative; and (c) personality features

such as integrity, emotional control, self confidence, and popularity (Bass, 1990; Bryman

1986). According to this theory, an individual must possess these traits or characteristics

in order to assume leadership.

Seeking to ascertain if trait theory accurately predicted leadership potential,

Stogdill (1948) reviewed 124 studies conducted between 1904 and 1947 and concluded

that specific traits and characteristics were not responsible for the emergence of

leadership. Stogdill’s (1948) summary of the review:

A person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession of some combination of traits, but the patterns of personal characteristics of the

26

leader must bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics, activities, and goals of the followers. (p. 64)

Mann (1959) also reviewed trait studies, and like Stogdill, reported that the foundation of

trait theory lacked validity. Traits reported as being crucial to effective leadership in one

study were not validated in others.

Stogdill (1974) completed a second review of trait leadership research that

included an additional 163 studies that were conducted from 1949 to 1970. This review

identified factors associated with energy, age, status, mobility, education and intelligence

as being able to separate effective leaders from ineffective leaders. According to Stogdill

(1974), improved measurement techniques and methodology lead to the identification of

these traits. However, Stogdill (1974) surmised that trait theory research produced

confusing results because a combination of traits proved effective in some groups of

leaders, while they were ineffective in others. Therefore, Stogdill concluded that

leadership requires more than just the study of people, but also the study of situations.

Behavioral Theory More than fifty years of study failed to produce a single personality trait or quality

that accurately predicted leadership (Jennings, 1961). Failure of the trait theory led to

further research that focused on behavioral styles of leadership.

Behavioral theories emerged during World War II because trait research had

failed to explain leader effectiveness (Bryman, 1986). Behavioral leadership proposed

27

that behavior of the leader impacted work and follower effectiveness. This era of

research focused on leadership behavior as a means of identifying the best way to lead.

Iowa State University Studies

Studies conducted during the 1930s at Iowa State University identified three

leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire (Bryman, 1986). According to

Daft (1999) “an autocratic leader is one who tends to centralize authority and derive

power from position, control of rewards, and coercions. A democratic leader delegates

authority to others, encourages participation, relies on subordinates’ knowledge for

completion of tasks, and depends on subordinate respect for influence” (p. 69). Laissez-

faire is the absence or avoidance of leadership and has been labeled the most ineffective

style (Bass, 1990; Bryman, 1986).

Ohio State Leadership Studies

The Ohio State studies were viewed as influential because the research focused on

activities of leaders, instead of traits (Bryman, 1986). Through this research, the

Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire was developed. The instrument

measured two basic dimensions of leader behavior, consideration and structure:

1. Consideration describes leadership behaviors such as friendship, trust, and mutual

respect (Bass, 1990). The leader is concerned for the welfare of followers and

maintains an approachable demeanor.

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2. Initiating structure solidifies the roles of the leader and followers and relates to

patterns of organization, communication, and procedural methods. Rules are

established that govern follower performance (Bass, 1990).

The two dimensions of leadership were mutually inclusive and together created four

types of leadership. Table 2.1 identifies the four combinations of leadership behavior

describe in the Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire.

Table 2.1: Ohio State Leadership Study Quadrants

Quadrant I High consideration (+)

High initiating structure (+)I = (+,+)

Quadrant II Low consideration (-)

High initiating structure (+) II= (-,+)

Quadrant III Low consideration (-)

Low initiating structure (-) III = (-,-)

Quadrant IV High consideration (+)

Low initiating structure (-) IV = (+,-)

Note. From “Leadership Behavior: Its Description and Measurement,” by R.M. Stogdill and A.E. Coons, 1957, (Eds.). Research Monograph 88. (Columbus: Bureau of Business Research, The Ohio State University, 1957).

Quadrant I became the focus of researchers as the combination of high

consideration and structural qualities was thought to be the most advantageous.

However, these pursuits soon proved disappointing as the contingency aspect of the

model cancels the success of the style and subsequent development of a universal

leadership style. Farris and Lim (1969) as cited in Bass (1974) conducted a correlation

study of leadership behavior and employee competency and concluded that the follower’s

level of competence was influential in the leader’s choice of quadrant. Leaders of more

competent employees more frequently utilized a style that emphasized consideration.

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University of Michigan Studies

Leadership research during the 1940s conducted at the University of Michigan

compared the behavior of effective leaders with ineffective leaders (Leftwich, 2001).

These studies resulted in the development of two types of leadership behavior (Bryman,

1986). Employee-centered leaders focus on the individual needs of followers, while job-

centered leaders direct activities toward efficiency by focusing on reaching task goals and

facilitating the structure of tasks (Leftwich, 2001). Although the employee-centered and

job-centered styles of leadership correspond to the Ohio State studies concepts of

consideration and initiating structure, the Michigan studies concluded that leaders used

one type of leadership and did not change styles depending on employee competency.

Employee-centered and job-centered leadership styles are reportedly opposing concepts.

They also found that employee-centered leaders were more productive (Megginson, et al.,

1989).

The following Figure 2.1 denotes strong effects as indicated by the solid lines;

weaker effects are denoted with the use of the broken line. Evaluation of this figure

demonstrates that managerial leadership is affected by the climate of an organization,

which includes decision-making procedures, conflict resolution, communication, and

concern for employees (Bryman, 1986).

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Managerial Leadership

Organizational Group Climate Process

Peer Leadership

Note. From “Relations among four social psychological aspects of organizations,” by J.L. Franklin, Administrative Science Quarterly, 20, September 1975.

Figure 2.1. Managerial Leadership

Managerial Grid The Managerial Grid, conceived by Blake & Mouton (1964) and reported in

Bryman (1986), is an approach to organizational development and is one of the best

known in the literature. The foundation of the theory is a contrast between two

approaches to the managerial role: (a) concern for production and (b) concern for people

(Bryman, 1986). Blake and Mouton believe that both concerns are essential ingredients

of effective management and each is conceptualized as a nine-point scale, thus producing

eighty-one possible combinations of managerial behavior.

The following scale Figure 2.2 (Bryman, 1986, p. 76), as derived from Blake and

Mouton (1964), plots the Managerial Grid on a scale from one to nine and divides them

into quadrants.

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The Managerial Grid Concern 9 For People 5 1 1 5 9

Concern For Production

Note. From Leadership and Organizations (p. 73), by A. Bryman, 1986, London:

Routledge & Kegan Paul. Figure 2.2. Managerial Grid

The grid is composed of five categories that are based on concern for production

and concern for people (Bryman, 1986). The categories are:

1. Impoverished management is characterized by low scores on both dimensions, a

context in which conflict is likely. The leader maintains low involvement with

people and minimal communication.

2. Country club management has a high concern for people and a low concern for

production. Emphasis is on maintaining friendly relationships within a

1,9

9,9

1,1

9,1

5,5

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harmonious work environment.

3. Task management is concerned with production and views employees as suppliers

of labor who must be controlled and directed.

4. Middle-of-the-road management is concerned with both people and production; it

is possible to balance work and morale.

5. Team management promotes a high degree of concern for both people and

production. Followers are involved in the planning and execution of work.

Contingency Theories

“Discouraged by the sparse yield of the trait and behavioral approaches, the field

of leadership was ready for a new paradigm” (Chemers, 1997, p. 28). Contingency

models of leadership effectiveness represented a new era of study in the field of

leadership research. Contingency theories try to predict which types of leadership style

will be most effective in different types of situations (Holda, 1995). Contingency

approaches hypothesize that there are no universally acceptable styles of leadership. A

particular leadership style may prove valid in one situation, yet ineffective in another.

Therefore, discrete factors in the situation influence leadership. “Leadership must change

with the situation – or the situation must change to accommodate the kind of leadership

exercised” (Fairholm, 1998, p. 53). Bryman (1986) expresses the basic structure of the

contingency approach Figure 2.3.

33

Note. From Leadership and Organizations (p. 126), by A. Bryman, 1986, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Figure 2.3. Contingency Leadership Model

The models of contingency theory discussed include Fiedler’s Contingency

Model, House and Mitchell’s path-goal theory, Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational

Leadership theory, and Vroom and Yetton’s contingency model.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Fiedler developed the first contingency approach to study leadership. Fiedler

developed a personality measure, the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale; to identify

leadership styles (Holda, 1995). The LPC instrument measured esteem for the leader’s

least preferred co-worker and the score was used to generalize leadership style. The LPC

Situational Factors

Leadership Style/Behavior

Outcomes (e.g. group performance, subordinates satisfaction)

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score measures the degree of motivation exerted by a leader. Task oriented leaders

earned lower LPC scores while relationship oriented leaders earned high scores.

Fiedler (1967) stated that LPC leaders encourage superior performance from their

followers in some circumstances, but in other contexts, low LPC leaders will do better.

“In other words, Fiedler maintains that the type of leader required in order for group

performance to be enhanced is situationally contingent” (Bryman, 1986, p. 128).

Bass (1990) reports Fiedler developed three leadership factors, which indicated a

leader’s ability to influence followers. They are: (a) leader-member relations, which

refers to the quality of the relationship between the leader and followers; (b) task

structure refers to the clarity of followers’ tasks; and (c) position power corresponds with

the leader’s ability to issue rewards and/or punishments accordingly.

Results from Fiedler’s research indicated that task-oriented leaders are more

effective in high-control and low-control situations, and that relationship-oriented leaders

are more effective in moderate-control situations. Task-oriented leaders perform better in

favorable situations “because everyone gets along, the task is clear, and the leader has

power; all that is needed is for someone to take charge and provide direction” (Daft,

1999, p. 96). Conditions unfavorable to the task-oriented leader require high levels of

structure and task direction. The relationship-oriented leader performs better in favorable

situations because human relations skills are important in achieving high group

performance in these situations.

Fiedler (1967) discovered that various combinations of the three contingency

factors actually defined which leadership style was most effective in eight different

35

situations as identified in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Situational Leadership in Eight Octants

LEADER-MEMBER

RELATIONS

TASK STRUCTURE

POSITION POWER

FAVORABLE LEADERSHIP STYLE

Octant I Good Structured Strong Task Oriented Octant II Good Structured Weak Task Oriented Octant III Good Unstructured Strong Task Oriented Octant IV Good Unstructured Weak Relationship OrientedOctant V Poor Structured Strong Relationship OrientedOctant VI Poor Structured Weak Relationship OrientedOctant VII Poor Unstructured Strong Relationship OrientedOctant VIII Poor Unstructured Weak Task Oriented

Note. Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), p. 142. Chemers (1997) notes a weakness of Fiedler’s model is its failure to describe or

directly analyze the processes by which a leader’s motivational orientation affects group

processes and outcomes. While the model does predict leadership effectiveness, it does

not delineate the processes that produce effective leader performance.

House and Mitchell Path-Goal Theory

The path-goal theory developed by House in 1971 and refined in 1974 by House

and Mitchell, “argued that motivation to engage in a behavior was a function of the

product of the person’s perception of the probability that the behavior would lead to a

goal and the perceived importance of the goal” (Chemers, 1997, p. 44). The leader can

influence subordinates’ perceptions of work and the paths to attaining stated goals

(Holda, 1995). The path-goal theory identifies variables that define follower motivation.

36

Evans (1970), as cited in Chemers (1997), reasoned that leadership behaviors did not

always have the same effects on group outcomes such as productivity because they did

not always have the same effects on path-goal perceptions and that path-goal perceptions

were determinants of leader behaviors such as initiation of structure and consideration.

Chemers (1997) summarized the House & Mitchell leadership theories into four

categories: (a) Instrumental Leadership requires the leader to clarify what is expected of

subordinates, rules and procedures, and how to complete tasks; (b) Supportive Leadership

demonstrates a leader’s concern for welfare of subordinates; (c) Participative Leadership

involves collaborative decision making between the leader and subordinates; and

(d) Achievement-Oriented Leadership sets ambitious goals for subordinates and

communicates a high level of confidence in their ability to complete tasks. The effective

leader used a combination of the above styles to meet the needs of the followers, which in

turn increased productivity.

According to House (1971), effective leaders provided subordinates with the

guidance and rewards necessary for satisfaction and performance. A leader is responsible

for helping subordinates determine which path will lead to goal achievement and

subsequent attainment of rewards. Successful ventures increase the confidence level of

subordinates, pique their interest, and increase their efforts to achieve goals (Leftwich,

2001). An effective leader increased follower rewards for goal attainment and

communicated an avenue to achieve these rewards by clarifying or reducing obstacles

and increasing opportunities for personal satisfaction (Bass, 1990).

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Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model

Hersey and Blanchard, as cited in Bass (1990), proposed a leadership model based

on their understanding of prior empirical research. The propositions were: (a) leadership

styles vary among individuals; (b) some leaders initiate structure to accomplish tasks,

others maintain personal relationships, while still others do nothing; (c) effective

leadership style depends on the situation; (d) the best attitudinal style is high-task and

high-relations oriented, (e) the tasks and maturity level of the follower will dictate the

most effective leadership style; and (f) maturity of the follower is a product of the

individual’s level of education, prior training, or age. This leadership theory attempts to

understand the relationships between effective leadership styles and follower maturity.

Effective leadership is demonstrated when the leader chooses a behavior that coincides

with the maturity level of followers (Bass, 1990).

Hersey and Blanchard (1977) attempted to match four leadership patterns (a) task

oriented, (b) dynamic, (c) relations oriented, and (d) delegating, with four levels of

maturity (a) low, (b) moderately low, (c) moderately high, and (d) high. Maturity was

identified as the most significant variable in determining leadership style. Follower

maturity is responsible for the relationship between leader behavior and leader

effectiveness. Chemers (1997) goes on to explain that the leader must decide the

maturity level of each follower before implementing a specific leadership style. Hersey

and Blanchard (1977) also posit that leadership styles may be negotiated between the

leader and follower; as follower maturity improves, leaders provide greater freedom. The

38

main contribution of the Situational Leadership Model approach is that it suggests leaders

should be flexible in their behavior (Chemers, 1997).

Vroom and Yetton

Vroom and Yetton (1973) focused their research on decision-making rather than

styles of leadership (Holda, 1995). This model seeks to enhance the decision-making

ability of the leader and the follower’s acceptance of those decisions. Situational factors

impose either an autocratic or participative leadership approach (Chemers, 1997). The

following levels of participation are proposed: (a) A = autocratic process, (b) C =

consultative process and (c) G = group decision-making. The approaches to leadership

are on a continuum, with AI and GII representing the extremes. The following table

categorizes the decision processes.

Table 2.3: Taxonomy of decision processes in the Vroom-Yetton model

AI Solve problems or make decisions based on available information.

AII Obtain information from subordinates, but the leader makes the decision without consulting followers.

CI Solicit ideas from subordinates individually and then the leader makes a decision.

Although the leader determines the solution, subordinates are influential in the process.

CII Solicit ideas from a group of subordinates and then the leader makes a decision.

Although the leader determines the solution, subordinates are influential in the process.

GII The leader shares the problem with the group of subordinates. Collaborative

decision-making process involves the leader and subordinates.

Note: Vroom & Jago, “On the validity of the Vroom-Yetton model”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, (p. 152).

39

Vroom and Jago (1974), as cited in Bass (1990), added another approach – “DI”,

referring to “delegation”. The leader delegates a problem to a follower, provides

pertinent information for decision-making and then supports the follower’s decision. AI

and AII are directive, CI and CII are consultative, GI and GII are participative, and DI

involves delegation (Bass, 1990). Chemers (1997) explains the leader must evaluate each

of these choices and select the appropriate approach for the current situation. Bass

(1990) suggests the following variables may influence the leader’s choice of leadership

style: (a) quality requirement of the solution, (b) sufficient information to allow the

leader to make an informed decision, (c) structure of the problem, (d) follower

acceptance important to implementation, (e) follower support of independent decision

making, (f) follower support of organizational goals, and (g) the probability of conflict

among followers.

Transactional Leadership

Burns (1978) as cited in Roueche, Baker, & Rose (1989) defines transactional

leadership as, “one person taking the initiative in making contact with another for the

purpose of an exchange of valued things, such as paying wages to employees for their

efforts and skills” (p.4). Transactional leadership is structured and concerned with

maintaining efficiency and supports the use of power to influence followers to complete

transactions. Avolio & Yammarino (2002) define transactional leadership as being

characterized by exchanges and self-interest and report leaders who do not use

40

transforming leadership must influence followers through rewards and sanctions.

Transactional leadership requires agreement between the leader and the follower

on the need to attain a specific goal. To facilitate goal achievement, objectives are

developed, and the follower understands what is necessary to reap the reward or

punishment (Roueche, Baker, & Rose, 1989). Thus, transactional leadership involves

either positive or negative exchanges, depending on the follower’s performance (Bass &

Avolio, 1994). Once the exchange is completed, there is no further need to interact

unless another process of contingent reward is introduced (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002;

Baker, 1992).

Avolio (1999) and Avolio & Bass (2002) identify three components of

transactional leadership. They are:

1. Contingent reward involves an exchange. The leader rewards followers upon

successful completion of tasks or assignments.

2. Management-by-Exception involves corrective action. While it may not be as

effective as other leadership styles, it is often necessary. When a leader monitors

performance and takes corrective action as needed, active management is being

utilized. However, if the leader waits until a mistake occurs and then corrects,

passive management is being utilized.

3. Laissez-Faire is the avoidance or absence of leadership. Not only is it deemed the

most inactive, but also the most ineffective.

Transactional leadership has also been referred to as scientific leadership, which

assumes the leader has control over available rewards. Followers, who are in pursuit of

41

the rewards, allow leaders to exert control and influence (Bottery, 2001). Burns (1978)

argues that this working relationship is not permanent, as the followers and leaders are

not jointly seeking a common goal. Although transactional leadership dominated

research in the 1960s, Sergiovanni (1992) suggests that it may no longer be viewed as the

preferred leadership style because it limits human potential.

Transformational Leadership

Leadership theories have evolved from trait theory, through behavioral and

situational studies, to transformational (Krill, Carter, Williams, 1997). Focus changed

from the leader’s attributes and actions to an assessment of the relationship between the

leader and follower.

Transformation leadership research emerged in the late 1970s when Burns (1978)

conducted a comprehensive study of leadership and categorized leaders as either

transactional or transformational (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002). Transformational

leadership, which is an expansion of transactional leadership, does not place major

emphasis on exchanges or rewards within the system. Instead, transformational

leadership challenges followers to disregard self-interests and encourages pursuit of

institutional goals, interests of the group, and moves followers gradually from concerns

for exchange to concerns for achievement and growth (Bass & Avolio, 1994).

Transformational leadership is “the development of a relationship of mutual

needs, aspirations, and values in which the leader looks for potential motives in

42

followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs and engages the full person of the follower”

(Burns, 1978, p. 4). Bottery (2001) deemed transformational leadership as having greater

value than its transactional counterpart. Bass (1985) later suggested that both

transactional and transformational leadership styles were needed for effective leadership.

Fairholm (1998) credits transformational leaders with transforming themselves,

followers, and the organization. Tichy and Devanna (1996) as cited in Krill, et al. (1997)

describe transforming leaders as change agents because of their ability to translate their

dream for the organization into a vision shared by followers. Transformational

leadership tries to build confidence in followers, thereby converting them into leaders.

Transformational leadership relies on the ability of the leader to inspire followers

through the creation and dissemination of a vision (Bottery, 2001). The leader must

communicate the vision to followers and engage them in pursuit of an objective. Gronn

(1997) explains transformational leaders create learning opportunities for followers and

empowers them to solve problems as a means of fostering leadership skills.

Avolio & Yammarino (2002) explain that transformation leaders focus on vision,

ideals, values, risk and change. “Transformational leadership goes beyond the attempts

of some leaders to satisfy the current needs of followers by focusing on transactions or

exchanges through contingent reward behavior” (Bass & Avolio, 1994, p. 27). By

recognizing needs in followers, transformational leaders seek to engage the full person by

encouraging the pursuit of higher-order needs (Roueche, Baker & Rose, 1989).

Followers and leaders unite to achieve a common goal, which places emphasis on

institutional goals and not personal agendas (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002).

43

Transforming leaders are known for their ability to motivate and energize

followers into a common vision that identifies lofty goals for the organization (Krill, et.

al., 1997). The relationship between a transformational leader and followers encourages

performance that exceeds expectations of all parties (Burns, 1978; Day, Zaccaro, &

Halpin, 2004). Transformational leaders are able to motivate followers to do more than

originally planned and often even more than they thought possible.

Burns (1978) as cited in Avolio and Yammarino (2002) describes

transformational leadership as a moral leadership theory. Transformational leaders care

about their followers and understand the impact of their actions on the group.

Transformational leaders seek the development of followers who are motivated by

intrinsic values and consequently more attached to the leader’s mission (Avolio &

Yammarino, 2002). “True transformation leadership occurs when followers adopt

institutional objectives as part of their own self-concept and pursue their own personal

fulfillment by achieving collective purposes” (Chemers, 1997, p. 158).

Full-Range Leadership Theory

The most recent model of transformational leadership is the full range theory.

This model has the potential to explain leadership and its multidimensional nature and to

empirically measure behaviors that can be used to predict leadership outcomes

(Antonakis & House, 2002). The full-range model has been deemed more successful in

determining effective leadership because it is an integrative theory that (a) has been

widely accepted in leadership literatures, (b) is supported by empirical research, and (c) is

44

integrative. Bass (1985) included transformational leadership in his Full-Range

leadership model. Expanding Burns’ leadership theory, Bass renewed focus on “high

impact leadership” (Avolio, 2004, p. 72). While Bass (1985) posits that transactional

leadership is important to effective leadership, leaders should utilize both

transformational and transactional behaviors (Dum Dum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002). Bass

argues that transactional leadership is effective in the designation of objectives and

measurement of achievement; however, this style of leadership in itself is limiting.

Transformational leadership is necessary to provide a higher meaning and purpose

(Antonakis & House, 2002).

Birnbaum (1992) suggests that effective leaders are not purely transactional or

transformational, but blend both styles. Bass and Avolio (1994) developed the Front

Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), which evolved from Bass’

transactional/transformational theory (Antonakis & House, 2002). The FRLT consists of

nine factors that are categorized into three leadership styles: (a) transformation

(b) transactional, and (c) laissez-faire leadership.

Transformational leaders encourage superior results from followers by using a full

range of leadership, which is composed of one or more of the following components or

behaviors (Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett & McCormick, 2004). Transformational

leadership includes the following five factors:

1. Idealized influence (attributed), also referred to as attributed charisma, describes

followers’ perception of the leader’s power, confidence, and inspirational ideals.

45

This emotional aspect of leadership is credited with shifting follower self-interest

to a global perspective that places the welfare of the organization first.

2. Idealized influence (behaviors), also referred to as behavioral charisma, includes

leader behaviors that reveal the leader’s values and beliefs, ethical and moral

values, and vision. This type of leader models appropriate behavior for followers.

Power is used only when necessary and never for personal gain.

3. Inspirational motivation encourages followers to excel. Followers are motivated

to achieve objectives that have previously been thought unattainable. The leader

raises expectations and communicates confidence in followers that encourages the

achievement of ambitious goals. Enthusiasm and optimism are results of this

leadership behavior.

4. Intellectual stimulation encourages followers to question assumptions, invites

creative solutions to problems, and challenges the status quo. Leaders encourage

creative and innovative thinking and reframe problems in order to gain new

perspectives. Furthermore, the leader does not publicly criticize followers’

mistakes. Followers are encouraged to try new approaches and have the right to

fail.

5. Individualized consideration refers to leaders who act as mentors and pay

attention to individual needs for growth and achievement. The leader encourages

followers to strive for higher levels of attainment by pursuing challenges. This

leader listens, delegates tasks as a means of developing followers, and offers

direction or support as needed.

46

Transactional leadership, the second category of the FRLT, includes the following

three factors:

1. Contingent reward is based on exchange. This method of leadership clarifies

roles of followers and the rewards that will be issued for desired outcomes. This

style is effective, but to a lesser degree than transformational leadership.

2. Management-by-exception (active) is a corrective or negative transaction and

occurs when the follower deviates from the norm. The leader actively monitors

follower performance and takes corrective action when a mistake occurs.

3. Management-by-exception (passive) is similar to management-by-exception

(active); however, passive leaders do not actively monitor performance, but

instead wait until deviations occur and then implement a corrective action.

Laissez-faire leadership, the third category in FRLT, describes the absence of

leadership. This type of leader avoids making decisions and is the most inactive form of

leadership (Antonakis & House, 2002), and has not been credited with encouraging any

type of transaction.

Leadership Models Sergiovanni (1992) discusses four leadership models. However, he notes it may

be difficult for leaders to choose one model and follow it as prescribed. Combining

aspects from the different models may create a more effective theory.

1. Psychological Theory uses motivation and human relations skills. Followers, in

an effort to collect rewards, behave appropriately. Followers respond as required

47

as long as rewards are available; however, performance ceases when rewards are

no longer forthcoming. This theory decreases follower involvement in daily

operation and narrows performance.

2. Technical-Rational Theory relies on logic and scientific research. This theory

does not place importance on values, preferences or beliefs. Empirical research

dictates the best leadership practice or method. Facts, objectives, and evidence

are used to make decisions.

3. Professional Theory is based on the leader’s knowledge and personal expertise.

Knowledge is used to inform, not prescribe practice, and is not considered

privileged. Leaders communicate expectations to followers and acceptable

methods of achieving goals. This theory encourages expanded follower

performance as they gain professional knowledge through experience.

4. Moral Theory expects followers to respond to shared commitments and promotes

interdependence. Shared ideas and values create obligations and duties in the

workplace. This theory allows the leader to rely on followers to complete

assignments and obligations and to conform to professional and community

values. Moral leadership promotes collective endeavors and enhances

performance.

Sergiovanni (1992) argues that professional and moral theories should form the

foundation for effective leadership, with psychological and technical-rational theories

offering support.

48

Conclusion

Despite the volume of literature on leadership theory, specific studies assessing

the leadership styles of enrollment managers were not identified. Fairholm (1998)

believes understanding leadership “is the single most important intellectual task of this

generation, and leading is the most needed skill” (p. xiii). Although enrollment

management is an established concept in most educational institutions and is responsible

for managing student enrollments, little is known about the individuals elected to lead

these efforts. This study will contribute to the body of literature and advance the

understanding of leadership styles of enrollment management professionals.

49

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to identify leadership styles of enrollment

managers. Furthermore, the leadership style of the enrollment manager was compared to

the type of employing institution and the participant’s gender, level of education, and

number of years of supervisory experience. This chapter identifies participants, survey

instrumentation, and procedures for data collection and analysis.

Participants

Participants were enrollment management professionals employed by

postsecondary institutions within the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida,

Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina,

Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. Participants were selected based on their job title and

their job functions. Individuals who held titles that contained the word enrollment and

maintained responsibility for undergraduate admissions and financial aid were selected

for participation.

To ensure continuity between the job functions of participants, the study was

limited to enrollment managers who supervised both undergraduate admissions and

financial aid. Of 700 higher education institutions surveyed, approximately 94 percent of

enrollment management professionals supervised undergraduate admissions and

77 percent supervised financial aid (Bodfish, 2002; Huddleston & Rumbough, 1997).

50

Because these two areas were most frequently cited as functions of enrollment

management, they served as selection criterion that allowed for the evaluation of

leadership style of this study population. By limiting the study to enrollment managers

who met the selection criteria, individuals with comparable responsibilities were

evaluated and included in the study. Although this study identified subjects by these

selections criteria, it should be noted that most enrollment management models also

encompassed other functions, such as advising, recruiting, marketing and retention.

Instrumentation

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5X – Short (Revised),

developed by Bass and Avolio, is designed to measure transactional and transformational

leadership styles and was used to categorize participants. The MLQ 5X has been

investigated and shown to have excellent internal consistency, reliability, and construct

validity (Bass & Avolio, 1993). The MLQ 5X is a self-administered questionnaire that

consists of 45 items. The items are individually measured on 5-point, Likert-type, ordinal

scale (0 = not at all to 4 = frequently, if not always). The MLQ 5X items relate to nine

latent constructs of leadership: idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence

(behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration,

contingent reward, management-by-exception (active), management-by-exception

(passive), and laissez-faire leadership. The nine factors are defined below.

1. Idealized Influence (Attributed) – Followers’ perception of the leader’s power,

confidence, and inspirational ideals. This emotional aspect of leadership is

51

credited with shifting follower self-interest to a global perspective that places the

welfare of the organization first (Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett &

McCormick, 2004).

2. Idealized Influence (Behavior) – Behaviors that reveal the leader’s values and

beliefs, ethical and moral values, and vision. This type of leader models

appropriate behavior for followers. Power is used only when necessary and never

for personal gain (Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett & McCormick, 2004).

3. Inspirational Motivation – “Provides followers with a clear sense of purpose that

is energizing; a role model for ethical conduct which builds identification with the

leader and his/her articulated vision” (Bass & Avolio, 2004, p. 50).

4. Intellectual Stimulation – Encourages followers to question the tried and true

ways of solving problems and persuades them to question the methods they use to

develop such skills (Bass & Avolio, 2004, p. 50). The leader does not publicly

criticize followers’ mistakes. Followers are encouraged to try new approaches

and have the right to fail (Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett & McCormick,

2004).

5. Individualized Consideration – Leaders act as mentors and pay attention to

individual needs for growth and achievement (Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett

& McCormick, 2004) and focus “on understanding the needs of each follower and

works continually to get them to develop to their full potential” (Bass & Avolio,

2004, p. 50).

52

6. Contingent Reward – “Clarifies what is expected from followers and what they

will receive if they meet expected levels of performance” (Bass & Avolio, 2004,

p. 50).

7. Management-by-Exception (Active) – This corrective, or negative transaction

occurs when the follower deviates from the norm. The leader actively monitors

performance and takes corrective action when a follower makes a mistake

(Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett & McCormick, 2004).

8. Management-by-Exception (Passive) – Inactive monitoring of performance. The

leader waits until deviations occur and then implements a corrective action

(Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett & McCormick, 2004).

9. Passive Avoidant – Tends to react only after problems have become serious. This

type of leadership factor is associated with the avoidance of corrective action and

limited decision-making ability (Bass & Avolio, 2004).

The factors idealized influence (attributed and behavioral), inspirational,

intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration characterize transformational

leadership. Contingent reward, management-by-exception (active and passive), and

passive avoidant are associated with transactional leadership (Bass & Avolio, 2004).

The current version of the MLQ 5X has been translated into Spanish, Portuguese,

Italian, French German, Norwegian, Swedish, Hebrew, Turkish, Arabic, Chinese, Thai,

and Korean for use in various assessment and training research projects (Bass & Avolio,

2004).

53

Validity

The leadership constructs with respect to the relationship with performance have

been confirmed in meta-analyses conducted by several researchers (Bass & Avolio, 2000;

Catanyag, 1995; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Lowe, et al., 1996; Molero & Morales, 1994).

Transformational leadership is most highly correlated with effectiveness followed by

transactional and passive styles of leadership. The meta-analyses confirmed the

relationship between transformational leadership and objectively measured performance

was stronger and more positive than the transactional styles of leadership (Bass &

Avolio, 2004; Dum Dum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Fuller, Patterson, Hester & Stringer,

1996; Gasper, 1992; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). Additionally,

Antonakis, Avolio, and Sivasubramaniam (2003) examined the validity of the MLQ 5X

and found the instrument to be valid in measuring leadership styles of both male and

female leaders. The MLQ 5X uses factor analysis to define constructs of

transformational and transactional leadership and form a model for understanding the

effects of leadership (Barnett & McCormick, 2004).

The MLQ 5X has been researched, validated, and used in more than 300 research

programs, dissertations and theses (Bass & Avolio, 2004). Because the MLQ 5X has

been widely used and validated, it is not necessary to pilot-test the instrument. Lowe,

Kroeck, and Sivasubramaniam (1996) performed 33 independent empirical studies using

the MLQ 5X and concluded there was a positive correlation between all factors of

transformational leadership and objective and subjective measures of performance.

54

Reliability

Bass and Avolio (2004) report reliability for the total items and each leadership

factor scale ranges from .74 to .94. Reliability scores are high and exceed the published

standards for internal consistency. An alpha coefficient above .60 is generally considered

internally consistent (Mitchell & Jolley, 2000). The reliabilities within each data set

generally indicated that the MLQ 5X was reliable in measuring each of the leadership

factors across the initial nine latent constructs (Bass & Avolio, 2004). Furthermore, the

instrument produces similar results when administered to various individuals.

Research Hypotheses


transactional leaders than transformation leaders acting as enrollment managers.

H02: There is no statistically significant dependence between leadership style of male

and female enrollment managers.


enrollment mangers at two-year and four-year institutions.


enrollment mangers at private and public institutions.





55

H07: There is no mean difference in the actual enrollment of the institution and the


Procedures for Data Collection

Participants were employed by both two-year and four-year institutions, public

and private, and were members of the Southern Association of Collegiate Registrars and

Admissions Officers (SACRAO). The Membership Committee of SACRAO provided, at

no charge, a list of all members that included the employee’s name, physical address, and

e-mail address. Participants did not receive any type of remuneration.

Those members, who were charged with enrollment management activities, as

identified by job title and function, received a survey via e-mail. The survey,

accompanied by a cover letter that requested and explained the importance of their

participation, was e-mailed to the survey sample. The e-mail message also provided

instructions for completing the survey, including a URL to access the survey instrument.

Participants who did not complete the survey within two weeks received a follow up

message requesting their participation

Confidentiality

To protect the confidentiality of participants, no one other than the researcher had

access to completed surveys. Data from completed surveys was entered into SPSS,

however no identifying information was included. Because this research proposal

required participation of human subjects, permission from the Texas Tech University

56

Office of Research Services was obtained prior to implementing the study.

Data Analysis

To examine the leadership styles of enrollment managers, descriptive statistics

were calculated for all variables. For quantitative variables, the mean, median, and

minimum score, maximum score, and standard deviation were calculated and identified

for the entire sample. Graphical techniques, including histograms and box plots, also

aided in the interpretation of data. Qualitative variables were summarized via the use of

frequencies. Bar graphs graphically display any relevant characteristics of these

qualitative variables. All statistical procedures were performed at the 0.05 significance

level.

To assess H01, a test of proportion was used. Proportion, as defined by Hinkle,

Wiersma, and Jurs (2003) is “the fractional part of a group that possesses some specific

characteristic” (p.738). The character of interest for this hypothesis was the

transformational leadership style of enrollment managers. Assumptions of this test

included approximately normal distributions for the predicted proportions. This

assumption can be assumed true if the numbers who possess the characteristic are at least

five and those who do not possess the characteristic is also at least five. For H02 through

H06, χ2 tests of independence were used to measure relationships between the variables.

χ2 was designed to test hypotheses about categorical data (Kranzler & Moursund, 1999).

χ2 assumed all expected frequencies were equal to or greater than one and, at most, 20

percent of the expected frequencies were less than five. H07 made use of the t-Test for

57

independent samples. The primary purpose of the test “is to determine whether the

means of two groups of scores differ to a statistically significant degree” (Kranzler &

Moursund, 1999, p. 89). Basic assumptions of this statistical measure include:

(1) independent data, (2) equal standard deviations between groups, and (3) the mean of

the data follow a normal distribution. The Central Limit Theorem can also be utilized to

guarantee that the mean of the data is normal if the sample size is reasonably large. To

assess the assumption of equal standard deviations in institutional enrollment between the

two leadership style groups, Levene’s Test of Equal Standard Deviations was used. If

Levene’s test was significant (indicating the standard deviations differ), degrees of

freedom were adjusted.

58

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

Introduction

This chapter presents statistical analyses of the data collected to address research

questions. First, the research hypotheses are reviewed. A description of the population

and sample is provided, followed by an explanation regarding classification of the

participants. A presentation of summary statistics for all variables under consideration in

the study is also included. Finally, the findings from the statistical procedures that have

been applied to the data are presented.

Review of the Research Hypotheses

The research hypotheses for this study are as follows:


transactional leaders than transformation al leaders acting as enrollment

managers.

H02: There is no statistically significant dependence between leadership style of male

and female enrollment managers.


enrollment managers at two-year and four-year institutions.


enrollment managers at private and public institutions.

59





Ho7: There is no mean difference in the actual enrollment of the institution and the


Population and Sample

To make a judgment in regard to the research hypotheses, the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5X – Short (Revised) was e-mailed to 397

participants, which comprise the population under consideration in this study. In total,

203 surveys were returned which represents a 51% response rate. Of the 203 responses,

118 (58%) were enrollment managers who supervised undergraduate admissions and

financial aid. These 118 sample participants make up the sample that will be analyzed in

detail; all 118 participants in the sample provided usable data since incomplete surveys

were not accepted.

Classification of the Participants

The MLQ 5X does not rigidly classify the respondents as either transformational

or transactional leaders. It indicates which participants exhibit behaviors that are

consistent with transformational leadership or behaviors that are consistent with

transactional leadership. In order to answer the research questions specified in this study,

60

this rigid classification was necessary. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (3rd

ed.) Manual and Sampler Set provides descriptive statistics, including the mean, standard

deviation, and range, for all leadership factors. The leadership factors of idealized

influence (attributed and behavioral), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation

and individualized consideration characterize transformational leadership. Contingent

reward, management-by-exception (active and passive), and laissez-faire are associated

with transactional leadership. To classify leadership style, a participant’s scores from

each individual factor (e.g. idealized influence or inspirational motivation) were totaled.

Next, the mean scores of all transformational factors and of all transactional factors were

calculated, thus enabling the researcher to classify a participant as either a

transformational or transactional in leadership style. Participants were classified as

having transformational leadership style if their overall transformational score was

greater than the sample mean transformational score. All other participants were

classified as having transactional leadership style.

Summary Statistics

The level of significance (alpha, α) for this study is .05. Behavioral science

researchers frequently use a higher level of significance, such as α = .05 or α = .10,

because it reduces the probability of making a Type II error (Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs,

2003). Thus, smaller significance levels, such as α = .01, reduce the probability of

making a Type I error (Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs, 2003; Weiss, 2002). Errors in

hypothesis testing, as defined by Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs (2003), are:

61

Type I error – “rejecting a null hypothesis when in fact it is true” (p. 740).

Type II error – “retaining a null hypothesis when in fact it is false” (p. 740).

The level of significance (α = .05) was selected after evaluating the consequences

of both Type I and Type II errors. Because this study seeks to identify the trend in

leadership style, it is important to reject a null hypothesis if is false (Hinkle, Wiersma, &

Jurs, 2003).

The following summary statistics describe the sample and lend insight to the

statistical findings that will be presented in the following section. The summary statistics

include frequencies and percentages for qualitative data. For quantitative data, the

summary statistics will include means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum

values, and medians.

Of the 118 sample participants, 66 (55.9%) were classified as having

transformational leadership style and 52 (44.1%) were classified as having transactional

leadership style. Because the research questions focus on the possible differences

between these two groups of leaders, the following summary statistics will be provided

based on the respective groups.

Gender

Table 4.1 provides the frequency distribution by gender for each of the leadership

styles. With respect to gender, 55.9% of the respondents were male and 44.1% of the

respondents were female. If each leadership style is considered individually, insight into

research hypothesis H02 can be gained. For the males included in the study, 51.5% were

62

transformational and 48.5% were transactional. For the females, 61.5% were classified

as having transformational leadership style and 38.5% were classified as having

transactional leadership style. Therefore, the sample considered here was roughly split

between the leadership styles for the men, and the women had a slight tendency to be

more transformational. The χ2-test in the following section will determine if this is a

significant tendency.

Table 4.1: Gender by Leadership Style

Leadership Style

Gender Transactional Transformational Total

Male 32 34 66

Female 20 32 52

Total 52 66 118

Two-Year/Four-Year Institutions

Information to address H03 was gained from the variable referring to the highest

academic credential offered by the employing institution. The responses for this variable

are shown in Table 4.2. For the one “other” response, more detail was given. This

institution offers medical, law and other doctorate degrees. Note that the hypothesis only

distinguishes between two-year and four-year institutions. Therefore, these data were

recoded as follows: (a) institutions whose highest credential offered was the associate

degree were grouped into the two-year institution category, and (b) institutions that

63

offered baccalaureate degrees and beyond were grouped into the four-year institution

category.

Table 4.2: Highest Academic Credential Offered

Highest Credential Frequency

Other 1

Associate 19

Baccalaureate 23

Master’s 37

Doctorate 31

Law 1

Medical 3

Professional 3

Results of the two-year or four-year classification by leadership style are

identified in Table 4.3. For the entire sample, 16.1% of the institutions represented in the

sample are two-year and 83.9% are four-year. Of the sample participants from two-year

institutions, 52.6% were categorized as having transactional leadership style and 47.4%

were categorized as having transformational leadership style. 42.4% of the sample

participants from four-year institutions were categorized as having transactional

leadership style and 57.6% were categorized as having transformational leadership style.

64

Table 4.3: Two-Year or Four-Year Institution by Leadership Style

Leadership Style

Two-Year or Four Year

Transactional Transformational Total

2-Year 10 9 19

4- Year 42 57 99

Total 52 66 118

Public Versus Private Institutions

Of the 118 participants, 66 (55.9%) were from public institutions and 52 (44.1%)

were from private institutions. Of the 52 private institutions, only one was for profit.

Table 4.4 displays the institution type by leadership style, according to the MLQ 5X, of

the enrollment manager. Of the sample participants from public institutions, 42.4% were

categorized as having transactional leadership style and 57.6% were categorized as

having transformational leadership style. Of the sample participants from private

institutions, 46.2% were categorized as having transactional leadership style and 53.8%

were categorized as having transformational leadership style.

Table 4.4: Public or Private Institution by Leadership Style

Leadership Style Institution Transactional Transformational Total

Public 28 38 66 Private 24 28 52

Total 52 66 118

65

Educational Level

The educational levels of the enrollment managers in the sample included

Baccalaureate (8), Master’s (61), Doctorate (46) and Professional (3) degrees. A purpose

of this study is to determine whether a relationship exists between an enrollment

manager’s level of education and their leadership style. The frequencies that address this

possible relationship are shown in Table 4.5. Breaking each educational level into the

leadership styles represented in the sample, the following information is found. Of the

sample participants who have earned a Baccalaureate degree, 37.5% were categorized as

having transactional leadership style and 62.5% were categorized as having

transformational leadership style, while those who have earned a Master’s degree, 45.9%

were categorized as having transactional leadership style and 54.1% were categorized as

having transformational leadership style. 41.3% of sample participants who have earned

a Doctorate were categorized as having transactional leadership style, while 58.7% were

categorized as having transformational leadership style. For sample participants who

have obtained a Professional degree, 66.7% were categorized as having transactional

leadership style and 33.3% were categorized as having transformational leadership style.

66

Table 4.5: Educational Level by Leadership Style

Leadership Style

Educational Level Transactional Transformational Total

Baccalaureate 3 5 8

Master’s 28 33 61

Doctorate 19 27 46

Professional 2 1 3

Total 52 66 118

Supervisory Experience

The participants were asked about their years of supervisory experience. Possible

responses were ordinal with the following choices: less than one year, more than one

year but less than four years, more than four years but less than eight years, more than

eight years but less than twelve years, more than twelve years but less than sixteen years,

more than sixteen years but less than twenty years, and more than twenty years. No

participants reported less than one year of supervisory experience; every other category

had at least one response. Table 4.6 displays the years of supervisory experience for the

enrollment managers by their leadership styles. The percentages of sample participants

who were categorized as either having transactional leadership style or transformational

leadership style by years of supervisory experience are: More than one year but less than

four years – 0% transactional, 100% transformational; (b) More than four years but less

than eight years – 33.3% transactional, 66.7% transformational; (c) More than eight years

but less than twelve years – 46.7% transactional, 53.3% transformational; (d) More than

67

twelve years but less than sixteen years – 71.4% transactional, 28.6% transformational;

(e) More than sixteen years but less than twenty years – 29.2% transactional and 70.8%

transformational; and (f) More than twenty years – 41.5% transactional and 58.5%

transformational.

Table 4.6: Years of Supervisory Experience by Leadership Style

Leadership Style

Years of Supervisory Experience


More than 1 but less than 4 0 2 2





More than 20 22 31 53

Total 52 66 118

Institutional Enrollment

The only quantitative variable collected from the respondents was institutional

enrollment. Specifically, student headcount for the fall 2004 term of the respondent’s

institution was requested. Some data clean up was required for this variable as several

participants responded with total semester credit hours (SCH) instead of total student

headcount. For respondents who provided an e-mail address, the researcher verified

68

institutional enrollment via the institution’s web page. For those respondents who did not

provide an e-mail address, SCH responses were converted to student headcount. Table

4.7 displays the summary statistics of means, standard deviations, minimum and

maximum values, and medians for the entire sample as well as for the transactional

leaders and the transformational leaders. In observing the table, it appears that an outlier

exists in the student headcount where the response was entered as zero. Institutional

enrollment was a free response variable, thus participants could enter the number zero.

This particular participant did not include an e-mail address, therefore, the researcher

could not verify institutional enrollment.

Table 4.7: Summary Statistics of Institutional Enrollment for Fall 2004.

Headcount Statistics:

Mean Standard Deviation

Minimum Maximum Median

Overall Sample 8804.14 10216.38 0 55090 4276.00

Transactional 7779.02 8964.19 0 41248 4000.00

Transformational 9611.80 11105.03 215 55090 4586.50

Statistical Findings

Hypothesis 1

To test the first null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant evidence to

conclude that there are more transactional leaders than transformation leaders acting as

enrollment managers, as identified by the MLQ 5X, a test of proportions was used. From

the respondents, the sample proportion of participants classified as having transactional

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leadership style was 0.441. (Recall that 52 participants were classified as having

transactional leadership style and 66 were classified as having transformational

leadership style.) Based on this sample proportion, there is not sufficient evidence to

reject the null hypothesis (z = 1.204, p = 0.8857). Thus, there is no statistical support to

claim that more participants displayed transactional leadership style than transformational

leadership style.

Hypothesis 2

A Chi-Square Test of Independence was the statistical procedure employed to test

the second null hypothesis of no statistically significant dependence between leadership

style of male and female enrollment managers. Figure 4.1 graphically represents the

percent of males and females who are classified as by leadership style. There are slight

differences in the heights of the bars in both the male category and the female category.

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48.5

38.5

51.5

61.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Male Female

Gender

Perc

ent Transactional

Transformational

Figure 4.1: Leadership Style by Gender

Table 4.8 shows the frequencies of the leadership styles by gender, including the

expected cell counts, which are pertinent to the Chi-Square test. Based on the sample

data, there is not sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis (χ2 = 1.186, df = 1,

p=0.276). Note that there are no expected cell counts that are less than 5. This ensures

that the Chi-Square test is valid. Based on findings of this study, there is no statistical

support of a dependent relationship between leadership style and male and female

enrollment managers.

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Table 4.8: H02 Cell Counts (Expected Cell Counts)

Leadership Style

Gender Transactional Transformational Total

Male 32 (29.1) 34 (36.9) 66

Female 20 (22.9) 32 (29.1) 52

Total 52 66 118

Hypothesis 3

A Chi-Square Test of Independence was also applied to the data in order to test

the third hypothesis of no statistically significant dependence between leadership styles

of enrollment mangers at two-year institutions and four-year institutions. Details of the

groupings used to identify an institution as either two-year or four-year were provided in

the summary statistics section. Figure 4.2 graphically displays the percent of sample

participants’ leadership style dependent on whether they were employed by a two-year or

four-year institution. As evidenced by the graph, the bars within the two-year institutions

are similar in height and the bars within the four-year institutions are similar in height.

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52.6

42.447.4

57.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Two-Year Four-Year

Two-Year or Four-Year Institution

Perc

ent Transactional

Transformational

Figure 4.2: Leadership Style by Two or Four-Year Institution

Table 4.9 shows the respondents classified by both their leadership style and

whether their institution is either two-year or four-year along with the expected cell

counts. Based on results of this study, there is not sufficient evidence to reject this null

hypothesis (χ2=0.674, df=1, p=0.412). Since the minimum expected cell count is 8.4, no

expected cell counts are less than 5. Hence, there is no statistical support of a dependent

relationship between the enrollment manager’s leadership style and whether the

institution is two-year or four-year.

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Leadership Style

Two-Year or Four Year


2-Year 10 (8.4) 9 (10.6) 19

4- Year 42 (43.6) 57 (55.4) 99

Total 52 66 118

Hypothesis 4

To test the hypothesis of no statistically significant dependence between

leadership style of enrollment mangers at private and public institutions, a Chi-Square

Test of Independence was utilized. Figure 4.3 indicates that the percentages of the

sample population as categorized as having transactional leadership style or

transformational leadership style are equitable within the private institutions and within

the public institutions. Table 4.10 shows the respondents classified both by their MLQ

5X leadership style and whether their institution is either public or private; expected cell

counts are also included. Based on these results, there is not sufficient evidence to reject

this null hypothesis (χ2 = 0.164, df = 1, p = 0.685). No expected cell counts are less than

5. Hence, there is no statistical support of a dependent relationship between leadership

style of enrollment managers at private and public institutions.

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46.242.4

53.857.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Private Public

Private or Public Institution

Perc

ent

TransactionalTransformational

Figure 4.3: Leadership Style by Public or Private Institution


Leadership Style

Institution Transactional Transformational Total

Public 28 (29.1) 38 (36.9) 66

Private 24 (22.9) 28 (29.1) 52

Total 52 66 118

Hypothesis 5

Chi-Square Test of Independence was used to test the null hypothesis of no

statistically significant dependence between leadership styles of enrollment managers

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who have differing levels of education. To obtain a valid p-value for this test, several χ2

values were computed. First, the entire set of 118 respondents was used. Figure 4.4

shows the percent of transformational and transactional leaders, as identified by the MLQ

5X, within each educational level. This figure indicates that leadership styles are equally

distributed across the educational levels. This test consisted of eight cells, as there were

four educational levels (baccalaureate, master’s, doctorate and professional) for each of

the two leadership styles. With this test, there were four expected cell counts that were

less than 5. In the sample, there were only three participants with professional degrees

and eight with baccalaureate degrees. Dividing these small sample sizes into the two

leadership styles caused several cells to have expected cell counts less than 5, thus

resulting in an invalid Chi-Square test. Several attempts were made to categorize in such

a way that the expected cell counts would all be at least 5. However, these attempts were

unsuccessful. (Although the Chi-Squares were not valid, all resulted in p-values greater

than 0.05.)

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37.5

45.941.3

66.762.5

54.158.7

33.3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Baccalaureate Master's Doctorate Professional

Level of Education

Perc

ent Transactional

Transformational

Figure 4.4: Leadership Style by Educational Level

The final Chi-Square analysis for this hypothesis included only the enrollment

managers who have earned a master’s degree or a doctorate degree. This sub-sample

represented about 91% of the original sample. Table 4.11 shows the frequencies and

expected cell counts including only the sub-sample. Based on these results, there is not

sufficient evidence to reject this null hypothesis (χ2 = 0.225, df = 1, p = 0.635). From this

sub-sample, no expected cell counts are less than 5. Hence, there is no statistically

significant relationship between the leadership styles of the enrollment managers who

have differing levels of education.

77


Leadership Style

Institution Transactional Transformational Total

Master’s 28 (26.8) 33 (34.2) 61

Doctorate 19 (20.2) 27 (25.8) 46

Total 52 66 118

Hypothesis 6

The final Chi-Square Test of Independence included in this study addresses the

sixth null hypothesis of no statistically significant dependence between leadership styles

of enrollment managers who have differing years of leadership experience. Figure 4.5

shows the percentages of sample participants categorized as transformational leadership

style and transactional leadership style within each experience category.

78

0

33.3

46.7

71.4

29.2

41.5

100

66.7

53.3

28.6

70.8

58.5

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

>1<4 >4<8 >8<12 >12<16 >16<20 >20

Years of Supervisory Experience

Perc

ent

TransactionalTransformational

Figure 4.5: Leadership Style by Years of Experience

Similar to the hypothesis test concerning educational levels, this test of hypothesis

also encountered expected cell counts less than 5. This was due to the small sample sizes

in the lower years of experience. To alleviate this problem, several options were

attempted. First, the categories of more than one year but less than four years and more

than four years but less than eight years were combined. Again, there were expected cell

counts of less than 5. Next, all experience years less than 12 were combined. Table 4.12

shows the frequencies and expected cell counts for this hypothesis after the above-

mentioned categories were combined. Based on these results, there is sufficient evidence

to reject this null hypothesis (χ2 = 8.815, df = 3, p = 0.032). No expected cell counts are

less than 5. Hence, there is statistical support of a dependent relationship between

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leadership styles of enrollment managers who have differing years of leadership

experience. In reviewing Table 4.12, it appears that enrollment managers are more likely

to be categorized as having transformational leadership style as their years of supervisory

experience increases.

Table 4.12: H06 Cell Counts (Expected Cell Counts) – Using a Combined Category of

More than 1 But Less than 12. Leadership Style

Years of Supervisory Experience Transactional Transformational Total More than 1 but less than 12 8 (8.8) 12 (11.2) 20 More than 12 but less than 16 15 (9.3) 6 (11.7) 21 More than 16 but less than 20 7 (10.6) 17 (13.4) 24 More than 20 22 (23.4) 31 (29.6) 53

Total 52 66 118

Another Chi-Square Test of Independence was performed for the years of

supervisory experience. In this test, the categories of “more than one but less than four”

and “more than 4 but less than eight” were omitted. Table 4.13 identifies these

frequencies and expected cell counts. Based on these results, there is sufficient evidence

to reject this null hypothesis (χ2 = 8.630, df = 3, p = 0.035). No expected cell counts are

less than 5. Again, there is statistical support of a dependent relationship between an

enrollment manager’s years of supervisory experience and their leadership style. As in

the previous analysis, it appears that participants in the sample population have a

tendency to be categorized by the MLQ 5X as having transformational leadership style as

their years of supervisory experience increases.

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Table 4.13: H06 Cell Counts (Expected Cell Counts) – Omitting Years of Experience

Less than Eight.

Leadership Style Years of Supervisory Experience Transactional Transformational Total More than 1 but less than 12 7 (6.8) 8 (8.2) 20 More than 12 but less than 16 15 (9.5) 6 (11.5) 21 More than 16 but less than 20 7 (10.8) 17 (13.2) 24 More than 20 22 (23.9) 31 (29.1) 53

Total 52 66 118

Hypothesis 7

A two-sample independent t-test was used to test the final null hypothesis of no

mean difference in the actual enrollment of the institution and the institution’s enrollment

management leadership style. The respondent’s institutional student headcount for fall

2004 was used to estimate the institution’s enrollment. Figure 4.6 displays the error bar

plots for these data. Before conducting the t-test, Levene’s test for equality of variances

determined that it could be concluded that the standard deviations of enrollment for the

two different leadership styles are equal (F = 2.111, p = 0.149). Therefore, the t-test was

conducted assuming that the two groups have equal standard deviations in enrollment

numbers. The mean enrollment for participants classified as having transactional

leadership style was 7779.02 and the mean enrollment for participants classified as

having transformational leadership style was 9611.80. Based on the results of the

independent samples t-test, there is not sufficient evidence to conclude that the mean

enrollment of institutions with transactional leaders differs from that of institutions with

transformational leaders (t = 0.967, df = 116, p = 0.335).

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6652N =

Leadership Style

TransformationalTransactional

Hea

dcou

nt

14000

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

Figure 4.6: Headcount by Leadership Style

Conclusion

Chapter IV illustrated the statistical analyses of data collected from survey

participants. Selection criteria that required participants to supervise the undergraduate

admissions office and financial aid office reduced the number of completed surveys that

were used in the analysis of data. Results of 118 participants, from a total of 203

participants who completed surveys, were used to accept or reject the research

hypotheses of this study. Participants were classified as either having transactional

leadership style or transformational leadership style. The level of significance for this

study was α = .05. Descriptive statistics were calculated for all variables. For

quantitative variables, the mean, median, minimum score and maximum score, and

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standard deviation were calculated and identified for the entire sample. Chi-square (χ2)

independence tests were used to measure relationships between qualitative variables and

a t-Test for independent samples was used to determine if the difference between the

means of two groups was statistically significant. Chapter V will include a summary of

the study, discussion of the findings, and recommendations for future research.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The primary purpose of this study was to identify the leadership style of

enrollment management professionals at higher education institutions in the following

states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North

Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. Data from the

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Form 5X (MLQ 5X) was used to categorize

participants as either transactional leaders or transformational leaders. This chapter

provides a summary of the study, discussion, recommendations for future research, and

conclusions.

Summary of the Study

The premise of this study was to determine transactional or transformational

leadership styles of enrollment management professionals. Transactional leadership is

based on exchange; reward or punishment is used as an incentive to manipulate followers

into performing (Avolio & Bass, 2002). Transformational leadership is defined as “the

ability to influence values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of others by working with and

through them to accomplish the college’s mission and purpose” (Roueche, Baker, &

Rose, 1989, p. 11). Enrollment management, as defined by Dennis (1998), is

(a) recognizing why students enroll or withdraw, (b) knowing how students finance

educational expenses, (c) connecting enrollment management with retention, and

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(d) utilizing strategic planning to enable the institution to meet future enrollment and

revenue requirements. Enrollment management has expanded from primarily facilitating

student enrollments, to include marketing, recruitment, financial aid, advising,

registration, retention, and even instruction. An enrollment manager must frequently

integrate numerous collegiate functions in an effort to influence enrollment (Black, 2001;

Dennis, 1998). Given the extensive responsibilities of the job, Bradica (2001) reminds

enrollment managers that an interdependent relationship with colleagues may be

necessary to achieve and sustain goals.

Because the concept of enrollment management is relatively new to higher

education, information about individuals who lead these efforts is virtually non-existent.

This study provides information that may be used to form a knowledge base regarding

this population. To assess leadership style, participants completed the MLQ 5X; results

were analyzed to form demographic and leadership profiles. The MLQ 5X identifies the

transactional and transformational leadership components of the Full Range Leadership

Theory (FRLT). Transactional leadership includes the following factors: contingent

reward, management-by-exception (active), management-by-exception (passive), and

laissez-faire leadership. Transformational leadership includes the following factors:

idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation,

intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. The survey instrument was

e-mailed to participants on two separate occasions. The sample size was 397, of which

203 (51%) responded by submitting a completed survey. Of the 203 responses, 118

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participants (58%) met the selection criteria (supervised the undergraduate admission

office and the financial aid office) and comprised the sample population.

The following research questions were posed to facilitate the study:

1. What are the leadership styles of enrollment managers?

2. Is there a relationship between leadership style and gender in enrollment

managers?

3. Is there a relationship between leadership style and two-year/four-year institution


4. Is there a relationship between leadership style and private/public institution


5. Is there a relationship between leadership style and level of education in


6. Is there a relationship between leadership style and leadership experience level in


7. Is there a difference in the actual enrollment (student headcount) of the institution


The survey instrument, MLQ 5X, has been used extensively in research.

Antonakis, Avolio, and Sivasubramaniam (2003) examined the validity of the MLQ 5X

and found the instrument to be valid in measuring leadership styles of both male and

female leaders. Additionally, the leadership constructs with respect to the relationship

with performance has been confirmed in meta-analyses conducted by several researchers

(Bass & Avolio, 2000; Catanyag, 1995; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Lowe, et al., 1996;

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Molero & Morales, 1994). The meta-analyses confirmed the relationship between a

leader’s performance and transformational leadership style was stronger than the

relationship between a leader’s performance and transactional leadership style (Bass &

Avolio, 2004; Dum Dum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Fuller, Patterson, Hester & Stringer,

1996; Gasper, 1992; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).

Results gleaned from this study suggest there is not a statistically significant

association between leadership style and the participants’ gender (p = 0.276), their type

of institution (two-year or four-year, p = 0.412; public or private, p = 0.685), and their

levels of education (p = 0.635). Additionally, an independent samples t-test

demonstrated that leadership style and fall 2004 student headcount at the employing

institution were not related (p = 0.335). There was, however, statistical support of a

dependent relationship between leadership style, as categorized by the MLQ 5X, of

enrollment managers who have differing years of experience (p = 0.032).

Discussion

Statistical calculations, including Chi-Square Test of Independence, Levene’s test

for equality, and a two-sample independent t-test were used to evaluate the data and

answer the research questions.

Research Question 1

What are the leadership styles of enrollment managers?

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This question was designed to determine the leadership style of enrollment

managers. The responses to the MLQ 5X identified the majority of participants were

classified as transformational leaders (55.9%). However, even though 66 participants

from the total sample of 118 were categorized as transformational, the result was not

statistically significant at the .05 level, hence; the null hypothesis was not rejected.

Unlike the findings in the study, research conducted by Padde, et al. (1995) and Stone

(1992) report statistically significant evidence that suggests leaders are more likely to

utilize transformational leadership styles. Temple (2001) also reports community college

technical deans perceive their leadership style as transformational.

As mentioned earlier, enrollment management is relatively new to higher

education. While there is literature discussing the concept of enrollment management,

there are virtually no studies examining individuals who lead enrollment efforts. Rosser

(2001) explains the majority of leadership studies have centered on senior administrators

such as presidents, provosts, and chief academic affairs officers. This study focused on

enrollment managers from the Southern United States. Based on findings of this study,

leadership theory and behavior norms from existing literature may not be generalized to

this population.

The narrow definition of enrollment management used in this study may have

influenced the response in relation to this research question. Participants in this study

were leaders who supervised the undergraduate admissions office and the financial aid

office, two highly bureaucratic functions within enrollment management.

For example, many of the procedures of an undergraduate admission office are

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influenced by external agencies. Procedures for determining state residency are specified

by state agencies, and enrollment managers do not have the discretion to recommend

residency policy for students. It is important to assign accurate residency status as this

determines student tuition and fee charges; certain financial aid programs also hinge on

residency. Incorrect residency decisions create liabilities for both the student and the

institution.

Another bureaucratic function within the scope of enrollment management is the

student financial aid office. Personnel in this office must award student aid programs in

accordance with the guidelines that govern the administration of state and federal aid.

While college employees must ensure aid applicants meet eligibility criteria, they are not

given latitude in determining eligibility criteria of recipients; federal methodology, as

determined by the U.S. Department of Education is applied to all Title IV aid

applications. The resulting analysis of a student’s academic and financial status defines a

student’s aid eligibility or lack thereof. Furthermore, external agencies also prescribe

additional eligibility criteria in the form of enrollment requirements and satisfactory

academic progress standards that students must meet in order to receive funding. It is

imperative that the financial aid office correctly award aid programs as they are subject to

federal and state audits. Grants awarded outside the confines dictated by the Department

of Education may create financial liabilities for the student and the institution.

Because these two offices are governed by strict regulations, the directors who

supervise the offices on a daily basis gain expertise in their field, thus the enrollment

managers may interact with them less often. If the enrollment manager views the

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directors as experts, capable of managing the offices, they may intervene only in the

event of a problem. Intervention when a deviation from the norm occurs is symbolic of

transactional leadership. Therefore, the researcher speculates that the bureaucratic nature

of these offices may encourage leaders to rely on leadership techniques of contingent

reward and management-by-exception.

Enrollment management is an emerging concept with several models in existence.

Henderson (2001) explains that models range from loosely coupled committees to entire

divisions dedicated to managing student enrollment. The committee model is noted for

convenience as it is comprised of representatives from relevant departments, and does not

require additional funding or the hiring of specialized personnel. While this model does

promote discussion, it usually does not have the authority to affect change. Enrollment

management divisions, on the other hand, require the allocation of fiscal and personnel

resources. The institution gains additional benefits from this model as participants share

and pursue common goals and objectives. This model is placed high on the organization

chart and the leader frequently reports directly to the president of the institution.

By examining the models mentioned above, one can surmise that very different

individuals may be selected to lead the enrollment management effort. One model

utilizes the services of existing personnel who must split their time between duties, while

the other designates personnel specifically for the task of enrollment management.

Because the committee model makes use of current personnel, an individual with

enrollment management experience may not be available. However, when an institution

establishes an enrollment management division, one might posit that they would also

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seek to hire a highly trained and qualified individual to lead the effort. Based on the

information stated above, one might conclude that enrollment management leaders vary

in their skill set and commitment to the enrollment management process.

Adoption of a specific enrollment management model is not mandated by

accreditation agencies nor is there a universally accepted set of requisite skills for this

group of leaders. Numerous enrollment management models, coupled with nebulous

qualifications for enrollment management leaders, may account for a diverse group of

individuals who have less education and supervisory experience than other

administrators, and consequently are less likely to be classified as transformational

leaders.

Research Question 2

Is there a relationship between leadership style and gender in enrollment

managers?

Research question two sought to determine if gender influenced leadership style.

Results from this study show that female participants were more likely to be labeled

transformational leaders than were male participants. 61.5% of the female participants

were identified as having transformational leadership style, while only 51.5% of males

were identified as having transformational leadership style. Daughtry and Finch (1997)

and Davis (2002) did not find a relation between gender and leadership style, even

though female participants were more often identified as transformational leaders.

Gilligan (1982), who has extensively researched the moral development of

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females, criticized prior research regarding moral development because (a) results were

based on white males, and (b) a male’s tendency to think in terms of rules and justice was

considered superior to a female’s tendency to think in terms of caring and relationships.

A single model of reasoning patterns and stages of moral development fails to capture the

different realities of each gender (Chliwniak, 1997). Gilligan’s (1982) moral

development pathway asserts that women and men have differing moral and

psychological inclinations. Race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family all

contribute to the psychological development of girls. Gilligan (1982) concludes that girls

lose a firm sense of self and authentic voice as they move from childhood into

adolescence because they are silenced by the male culture. Women adopted male

standards of success to better fit into male-dominated hierarchical structures and systems

(Chliwniak, 1997). Gilligan agrees that women suppress their natural self in order to

meet standards determined by society.

Despite the increasing body of literature on female leaders, few studies have

empirically examined gender differences from a subordinate perspective (Rosser, 2001);

many studies report only self-perceived leadership style. Rosser (2001), in evaluating

leadership style of post-secondary deans, solicited self-reported evaluations of leadership

and also included subordinate, or follower, perceptions of the dean’s leadership style.

Results suggest that female leaders are perceived as more effective than male leaders. In

comparison to males, Bass et al. (1996) report female leaders are more frequently labeled

effective, transformational, and responsible for generating greater follower satisfaction;

this is based on both male and female follower perceptions of leaders. Cannon’s (2003)

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research does not support the notion that female leaders are more effective, instead

proposes that existing research supports the conclusion that women possess different

leadership traits or characteristics.

Gilligan, Ward, Taylor (1988) report that female leaders tend to emphasize factors

associated with transformational leadership and male leaders tend to emphasize factors

associated with transactional leadership. Gillet-Karam (2001) reminds researchers that

leadership style may be assessed via multiple measures and “women arrive at their

responsibilities through care and concern while men focus on a path of justice” (p. 167).

Roueche et al. (1989) report that transformational leadership and “the concept of caring

and respect for others was significantly correlated with gender” (p. 250) with females

scoring higher transformational leadership scores. While Taylor (1994) acknowledges

that research supports differences in leadership style of men and women, any effect of

these differences on operations has not been identified.

Research Question 3

Is there a relationship between leadership style and two-year/four-year institution


Two-year institutions reported more enrollment managers as having transactional

leadership style (52.6%) than did four-year institutions (42.4%). Although the finding

was not significant (p = 0.412) and suggests that leaders at two-year institutions do not

differ from leaders at four-year institutions, future research may determine if institutions

that offer terminal degrees below the baccalaureate level tend to employ (a) individuals

93

who have not earned a doctorate and (b) do not have extensive supervisory experience

since level of education and supervisory experience have been linked to leadership style

(Birnbaum, 1992; Ireh & Bailey, 1999; Padde, et al., 1995).

Although two-year schools currently enroll more than 11 million students

(Community College Facts, n.d.), community colleges are often criticized as being

inferior educational institutions (Cohen & Brawer, 1996). Community colleges are

generally categorized as “open enrollment” institutions and may not actively seek to

influence the characteristics of a student population, but rather respond to enrollment

changes. Another possible explanation is that because community colleges may be

considered less prestigious than four-year schools, they may not attract individuals who

have advanced degrees and supervisory experience. This conjecture is supported by the

findings of this study as two-year institutions more frequently employed individuals who

were classified as having transactional leadership style.

Despite the absence of literature that specifically discusses leadership style of

enrollment managers at two-year/four-year institutions, insight to this hypothesis may be

gained by reviewing literature that evaluates perceived leadership styles of other

administrators within these institutions. Haire (1997), Leftwich (2001), and Temple

(2001) report that leaders within two-year institutions are more likely to be categorized as

having transformational leadership style. However, their findings, like those of this

study, did not show a statistically significant relationship.

Romero (2004) posits that leading a two-year school is complex and demands the

qualities of a transformational leader. The multiple purposes of most two-year

94

institutions require leaders who are able to form collaborative relationships in order to

accomplish diverse purposes. While Romero’s study does not specifically address

leadership style of enrollment managers, the focus of the report and its emphasis on

leadership within two-year institutions, allow the recommendations to be generalized to

the participants of this study. According to Romero (2004), two-year institutions should

seek to employ leaders who share power and are able to build relationships with faculty

and industry alike. Collaborative decision-making is associated with intellectual

stimulation, a factor of transformational leadership.

Deans within four-year institutions, as reported by Rosser, Johnsrud, & Heck

(2003), must satisfy dual populations including senior administration and faculty. This

ability to influence followers and senior administrators is also required of enrollment

management leaders. To facilitate this duality of influence, they suggest leadership

effectiveness may be enhanced through interpersonal transactions, which is related to the

transformational leadership factor, individualized consideration. Although Rosser et al.

do not discuss leadership styles of enrollment managers, the findings of their study focus

on a group of mid-level administrators that may be applicable to the participants of this

study.

Research Question 4

Is there a relationship between leadership and private/public institution status in


This study found that 57.5% of the participants who are employed by public

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institutions were identified as having transformational leadership style, while 53.8% of

the participants who are employed by private institutions were identified as having

transformational leadership style. Again, no statistically significant relationship was

found between leadership style of enrollment mangers at private and public institutions (p

= 0.685). Results suggest that leaders at private institutions are virtually the same as

leaders at public institutions.

The researcher did not locate literature that compares leadership style of

enrollment managers at private institutions and public institutions. In this study, there

was almost equal representation of types of institutions (44.1% private, 55.9% public)

and types of leaders (44.3% transactional, 55.7% transformational) employed by the

institutions. Even though there is no literature upon which to compare results, the

findings from this study suggest institutional type does not influence leadership style of

the enrollment manager. To gain insight to this hypothesis, the researcher evaluated

literature that details preferred leadership traits of other types of leaders within

private/public institutions.

The main funding source of many private colleges is derived from students in the

form of tuition, fees, room, and board payments; fiscal health may depend on enrolling a

sufficient number of students each semester (Williams, 1989). Private institutions may

be more successful in meeting institutional goals if they employ leaders who are well

versed in fiscal management, marketing, and recruiting (Williams, 1989). This skill set is

expanded by Sattler (1999) who also suggests leaders of private institutions build

relationships with internal and external communities, empower coworkers, communicate

96

a vision, and encourage pursuit toward a common mission. These factors are associated

with transformational leadership style. Therefore, one may speculate that an enrollment

leader who uses a transformational leadership style will have greater success in leading a

private institution. Although public institutions receive funding from local, state, and

public entities, one can argue that leaders within public institutions would benefit from

the same leadership characteristics as mentioned above. Leaders of public institutions

monitor legislative proceedings and may seek to influence appropriations by lobbying,

testifying, and communicating institutional needs to elected officials. Additionally,

public institutions, like private, must engage personnel in the pursuit of stated goals.

Based on the existing body of literature in support of leadership, transformational

leadership style should promote these endeavors.

Research Question 5

Is there a relationship between leadership style and level of education in


The purpose of this research question was to determine if enrollment managers’

highest academic credentials (e.g. Associate, Baccalaureate, Master’s, Doctorate, or

Professional) influenced leadership style. Leadership style and level of education were

not associated (p = 0.635), thus the null hypothesis was not rejected. Davis (2002), who

reports no association between perceived leadership style and level of education, also

supports this finding. However, results from Padde, et al. (1995), who also used the

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire to evaluate leadership style, reports that leaders

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with higher educational credentials were more frequently identified as having

transformational leadership style. Birnbaum (1992) concurs, reporting that leaders with

higher educational qualifications score higher transformational leadership scores.

Most studies have focused on chief executive officers, who as a group are more

likely to have earned a doctorate (Rosser, 2001). Only 39% of the participants in this

study have earned doctorates, compared to 76.4% of college presidents (Corrigan, 2002).

Therefore, this study’s finding of no statistical significance between leadership style and

level of education may be because no models of leadership theory have been established

for enrollment managers or mid-level administrators, who as a group do not

predominately hold doctoral degrees.

Research Question 6

Is there a relationship between leadership style and leadership experience level in


Results from this study demonstrated an association between years of supervisory

experience and leadership style. As years of supervisory experience increases,

participants tend to become more transformational in leadership style. This finding was

statistically significant, thus the null hypothesis was rejected (χ2 = 8.815, df = 3, p =

0.032). Ireh & Bailey (1999), who report that leaders with more years of supervisory

experience are more likely to use transformational leadership style, also support this

finding.

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Early research sought to explain leadership by identifying leadership traits or

characteristics of an individual. Birnbaum (1992) states, “the idea that leaders have

certain characteristics or traits that differentiate them from nonleaders is one of the oldest

and most thoroughly researched notions about leadership” (p. 62). Stogdill (1974) and

Mann (1959) conclude that trait theory research produced confusing results because a

combination of traits proved effective in some groups of leaders, while they were

ineffective in others. The failure of the trait theory to identify leaders led to new era of

leadership studies that eventually began to consider that leaders could be made and must

not be born with an innate ability to lead.

Transforming leaders are known for their ability to motivate and energize

followers into a common vision that identifies lofty goals for the organization (Krill, et

al., 1997). The relationship between a transformational leader and followers encourages

performance that exceeds expectations of all parties (Burns, 1978; Day, Zaccaro, &

Halpin, 2004). Transformational leadership has been shown to be positively related to

performance (Bass, 1985; Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & Shamir B., (2002).

Results from this study suggest that as leaders gain experience, they become more

transformational in leadership style. Therefore, one could posit that leadership is a

learned skill and the more experience one has the better equipped he or she is to serve as

a leader who is capable of using transformational leadership to inspire followers to

achieve superior performance.

Additional insight to understanding how leadership style and years of experience

are associated may be gained by reviewing classic stage theory within the context of

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developmental psychology. Erikson (1959) wrote that with more experience, human

behavior is influenced by life stage and crisis resolution. Erikson proposed psychosocial

stages through which people move to resolve successive identity crises. Successful

resolution of the stage crises at any particular chronological age enables a person to move

forward to the next natural stage of human development. Erikson (1959) supports the

notion leadership can be enhanced depending on the developmental stage of a person. He

contends that people pass through stages where work becomes very important and the

desire to guide the next generation creates a need to nurture and care for others.

Erikson’s Stage Theory (1959) profiled eight stages through which people

normally move as they age across the life span. From birth to death, he described periods

of the human life that people move through, facing common crises of identity and

conflicts of development. Of particular interest for purposes of this research are the adult

stages of Intimacy vs. Isolation and Generativity vs. Stagnation. During Stage 6,

Intimacy vs. Isolation, adults form relationships with others, which in turn promote the

growth of identity and personality. Stage 7, Generativity vs. Stagnation, refers to concern

for the next generation. If adults do not successfully navigate this stage, they become

stagnate.

These psychosocial stages may influence leadership style development of leaders.

For example, the crisis of Intimacy vs. Isolation is whether a person is willing to be

involved with others on a deeper more relationship-driven level, as opposed to a person

who prefers a more isolated position. Isolation may restrict their ability to form close

relationships and subsequently may encourage a transactional leadership style.

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Utilization of this style is acerbated by isolation associated with Stage 6 as the individual

interacts with followers as little as possible. Contrast this with a leader who is willing to

reveal himself/herself to followers, experiencing an enhanced connection with others, by

building deeper relationships that foster opportunities for the development of a

transformational relationship.

Generativity vs. Stagnation is the next stage in Erikson’s theory of development.

Thought by most social scientists to occur between the ages of 35 and 55, this crisis

resolution relies upon a person’s willingness to be intimate with others in a variety of

relationships; a person’s work is fundamental to this stage. Viewing the potential for

persons in leadership positions, it could be said that this crisis of development, if resolved

positively, results in a leader’s ability to be more caring and more nurturing to followers;

the concepts of caring and nurturing are associated with transformational leadership.

These leaders encourage followers to grow and develop leadership skills and are also

concerned with guiding and shaping the next generation of leaders. Generativity, or a

concern for future generations, represents successful resolution of this stage. However,

without resolution, stagnation will occur and an individual becomes self-absorbed and

disconnected from others.

“Erikson’s theory is a loose connection of observation, empirical generalizations,

and abstract theoretical claims. Consequently, it is difficult to state his claims in a way

that can be tested or relate his empirical findings to more abstract levels of the theory”

(Miller, 2002, p. 160). Because we cannot draw conclusions that Erikson’s Stage Theory

of development is responsible for the evolution of transformational behaviors, it leads

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one to speculate if other factors foster development of additional or enhanced leadership

skills.

A review of the literature surrounding leadership development suggests that

specific events and relationships can improve leadership skills. Wonacott (2001)

reviewed 17 leadership development programs and reported that participants could

improve leadership skills and behaviors when they participated in structured development

programs and were actively engaged in the learning process. Furthermore, the level of

improvement was enhanced by team-building exercises, networking opportunities,

establishment of goals, and the participant’s commitment to increasing leadership ability.

The following experiences reportedly provide opportunities for individuals to develop or

hone leadership skills and behaviors: (a) the acquisition of new positions (jobs) with

additional responsibilities; (b) assuming responsibility for new projects; (c) negotiating

personnel problems, including conflict resolution and termination of employees;

(d) being actively mentored and counseled; and (e) consistently working, and engaging,

with a supervisor. These learning opportunities help leaders build self-confidence,

improve communication skills, develop sensitivity and respect for others, and encourage

the adoption of a global perspective of the institution (Wonacott, 2001). These leadership

behaviors are associated with transformational leadership, therefore, one could posit that

leadership must not be an innate ability, but can be taught and learned. Thus, as this

study suggests, leaders become more transformational as experience is gained.

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Research Question 7

Is there a difference in the actual enrollment (student headcount) of the institution


This question was designed to ascertain if a mean difference exists in student

enrollment between institutions with enrollment managers classified as having

transactional leadership style and institutions with enrollment mangers classified as

having transformational leadership style. In this study, no significance was found. The

mean student enrollment for participants classified as transactional was 7779.02, and the

mean enrollment for participants classified as transformational was 9611.80. The

difference between the two means (1832.78) is not statistically significant (p = 0.335).

Based on these findings, institutions’ enrollment numbers do not differ between the two

types of leadership styles.

Sharples (2002) evaluated leadership competencies of community college

presidents. Participants were asked to estimate the amount of energy expended on

leadership activities. Presidents of institutions with larger student enrollments report

expending more energy in leadership activities (e.g., establishing trust, encouraging

creativity, and increasing satisfaction among personnel) than did presidents of institutions

with smaller student enrollments. While Sharples research is not directly transferable to

the participants of this study, one might theorize that if presidents of large institutions

spend more time and energy in leading, they may be using transformational leadership.

Transactional leadership requires agreement between the leader and the follower

regarding the need to attain a specific goal. This goal is achieved by stating objectives

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that the follower must accomplish in order to reap a reward or punishment (Roueche,

Baker, & Rose, 1989). Once the exchange is completed, there is no further need to

interact unless another process of contingent reward is introduced (Avolio & Yammarino,

2002; Baker, 1992). Conversely, transformational leadership is a multifaceted approach

and requires the leader to maintain frequent contact with followers. Transformational

leaders (a) create learning opportunities for followers, (b) empower them to solve

problems as a means of fostering leadership skills, and (c) encourage efforts that exceed

expectations of all parties (Burns, 1978; Day, Zaccaro, & Halpin, 2004; Gronn, 1997).

Transformational leaders also strive to build confidence in followers, thereby converting

them into leaders (Tichy & Devanna, 1996). These activities require time and effort from

the leader.

Recommendations for Future Research

The following recommendations for future research are offered in an attempt to

explore further the leadership style of enrollment managers within higher education.

1. One weakness of this study is that only the self-perceived leadership style of the

leader was solicited. A study should be conducted to include participation of the

leaders’ followers. Previous research has shown that leaders tend to perceive

themselves as exhibiting transformational behaviors at a slightly higher level than

do their followers (Haire, 1997; Hardy, 1999; Leftwich, 2001; Roueche, Baker &

Rose, 1989). By soliciting the participation of the leader’s followers, the

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researcher could compare the leader’s self-perceived leadership style to the

perception of the follower.

2. Several published studies indicate that female leaders are more likely to be

identified as transformational leaders than are their male counterparts (Avolio &

Bass, 2004; Bass et al., 1996; Eagly et al., 2003; Padde, et al., 1995; Roueche et

al., 1989). Given the geographic limitation of the southern United States, the

researcher recommends that a study be conducted nationwide in order to

determine if gender is related to leadership style.

3. Previous research reports that transformational leadership is positively correlated

with follower satisfaction with the leader, effectiveness of the leader, role clarity,

mission clarity, openness of communication, and superior outcomes for the

organization (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Burns, 1978; Day, Zaccaro, & Halpin,

2004; Padde et al, 1995). The study presented here should be expanded to include

evaluation of leadership style of enrollment managers in relation to satisfaction of

followers.

4. Wonacott (2001) and Watts & Hammons (2002) suggest that leadership

development can promote the development of transformational leadership

behaviors and characteristics in participants. The leadership style of enrollment

managers who have participated in leadership development programs should be

assessed to determine if they are more likely to use transformational behaviors.

5. Future research should evaluate the association of leadership style with age and

years of supervisory experience, of leadership style with gender and years of

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supervisory experience, and of leadership style with ethnicity and years of

supervisory experience.

6. This study categorized participants as transactional leaders or as transformational

leaders. Future research should be conducted to determine if enrollment

managers use a combination of transactional and transformational leadership

styles. It has been suggested that effective leaders are not purely transactional or

transformational, but blend both styles (Antonakis & House, 2002; Barnett &

McCormick, 2004; Birnbaum, 1992; Dum Dum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002).

7. This study should be conducted to include an expanded definition of enrollment

management. Leaders within enrollment management who supervise offices

other than undergraduate admissions and financial aid should be evaluated for

leadership style. The bureaucratic functions of undergraduate admissions and

financial aid may have influenced leadership style of the participants.

8. A career pathway to enrollment management leadership positions has not been

identified. To understand leadership styles of this population, it may behoove

educators to analyze the path by which one achieves an enrollment management

position. Studies to document the pathway to leadership positions with

enrollment management should be conducted.

9. A study should be conducted to assess current models of enrollment management

and its placement in the organizational chart. Additionally, leadership style of the

enrollment management leader should be assessed to determine if there is an

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association between leadership style and the model of enrollment management at

the employing institution.

10. Although results of this study did not demonstrate an association between

leadership style and type of institution, two-year schools did report a higher

percent of transactional leaders. Future study should be conducted to determine if

there is a correlation between leadership style and the type of institution.

11. Future research should include a national study to determine if there is a

relationship between leadership style and geographic location. By conducting a

national study, the sample size would increase, thus creating more opportunity for

significant p-values.

Conclusions

A lack of documented research regarding profiles and leadership styles of

enrollment managers spurred this research project. Survey data, gathered via the

MLQ 5X, were used to gain insight to seven research questions.

There was statistical support of a dependent relationship between the leadership

style of participants and their years of supervisory experience, thus the null hypothesis

was rejected. The association between leadership style and years of supervisory

experience is important because it coincides with other research that concludes leaders

tend to become more transformational as they gain experience. Additionally, this finding

lends credence to the theory that leadership behaviors and characteristics can be learned

and change with time, training, and experience.

107

This finding is important for post-secondary administrators. It provides a basis

upon which administrators may justify the allocation of resources for leadership

development. Watts & Hammons (2002) alert higher education to an impending leader

shortage primarily due to planned retirements. In an effort to ensure adequate leadership

for the future, colleges and universities should support, develop, and incorporate

leadership development programs. Results from this study suggest that leadership style is

related to years of experience. One can surmise that a leader with more years of

experience has also had increased interaction with coworkers, more opportunity to solve

complex problems, more contact with individuals who have served both formally and

informally as mentors, and progressive experience with new responsibilities, thereby

facilitating the acquisition, or evolution, of a transformational leadership style.

Leadership development programs that include activities that emulate real-world

experiences may expedite the growth of transformational behaviors, hence allowing

leaders to develop more quickly. This is desirable as transformational leadership is

associated with improved personnel performance and satisfaction.

Non-statistical results from this study were also identified. Findings suggest there

was not a statistically significant association between leadership style and the

participant’s gender, the type of institution (either two-year or four-year; public or

private), or the level of education. The lack of correlation between leadership style and

the variables might have been influenced by characteristics in the survey population. The

researcher speculates results gleaned from this study deviated from the norm established

by previous leadership research for the following reasons.

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As a whole, the sample had fewer earned doctorates than did most groups who

have historically been included in the study of leadership theory. The majority of

leadership studies have focused on presidents and other chief administrators who

are more likely to have earned a doctoral degree (Rosser, 2001). Leadership

studies have reported a correlation between leadership style and level of education

(Birnbaum, 1992; Padde, et al., 1995).

This sample was equitably comprised of men and women. Historically, women

have not been equally represented in most leadership studies; thus prior

conclusions of leadership behavior were based predominately on male

characteristics (Cannon, 2003). Results from this study may be attributable to the

inclusion of equitable proportions of men and women, or gender may not be

related to the leadership styles of enrollment managers. Chliwniak (1997)

reminds us that a single model of reasoning fails to capture the different realities

of each gender.

There is no universally adopted model of enrollment management. While

organizational structure may differ between institutions, most will have a

president and senior administrative body that assume responsibility for

administering key functions of the college. However, enrollment management

models are not firmly entrenched in organizational structure, thus they may vary

considerably. Models that require minimal institutional commitment include an

enrollment management committee. At the opposite end of the spectrum, models

that support the maintenance of an enrollment management division require

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significant resources. Institutions that use loosely structured models, such as a

committee or coordinator, are less likely to place major emphasis on the

enrollment management concept, and therefore may be less likely to attract an

experienced leader with advanced academic credentials.

Results from this study contribute to the body of literature on the leadership styles

of individuals whose main responsibility lies within enrollment management. Prior to

hiring an individual to lead an enrollment management initiative, the researcher

recommends institutions evaluate and select an enrollment management model that is

reflective of the level of commitment to the process. The type of enrollment management

model adopted should guide the selection process in hiring an enrollment leader.

Because transformational leadership is credited with achieving superior performance

from employees, thereby creating greater opportunity for achievement of stated goals,

findings from this study provide a rationale for (a) hiring an individual with more

supervisory experience, and/or (b) the inclusion of leadership development programs to

promote the acquisition of transformational leadership skills within current personnel.

110

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APPENDIX A

PERMISSION TO COPY

THOMPSON PUBLISHING SERVICES

From: "Woods, Amy" <[email protected]> To: 'Tanya Hughes' <[email protected]> Subject: RE: Permission to copy Date: Thu, 2 Dec 2004 16:22:26 -0000 Dear Tanya Hughes Permission is granted for use of the requested material in your forthcoming dissertation, subject to the following conditions: 1. The material to be quoted/produced was published without credit to another source. If another source is acknowledged, please apply directly to that source for permission clearance. 2. Permission is for non-exclusive, English language rights, and covers use in your dissertation only. Any further use (including storage, transmission or reproduction by electronic means) shall be the subject of a separate application for permission. 3. Full acknowledgement must be given to the original source, with full details of figure/page numbers, title, author(s), publisher and year of publication. Yours sincerely Amy Woods Permissions Administrator Tel: +44 (0) 1264 342873 Fax: +44 (0) 1264 342792 -----Original Message----- From: Tanya Hughes [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: 24 November 2004 17:40 To: [email protected] Subject: Permission to copy

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My name is Tanya Hughes and I am a doctoral student. I am requesting permission to use two charts from the following book: Leadership and Organizations by Bryman, A. (1986). ISBN 0-7102-0324-1. The following number is located under the ISBN 0-7102-0800-6(p). The first chart is entitled The Managerial Grid schema and is on page 76 of the book. The second chart demonstrates "the basic structure of contingency approaches of leadership" (p. 126). I would like to use these in my dissertation. If my dissertation committee approves my proposal and subsequent dissertation, the document would be published (5 copies) with one copy remaining in the institution's library. My e-mail address is [email protected] I await the favor of your reply and appreciate your assistance in this matter. Sincerely, Tanya Hughes

APPENDIX B

PERMISSION TO COPY

MIND GARDEN

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APPENDIX C

SURVEY LETTER

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APPENDIX D

SURVEY QUESTIONS

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Demographic questions included in the on-line instrument:

1. Which areas do you supervise (check all that apply)? Admission Advising Counseling Financial Aid Housing Institutional Research Marketing Recruiting Registrar Retention Student Activities Other

2. How many years of supervisory experience do you have? 3. How many years have you been in your current position? 4. What is the highest degree you have earned?

Certificate Associate Baccalaureate Master’s Ed.D. Ph.D. Professional

5. Your ethnicity is:

Asian or Pacific Black Caucasian Hispanic Native American or Alaskan Other

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6. Your gender is: Female Male

7. What is your age? 8. What is the institutional head-count for fall 2004? 9. Type of institution:

Public Private 2 Year 4 Year 4 Year and above

10. Would you like a copy of the survey results?

If so, please include your e-mail address.

APPENDIX E

SURVEY FOLLOW-UP LETTER

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identification of leadership style of

Documents

Transcript of identification of leadership style of