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PART 1: Warfare and British society, c.1250-present

Chapter 1 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society - the B ig Story from c.1 250 to the present 2

Chapter 2 Med ieva l wa rfa re and B rit ish society, c . 1 25 0-c.15 00 1 0

Chapter 3 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society i n the ear ly modern per iod, c .1 500-c.1 700 32

Chapter 4 Wa rfa re and B rit ish society i n the e ig hteenth and n i n eteenth centu r ies, 54 c.1 700-c . 1900

Chapter 5 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society i n the modern era, c .1 900-present 79

Chapter 6 Conc lus ion : identify ing patterns of change and conti n u ity 1 08

PART 2: The historic environment: London and the

Second World War, 1939-45

PART 3: Writing better history

Glossary

Index

Acknowledgements

112

162

177

180

182

1 Warfare and British society -the Big Story from. c.l250 to the present

This book covers 750 years of the history of warfare. That may seem daunting,

but by the end of this chapter you will be able to describe -in outline -the

main developments in warfare from c.l250 to the present. Once you have that

outline in your mind you can start building up more detailed knowledge.

1 .1 What is th is thematic study a bout? The theme of warfare has two strands, shown in the diagram below - the nature of warfare and the experience of warfare.

weapons

The nature � of warfare

the composition of armies (numbers, type and role of combatants)

� the recruitment and training of combatants

The experience of warfare

the experience of civilians

Our main purpose is to identify patterns of change and continuity in the nature and experience of warfare between c .1250 and the present. You will find our what has changed - how rapidly and by how much - and what has stayed the same. You will then explore the resons for these changes and continuities .

1 .2 The im porta nce of ch rono logy You will b e covering a lot o f history i n this book - more than 750 years - and s o it will be important for you to be a master of chronology. This means sequencing events in the order in which they happen, and using the correct names for periods of history.

Historians divide the past into chunks of time, or periods, to make talking about the past more manageable. You will have come across some of these period names before: the Middle Ages, the Tudor period, the Industrial Age and the Victorian era.

Have a go at the activities on the next page to see how good your mastery of chronology already is. Identifying when you are not sure about something is actually very helpful in showing what you need to work on in order to improve your understanding.

1 2 50 1 300 1 500 1 700 1 900 2 0 1 6

1 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society - the B ig Story fro m c.1 250 to the present

PRACTISING CHRONOLOGY ?. 1 . Is 1 298 in the twe lfth or th i rteenth centu ry? Can you

exp la i n why?

2. G ive an exa m p l e of a date i n the s ixteenth centu ry.

3. I dentify, us ing the time l i ne, the h isto rica l per iods to which each of these dates be long : a) 1 9 1 6 b) 1 41 5 c) 1 645 d) 1 81 5 e) 1 298 f) 2003

4. 'M odern t imes' is o n ly a loose defi n it ion of the m ost recent period of h i story (1 900 to the present) - in the future it wi l l probab ly not be known i n th is way. M a ke

The importance of getting the chronology right

some suggestions as to how th is per iod m ight be referred to i n the futu re. What a re you r reasons for you r suggestions?

5. I dentify the period in wh ich you th i n k each of the fo l l owing wea pons was invented: - n u clear wea pons - ca nnons - m uskets (a basic fo rm of g u n) - tan ks - crossbows

You w i l l fi nd out later in th is book if you were r ight .

Every year students get confused about chronology in the exam - it's one of the most common mistakes. It can also be a very big mistake to make. If you get the chronology wrong you can end up writing about completely the wrong things . If you are asked about developments in one period of history, but write about an entirely different period of history because you've confused the name or dates of the period, you can lose a lot of marks.

You don't want to make these mistakes, so make sure that:

• you can put the periods of history in the right sequence • you know the approximate dates and centuries of the periods.

We will identify common mistakes that students make and make them visible so that you can see them. Then you have a better chance of avoiding those mistakes yourself.

Visible learning

Getting better at history - why we are making learning visible

As you work th ro u g h th is book you wi l l com e across l ots of new informat ion and sometimes you wi l l fee l puzz led, perhaps even confused . What do yo u do when you fee l puzz led and confused? You have two cho ices:

Choice A

Muddle on, try to ignore or hide the problem and don't tel l your teacher.

You may lose confidence and stop working hard .

The result - you make mistakes in your exams and do badly.

Cho ice B is a l ot smarter than Cho ice A . With Cho ice B you a re ta k ing respons i b i l ity fo r yo u r own lea rn i ng and you r own success. l t m ay so u n d strange b u t one cruc ia l way to get better at h i sto ry is to a d m it when you 're confused a n d getti ng t h i n g s wrong - t h e n y o u can sta rt t o put th i ngs r ight .

One very i m porta nt word i n Cho ice B is identify. Yo u ca n n ot get better at h i sto ry u n l ess you a n d you r teacher ident ify exactly what yo u don 't know a n d understa n d . To put that

Choice B

Thin k about why you're puzzled and identify the pro blem. Then admit t here's something you don't understand and tell your teacher.

The result - your teacher he lps you sort out t he problem, your confidence increases

and you do wel l in your exams.

a n other way, yo u have to m a ke that p rob lem visib le befo re you can put it r ight .

it's okay to get things wrong. We all do. And often the things we get wrong and then correct are the things we remember best because we've had to think harder about them. Saying 'I don't understand' is the first step towards getting it right.

•

PART 1 : Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish soci ety, c.1 250-present

1 .3 The Big Story of Wa rfa re from c.1 250 to the present We are starting with the Big Story because i t helps solve a key problem some students have. Many students know the details of individual events and periods but cannot 'see' the Big Story: the overall pattern of changes and continuities in warfare. This is a serious problem because you need to write about long-term changes and continuities in your exam.

To get an understanding of the Big Story let's meet four soldiers, one from each of the historical periods we will be studying in this book. Their experiences give us some understanding of the big changes and continuities in the nature of warfare. We will learn more about them later.

SUMMARISING THE BIG STORY

1. Draw a time l i ne l i ke the one on page 2, leavi ng space be low it to write some notes.

2. Read the profi les of the fou r i nd iv id ua l s on pages 4-5. a) Add the wea pons used i n each period to you r time l i ne . b) Add information a bout the com posit ion of a rm ies to you r time l i ne (fo r

exam p le, i nformation about the n u m bers, type and tactics of so ld iers) .

3. What seem to have been the ma in changes i n : a) wea pons? b) the com posit ion of a rm ies?

4. Were there any s im i l a rit ies between per iods in terms of: a) wea pons? b) the com posit ion of a rm ies?

5. Between which two consecutive per iods do you th i n k there were the b iggest changes in the nature of warfa re? Exp la i n you r cho ice.

SIR GILES OF TRUM PINGTON

A knight at the Batt le of Fa l kirk in 1 298

S i r G i les of Tru m pi n gton was a knight who probab ly fou g ht with the E n g l ish a rmy at the Batt le of Fa l ki rk i n Scot l and i n 1 298. S i r G i l es was a wea lthy l a nd ho lde r from Cam bridgesh i re; kn ig hts were o n ly recru ited from the soci a l e l ites .

I n th i s image he is shown wea r ing cha i n m a i l armour a n d armed with a sword (kn ig hts a l so used l ances). Kn ig hts usua l ly rode on horseback a n d fo u g ht us i ng h a n d -tohand com bat. The cava l ry charge was one of the m ost decis ive forces on the battl efie ld in the ear ly M i d d l e Ages, a l t hough by 1 400 E n g l i sh kn ig hts preferred to fig ht d i smounted i n batt le .

� •

Kn ig hts l i ke S i r G i les o n ly made u p a s m a l l p roport ion of Eng l ish a rm ies (no more than 25 per cent); the m ajority of troops were i nfa ntry. I nfa ntry were usua l l y spea rmen, a n d crossbowmen . B y the end o f t h e period i nfa ntry were a l m ost a l l ski l l ed long bow m e n . The overa l l s ize o f arm ies fl uctuated s i nce there w a s no perm a nent a rmy (troops were assem b led i nto a rm ies when there was a need) , but on average n u m bered between 9,000 and 26,000. .A. Brass rubbing of Sir Giles of

Trumpington


OLIVER CROMWELL

A cava l ryman at the Batt le of Naseby, 1 645, in the Eng l ish Civi l Wa rs foug ht between supporters of King Char les I and supporters of Pa r l iament

O l iver Cromwe l l was a M e m ber of Pa r l i ament (M P) and the leader of Par l i ament's cava l ry at the Batt le of N aseby in 1 645. L ike a l l cava l rymen he was from a reasonab ly we l l off backg round . The cava l ry were armed with basic (a nd somewhat u n re l i ab le) pisto ls , a lthou g h the sword was the i r ma in wea pon .

The p ictu re shows h i m wea r ing a p l ate a rmour breast p l ate wh ich was typ ica l fo r cava l rymen . They no longer wore fu l l body a rm o u r - there was no po int l i m it ing m o b i l ity with heavy su its of a rmour wh ich cou l d be penetrated by the shots f i red from the muskets (g u n s) that were used by the majority of i nfa ntrymen by th is t ime. Fortunate ly for the cava l ry, these m uskets were o n ly ca pab le of one shot every two to th ree m i n utes.

The cava l ry faced a n other th reat - p ike men ( infantry a rmed with long po les topped with m eta l sp i kes) who cou l d create a l i ne of sp ikes that cou l d h a lt a cava l ry charge . Arti l lery (ca n n o n) began to be used m o re frequent ly on the batt lefi e ld from the l ater fifteenth centu ry, a ltho u g h it d id not have a m ajor im pact .

There was no permanent a rmy i n Eng l and u nt i l 1 660 when a sma l l sta n d i n g a rmy was esta b l i shed of l itt l e over 20,000 men i n its ear ly years.

WILLIAM TICKLE

WILLIAM LAWRENCE

An infa ntryma n at the Battle of Waterloo in 1 81 5

Wi l l i a m Lawrence fou g ht as a n i nfa ntryman a t the Batt le of Water loo i n 1 81 5 . He vo l u nta r i ly e n l isted in the a rmy as a very you n g m a n , as a way t o esca pe poverty and a cru e l e m p l oyer. The l ow pay a n d h a rsh tra i n i n g i n t h e i nfantry meant that it was often chosen o n ly by desperate m e n . The cava l ry, wh ich recru ited from the wea l th ier soci a l e l ites, was q u ite d iffe rent.

L ike a l l i nfa ntrym en , W i l l i a m Lawren ce's m a i n wea pon was a m usket with a bayonet attachm ent . An i nfa ntryman cou l d usua l ly fi re two t o th ree shots p e r m i n ute.

I nfa ntry made up the l a rgest proportion , u sua l l y th ree q u a rters, of the Eng l ish a rm ies . Arti l l e ry p l ayed a b ig ro l e i n batt les . Cava l ry, a rmed with pisto l s and swords, sti l l h a d an i m po rtant ro le , b u t were i ncreas i n g ly i neffective d u e to the i ncreased fi repower of m uskets a n d a rti l l e ry on the battl efi e l d . The Eng l ish Army was a perm a n e nt p rofess iona l fo rce, but its s ize fl uctuated cons iderab ly accord i n g to need . l t usua l ly n u m bered 1 00,000 men but often doub led th is s ize i n t imes of war.

An infantryman in the First World Wa r at the Batt le of the Somme, 1 91 6

W i l l i a m T ick le was an i nfantryman a t the Batt le of the Som me i n 1 9 1 6 d u ri ng the F i rst Wor ld Wa r. H e vo l u nta r i ly e n l isted at the age of fifteen , wh i le sti l l u n d erage. Thousands of civi l i a n men vo l u nteered to se rve at the beg i n n i n g of the war, a ltho u g h conscription was i ntroduced fro m 1 9 1 6, com pe l l i n g men to se rve i n the a rmy. D u ri ng the F i rst Wo r ld Wa r the B rit ish Army n u m bered a l m ost 4 m i l l ion at i ts l a rgest.

Wi l l i a m Tick le , l i ke m ost i nfa ntrym en , wou l d have gone i nto batt le armed with a Lee- Enfie ld r i f le (ca pa b l e of fifteen shots a m i n ute) with a bayonet attachm ent and hand g renades . H e wo u l d have faced a rt i l l e ry she l l s , mach i ne g u ns, r if le fi re and poison gas . Ta n ks were a l so used for the fi rst t ime in the F i rst Wo r ld Wa r. Cava l ry had no rea l ro l e in the F i rst Wor ld Wa r; they were too vu l ne ra b l e to modern fi repower.


1 .4 Identifying patterns of cha n g e in the Big Story

100% You have begun to build the Big Story of the nature of warfare from c .1250 to the present. You will have noticed similarities (continuities) between periods as well as changes . Some changes took place gradually over a long period of time; some were more dramatic transformations. The graph illustrates some of the main types of change.

E "' )(

Continuity (no change)

Turning point

Fluctuating change

"------y-----Accelerating

pace of change w

0% �-------------------------------------------------------2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Time

Word Wa l ls You are going to use the words describing types o f change in the activity opposite to start to create your own Word Wall. A Word Wall is made up of words that will be particularly useful to help you do well in your history exams. These words might include:

• technical words to do with warfare such as cavalry • words that explain patterns of change and continuity,

and which help you explain your answers more clearly.

Some teachers put Word Walls up in their classrooms. Perhaps there is one in your classroom. But it is best not to leave all the work to your teacher. You have a much better chance of doing well in your exams if you take responsibility for your own learning and identify words you think might be important or are tricky for you and add them to your own Word Wall.

Continuity

A VOCABULARY FOR CHANGE ?. 1 . M atch the fo l l owing defi n it ions to the ph rases on the

g raph that descr ibe the type of change. - G rad ua l change - N o change - A sudden , d ramatic and su bstanti a l change - Change happen ing at an i ncreas ing pace - Change occurr ing at conti n u a l ly d iffer ing rates

•

CREATING A WORD WALL ?. 2. Sta rt to create you r own Word Wa l l that you can add to

as you go through the course. On a l a rge piece of paper write down in two different co lours:

•

- words that w i l l he lp you com m u n icate more clea rly and precisely what you mean, for examp le vocabu la ry of change and continu ity

- tech n ica l words to do with warfa re (see pages 4-5).

T Fluctuating change

Accelerating pace of change Trend

�L-

•


Now let's see how we can apply the language of change to two of the main developments in warfare. We will focus on the topic of weapons. The graph below illustrates changes in the technical sophistication of weaponry between c .1250 and the present.

Ill g Advanced a. Ill Cll ;: -0 1: 0 ·.;::; Ill V ·.;::; .!!! ..1: a. 0 Ill Ill V 1: ..1: V {E. Basic ...__ ___________________________ _

1 250 1300 1 400 1 500 1600

Time 1700 1 800 1 900 2000

IDENTIFYING PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN WEAPONS AND THE

COMPOSITION OF ARMIES

1 . H ow wou ld you describe the g raph l i ne d u ring the M idd le Ages?

2. Can you identify per iods where there were turn i ng points in the deve lopment of wea pon ry?

3. H ow wou ld you describe the pace of change in weapons deve lopm ent from the 1 950s?

4. I n a sentence or two, descri be the patterns of change shown in the g raph .

5. Look back a t you r work on the fou r so ld iers on pages 4-5. Can you suggest any reasons that exp la i n the patterns of change that you have identified from the g ra ph? (H int : what types of wea pons were i ntroduced d u ri ng per iods of d ramatic change?)

?. •

6. Look back at you r work on the so ld iers on pages 4-5 . H ow wou l d you describe, in a sentence or two, the patterns of change in the com posit ion of Eng l ish arm ies? (Remember that you can ta l k a bout the n u m ber, type and ro le of so ld iers.)


1 .5 I ntrod ucing the factors - exp la in ing why change d id (a nd d id n't) happen Now that you have identified some of the main changes and continuities in the Big Story, you may want to ask 'why'? Why did weapons change relatively little in the Middle Ages, but change so rapidly in the twentieth century? Why did the role of the cavalry decline in importance? Why did the size of armies change so much? This page introduces the factors that will be used throughout the book to help you explain the reasons for changes and continuities .

The factors and what they mean The three main factors are illustrated i n the table below. The table shows the developments in warfare that each factor explains.

Factor Expla ins developments in :

• wea pons tech no log ies • m ethods of transport • m ethods of a rmam ents m a n ufactu re • com m u n ications tech no log ies

• the fu nd i ng and deve lopm ent of new wea pons tech no log ies

• the recru itm ent of com bata nts • the org a n isat ion of a rm ies • the cho ice of tactics

lt i s im porta nt to rem e m ber that govern m e nts have changed d ra m atica l ly in the 750 yea rs covered i n th i s book. For exa m p le, govern ment was contro l led by kings i n the M i d d l e Ages, and is led by dem ocratica l l y e lected po l it ic i ans today. In the M i d d l e Ages and the Ear ly Modern Per iod the k ing usua l ly led the Army i n batt le .

The attitude of civi l i a ns towa rds war a n d how/ whether it s h o u l d be fo ug ht.

Many of the factors relate to British society. This is because there is an important connection between warfare and British society. The deployment of troops on the battlefield depends on the manpower, weapons and supplies its government and population is able or willing to provide. Warfare shapes societies but is also shaped by them .

• •

Factors are the reasons we will use to explain why there were changes or continuities.

WHAT DO THE

FACTORS MEAN?

?.

1 . H ow do you th i n k each factor he lps to exp la i n changes i n each of the fo l lowing topics: - wea pons - com posit ion of

a rm ies (n u m ber, type and ro le of troops)

- recru itment and tra i n i ng of com batants

- the exper ience of civi l i ans?

2. Can you suggest ways in which the factors m ight l i n k to or infl uence each other?

•


Using the factors to write explanations The factors will help you explain the reasons for changes and continuities in warfare. It can be helpful to draw a diagram to help you visualise the factors and how they connect to the question you are trying to answer. The Factor Map below shows the factors and an example of a change or continuity question that you need to explain. The three factors are connected to the question in the diagram.

These connections remind you that it is important to explain how the factors explain the changes in warfare, not just to describe the factors.

1: Rapid advances took place

in science, technology and

communications in the twentieth

century. This included the

development of radio, nuclear

and digital technologies. This led

to many new types of weapons

that made use of these new

technologies.

Look at the diagram. What type oflanguage is used to demonstrate how the factors explain the changes in weapons in the twentieth century?

2

Explain why weapons became so much more advanced in the twentieth century.

2: Governments invested an increased amount

of money in the military in the twentieth

century, particularly during the two wor ld wars

(1 9 1 4-1 8 and 1939-45). This investment

contributed to more rapid development of new

weapons. it is no coincidence that particularly

large numbers of new weapons were developed

during the world wars, for example, the tank in

the First World War, and the nuclear bomb in

the Second World War.

3: In the later twentieth century

attitudes in society in Britain

became increasingly critical of war,

especial ly as people were horrified

by the deaths of civilians and

British military personnel . This

encouraged the development of

new weapons designed to limit

casualties, such as precision

guided missiles and drones.

LINKING FACTORS? And before you turn over! • You are now in a very strong position to begin looking at each period in detail. You have a

Can you suggest any good understanding of the Big Story of warfare between c .1250 and the present. You know reasons why the factors the main topics that make up the nature and experience of warfare, you know the main that a re shown as l i n ked

h d · · · h k I d · rr b bl b 'Id d · r d c anges an cont1nu1t1es t at too p ace, an so w1 e a e to u1 more etal e together in the Factor M a p m i g ht infl uence each

knowledge onto this framework. You've also been introduced to the factors explaining

other? change and can think about how they might link and be used to form good explanations . And remember, if you are confused at all, admit it - it is only when you make problems visible that they can be overcome.

•

Medieval warfare and British society c.l250-c.l500

When you think of warfare in the medieval period, you probably imagine

armoured knights and archers, with fierce hand-to-hand combat between

knights on horseback as the decisive force on the battlefield. How far was this

true? And, if it was, did warfare remain relatively unchanged throughout the

Middle Ages?

2.1 Case study: The Batt le of Fa l ki rk, 1298 Let's begin this chapter on the battlefield at Falkirk in 1298 to find out what fighting was like at the beginning of our period.

Who fought at Fa l ki rk? KING EDWARD I (1239- 1307) The Battle of Falkirk was fought between the large army of King Edward I of England, and the smaller Scottish forces of the nobleman William Wallace. The Scots were fighting against English efforts to impose control over Scotland. The two armies met in countryside near Falkirk in Scotland on 22 July 1298 . The graph below shows the composition of the two armies.

16,000 14,000

>- 12,000 E :u 10,000 cu .s 8,000

.... 0 cu 6,000 N iii 4,000

2,000 0

English Army

Scottish Army

Key • Cavalry • Spearmen

• Longbow men • Crossbow men

.A. The composition of the English and Scottish forces at Falkirk

I

Edward I , l i ke m ost k ings in the M id d l e Ages, persona l ly com m a nded h i s troops i n batt le . He wou l d have fou g ht on ho rseback, a l ongs ide the oth er knig hts. H is ro l e as com m a n d e r wou l d have been to se l ect the m ost su i ta b l e g ro u n d for batt le , to organ ise his troops and to ra l ly the i r mora l e often b y actions of perso n a l bravery.

Edward I, l i ke a l l kn ig hts, wore cha i n m a i l a rmour, made of l i n ked r ings (cha i n s) of i ron wh ich p rov ided protection aga i nst cuts, but was l itt le use aga i nst crush i ng b l ows from heavy swo rds .

Arrows cou l d penetrate cha i n m a i l if they h it w i th suff ic ient force . In batt le he wo u l d have worn a 'g reat h e l m ' - a heavy, cum bersom e so l id meta l h e l met - th is p rov ided protect ion but wou l d have contr i buted to the d ifficu lt ies of com m u n icat ing effective ly on the battl efi e ld .

2 Med ieva l wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society c.1 250-c.1 5 0 0

What happened at the Batt le of Fa l ki rk?

DID EDWARD I LEAD THE ENGLISH ARMY EFFECTIVELY AT FALKIRK?

You wi l l now find out what happened during the Batt le of Fa l kirk, and judge how we l l Edward I led the Eng l ish Army. To do this, you are going to rate the effectiveness of five key decisions made by Edward I du ring the battle. Read each decision and rate each one accord ing to whether you think it was:

• an okay decis ion that m ight succeed • a poor decis ion that was u n l i ke ly to succeed .

• a good decis ion that was l i ke ly to succeed

When m a king you r judgement, try to th i n k of the possib l e advantages and r isks of each decis ion . Don't worry that you don 't know the outcome of each decis ion when you rate it.

Decision 1

The Scottish forces had taken u p position a t t h e top o f t h e ridge. Wi l l iam Wa l lace had ordered the spearmen to form large rings, known as schiltrons, which provided the best protection aga inst charg ing caval ry. The sch i l trons were enormous with some 2000 spearmen in each ring . The batt le began with Edward l 's decision to order some of the Eng l ish mounted knig hts to charge up the h i l l to attack the Scottish cava l ry (not yet the Scottish archers or spearmen).

Rate th is decision .

Decision 2

• .�

. ....

The Eng l ish cava l ry charge succeeded . The Scottish cava l ry, h uge ly outnu m bered, f led from the battlefie ld . lt wou ld now be easier for the Eng l ish cava l ry to attack the Scottish archers. K ing Edward l 's next decis ion was to order h is rema in ing cava l ry (about 1 350 men) to attack the Scottish long bow men who were positioned at the top of the h i l l between the schi ltrons (rings) of spearmen .


Decision 3

The Eng l ish cava l ry charge against the Scottish a rchers succeeded despite being d isorgan ised . Many knights va l ued the opportun ity to show off their i nd ividua l bravery and did not co-ord inate their advances; their heavy he lmets a lso made com m u n ication d ifficu lt. The vu lnerab le Scottish a rchers were cut down with swords, fled from the battlefie ld or took she lter inside the schi ltrons. With the majority of Scottish archers removed, Edward I decided that the Eng l ish cava l ry shou ld charge against the fou r enormous sch i l trons of Scottish spearmen (there were about 2000 men in each r ing) .

Rate this decision .

� q �

0 � Scottish spearmen formed enormous ring formations called schiltrons.

Decision 4

Key COil English mounted knights

Ill • English infantry (spearmen)

• English infantry (archers and crossbowmen)

Scottish mounted knights

0 Scottish infantry (spearmen)

• Scottish infantry (archers)

The Eng l ish cava l ry charged repeatedly against the schi ltrons but cou ld not break them. The spearmen were packed so tightly in the r ings that there was no way for the Eng l ish horses to break through without being impa led. Scottish archers ins ide the schi ltrons a lso fired a rrows at the charg ing knights. Edward I decided to order the Eng l ish long bow men forward to fi re arrows at the schi ltrons.

Rate this decision .

Decision 5

Large num bers of Eng l ish longbow men fi red thousands of arrows into the schi ltrons. The Scottish spearmen did not wear armour or he lmets and were vu l nerab le to the arrows. As ind ivid ua l spearmen fe l l , gaps began to appear in the schi ltrons wh ich weakened the i r structu re. Edward I decided that the Eng l ish cava l ry and infantry shou ld break their way into these gaps and fight the Scottish spearmen at close quarters.



The outcome The English cavalry broke through the gaps that had appeared i n the schiltrons and hacked the spearmen down with swords. Once the schiltron formations were broken, the Scottish spearmen were very vulnerable; their spears were too long and unwieldy to be used in hand-to-hand combat. English spearmen broke through too, throwing rocks and other missiles into the schiltrons. The Scottish spearmen fled from the battlefield, seeking shelter in Callendar Wood, but thousands were cut down as they fled.

It is impossible to known the exact number of casualties on each side as no reliable records were kept and contemporary chroniclers tended to exaggerate massively. But the Scottish losses are likely to have been considerable, probably between 2000 and 5000 dead; the English significantly less. The battle had taken no more than a few hours.

The English actions at the Battle ofFalkirk showed that the cavalry charge could be one of the most decisive forces on the early medieval battlefield. But, it also showed that cavalry had their limitations; without the archers, they could not overcome the schiltrons.

WILLIAM WALLACE, BORN C.1270, EXECUTED 1305

W i l l i a m Wa l l ace was a Scott ish n o b l e m a n a n d leader of those Scots fig ht ing aga i nst E n g l ish attem pts to im pose contro l over Scot l and . Wa l l a ce was a sk i l lfu l m i l ita ry leader. H e rea l ised the Scott ish fo rces were n u m erica l ly wea ker than the Eng l ish a rm ies and so preferred to use tactics of ra id and a m bush that made use of the Scots' su per ior know ledge of the l andscape, rather than fig ht ing i n batt les where the l a rger s ize of the E n g l i sh arm ies put the Scots at a d isadvantage.

REASONS FOR THE OUTCOME OF THE

BATTLE

�

1 . Draw a series of six basic p ictu res to show the ma i n stages of the Batt le o f Fa l k irk .

2. Describe the ro le of Wi l l i am Wa l lace at the Batt le of Fa l kirk.

3. Describe the ro le of Edwa rd I i n determ in i ng the outcome of the Batt le of Fa l ki rk.

4. 'The decis ions made by Edwa rd I were the ma in reason for the Eng l ish victory at the Batt le of Fa l ki rk.' H ow fa r do you agree with th is statement? Exp la i n you r answer.

You might l ike to refer to: - the effectiveness of Edward l 's decis ions - the size and com posit ion of the two a rm ies

(pa rticu la r ly the l a rger size of the Eng l ish Army) - the position ing of the two a rm ies at the sta rt of the

batt le .

•

H owever, the E n g l i sh Army took h i m by su rpr ise at the Batt le of Fa l ki rk a n d he had l itt l e cho ice but to fig ht. H e wise ly ch ose to pos i t ion h i s troops on the e l evated g ro u n d a n d to arrange h i s spearmen i nto l a rge sch i ltron format ions . What l itt l e we know of Wa l l ace suggests he was a l so a cha r ismat ic i n d iv id u a l who i nsp i red h i s troops . At Fa l k i rk he is reputed to have sa id j ust befo re the batt le beg a n : ' I have bro u g ht you to the r ing, now d a n ce the best you ca n ! '

H e was fi n a l ly ca ptu red a n d executed (hanged , d rawn a n d q u a rtered) b y the Eng l ish , as a tra ito r, i n 1 305 .

What was the civi l ian experience of the Batt le of Fa l ki rk? At first it might seem as if civilians had little to do with the Battle of Falkirk. But, the majority of infantrymen in both armies were not professional, permanent soldiers but civilians, usually agricultural labourers, recruited from the nearby counties and compelled to serve the armies. English infantrymen received payment for their service, usually 2d (pence) a day (less than the pay of a skilled craftsman but more than that of an unskilled agricultural labourer) .

The wider military campaign, of which the Battle ofFalkirk was part, showed the significant extent to which civilians could be affected by war. The Battle of Falkirk, like most battles, was not decisive, and there followed a series of raids by the English Army across the countryside of Scotland in which fields and towns were burned, looted and destroyed. This devastation had an enormous impact on the civilian population who suffered violence and the loss of homes, livestock and crops.


2.2 Yo u r Enq u i ry Q u estion : patterns of change The Battle of Falkirk has given you some understanding of what warfare was like at the beginning of the Middle Ages. This is a good starting point for your task in this chapter, which is to identify what changed and what stayed the same in warfare during the period between c .1250 and c . 1500 and to answer the big Enquiry Question:

'There were few major changes in warfare in the Middle Ages .' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

As you work through this chapter you will find it useful to organise your notes in such a way that you can easily identify patterns of change. The Knowledge Organis er table below will help you do this.

Beginn ing you r enqu i ry 1. Make a large (A3) copy of the table below. Read pages 10-12 again. 2. List the weapons used at Falkirk in the first row of your table in the 1250-1350 column. 3. Describe briefly the composition of the English Army at Falkirk (include information

about size, and the proportion (relative number) of cavalry and infantry) in the first column.

4. Describe the experience of civilians in the Battle ofFalkirk and in the military campaign of which the battle was part in the final row of your table.

Leave the recruitment and training of combatants row empty for now. You will be able to complete this table as you work through the rest of the chapter.

Topic 1 250 - 1 350

Wea pons

Com posit ion of arm ies (n u m ber, type a n d tactics o f com bata nts)

Recru itm ent a n d tra i n i n g o f com bata nts

Experience of civi l i a ns

As you work through the chapter and add to the Knowledge Organiser, you will be looking for patterns of change and continuity. You will also compare the pattern of change between the different topics: was there less change in weapons than in the composition of armies? Was there greater continuity in the civilian experience of war than in recruitment and training?

5. In this chapter you will also read about the factors that explain the changes and continuities in warfare. It will be useful to keep a record of the role of these factors. To do so, create three separate factor sheets or cards, like the one below, one for each of the factors: • Science, technology and communications • Governments and individuals • Attitudes in society

Key features of Science, technology and communications, c.1250-c.1500

Impact of this feature in explaining changes and continuities in warfare

At key points as you work through the chapter you will be reminded to fill in these factor sheets .

1 350 - 1 500


2.3 H ow m uch d id wea pons change in the M id d l e Ages? There was considerable continuity in the main weapons used in the Middle Ages . The more important weapons are described below.

Swords

Swords were the main weapon used by knights in hand-to-hand combat throughout the Middle Ages. But swords did change during the period. In the

thirteenth century swords were broad and flat for dealing crushing blows against knights wearing

chainmail armour. From the late fourteenth century swords became thinner and more

sharply pointed, designed to thrust between the joins of plate armour.

<Ill A thin, pointed sword typical of those from the late fourteenth century

Staff wea pons

.A. Spears being used in battle by mounted knights

Staff wea pons were based on a 'staff' which simply means a wooden pole. They often had a sharpened wooden end or a metal blade attached, such as in a spear or pike. Most of the effectiveness of the weapon came from the placement of spearmen close together to form an impenetrable wall or circle (like the schiltrons at Falkirk - see

page 12) . They were little use in hand-to-hand combat, however, as they were too unwieldly.

METALLURGY: THE SCIENCE OF METALS

Long bow

The longbow was used throughout the Middle Ages . The bow itself changed little. It had a range of just over 350 metres, and was highly accurate up to 200 metres. Steel, bodkinshaped arrow heads could penetrate even plate armour if they hit with sufficient force and at a 90-degree angle. The main impact of arrows in battle, however, was not in piercing shots (although there are plenty of examples of soldiers being hit in an unprotected part, most often the face) . Instead, a storm of arrows fired repeatedly by a large group of archers would have delivered weakening and disorientating blows - much like being punched, severely, over and again. A skilled archer could fire up between eight and twelve arrows per minute.

Bows required considerable skill and strength to operate. To pull back the bowstring of a standard longbow was the equivalent of pulling back a weight of 45 kg (that's the weight of 45 litre bottles of milk!). This is known as the draw-weight of a bow. The skeletal remains of bowmen show deformities of the spine and shoulder from repeated use of the bow.

Crossbows

Crossbows could fire bolts at tremendous force. By the end of the period, bolts fired from metal crossbows penetrated even plate armour. These bows were so hard to draw back that a mechanical device (called a cranequin) had to be used. This made their rate of fire slow, often only two bolts a minute. .A. A crossbow from

the Middle Ages

In the m id -fou rteenth centu ry new m ethods of m a n ufactu r ing stee l were deve l o ped that, fo r the fi rst t ime, enab led it to be prod uced i n l a rge e n o u g h q u a ntit ies to m a ke the product ion of stee l p l ate a rmour poss ib le . Previous ly it had on l y been poss ib l e to prod uce stee l i n sma l l q u a ntit ies fo r a rrow heads or the cutti ng edge of swo rds . Stee l was idea l fo r a rmour because it was both ha rd a n d shatte r resistant . I ron , fo r exa m p le , l ong used i n the m a n u factu re of wea pons , was no good for p l ate armour because it was br itt le .


Ca n non

Cannon were first used i n Europe around 1320. They were a new type o f weapon, using gunpowder as the powering force to fire a projecti le. Projectiles were initially stone shots and then, from the fifteenth century, cast iron cannon balls. Cannon were at first made from rolls of sheet iron, bent into a tube shape and reinforced with iron bands - a method that was both time-consuming and costly. There were therefore few cannon until the 1400s . From the fifteenth century it became increasingly possible to manufacture cast iron cannon by pouring liquid iron into moulds. This was quicker and cheaper and more cannon were produced.

From the 1400s, new types of gunpowder became available which increased the reliability of cannon, and reduced (but did not eliminate) the danger of the cannon itself exploding on firing! This was because of the development of gunpowder that burned more slowly, creating a more powerful and reliable explosion in large guns like cannon.

The earliest cannon had relatively short range and poor accuracy in comparison to siege engines such as large catapult and trebuchet that were already in use against castles and fortifications. Cannon were not used with great frequency; typically they were fired less than twelve times a day during a siege. But gradual improvements in their rate, range and accuracy of fire contributed to them being used more regularly from the 1370s.

Throughout the Middle Ages cannon were most often used in sieges where their shot was useful in bringing down walls; they were only rarely used on the battlefield, and then usually to fire a series of opening shots at the start of the battle. This was partly because cannon were so difficult to transport, requiring several horses and only being able to move at slow speeds. They could not be easily manoeuvred in battle.

Small cannon (or handguns) were also developed from the 1350s and, by the later medieval period, were increasingly used, although they frequently required at least two people to fire. Their shot could penetrate even plate armour, but they remained secondary to bows and crossbows, largely because of their limited accuracy and range, and the danger of them exploding.

CANNON: A TURNING POINT IN WARFARE?

Did the i ntroduct ion of ca nnon i nto E u rope represent a tu rn i n g po int i n wa rfa re? I n some ways it d id . Ca nnon used g u n powder, a com p l ete ly n ew techno logy from oth er wea pons of the t ime, a n d the i m pact of ca n n o n (a nd oth er g u n powder wea pons) was to be l ong l ast i n g . B ut, i n othe r ways, ca nnon d id not ra p id ly transform the nature o f wa rfa re for m uch o f t h e M id d l e Ages. Tech no log ica l prob lems l i m ited t h e i r effectiveness, the n u m bers prod uced were s m a l l and the i r i m pact on the battl efie ld was re l ative ly m i n o r.

HOW MUCH DID WEAPONS CHANGE?

A A nineteenth-century wood engraving of a medieval cannon

1. What wea pons do you th ink were the g reatest danger to kn ig hts: a) at the beg i nn i ng of the period, c.1 250?

you can write you r entry across a l l the dates to show conti n u ity. Where there was change, write the change under the appropriate date.

b) by the end of the per iod, c.1 500?

Exp la i n you r answer by referri ng to the ca pab i l it ies of the wea pons and a rmour.

2. Describe the ma i n changes in wea pons d u ri ng the M idd le Ages.

3. Add information a bout wea pons to the fi rst row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see p a g e 1 3) . Where a wea pon rema ined unchanged th roughout the per iod,

4. Write a few sentences i n the fi na l co l u m n to describe the pattern of change i n wea ponry d u ring the M idd le Ages. Th i n k about the extent and pace of change: was change g rad ua l or ra p id?

5. Add i nformation to you r factor sheet on Sc ience, techno logy and com m u n ications . Write about the changes i n the science of making meta l and the im pact this had on wea pons .

?. •


2.4 Was there a ny cha n g e to the com position of Eng l ish a rm ies, c.1250-c.1500? Weapons changed only a little and gradually during the Middle Ages, so you might expect there to be little change in the composition of armies; however, by 1500 there had been two significant changes:

• The vast majority of infantry men were longbow men. • Knights usually fought dismounted.

The size of the Eng l ish a rmies The number of troops in the English armies fluctuated considerably during the Middle Ages . This was mainly because there was no permanent army. Armies were summoned and assembled from the knights and population as a whole when there was a need. The numbers summoned, and hence the army's size, depended upon the seriousness of the threat.

I nfa ntry: the i ncreased ro le of a rchers Infantry made up the largest proportion of armies throughout the Middle Ages and made up usually at least 75-90 per cent of the army. What did change was the type and skill of the infantry. At Falkirk the majority of infantry were untrained agricultural labourers, armed with basic spears, stones or even farm implements. By the late fourteenth century, the majority were longbow men. Although many were not professional, permanent soldiers, bowmen had to be skilled to operate a longbow effectively in battle (see page 14) .

The longbow played an increasingly important role in battle during the 1300s . New battlefield formations typically placed archers on the flanks (with knights in the centre) of the battlefield. Battles often began with large numbers of archers firing a hail of arrows into enemy knights advancing on horseback or on foot. This could be devastating and highly effective in weakening an enemy, before they were able to engage in hand-to-hand combat with your own knights. The increased importance of infantry, especially archers has been termed by some historians as a 'military revolution'.

•

£. A longbow made from yew tree


Decl ine in the ro le of mou nted knig hts Mounted armoured knights had a decisive role in battle in the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries - remember the importance of the charges of knights on horseback at the Battle of Falkirk.

There was, however, a decline in the role of the mounted knight in battle from the mid-fourteenth century. At this time, new formations in English armies tended to use knights fighting dismounted in the centre of the battlefield (flanked by archers) . Their plate armour gave them significant protection and this type of hand-to-hand combat fitted well with the emphasis on military prowess and bravery in chivalric culture (see box) .

M ounted raids Mounted knights, and mounted archers, continued to have an important role in raids, which were a crucial part of military campaigns. These raids were carried out by troops on horseback, and were often referred to as chevauchee (meaning horse charge or raid). The raiders destroyed and burned farmland and villages in large areas of enemy territory. The strategic purpose of these raids was to deny the enemy valuable resources and weaken their morale.

.6. Battle of Poitiers at Maupertuis ( 1 356) , Boethius Master. The artist emphasises the brutality of hand-to -hand combat

Positions of command Knights were usually commanded in battle by bannerets (the military rank above knight). Positions of military command were linked closely to the social structure, with command given to men from the wealthiest and most privileged noble families who usually held the hereditary titles of earl and

duke (duke was the highest hereditary title, usually reserved for members of the royal family). For example, at the Battle ofFalkirk the mounted knights were divided into groups led by King Edward I himself, the Earl of Surrey and the Earl of Lincoln.

The fact that these men got their positions of command due to social status did not necessarily mean that they were incompetent commanders, given the emphasis on military prowess in elite chivalric culture (see box) .

CHIVALRY

Ch iva l ry was a code of con d u ct im porta nt to the cu l tu re of the socia l e l ites in the M i d d l e Ages. l t stressed the va l ues o f m i l ita ry ski l l , se rvice a n d loya lty. l t a l so had a n im pact on the way wa r was foug ht. M iss i l e wea pons (a rrows a n d bo l ts) were desp ised as cowa rd ly a n d u n ch iva l rous , whereas h a n d to -hand com bat w a s reg a rded as b rave. T h i s contr i buted t o kn ig hts conti n u i n g t o u s e t h e sword a n d favour i ng d i smou nted h a n d -tohand com bat.

The sha red ch iva l ric cu l tu re meant that kn ig hts on oppos ing sides treated each othe r with respect. The convent ion was that if a kn ight su rrendered to a n other kn ight on the battl efie ld , then he wou l d be ca ptu red a n d ra nsomed rath er than ki l l ed . There was a c lear fi nanc i a l advantage to th is 'nob le ' convent ion too!

HOW MUCH CHANGED IN THE COMPOSITION

OF ARMIES?

?.

1 . Describe the ma i n changes in the ro le of kn ig hts that took p l ace from c.1 250 to c.1 500.

2. Describe the main changes i n the n u m ber and ro l e of a rchers that took p lace from c.1 250 to c.1 500.

3. Describe the main conti n u ities i n the com position of arm ies (n u m ber, type and tactics of troops) d u ri ng the period c.1 250 to c.1 500.

•

4. Add info rm at ion a bout the com posit ion of arm ies to the second row of you r Know ledge Organ iser ta b l e (page 1 3) . I n c l ude i nformat ion a bout the n u m ber, type and tact ics of troops .

5. Write a few sentences in the fina l co l u m n to describe the pattern of change in the com position of a rm ies du ring the M idd le Ages. Th ink about the extent and pace of change (was change g rad ua l or rapid?).

6. Add information to you r factor sheet on Attitudes i n society. Write about the conti n u it ies in the va l ues of ch iva l ry and the im pact th is had on wa rfa re.


2.5 H ow m uch change was there in the recru itm ent a n d tra in ing of kn ig hts? As you have seen there was no permanent, standing army in England in the Middle Ages. This meant that the king had to recruit combata nts to fight in his armies when there was a need. The methods used to recruit knights were very different to those used for the infantry. Let's begin by looking at knights.

Who were knig hts?

Knights, such as Sir Giles ofTrumpington, came from the wealthy social elite, with land worth at least £40 a year (the equivalent of over 20 years' income for a prosperous peasant family) . Such men probably made up no more than 4 per cent of the overall population.

The knights of the Royal H ousehold HOW DID THE

KING RECRUIT

KNIGHTS?

?. The knights of the Royal Household were the king's private army, and were paid by the king. The Household usually numbered around 50 knights . Each knight had their own following of knights and archers (called their retinue) who they could call upon to fight. This meant that the size of the Royal Household army could quickly be expanded. Household troops provided about one third of the knights at the Battle of Falkirk, which was fairly typical.

Ra n k each of the fo l l owing th ree recru itm ent opt ions i n order of you r preference (you can choose more than one favou rite opt ion as k ings often used a com binat ion of methods) . G ive reasons for you r cho ices, so th i n k about

The Royal Household, however, was not large enough to fight a full military campaign, or even battle. So how did the king recruit more knights to fight for him?

What methods cou ld kings use to recru it knig hts? The king had a number of options for recruiting knights, but most of these relied on the fact that military service and military prowess were highly valued and respected in the chivalric elite culture of the Middle Ages . In consequence the social elite had a strong sense of their duty to provide military service.

the advantages and d isadva ntages of each option .

A FEUDAL SUMMONS

A feuda l summons was issued by the k ing to a l l nob lemen who had received l and d i rectly from the crown . l t req u i red them to fig ht for the k ing fo r a 40-day per iod . They were a l so expected to br ing with them a set q u ota of men to fight with them in the i r reti n ue .

The feu d a l s u m m ons had once been the sta nda rd means of recru it i ng kn ig hts. Feu d a l s u m m o n s created what can be referred to as 'med ieva l feu d a l a rm ies'. But a feu d a l s u m m o n s w a s u nsatisfactory if the k i n g needed men to go on m i l ita ry ca m pa ign for l onger than 40 days (as was i ncreas ing ly the case) . A k ing cou l d a l so not be com p l ete ly confident i n the n u m ber of kn ig hts that wo u l d turn u p to fig ht fo l l ow ing a feu d a l s um mons; by t h e fo u rteenth centu ry somet imes less than one s ixth of those s u p posed to respond actu a l l y answered the s u m m ons .

• •

A GENERAL SUMMONS

A genera l s u m m o n s was issued by the k ing and appea led to a l l kn ig hts to vo l u nteer to fig ht on the bas i s of the i r l oya lty to h im . l t offered them no d i rect payment . Kn ig hts usua l ly responded to a s u m m o n s for two reasons : the strong cu l tu re of m i l ita ry se rvice a n d because they ho ped they wou l d be rewa rded by g ra nts of land from the k ing , o r m a ke fi nanc i a l ga i n s th ro u g h ra nsoms or p l u n der. l t was probab ly no co inc idence that more vo l u nteers came forwa rd fo r wars aga i nst Fra nce where the fi nanci a l ga in was g reater than fo r wars aga i nst Scotl a n d . But a k ing cou l d never be confident o r certa i n of how m a ny wou l d respond t o a genera l s u m m ons .

•


AN INDENTURE (A CONTRACT)

The k ing cou l d m a ke a contract with an i nd iv id ua l kn ig ht, which stated that the knight agreed to provide m i l ita ry service to the king for a fixed period of time i n return for the payment of wages by the ki ng . The rate of pay per day was usua l l y 2 s h i l l i ngs for a kn ig ht, 1 s h i l l i ng for a squire and 4 sh i l l i ngs for a banneret (the socia l /m i l ita ry ra n k a bove a kn ig ht). Th is rate of pay was decent, but ha rd ly enough to be the ma i n motivation for kn ig hts perform ing m i l ita ry service. Often the payment on ly just covered the costs of go ing on ca m pa ign - the kn ight was expected to provide horses and equ ipment h imse lf.

The b ig advantage of contracts was that the k ing knew who was go ing to turn u p to fig ht. The k ing cou l d a l so have more contro l over the types of troops recru ited; d u ring the fou rteenth centu ry mou nted a rchers were i ncreas ing ly preferred and this was specified i n contracts. Contracts were expensive, however, because the king did have to m a ke payments i n return fo r service. Large n u m bers of contracts a l so req u i red a sizeab le governm ent bu reaucracy to write u p and keep records (a l l of wh ich had to be done by hand), and a rrange paym ents. Th is was o n ly possib le on a l a rge sca le from the fou rteenth centu ry onwards when government bu reaucracy and roya l fi nanc ia l resou rces g rew s ign ifica ntly.

AN INDENTURE

An exa m p l e of an indenture is shown be low. lt was made between S i r Thomas Tu nsta l l and K i ng H e n ry V i n 1 41 5 . Read i t and answer the fo l lowing q uestions .

1 . For what length of t ime was the contract va l id?

•

2. H ow m any, and what type of, men was Thomas to supp ly in h i s reti nue?

3. H ow m uch was Thomas to be paid in wages from the k ing?

4. What other money was Thomas entit led to receive from the k ing?

5. What potenti a l types of profit does it ment ion Thomas m ight m a ke from go ing on cam pa ign? Are they entit led to keep such profit?

Th.is indenture, made between th.e king and Sir Th.omas Tunstall, bears witness th.at th.e said Th.omas is bound towards our lord th.e king to serve h.im for a wh.ole �ear . . . Th.omas sh.all h.ave with. h.im in th.e expedition for th.e wh.ole �ear s ix men-at-arms, h.imse� included, and 1 8 mounted archers . He will take wages for h.imse� at 2 shillings per da� ... In th.e event th.at Th.omas goes in th.e compan� of th.e king into th.e kingdom of France, h.e sh.all take as wages for each. of th.e men-at-arms 1 2d per da� , and for each. of th.e archers 6d per da� , during th.e �ear. If th.e expedition is to France th.en Th.omas sh.all take th.e customar� regard [a bonus pa�ment common after th.e 1 340s] for h.imse� and h.is men-at-arms .

Thomas sh.all be ob liged to be read� at th.e sea coast with. h.is men well mounted, armed and arra�ed ... Thomas sh.all h.ave shipping for h.imse� and h.is retinue, th.eir h.orses, harness and provis ions, at th.e expense of th.e king , and also return shipping ...

If it happens th.at th.e [king ofl France, or an� of h.is sons , nephews, uncles or cous ins sh.all be captured in th.e expedition b� Th.omas or b� an� person of h.is retinue, th.e lord king of Eng land sh.all h.ave whoever are captured and sh.all make reasonable [pa�mentl with. Th.omas or with. th.e person wh.o made th.e capture . With. reference to oth.er profLts or gains of war th.e lord king sh.all h.ave one th.ird of th.e gains of Thomas as well as one th.ird of a th.ird part of th.e gains of th.e men of h.is retinue gained during th.e expedition, re lating to gains of prisoners, boot� , mane� , all go ld, s ilver, and jewels worth. more th.an 1 0 marks .

In witness of th.ese matters, Th.omas h.as affLxed h.is seal.

The indenture got its na me

because of the indented

edge which was made to

separate two ha lves of the

same contract which had

been written twice on the

same piece of paper.

A copy was kept for future

reference by both knight

and king and the two halves

co uld be p laced together

to confir m they were

genuine.

•


Was there a cha nge in the methods of recru iting kn ig hts?

At the beginning of the period, feudal summons were used with reasonable frequency. Edward I (1239-1307) issued at least nine feudal summons during his reign (although not for the Falkirk Campaign, which was the result of a general summons). However, by the end of the Middle Ages, feudal summons were no longer used. Indentures became the main method of recruiting knights. By the 1400s almost every knight on campaign had an indenture, whereas at the time of the Falkirk Campaign just 560 knights (about one quarter of the knights) were contracted troops. Indeed, the first record of any sort of indenture is from 1270.

There was certainly a significant shift in the methods of recruiting knights during the Middle Ages, but it was gradual, with the different methods of recruitment overlapping as transition to an almost fully indentured system took place.

The tra in ing of kn ig hts Chivalric culture placed great importance on military prowess and individual knights took the development of their military skills seriously. Opportunities to practise these skills were plentiful in the tournaments and jousts that were popular entertainments for the social elites . Tournaments were small-scale mock battles in which groups of mounted soldiers fought each other; knights would be captured but (usually!) not killed. Jousts were contests between two knights in which each attempted to unseat the other from their horse using their lances.

These tournaments encouraged an emphasis on individual bravery and prowess, rather than fighting together effectively as a unit in battle. This contributed to a lack of sophistication and co-ordination in tactics on the battlefield.

DID THE RECRUITMENT OF KNIGHTS CHANGE? � 1 . Describe the ma i n changes in the recru itment of kn ig hts d u ri ng the M idd le Ages.

2. Were there any conti n u it ies i n the recru itment of kn ig hts i n the M idd le Ages?

3. S u m m a rise the ma i n i nformation a bout the recru itment of kn ig hts in the re levant co l u m n s o f you r Knowledge Organ iser (see p a g e 1 3) .

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4. Add information to you r factor sheets on Govern ments and i nd iv id ua l s and Attitudes i n society. Write a bout the changes i n govern ment bu reaucracy and fi nance and the im pact th is had on recru itment, as we l l as the im pact of ch iva l ry and changes i n attitudes towa rds recru itment.

I


2.6 H ow m uch cha n g e was there i n the recru itm ent a n d tra in ing of infa ntry? You have learned that increasingly more skilled infantry were used in the armies of the later Middle Ages (see page 17) . We might therefore expect there to have been a shift in the way in which infantry were recruited to achieve this.

How were infa ntry recru ited in the th i rteenth centu ry? In the thirteenth century most infantry were recruited by the local sheriffs (individuals responsible for law enforcement in each county) . It was the duty of every local man to provide military service if needed, so sheriffs mustered local men and selected those most suitable to serve as foot soldiers. Sheriffs, however, frequently accepted bribes from those wishing to avoid military service, so those sent to war were often the weaker or less popular members of the village. To improve the system, from 1277 the selection process was often supervised by Commissioners of Array, knights sent from the Royal Household to assist in the recruitment process.

This system of recruitment could result in very large numbers of infantry (sometimes in the tens of thousands), but they were usually unskilled and inexperienced. Most would have been agricultural labourers with no training and armed with basic spears or even farm implements. The large-scale desertion of foot soldiers was also, unsurprisingly, a constant problem. Foot soldiers did receive pay for their service, at 2d (pence) a day; this was more than the pay of an unskilled agricultural worker, but less than that of a skilled craftsman.

How were infa ntry recru ited by the end of the Midd le Ages? By 1400 most foot soldiers were archers, who were men of considerable skill (see page 14) . Bowmen were typically from the middling ranks of society, such as small landholders for whom the respect, wages and potential profits of going on a

.&. Archery practice

military campaign would have been an incentive. Most archers were actually recruited as mounted archers (paid at a rate of 6d per day) as this gave them greater mobility on campaign, although they usually fought on foot in battle.

These men had usually made an agreement or contract with an individual knight to serve as part of his retinue in time of war. Remember how Sir Thomas Tuns tall promised to serve with eighteen mounted archers (see page 19) .

Government tried to increase the pool of bowmen that might be available by passing laws from 1363 making it compulsory for all men aged between 16 and 65 to practise every Sunday at the butts (an archery firing range) .

The Commissions of Array and sheriffs did continue to muster men, but from the 1340s this tended to only be for local defence, for which men could be compelled to serve without pay.

The geographical spread of recruitment was uneven throughout the Middle Ages. Recruitment tended to focus on the regions closest to the fighting. Areas of intense recruitment were Wales, Cheshire and the northern counties of England.

DID RECRUITMENT OF INFANTRY

CHANGE?

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1 . Describe the ma i n changes in the type of i nfa ntry troops recru ited i n the M idd le Ages.

2. H ow fa r did the methods of recru iti ng i nfa ntry change d u ring the Midd le Ages?

3. S u m m a rise the ma i n information a bout the recru itment of infantry i n the re l eva nt co l u m n s of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see page 1 3) .

4. Add information to you r factor sheet on Governments and ind ividua ls . Write about the actions of the Government to encourage the recruitment and tra in ing of a rchers.


2.7 What was the im pact of wa r on civi l ia ns?

1 . List the ways in wh ich civi l i ans m i g ht have been affected by war from what you know a bout the natu re of wa rfa re i n the M idd le Ages.

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Civi l ians as so ld iers We know that civilians were directly involved as recruits in combat. In the early part of the period, social elites were expected to fulfil their feudal duties by performing military service for 40 days (see page 18). Ordinary labourers could also be compelled to serve as foot soldiers (see page 21) . Overall, probably no more than 10 per cent of the adult male population were directly engaged in foreign war at any one time.

Victims of ra ids Civilians could be victims of military raids in which land, livestock and property were looted, burned and destroyed.

Raids were more common in the north of England, Scotland and Wales . England was not entirely safe from raids during the Hundred Years War (see page 24), which was fought between England and France (1337-1453) even though the fighting took place in France. French troops raided England's southern coast on a number of occasions, striking at Southampton, Portsmouth, Winchelsea and the Isle of Wight. The largest raids, during the Hundred Years War, however, took place in France. A particularly destructive raid

in 1355, known as the grande chevauchee, led by the Black Prince (King Edward Ill's son), destroyed 500 settlements and devastated 18,000 square kilometres of territory.

The purpose of these raids was to weaken the enemy by limiting his resources and ability to fight as well as undermining civilian morale and encouraging internal revolt. Civilians were not the accidental victims of war; they were deliberately targeted for strategic reasons. Raids also provided an opportunity for plunder - troops were often very keen to get their hands on valuable possessions (the percentage of plunder they could keep was frequently even written down in military contracts, see page 19) . It was sometimes possible for people to 'buy' safety from raiding parties by paying 'protection money' or patis, but this was often costly.

Civilians might also suffer if their town was besieged. Widely accepted 'rules' said that if a town surrendered it would not be pillaged, but if they held out then the besiegers were entitled to sack (loot and destroy) the town if they finally gained entry.

2 . Can you identify ? what is being looted

from the picture of a

raiding party?

• Raids were a common part of warfare in the Middle Age s . They had a strategic purpose, but also provided the opportunity for plunder.


Feeding and she ltering so ld iers In the Middle Ages it was not possible for armies to transport all the food supplies they needed with them. Armies had to 'live off the land' which meant getting food and shelter from the population in the areas through which they marched. Civilians were expected to provide food and shelter for troops, which was an unpopular burden on the population.

Large armies, and their horses, needed a lot of food. To meet this need, kings had the right to compulsorily buy up food; a right known as pu rveya nce or prise. It was one of the most unpopular consequences of war for civilians. The crown did not pay good rates when it paid at all (and payments were often made very late) . This contributed to food shortages and resultant inflation in the price of foodstuffs .

Paying for wa r: taxation Wars were expensive. Kings had three main ways o f funding them:

• Loans from wealthy individuals • Direct taxation: people paid an amount in tax that was a proportion of the value of

their property. A king could only collect direct taxes with the approval of Parliament. • Indirect taxation: an amount of money was added as a tax to the cost of goods that were

imported or exported.

Taxation became increasingly regular in the Middle Ages, and was often used specifically to fund wars . But particularly high tax demands could spark serious revolt. In 1381 when the government attempted to impose a pol l tax to fund the increasing costly Hundred Years War which was not going well for England, it sparked widespread revolt in the southern counties . This became known as the Peasants' Revolt. The poll tax was a new and particularly unpopular type of tax since it was a tax on the person rather than on his property, which was widely regarded as unfair to the less well off.

How much did civi l ians know a bout wa rs? In the 1200s, most civilians would have known very little, if anything, about the detail of wars involving English armies. Most people were illiterate and the main way of communicating news was through the sheriffs, who might make announcements in market places, and the clergy preaching in the churches. There were certainly royal orders stating that news of victories be announced in public places, but beyond this, there was little way for ordinary people to obtain anything like up-to-date news. By the 1400s, with literacy rates rising, the population, especially in London, was well-informed of news of English armies in France. Their reactions to defeats played a major part in political events.

HOW WERE CIVILIANS AFFECTED BY WARFARE?

1 . Describe three ways in wh ich you th i nk wa rfa re most serious ly i m pacted civi l i ans in the M idd le Ages.

2. Was there any change i n how civi l i ans exper ienced wa rfa re d u ri ng the M idd le Ages?

3. S u m m a rise the ma in i nformation about the civi l i an exper ience of wa rfa re in the M idd le Ages in t he re levant co l u m n s of you r Knowledge O rgan iser (see page 1 3) .

4. Add information to you r factor sheets on Govern ments and i nd ividua l s and Attitudes i n society about the im pact of conti n u ities and changes i n these factors to warfa re.

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2.8 Case study: the Batt le of Ag incou rtl 1415 Let's now look at the Battle of Agincourt which took place in 1415 to make a judgement about how much had changed in the nature of warfare towards the end of the period.

Who fought at Agincou rt? The Battle of A gin court was fought, in northern France, between the armies of England and France. It was part of the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) that was sparked by the claims of successive English kings to be recognised also as kings of France. The English King Henry V led a military campaign to France in 1415. His army successfully captured the port ofHarfleur after a five-week siege, and then marched through Normandy. However, they found their route to Calais blocked by a much larger French Army. The English Army was trapped; they had to fight. The battle that resulted was the Battle of Agincourt.

HOW LIKELY WAS AN ENGLISH VICTORY AT AGINCOURT? � •

Decide how l i ke ly you th i n k an Eng l ish victory was at each of the s ix ma in stages of the Batt le of Ag incourt described on these two pages . At each stage, shade i n a bar l i ke the one be low to show how l i ke ly you th i n k t h e Eng l ish Army w a s t o succeed . Write a few sentences to exp la i n you r judgem ent at each stage.

Stage 1 : N u m bers The English Army was considerably outnumbered, especially in knights, by the French Army (see bar graph). The English Army was also running seriously short of food supplies .

Stage 2 : Posit ions King Henry V arranged h i s army in a standard formation of blocks of dismounted knights in the centre, flanked on each side by large groups of longbow men (see map). He chose to fight on fields of recently ploughed ground (this was very soft, especially because of heavy rains, which made it extremely difficult to walk across). Woodland protected the English Army's flanks and also narrowed the battlefield where the English were positioned. Henry V ordered his archers to make long, sharpened stakes from wood and ram these into the ground in front of them to act as a barrier against a cavalry charge. Having placed his army in a defensive position, Henry V hoped the French Army would attack.

Low 50/50 H i g h

Like l i hood of Eng l i sh victory

1 2 ,000

1 0 ,000 » 8,000 E ... ns

- 6,000 0 CV

.!::! 4 ,000 VI

2 000

0

Key

E n g l ish Army

• Kn ights (English kn ights and the majority of French kn ights fought d ismou nted)

• I nfantry (long bowmen for the English and longbow and some crossbowmen for the French)

French Army

.A. T h e approximate size of t h e armies a t Agincourt . Exact numbers are not known . These figures are based on recent research by the historian Anne Curry.

Key

& Eng l ish a rchers

Will Eng l ish kn ights (d ismou nted)

Eng l ish ca m p

a French crossbowmen

GOiil French kn ig hts (mou nted)

liDI French kn ig hts (d ismou nted)

• A plan of the battlefield at Agincourt

Stage 3: The Eng l ish bowmen fi re Despite Henry V's hopes, the French Army did not attack. The English Army was not strong enough to attack the French, but could not afford to wait as they were running out of supplies and the French might be joined by reinforcements. Henry V advanced his army a small distance so that the French Army was within longbow range. The large numbers of English archers began firing a storm of arrows into the French Army. The French had no way to defend themselves against the intense and unrelenting rain of arrows - the French cross bowmen, who could have fired on the archers, were positioned too far to the back to be used.

Stage 4: The French cava l ry attack The French cavalry rode across the muddy ground to attack the English archers (who were still protected behind their stakes) . The French cavalry attacks failed to defeat the English longbow men and withdrew, churning up the muddy fields even more.


Stage 5: The French d ismou nted knig hts attack The French dismounted knights attacked the English dismounted knights. They struggled in their advance, slowed and tired by walking in armour in ankle deep mud, under a constant barrage of arrows which disorientated and weakened them. To make things even worse, the battlefield narrowed just before the position of the English Army, which meant the large number of French knights became bunched together. This crush made it difficult for them to wield their double-handed swords in the fierce hand-tohand combat with the English knights. Many knights who stumbled or fell were trampled or drowned in the mud by the weight of the crush. A second group of French knights joined them, worsening the crush. The English longbow men, no longer able to fire arrows for risk of hitting their own men in the crush of close combat, joined the fighting with daggers and stones . The French casualties were large, with thousands killed or taken prisoner.


Stage 6: The Eng l ish s laughter the prisoners Henry V sent a messenger to the remaining French knights who had not yet advanced, threatening that they must retreat from the field, or expect to be killed. The French knights began to retreat, but a small French force had made their way behind the English Army and attacked the English baggage camp. Henry V feared this would encourage the retreating French knights to attack. He knew that the worn-out English Army did not have enough men to defend itself against a renewed attack and to guard the prisoners to prevent them from arming themselves . He ordered the French prisoners to be slaughtered, and the small number of French troops attacking the baggage camp were defeated.

The outcome of the batt le The French forces withdrew from the field. The English Army had won. I t i s not possible to know the precise numbers of casualties as there were no records made, but the French suffered serious losses, perhaps over 3,000 dead; English losses were much lower.

Henry V's victory at Agincourt enabled him to renew his military campaigns against France in the following years which eventually led to him being recognised as heir to the French throne. His death and subsequent English military defeats, however, meant that this was never actually realised.

Armour in the fifteenth centu ry

The memorial brass of Robert Staunton, dated 1458, in � Castle Donington, Leicester, shows armour typical of the time

By the fifteenth century knights like those at Agincourt would have worn plate armour suits made of steel. Plate armour had gradually come to replace chainmail during the fourteenth century. This was possible because of the development of methods of steel production (see page 14) .

Plate armour offered greater protection than chainmail armour, particularly in deflecting crushing blows and most arrow hits (see page 14) . It was heavy - a complete suit was about 30 kg (that's the weight of 30 litre bottles of milk) - but, as the weight was distributed around the body it did not hugely impede movement. A padded jacket was worn beneath the plate armour, for comfort and to help absorb some of the force of sword and arrow hits.

The helmet was the heaviest, and most uncomfortable, piece of this armour. By the time of Agincourt the most commonly worn style were bascinet helmets which protected the entire face with a hinged, moveable, pointed visor. Bascinets offered greater visibility and ventilation than the older style great helm helmets .

1 . What a re the ma in d iffe rences between the a rm o u r ? shown in th is image to that dep icted on the brass of S i r G i les of Tru m pington from the 1 290s (on page 4)?

2. H ow effective was the protection provided by p l ate a rmour?

•

REASONS FOR

THE VICTORY AT

AGINCOURT

?. •

G ive evidence to show how each of the fo l l owing contri buted to the Eng l i sh victory at Ag incou rt:

a) The ro le of Henry V (Th i n k a bout how he chose the terra in , positioned h is troops and made tactica l decis ions in the batt le .)

b) The ro l e of Eng l ish long bow men .

c) The m ista kes/prob lems of the French .

.A. A bascinet


Was the Batt le of Agincourt typica l? The English victory against the odds at Agincourt might seem unusual, but English armies had actually achieved similar successes using very large numbers of bowmen in other key battles in the Hundred Years War, at Crecy (1346) and Poitiers (1356) . In many ways Agincourt was typical of how English armies fought at the time. The composition of the army was dominated by longbow men at a ratio of three longbow men to one knight. Troops fought in the new formations typical of the time - knights fighting dismounted in the centre of the battlefield with archers on the flanks.

The recruitment of the men who fought at Agincourt was also relatively typical. All the English troops had signed indentures (contracts) in which payment was promised in return for their military service. But as Henry V was unable to make many of the cash payments in advance, he instead offered royal jewels as a guarantee of his intention to pay (he never did fulfil all the payments in cash). Typically, too, the counties of northern England (particularly Cheshire and Lancashire) as well as Wales provided particularly large numbers of archers. Positions of command were, as usual, given to the highest-ranking noblemen, such as the Duke ofYork (a grandson of King Edward III).

What was very unusual was Henry V's order to slaughter the prisoners. However, as we have seen, this was probably driven by practical considerations, rather than a disregard for the importance of the convention of respecting and ransoming prisoners .

The wider military campaign of which Agincourt was a part was also typical of warfare of the time. It had begun with the five-week siege ofHarfleur in which the English armies made use of cannon firing stone shot, alongside traditional wooden stone-hurling siege engines. The eventual surrender ofHarfleur followed the conventions of the time, in which a treaty was made, and the inhabitants of the town were permitted by the English Army to leave with the possessions they could carry. On the English Army's march through Normandy there were the common complaints that the soldiers took food and burned homes, although it seems that Henry V's army was more restrained than was typical. The English Army transported much of its food supplies and Henry V issued decrees (orders) forbidding his soldiers to pillage and loot beyond their need for food or to attack the civilian population.

HOW MUCH HAD WARFARE CHANGED BY THE LATE MIDDLE AGES?

1 . In what ways was the Ag inco u rt campaign (not just the batt le) typ ica l of wa rfa re by the l ate M idd le Ages? Write a bout : - wea pons - the com posit ion of the army (n u m ber and type of

troops, as we l l as the i r tactics) - recru itment and tra i n i ng of com bata nts - exper ience of civi l i ans .

2. M a ke a copy of the Ven n d iagra m opposite to record what had changed and what had stayed the sa me between the Batt le of Fa l ki rk i n 1 298 (see pages 1 1 -1 2) and the Batt le of Ag incou rt in 1 41 5 . Try to i nc l ude information a bout: wea pons, com position of arm ies, recru itment, and the exper ience of civi l i ans .

Battle of Falkirk, 1 298

Battle of Agincourt, 1 4 1 5

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2.9 Com m u n icating you r a nswer: m a king judgem ents Let us return to the big Enquiry Question for this chapter:

'There were few major changes in warfare in the Middle Ages .' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

This question asks you to reach a judgement about how far you agree. This type of question is worth 16 marks in the exam - that's a lot of marks for one question, so it's worth pausing to think about how we might answer a question like this. The activity below helps you to reach a judgement about how much warfare changed during the Middle Ages.

� • HOW MUCH CHANGE?

1 . Use you r Knowledge Organ iser to p l ace each of the topics be low on a conti n u u m l i ne to show the extent of change in each . - Wea pons - Com posit ion of arm ies (n u m ber, type

and tactics of troops)

- Recru itm ent and tra i n i ng - Experience of civi l ians

No changes Moderate changes M ajor changes

2. l t is im portant to have you r answer c lear i n you r mind before you beg in to p l an and write you r answer. Write a parag ra ph s u m m a ris ing you r answer to the enqu i ry q u estion , us ing you r com pleted conti n u u m l i ne to he lp you . See page 1 74 for l ang uage that wi l l he lp you show how fa r you agree with a statement.

Structur ing you r answer There are two main ways you could organise your answer.

Approach 1 : for and against Approach 2: by topics

This is pro bably the simplest way to structure your answer. Use the four topics to str ucture your answer.

Paragraph 1 : give evidence to support the statement in the question

- that there were few major changes in warfare in the Midd le Ages.

Paragraph 2 : give evidence to counter the statement in the question

- that significant changes actually took p lace in warfare during the

Midd le Ages.

For each topic you choose to include (you do

not need to write about all of them), write a

paragraph evaluating the extent to which there

was change.

Finish with a conclusion giving your overa l l

judgement. You cou ld comment here o n whether

some topic areas had more change than others.

Paragraph 3: write your overal l judgement - weighing up the evidence

to write how far, overa ll, you agree with the statement .

Supporting you r points Whichever approach you choose you need to support your judgements with evidence. This means using examples to prove your judgements. Look at the example below. How does it use evidence?

There was litt le major change in weapons during the Middle Ages. The sword and longbow were the main weapons used both at the Battle of the Falkir k in 1298 and at the Battle of Agincourt over 100 years later in 1 415. Although the shape of swords altered d uring this period from broad, flat blades to longer and more tapered blades by the end of the fourteenth century, these were not major changes. The longbow remained I\_ " " 'h'":'d th m,gho "t the peclod .

Although there had been a major change with the introduction of cannon into Europe in the 1320s, its impact on warfare was gradual. Despite cannon coming to have an increasingly important ro le in sieges, they only rarely, and in very small num bers, appeared on the batt lefield in this period .

You will find further guidance on writing answers in the Writing Guide on pages 174-75. And remember to use words from your Word Wall to help your write accurately and with confidence.

N ow write you r answer to the e n q u i ry q uesti o n .

2.10 Exp la in ing why Some questions will ask you to explain why changes took place in warfare. Here is an example of such a question:

Expla in why changes took place in the recru itment of

com batants in the M idd le Ages.

To answer 'expla in why' questions you need to write about the causes of change. The factors can help you explain changes and continuities in warfare:

Using con nectives

2 Med ieva l wa rfa re and B rit ish society c.1 250-c.1 5 0 0

When you write about a factor in an 'explain why' question, i t is not enough just to say that the factor of government for example, brought about changes in recruitment. You need to explain how it caused change. To do so, it is helpful to use connective phrases, these are phrases that encourage you to connect the factor to the change in warfare that you are explaining. The visible learning box below shows some examples of connectives .

Visible learning This meant that . . . using con nectives to tie in what you know to the question

When ta l ki n g or writ i ng a bout a factor, you ca n n ot j ust say that it affected med ic ine . You have to prove that the factor affected med ic ine . Yo u ca n do th is effective ly by us i ng some of the go lden words a n d p h rases be low such as 'th is meant that . . . ', ' th is led to' and 'th is resu lted i n . . . '

We ca l l these words and p h rases con nectives beca use they con nect what you know to the q u estion a n d prove they a re stro n g ly l i n ked .

Identify how connectives have been used in the paragraph below to explain why there were changes in the recruitment of combatants:

One change that took place was the increasing number of combatants recruited through the use of indentures (contracts) by the fifteenth century. This was partly the result of changes that took place in government. government burea ucracy grew considerably in the fourteenth century, this led to more com batants being recruited through indentures since government now had the larger n um ber of officia ls required to write and record the indenture documents. Government a lso became wealthier as a result of increased taxation during the fourteenth century. This meant that it became possible for government to pay more troops wages that were a key part of a l l indenture contracts.

Revisiting the Word Wall We can now add a new group of words to our Word Wall. These are words that help you to think, talk and write effectively when you are answering questions. You use them to:

• link your answer strongly to the question • make your argument clear, for example, when writing

about which factors were the most important, or explaining how factors were linked together

• show that there is evidence to prove your argument.

Now add the connective phrases shown in the visible learning box above to your Word Wall. Also add words that help explain the nature of your judgement such as, 'mainly agree', 'mainly disagree', or 'to a large extent' or 'to some extent'. Use a different colour to that previously used on your Word Wall. Use this colour from now on for all words that help you write effectively when answering questions.

You are now ready to write answers to 'explain why' questions such as those in the practice box below. You will find it helpful to refer to the factor sheets you made as you worked through this chapter (see page 13). These will remind you of the role of each factor in bringing about changes in warfare.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Practice questions 1 . Exp l a i n w h y changes too k p l ace i n t h e recru itm ent of

com bata nts in the M id d l e Ages. 2. Exp l a i n why there were co nt i nu it ies i n the im pact of

wa rfa re on civi l i a ns d u ri n g the M id d l e Ages.

3. 'The com posit ion of arm ies changed l itt l e i n the

M id d l e Ages. ' H ow fa r do yo u a g ree? Exp l a i n yo u r answer.

•

PART 1 : Wa rfa re T h ro u g h T i m e, c.1 250-present

2 .1 1 Visi ble Lea rn ing : Revise and remember

You are probably wondering why this section i s here. It's a long time until the exams; it must be a mistake. But it's not a mistake. Take a look at the graphs below; they give you some clues about why this section is here.

1 00%

<U u Q) 0::

t F in i sh learn ing

After 1 day 54% was remembered .

T ime

After 1 week 3 5 % was remem bered .

After 2 weeks 2 1 %

1 00

t Learn a

topic

Time

• Graph 1 The Ebbinghaus Curve of Forgetting. That sounds impressive but the graph is alarming. We forget the detail of what we study very quickly.

• Graph 2 How do you stop yourself forgetting?

It would seem it is never too early to start the revision process ! Successful students begin planning their revision while they are studying the topic and do not leave revision until close to the exam. This page helps you start that revision process. So, how can you revise?

1 . Bui ld up summaries on Knowledge Organisers

I n th i s cha pter you have created a Knowledge O rg a n iser ta b l e that s u m m a rises what changed and what stayed the sa me, and Factor M a ps. Th ese wi l l be very usefu l to retu rn to i n yo u r revis ion .

2. Set questions you rself

Wo rk i n a g ro u p of th ree. Each of yo u s h o u l d set fo u r rev is ion q u estions on wa rfa re i n t h e M id d l e Ag es. Use the sty le o f q u estions as a bove . T h e n ask e a c h other t h e q u estions - a n d m a ke su re yo u know the answers!

I


3. Test you rself

Yo u need to work at m a ki ng yo u r know ledge stick to yo u r b ra i n ! The m o re you recap what you have lea rned and identify what you're not sure a bout, the more chance yo u have of success. Answer these q u estions, identify what yo u don 't know and keep repeati ng th i s .

1 What weapon was fi rst 2 H ow m a ny a rrows a 3 List two ways i n wh ich 4 What were sch i ltrons? i ntroduced to Eu rope i n m i n ute co u l d typica l ly adva ncements i n the the 1 320s? be fi red by a ski l l ed prod uct ion of stee l i n

l ong bow m a n? the M i d d l e Ages led to changes i n a rmour/ wea pons .

5 What was a n i ndentu re? 6 List th ree ways i n wh ich 7 Exp l a i n two ways i n 8 What was the n a m e of a k ing m ight recru it wh ich a typ ica l foot the K ing of Eng l and who kn ig hts i n the M i d d l e s o l d i e r b y t h e end o f t h e led t h e E n g l ish troops at Ages. M i d d l e Ages d iffe red the Batt le of Ag incou rt?

from a typ ica l foot so ld ie r at the beg i n n i n g o f the per iod .

9 H ow d id the Eng l ish 10 I dentify th ree ways i n 1 1 W h a t d id y o u fi nd 12 N a m e one th i ng that a rchers protect wh ich civi l i a ns m i g ht be h a rdest to u n d e rsta nd yo u lea rned i n th i s themse lves at the Batt le affected by wa rfa re i n i n th i s cha pter? H ow chapter that su rpr ised of Ag incou rt? the M i d d l e Ages. a re you go i ng to h e l p yo u or that y o u now

yo u rse l f u n d e rsta nd it? t h i n k d ifferent ly about . Exp l a i n why.

4. Revise and remem ber: the Big Story

As yo u work th ro u g h this book it wi l l be i m porta nt to keep i n m i n d the B ig Story between c.1 250 a n d the present. Th i s is because you wi l l be tryi ng to identify patterns o f ch ange across per iods as we l l as with i n th e m . l t wi l l be usefu l to create a big chart that s u m m a rises the key deve lopm ents for each t ime period .

Make you r own g iant copy (on A3 paper) of the tab le be low and fi l l in the fi rst co l u m n (you w i l l comp lete the rest as you go through the book) . Th i nk of it as a g iant Knowledge Organ iser. You don't need to add lots of deta i l - you have you r other

Knowledge Organ isers for th is . J ust add the key points.

1 250-1 500 1 500-1 700 1 700-1 900 1 900-present

Weapons

Com posit ion of arm ies (n u m ber, type a n d tactics o f com bata nts)

Recru itment and tra i n i n g of com bata nts

Experience of civi l i a n s

Warfare and British society in the early m.odern period , c.l500-c.l700

Major changes took place in warfare between c. l500

and c.l700. Most importantly, this was the period when

gunpowder weapons came to dominate the battlefield,

a change that influenced many other aspects of war.

Developments in science and technology enabled this

shift by producing guns that were more useable and

reliable. But was the factor of Science, technology and

communications the only factor that brought about

major changes? This chapter explores why significant

changes took place in the early modem period.

3.1 What was wa rfa re l i ke in 1500? The picture gives an impression of what battle was like at the beginning of the early modern period. It depicts the Battle of the Spurs fought in France in 1513, involving English troops. Look closely at the picture and answer the questions below.

WHAT WAS BATTLE LIKE ? IN 1500?

Using the pictu re of the Batt le of Spurs, answer these questions:

1 . What wea pons were being used?

2. H ow were the troops fig ht ing? (What were the i r tactics?)

3. What type of a rmour and c loth ing was worn?

4. What proport ion (a pproxim ate ly) of the so ld ie rs were a rmed with g u n powder weapons (ca nnon or handguns)?

5. What s i m i l a r it ies a n d what d ifferen ces a re there with what yo u rem e m ber about the nature of batt les in the M id d l e Ag es?

3 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society i n the ear ly modern per iod, c.1 500-c.1 700

The picture shows that gunpowder weapons (cannon and handheld guns) were already being used at the beginning of the period, but only in small numbers. By 1700 they would dominate the battlefield. Developments in science and technology were crucial in enabling this change, so this chapter's Enquiry Question focuses on the role of science and technology in explaining changes in warfare.

'D evelopments in s cience and technology were the main reason for significant changes in warfare b etween c.1500 and c.1700'. How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

Knowledge Organiser

Topic What were the main

To answer this question we need to find out:

• what changed in warfare between c .lSOO and c .1700 • what factors explain these changes.

To help you organise your notes as you work through this chapter, set up another Knowledge Organiser. Make a large (A3) copy of the table below and record your notes on this as you work through this chapter.

I n what ways did science How did other factors changes that took place and technology contribute contribute to these

Wea pons

Com position of arm ies (n um ber, type and tactics of com batants)

Recru itment and tra in ing of com batants


c.1 500-c.1 700? to these changes? changes?

<0111 The artist Georg Lemberger 's impression of the Battle of the Spurs fought in France in 1 5 1 3 . It was painted for the German Emperor Maximilian in 1 5 1 5 .


3.2 H ow m uch, a n d why, d id wea pons cha n g e, c.1 500-c.1 700? Gunpowder weapons became the dominant weapon on the battlefield during this period. This was a major change. It was a shift that took place gradually but fully by 1700. The key changes that took place were as follows:

• Guns replaced traditional missile weapons like longbows and crossbows . • By the 1640s two thirds of the infantry in English armies were armed with guns - this

proportion was even higher by 1700 . • Cavalrymen were increasingly armed with pistols . • Artillery (cannon) were used in larger numbers in battle.

How d id science and tech nology contri bute to cha nges i n wea pons? Gunpowder was centuries old, and cannon and basic handguns had existed from the Middle Ages, but they had not been the main weapons in battle. Why did guns come to dominance in early modern warfare? The main reason was developments in science and technology that enabled guns to be produced that were more powerful and more reliable to use.

From the Middle Ages basic handguns (called hand cannon) used gunpowder to fire a round lead or stone ball (called shot) . But these were very bulky, liable to explode in the user's face, incredibly inaccurate and probably required two men to fire. They were, understandably, not widely used.

Matchlock muskets The more widespread use of firearms from the sixteenth century was because of the technological innovation of the matchlock mechanism used to fire the guns (see diagram on page 35) . The match lock musket had key advantages over early handguns, mainly that they could be fired by a single man and were less likely to explode in his face!

The musket, however, was not nearly as accurate as the longbow and had a much slower rate of fire. But it did have advantages over the longbow which explain why it rapidly replaced that weapon. The diagram below outlines these advantages .

By the fifteenth century crossbows had a similar ability to muskets to pierce plate armour, also required only basic training and actually had a better rate of fire than muskets . But these crossbows (made of metal and wood) and their bolts were actually more expensive to produce than muskets, suggesting cost was another factor in why the musket came to overtake the crossbow in usage.

M usket shot could eas i ly penetrate p late a rmour made of even the strongest stee l (arrows were not ab le to do th is), when fi red with i n a ra nge of 1 00 metres .

Even when not fata l , m usket shot wounds were usua l ly more i m med iately deb i l itati ng than a n a rrow wou n d .

• Advantages of the musket

Advantages of the musket

M uskets on ly req u i red basic tra i n i n g to operate / (about a fortn ig ht) u n l i ke the long bow which req u i red years to perfect (see page 1 5) .

M uskets had g reater potent ia l to be i m p roved by fu rther tech nolog ica l advances than d id long bows and crossbows wh ich were a more l i m ited tech no logy.


How (wel l) did early m uskets work? Let's have a closer look at how early matchlock muskets actually worked. The basic operation of the match lock musket is shown in the diagram below.

1 The muzzle . M uskets were muzzle loaded . Th is meant first the gunpowder then the round lead shot were rammed with a long st ick (ram rod) into the muzzle of the gun. But how was the gunpowder beh ind the shot to be lit so that the gun could fire?

2 The serpentine. Th is held a piece of smouldering str ing.

.&. The matchlock mechanism

3 The pan . Th is was filled with priming powder (a very finely ground gunpowder), wh ich was highly explosive.

4 The trigger. When pulled , th is moved the serpentine so that the burning string touched the pan, causing the priming powder to explode with a flash . Th is spark lit the gunpowder behind the bullet via a vent in the side of the barrel . The power of this explosion forced the shot out of the gun .

THE LIMITATIONS OF MATCHLOCK MUSKETS � Look at the d iagra m and l ist three possi b le prob lems that m ight occu r when us ing match lock muskets i n batt le .

Limitations of match lock muskets You probably thought of several problems with matchlock muskets .

• It was difficult to keep the smouldering cord alight in wet or damp weather. • The explosion from the primer did not always successfully light the gunpowder in the

barrel of the gun and so the gun failed to fire. It was not unusual for as many as four out of ten musket shots to fail to fire in the 1600s .

• The reload time was lengthy, especially since the barrel had to be regularly cleaned to remove gunpowder deposits. Typically only one shot every two to three minutes was possible.

• Their effective range was around lOO metres (much shorter than the longbow). • They could not be fired very accurately at a target.

'A f lash in the p a n ' You m ay have heard this phrase t o describe something that despite a showy o r bright beginning actually amounts to very little (thin k of the careers of one- hit won d ers ! ) . The phase originates from describing when gunpowder in the primer exploded but failed to light the gunpowder in the barrel of the gun (which therefore didn't fire).

•


How d id science and tech nology contribute to fu rther cha nges to wea pons?

F l int lock m uskets Fl intlock muskets were introduced from the 1610s . The flintlock mechanism created the spark needed to ignite the gunpowder by a piece of flint striking against steel when the trigger was pulled. They were quicker, less dangerous and slightly more reliable than matchlocks. But they were more expensive. In the 1630s the only troops armed with them were the small number chosen to guard the gunpowder stores (to avoid the obvious danger of smouldering cords near a lot of gunpowder!) .

Pisto ls Pistols were much smaller and lighter than muskets, and had shorter barrels . They could be operated with only one hand which meant they could be, and were, used by cavalry.

It only became possible to operate a firearm with a single hand after the invention of the wheellock firing mechanism in around 1500 (matchlocks required two hands) . This worked by the trigger releasing a small wheel that had been wound around a spring. When the wheel rotated it gave off sparks that ignited the priming powder in the pistol. But wheellock pistols were expensive, complicated and unreliable. They were replaced by the snaphaunce pistol from the 1560s, which was an early flintlock design, using a spring-loaded flint to strike sparks. Proper, more reliable, flintlock pistols were introduced from the 1610s . But the pistols remained relatively unreliable and had a short range and limited accuracy.

HOW MUCH, AND WHY, DID WEAPONS ? CHANGE , c . l500-1700?

1 . Describe fou r of the ma in changes that too k p lace i n wea pons d u ri ng th i s period .

2. Add these changes to the fi rst co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see page 33).

3. Exp la i n the deve lopments i n science and tech no logy that enab led these changes. Add them to the second co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le .

4 . What other factors contributed to determ in i ng changes i n wea pons i n th is period (cl ue : th i n k a bout cost i nd ivid ua l s and governments wou l d have to pay for many of these weapons) . Add these to the th i rd co l u m n o f you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le .

5. Describe the extent and pace of change that took p lace in weapons in th is period in a paragraph . Remember to use vocabu la ry from the Word Wa l l you created on page 6 to he lp you ta l k more precise ly, and to back u p what you say with exam ples .

•

Ca n non Technological developments affecting cannon included:

• England's cast iron industry had grown from the sixteenth century (see page 14), which created new possibilities to manufacture cannons on a large scale.

• Innovations in cannon design made it possible to more easily alter the rate and range of fire, so making them more useful on the battlefield.

• Lighter weight cannon, called field guns, were developed that could be more easily transported by horses, again making them more useful in battles .

But cannon continued to have a limited range and poor accuracy.

Continu ity i n wea pons: the p ike and the sword The limitations of matchlock muskets explains why muskets did not immediately replace traditional weapons. Pikes continued to be very important. The picture of the Battle of Spurs on pages 32-3 shows a large proportion of pikemen, and by the 1640s typically one third of English infantry were equipped with pikes.

Swords (and sometime lances) continued to be the most useful cavalry weapons, despite most cavalrymen also carrying pistols.

_.. A pikeman _.. A pike


3.3 H ow, a n d why, d id the com position of the a rmy cha n g e c.1 500-c.1 700? The major changes that took place in weapons during this period had a significant impact on the composition of armies. Armies were made up of:

• Infantry (the biggest proportion of armies) . Infantrymen were composed of a combination of musketeers and pike men. The proportion of musketeers increased steadily through the period, so that by 1700 almost all infantrymen were armed with muskets .

• D ragoons (a small proportion of the army) . These were mounted infantry, armed with muskets. They usually rode into position but then fought on foot (it was unfeasible to fire a matchlock musket from horseback). They had smaller horses and more basic equipment than the cavalry (dragoons did not wear armour), and so were cheaper to recruit and maintain.

• C avalry (typically made up about a third of the army) . They were armed with swords and pistols. They no longer wore suits of armour (there was little point limiting mobility since the suits of armour provided little protection against shot), but instead wore simply plate armour breastplates .

• Artillery (very few in number) .

There were some similarities to the composition of armies in the Middle Ages. These included the main division of armies into cavalry and infantry, with the infantry making up by far the largest proportion. But there were substantial differences: the type of infantry were different; pike men and musketeers replaced longbow men, and artillery was a new addition to the battlefield.

THE COMPOSITION OF ARMIES, c. lS00-1700

.A. A musketeer

1. Describe the ma in changes that took p lace in the composition of a rm ies in this period . Add them to the fi rst co l umn of your Knowledge Organ iser tab le (see page 33).

2. Exp la i n the scientific and tech no log ica l deve lopments that contributed to these changes. Add them to the second co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le .

3 . Were there any other factors that contributed to determ in ing changes in the com position of arm ies in this period? Add these to the th i rd co l umn of your Knowledge Organ iser.


How d id changes in wea pons im pact on tactics? The changes in weaponry had an impact on the tactics used in battles.

WHAT WERE TYPICAL BATTLE TACTICS C. l500-C. l 700? -, •

For each of the fou r situations in the boxes below, select the option that you th i nk is the best way to deploy (position and use) troops for batt le . G ive reasons for your choice. You may find it he lpfu l to refer to some of the strengths and l im itations of the weaponry (see pages 34-5).

1 H ow wou l d you deploy musketeers?

a) I n a conti n u o u s long th i n l i n e (a bout two men deep) across the l ength o f the batt lefi e l d .

b) I n sq ua res o f s i x rows . The front row fi res, t hen marches to the back to re load w h i l e the second row m oves fo rwa rd to fire, and so on .

T h e front row fi res then m oves to the back to re load

The second row m oves forward to f i re

.A. The Dutch Cou nterma rch

3 How would you deploy cavalry?

a) At the centre of the battlefie ld in front of the infantry.

Key + C ava l ry

- Infantry

b) On the flanks (sides of the battlefie ld) .

Key + Cava l ry

- I nfantry

. •

• •

2 How would you deploy pikemen?

a) I n a continuous long th in l i ne (about two men deep) across the length of the battlefie ld .

b) I n sq uares of s ix rows.

4 How would you deploy a rt i l lery?

a) In a g ro u p at the front of the battl efie l d .

I � I 1 l 1 I l l 1 1 1 Key 1 Arti l l e ry

- Infantry

b) I n pa i rs between g ro u ps of i nfa ntry.

Key ,, Arti l l e ry

- Infantry


A big change in tactics? If you chose to deploy your musketeers and pike men in squares, with your cavalry on the flanks, and artillery in pairs between groups of infantry, then you chose the tactics typically used in the early modern period. This was very different from the typical deployment of an army in the Middle Ages, with archers on the flanks and lines of knights (mounted or dismounted) in the centre.

fire was developed from the 1590s by Prince Maurice ofNassau from the Netherlands. This became known as the Dutch countermarch (see diagram on page 37).

A variation of these tactics was developed by King Gustav Adolf of Sweden from the 1620s. The Swedish armies deployed musket squares in rows six deep. The first row would kneel down, the second crouch above them and the third row stand. This meant that the front three rows could fire altogether to create a more forceful volley of fire. These rows would then withdraw to the back to reload while the remaining three rows moved forward to fire. This was known as the Swedish salvo.

Why did tactics change? Tactics were driven by the capabilities (including the limitations) of the weapons used. These are explained in the diagram below.

How did individ uals influence changes in tactics? Although changes in tactics were driven by the capabilities of new weaponry, it was individuals who came up with the tactical ideas. The use of musketeers in squares to achieve continuous

The tactics developed by these individuals were widely known, as both the Dutch and Swedish armies produced training manuals designed to instruct soldiers in these tactics (since they required considerable drill training to be effective) . These manuals were translated into several languages, including English.

r 1 . M usketeers cou l d keep u p conti nuous fi re (desp ite long re load t imes) by m oving to the back to re load wh i l e other rows moved forwa rd to fire.

4. P ike men cou ld fight aga inst other p ike men by us ing their com bined weight to push against each other in a tactic that was ca l led the 'push of pike'. During this manoeuvre, the p ikes were usua l ly ra ised in the a i r so the i r points were not used. Eventua l ly one g roup of p ike men wou ld break formation and be defeated .

2 . M usketeers i ncreased the i r chances of h itti n g the i r ta rget by fi r i ng as a g ro u p (the accu racy of i n d iv id u a l m uskets was poor) .

Square formations had severa l adva ntages:

5 . Squares of p ike men were usua l ly p l aced on the batt lefie ld between sq ua res of m usketeers. P ike men cou ld q u ickly move i n front o f the m usketeers to protect them from a cava l ry or p i ke charge .

J The fi rst row kneels down I The second row crouches above them

I The th i rd row stands I These rows then with d raw to the back to re load

The rem a i n i n g th ree rows move forwa rd to f i re

The fi rst th ree rows

3 . P i ke men i n sq u a res co u l d defend aga i nst a n attack from a ny s ide ; a wa l l of p i kes was a strong defence aga i nst a cava l ry charge .

6 . Squa res gave g reater f lexi b i l ity; if one sq u a re was defeated, then a n other sq u a re u n it co u l d be m oved to fi l l its space. Th i s was u n l i ke the long l i n es of d i smounted kn ig hts or i nfa ntry from the M i d d l e Ages wh ich , w h e n ru ptu red , cou l d q u ick ly lead to the co l l a pse of the ent i re a rmy.

Add information about the factors that contributed to changes in the com posit ion and tactics of a rm ies in th is period to the th i rd co l u m n o f you r Knowledge Organ iser.

• The Swedish salvo

•

•


3.4 H ow, a n d why, d id the recru itm ent a n d tra in ing of com bata nts cha n g e, c.1500-c.1700? The significant change i n recruitment that took place in this period was a shift towards more permanent, professional and better-trained armies. But this shift did not take place until the 1640s. For the first part of this period, the recruitment and training of troops remained much the same as it had been in the Middle Ages.

Contin u ity in recru itment The traditional methods of recruitment continued to be to send Commissioners of Array (royal officials) into the counties to assist in the muster of local civilian men for the armies (see page 22). The recruits were not professional soldiers and received their equipment and pay out of local taxes.

The local mi l itias (sometimes called Trained Bands) were also an increasingly important part of defence. They were made up of small groups of local men (usually of moderate wealth) who purchased their own weapons and trained together for the purpose of providing local defence. But they were not a national army; in fact they frequently refused to fight outside their local areas.

Were the Eng l ish Civi l Wa rs a cata lyst for change? Enormous pressure was placed on the traditional recruiting system when civil war broke out in 1642. The Civil Wars were fought between the supporters of King Charles I (Royalists) and Parliament between 1642 and 1649. Both sides tried desperately to enlist men, and the need to find more efficient ways to recruit and train combatants undoubtedly accelerated the pace of change in recruitment and training.

At first both sides used traditional methods: the King sent Commissioners of Array and Parliament sent officials to appeal for the support of the local militias. But these measures tended to create lots of local armies that were often reluctant to fight outside their immediate localities . They also failed to provide sufficient numbers of recruits.

Both sides resorted to conscription (compelling men to fight) in the areas that they controlled. Parliament introduced conscription in 1643; the Royalists in 1644. Although this did lead to an increase in troops, they were poorly trained and desertion was a huge problem. It was not uncommon for one third of infantry units to desert.

Both sides produced propaganda pamphlets to encourage men to volunteer to serve in their armies. This was one of the first times this was possible, as it made use of the relatively recent development of the printing press to mass produce pamphlets. Many pamphlets told exaggerated stories of atrocities committed by the enemy.

But the significant change in recruitment came when Parliament reorganised its army in 1645, creating the New Model Army. It was new because it was a shift towards a more professional, national, and permanent or sta nding a rmy (an army that exists even in peacetime).

• I

T Modern re-enactors in the costume of infantrymen from the New Model Army

3 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society i n the ear ly m o d e r n per iod, c.1 5 00-c.1 700

What was new a bout the New Model Army?

A more professional army e Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance in 1645 which removed incompetent

military leaders who had gained their command solely due to their elite social status or because they were Members of Parliament. They were replaced by those with military experience like Thomas Fairfax who was made commander-in-chief of the New Model Army.

e Drill training (frequently repeating set manoeuvres) was given greater emphasis. e Discipline of troops was enforced more strictly. e Infantry troops were paid a reasonable wage - Sd (pence) a day - which encouraged

better discipline. But even in the New Model Army wages were often in paid in arrears. More taxes were imposed in areas controlled by Parliament to help fund the wages and equipment of the New Model Army. But, at least 50 per cent of the infantry in the New Model Army were conscripts (not professional soldiers) .

A national army

e The separate local parliamentary armies were merged together to create a national army of 22,000 men.

e It was funded by national rather than local taxes . e All infantry were issued with a basic standard uniform for the first time: a russet

(orangey-red) coat.

A standing army e It was intended to be a more permanent army and it continued to exist even after the

Civil Wars had ended.

A standing army after 1 660 The New Model Army contributed significantly to Parliament's victory in the English Civil Wars. King Charles I was executed as a traitor to his own country in 1649, and Parliament (and later Oliver Cromwell) ruled without a monarch until 1660 when the monarchy was restored. Although the new king, Charles 11 (Charles I's son) disbanded the New Model Army in 1660, the existence of a permanent army (even in peacetime) continued as he established a new, small standing army. England has had a permanent standing army ever s1nce.

King Charles II's original army was tiny - only a few regiments totalling a few thousand troops . Its small size was partly due to the fact that people were suspicious of an army that existed in peacetime, fearing that it may be used against the English people, and because of the increased taxes required to fund it.

Changes in government made possible the creation of a permanent standing army; in particular the increase in the government's financial revenues (mainly raised through increased taxation) which made it possible for the government to afford to pay the wages of permanent troops. The English Civil Wars accelerated the emergence of a standing army in England since military need prompted Parliament's creation of the New Model Army. But with standing armies emerging in other European countries at this time, it was likely England would have established a standing army around this time even without the Civil War.


How much did ind ivid ua ls contribute to cha nges in recru itment? Oliver Cromwell, one of Parliament's leaders during the Civil Wars, was hugely important in the creation of the New Model Army and therefore in the shift towards a more permanent professional army.

OLIVER CROMWELL, 1599-1658

O l iver Cromwe l l , was a M e m ber of Par l i am ent (M P) and one of the Par l i am enta ry leaders d u ri ng the Civi l Wa rs. H e was a l so a ski l l ed cava l ryman , was vita l to the creation of the N ew Mode l Army, a n d beca me the leader of its cava l ry.

Cromwe l l i n s isted upon the i m porta nce of d ri l l tra i n i n g a n d strict d isci p l i n e a m o n g h i s troops . H e be l i eved com m itment a n d sk i l l shou ld be more im porta nt i n the promot ion of com m a n d ers than the i r soci a l status . H e is sa id to have dec la red that 'I wou l d rather h ave a p l a i n russet-coated ca pta i n that kn ows what he fig hts fo r, a n d l oves what he knows, than that wh ich you ca l l a gent lemen a n d noth i ng e l se. ' H e was a key fig u re i n push i ng to rem ove i n com petent leaders from Par l i ament's arm ies, h e l p i ng to d raw up the Se l fDenyi ng Ord i n a n ce to th is end in 1 645 (see page 40).

In his re l i g ious be l i efs he was a Pu rita n (a strict Protestant) and he be l i eved fe rvent ly that the Civi l Wa rs were a god ly fig ht aga i nst Char les I , whom he condem ned as a corru pt, u nj ust tyra nt .

Did new wea pons encourage cha nges in recruitment? Developments in the science and technology of weapons, and the changes in tactics they encouraged, contributed to the shift towards more professional, permanent standing armies. We learned on pages 37-8 that muskets became widely used, but they had serious limitations in their rate, range and accuracy of fire had led to tactics that deployed soldiers in square formations flanked by pike men. However, square formations were only effective in battle if soldiers were well drilled and disciplined in manoeuvring in these formations. It's harder than you might think to march around in tight square formation, changing rows to reload and fire while keeping the structure. Discipline and constant drill practice was crucial, and this could be more easily achieved by professional, standing armies than in armies that were assembled of civilian-soldiers only in times of war.

Overall, significant changes in the recruitment and training of armies in the seventeenth century came about as a result of developments in the science and technology of weapons as well as the influence of government and individuals.

HOW MUCH, AND WHY, DID THE RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING OF COMBATANTS

CHANGE , C. l 500-C. l700?

1 . Describe three th ings that made the N ew Mode l Army d iffe rent from previous Eng l ish a rm ies.

2. Exp l a i n how O l ive r Cromwe l l and King Char les 1 1 contr ibuted to changes i n the recru itment a n d tra i n i n g of com batants.

3. Describe the main changes that took p lace i n recru itment and tra i n i ng of com batants i n th is per iod. Add them to the fi rst co l u m n of you r Knowledge O rgan iser ta b le (see page 33) .

4. Exp la i n the techno log ica l deve lopments that infl uenced these changes . Add them to the second co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le .

5. Were there any other factors that contributed to determ in i ng changes in recru itment and tra i n i ng in th is per iod (th i n k about govern ment and i nd ivid ua l s)? Add these to the th i rd co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le .

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3.5 Case study: the Batt le of N aseby, 1 645 The Battle ofNaseby was a key battle in the English Civil Wars (1642-49). I t took place in 1645 and was fought between the Royalist army of King Charles I and Parliament's newly formed New Model Army. Did the infantry's increased use of gunpowder weapons and pike men at this time mean that cavalry no longer played a decisive role on the battlefield? We are going to look at what happened at the Battle ofNaseby and in particular to think about how important cavalry were determining its outcome. The engraving below shows the positions of the two armies just before the start of the battle .

HOW IMPORTANT WERE THE CAVALRY AT NASEBY?

1 . Loo k at the engravi ng above. Can you identify the: a) Roya l i sts? b) Par l i amenta r ians? c) p ike men? d) musketeers? e) cava l ry? f) d ragoons (positioned on the left fl a n k of the Par l i ament's a rmy)?

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..6. An engraving of the positions of the two armies at the start of the Battle of Naseby.


1. On pages 43-4 you wi l l read about the main stages of the Batt le of Naseby. Decide at each of the six main stages whether : a) Par l i ament had the advantage b) Roya l i sts had the advantage c) ne ither had the advantage.

Give reasons for your answers.

2. Use you r answers to Activity 2 to choose wh ich of the fo l l owing was most decis ive i n exp l a i n i ng the outcome of the batt le : a) Role of the a rti l l e ry b) Role of the i nfantry c) Role of the cava l ry

Stage one: N u m bers

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The cavalry on both sides were experienced and skilled troops. The Parliamentarian cavalry were well trained and disciplined with experience of fighting together under their able military leader Oliver Cromwell (see page 41). The Royalist infantry had more battle experience.

Both sides struggled to raise and maintain infantry which explains why, unusually for the period, the numbers of cavalry were almost the same as infantry at Naseby (see graph) .

"' Q. 0 g 0

� Cl> .Q E " z

Roya l ist troops Par l iamentar ian troops

• The number of troops in the Royalist and Parliamentarian armies at the Battle of Naseby (figures not exact but based on best estimates) .

Stage two: Posit ions The two armies were positioned opposite each other on opposing grass ridges with a shallow dip of land between them. The Parliamentary troops were positioned on a slightly higher ridge. They were protected on their flanks (sides) by thick hedges and rough, boggy ground. This location had been chosen by Oliver Cromwell. A low ridge just in front of the Royalist troops provided them with some protection.

Stage th ree: Arti l l e ry The battle began when the Royalists advanced. The Parliamentarians fired about five of their artillery but most of the cannon balls overshot the advancing Royalist infantry. The armies were so close that there was no time to fire more artillery before the infantry engaged, making further use of artillery unwise as it would have endangered their own men. Most of the Royalist artillery had not been moved into position by the time the battle began, so was not used.


Stage fou r: Cava l ry (1 ) A swift and forceful Royalist cavalry charge, led by Prince Rupert (the nephew of King Charles I and leader of the Royalist cavalry at N aseby), stormed up the slope on the lefthand side of the battlefield. The Royalist cavalry, armed with pistols and swords, succeeded in chasing off the field at least 1000 (but not all) of the Parliamentary cavalry on the left-hand side of the battlefield.

Stage five: I nfa ntry The musketeers from both sides, probably in Swedish salvo formation (see page 38), fired a volley of shots as the infantry advanced. But the armies were so close that there was only time for one volley before the infantry met. Hand-to-hand combat followed with musketeers using the butts of their muskets as clubs and the pike men engaging in the 'push of pike' (see page 38). Although outnumbered, the more experienced Royalist infantry began pushing the Parliamentary infantry back.

The fighting was described by Sir Edward Walker, a Royalist who fought at the Battle of Naseby:

The foot [ i nfa ntry] on e ither s ide h a rd l y saw each oth e r ti l l they were with i n s h ot, a n d so o n ly m a d e o n e vo l l ey; o u r fa l l i n g i n with sword a n d b u tt e n d o f the m us ket d i d n ota b l e execut ion, i n so m u ch as I s a w t h e i r co l o u rs* fa l l a n d t h e i r foot i n g reat d isord e r.

* Co lours mean f lags that represent each army in a batt le .

Stage six: Cava l ry (2) The Parliamentarian cavalry on the right of the battlefield, led by Oliver Cromwell, charged towards the Royalist cavalry. These were Parliament's best cavalry troops, known as the Ironsides - they were well equipped, well trained and well disciplined. Using swords and pistols they defeated and then chased the outnumbered Royalist cavalry on the right from the field.

Oliver Cromwell quickly regrouped his cavalry following the charge and led them against the flanks of the Royalist infantry. The Royalist infantry began to collapse. The Royalist cavalry led by Prince Rupert could not defend the infantry as they had not regrouped after their first charge but had ridden off to loot the Parliamentary baggage tra in at the rear of the battlefield. They did not return for at least an hour.

The Royalist historian Edward Hyde, the Earl of Clarendon, was frequently critical of Prince Rupert's leadership of the Royalist cavalry. He wrote:

t h o u g h the Ki n g 's troops p reva i l e d i n the charge a n d routed [d efeated] those they c h a rg e d , they n ever ra l l ied themse lves a g a i n in order, n o r co u l d be bro u g h t to m a ke a seco n d charge a g a i n the s a m e day . . . w h e reas Cromwe l l 's troops . . . ra l l ied a g a i n a n d stood i n good o r d e r ti l l they received n e w orders .

The Royalist cavalry reserve did not help the Royalist infantry either, possibly because they misinterpreted a signal on the battlefield believing it to be an instruction to leave the field.

The outcome of the Batt le The Royalist infantry quickly collapsed with no real assistance from the Royalist cavalry. Parliament's New Model Army was victorious at N aseby. Almost all the Royalist infantry were captured, as was a huge amount of Royalist gunpowder and firearms. Exact numbers of casualties are not known, but perhaps as many as 1000 Royalists were killed and about half that number of Parliament's troops. The battle had lasted about three hours.


POOR COMMUNICATIONS

Com m u n icati ng effective ly on the batt lefie ld was d ifficu l t and conti n ued to depend on gestu re and voice com m a nds . These were made even ha rder by the use of m uskets and a rt i l l e ry wh ich created no ise and th i ck b lack smoke. lt was freq uent ly even d ifficu l t to te l l friend from foe once batt le h a d beg u n , especia l ly a s u n iforms were not genera l ly worn . Com batants often tr ied to wear some d isti n g u ish i ng object on the i r bod ies for a batt le , such as a l eafy branch or p iece of wh ite c loth . They a l so used agreed secret words, wh ich cou l d be sho uted i f there was i m m i nent d a n g e r o f be ing k i l l ed by a m e m ber o f the i r own s ide .

The ro le of Ol iver Cromwel l Oliver Cromwell had a n important role i n determining the outcome o f the battle. H e was sure only to engage in battle once he knew that his troops outnumbered their Royalist opponents, and helped to select their starting position. His cavalry - the Ironsides - proved themselves to be skilled, determined and disciplined, charging against Royalist troops and then quickly rallying to charge again (something the Royalist cavalry failed to do) . This was largely because of his training and leadership; many of these cavalrymen had been commanded by Cromwell since 1642 .

Cromwell led by example: he was personally involved in the midst of the fighting. His passionate religious conviction in the 'right' of his cause against Charles I (see page 41) contributed to his determination and bravery as a commander.

Were the cavalry decisive? Parliament's cavalry, particularly the Ironsides led by Oliver Cromwell, were probably the main reason for Parliament's victory at the Battle of N aseby. This revival of the cavalry's decisive importance in battle seems like a return to the earlier Middle Ages, and a change from the later Middle Ages when knights tended to fight dismounted. The cavalry's importance at Naseby was made possible because the technical limitations of muskets meant that they lacked accuracy, rate and range of fire. Had guns been more sophisticated, cavalry would have stood little chance, as we will see in Chapter 4. However, even at Naseby the cavalry alone could not have won the battle; they needed the infantry too.

REASONS FOR THE OUTCOME OF THE BATTLE � 1 . H ow d id O l iver Cromwe l l contribute to Pa r l i ament's victory at the Batt le of Naseby?

2. Ra n k the fo l l owing in o rder of the i r im portance in determ in i ng the outcome of the Batt le of N aseby: - a rti l l e ry - i nfa ntry (m usketeers and p ike men) - cava l ry.

Explain your rankings.

3. Exp la i n how fa r the Batt le of N aseby was typ ica l of batt les of this time. Refer to the fo l lowing i n you r answer: - wea pons - com posit ion of arm ies (n u m bers, type and ro le/tactics of troops) - d u ration of batt le .

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3.6 H ow m uch, a n d why, d id the experience of civi l ia ns cha n g e, c.1 500-c.1700? For much of the period c . l500-c. l700, civilians in England were not directly affected by warfare or coastal raids. However, civilians were hugely affected during the Civil Wars, 1642-49. Although the Civil Wars impacted people's lives on a much larger scale than previous wars, the type of burdens it imposed on people were similar to those in the Middle Ages .

The vi l lage of Myddle d u ring the Civi l Wa rs We are going to read about how one village experienced the Civil Wars. Myddle was a small village of 350 residents near Shrewsbury, and the following account was written by Richard Gough who was a schoolboy during the Civil Wars. As an adult, he recorded the impact of the Civil War on where he grew up.

Out of the three towns of Mydd le, Marton and Newton , there went

[vo luntari ly to fig ht for the King] no less than 20 men, of which 1 3 were

k i l led i n the wars . . . And if so many d ied out of these three towns, we may

reasonably g uess that many thousands d ied in Eng land i n that war . . .

There was but few that went out of th is v i l lage to serve the Parl iament,

and of them, there was none k i l led (as I know of) nor wounded except John

Mou ld . . . he was shot through the leg with a musket bu l let which broke the

bone i n h is leg and s lew h is horse from under h im . H is leg was healed but

was very crooked as long as he l ived .

[Roya l ist sold iers] made excurs ions very often i nto Mydd le, and took away

cattle, provis ion and bedd ing , and whatever they pleased .

There happened no considerable act of hosti l ity in this vi l lage during the time

of the wars, saving on ly one smal l skirmish i n Mydd le, part of which I saw,

whi le I was a schoolboy. [Our teacher] commanded us boys into the church,

so that we could not see the whole action . [Roya l ist sold iers were in the

vi l lage when there also by chance came severa l of Parliament's sold iers who

were also garrisoned nearby. One of Parliament's sold iers shot a Roya l ist

sold ier] through the body with a carbine shot and he fel l down. The other

Royal ist troops fled and two were taken prisoner. [fhe sold ier who had been

shot] was carried into Alien Chaloner's house . . . [our teacher] was sent to

pray with h im . I went with h im and saw the man lying on h is bed with much

blood runn ing a long the floor. I n the n ight a troop of [Roya l ist] horsemen

came and took him to their garrison where he d ied the next day . . . The two

sold iers captured were both hanged.

HOW DID THE CIVIL WAR AFFECT MYDDLE?

1 . Describe at least three ways in which the civi l ians of Mydd le were affected by the Civi l Wa rs .

2. Look at the sou rce on page 48. Can you identify the fo l lowing items that have been p i l l aged by the looti ng Civi l War so ld ier shown i n the p ictu re:

- roast ch icken - string of sausages - duck - cau l d ron ( l a rge cook ing pot)?

3. H ow typ ica l were the exper iences of the civ i l i ans of Mydd le d u ri ng the Civi l Wars? Read page 47 to he lp you to answer.

I


How m uch, and why, d id the experience of civi l ians cha nge, c.1 500-c.1 700?

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The story ofMyddle is useful in showing how a small village experienced the Civil Wars. But was the experience of Myddle typical?

Providing food and shelter for combatants The most consistent burden on the villagers ofMyddle during the Civil Wars was the requ isitioning (forcible taking) of foodstuffs to feed the armies. This was typical. Armies at the time frequently 'lived off the land', meaning they did not carry sufficient food supplies with them, so civilians were expected to provide combatants with food. Civilians were also expected to provide quarter (accommodation) in their homes, known as bi l leting the troops. Soldiers, especially badly paid ones, were usually not good guests and often stole what they could. Billeting was one of the most unpopular burdens during the Civil War.

Civilians were supposed to receive payment as compensation, but this was rarely paid in advance. Instead 'free quarter' tickets were issued that could be redeemed for payment later, but payment was sometimes never made.

Looting

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My.\brtiaJI ArMrt t!alt 1 Am<llliSR mr focr, Witb- tLi.t ( d.('g011lu!d ·�infl LIIOS<!l bWwcs ; 7tm it Munu.ion

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l1!.itfu11!"fcm)' ft.lldcr iJ. w!.D"'ir�� motl tiJ� To m:are: ,. prmy Dld:. bca:.=d not ll!.IJ:D;:: J T�;J:�;;��.:J�J NOW. c� romt: CII� 18(\ lct: you:r �t look.

lh " AN1�• :'C•tl� voowfl·t A=�·�t�J;�.�

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F I N f <".

Looting was extremely common. Badly paid, poorly disciplined soldiers frequently took any opportunity to steal.

.A. This woodcut from the Civil War shows a common view of the pillaging soldier carrying the objects he has looted

Taxation Increased taxation imposed by the government to fund the wars was a big burden on civilians. These taxes included excise taxes on the purchase of a wide range of foodstuffs (including salt and beer) . Although these taxes were an exceptional response to the needs of war, more regular and higher taxes had become increasingly accepted by 1700 .

Both sides also confiscated the property of their wealthy opponents, and forced wealthy individuals to pay compulsory loans.

Casualties Many towns, particularly large ones where troops were ga rrisoned, experienced direct violence on a much greater scale than Myddle. About 150 towns suffered major attacks or were besieged during the Civil Wars. Deaths in sieges made up just over 10 per cent of the total Civil Wars deaths (many, but not all, of those who died in sieges would have been soldiers) .

Conditions in sieges could get desperate. During the eleven-week siege of Colchester in the summer of 1648 the besieged Royalist troops and the local population ate horses, cats and dogs, and even candles and soap. In these conditions diseases, like plague, were common. If a besieged town refused to surrender but was eventually captured, then the victorious soldiers were permitted to loot and destroy much of the town in revenge. The rape and murder of civilians was not uncommon.

Estimates for the soldier and civilian casualties caused by the English Civil Wars, including those due to both combat and disease, was 180,000 . This was about 3 .6 per cent of the population, a proportion greater than the First World War (2 .6 per cent) and the Second World War (0 .6 per cent) .

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3 Warfare a n d B rit ish society i n the ear ly modern per iod, c.1 500-c.1 700

Propaganda There were considerable attempts to inform, persuade and appeal to people about the events of war during this period. Both sides made use of the relatively newly invented printing press to mass produce pamphlets and weekly newsbooks. Many told exaggerated stories of atrocities .

.A. Parliamentary propaganda woodcut produced during the Civil Wars

Although there was considerable variation in the extent to which different areas suffered in the Civil Wars, overall the ways in which civilians experienced war in this period was not hugely different to the Middle Ages . What was different was the intensity of their experience during the Civil War.

THE EXPERIENCE OF CIVILIANS � 1 . Describe the ma i n ways in wh ich war i m pacted on civi l i ans in th is per iod.

2. Write a br ief parag ra ph exp la i n i ng the main conti n u it ies i n the civ i l i an exper ience of warfa re i n th is per iod.

3. What were the main changes, if any, that too k p lace i n the civi l i an exper ience of war d u ri ng th is per iod? Add them to the fi rst co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le (see page 33). I f there were m a i n ly conti n u it ies write a b rief note to exp la i n th is .

4. Exp la i n what factors infl uenced any changes i n the civ i l i an exper ience of wa rfa re. Add them to the second and th i rd co l u m n s of you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le .

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Identifying the main reasons for change

Let's return to the key enquiry question for this chapter:

' Developments in science and tech nology were the main reason for sign ificant changes

in warfare between c.1 500 and c.1 700.' How far do you ag ree? Explain you r answer.

This question asks you to make a judgement about whether science and technology were the most important factors in causing changes in warfare during the early modern period. This means you need to think about prioritising the factors; which were the most important, and which were the least important in causing change? The activity below will help you think about this.

PRIORITISING THE FACTORS � • Use the Knowledge Organ iser you comp leted throughout the chapter to he lp you answer these questions (see page 33).

1. P lace the three factors i n order from the m ost to the least i m portant i n exp l a i n i ng the changes wh ich took p l ace i n each of the fo l l owing topics: - wea pons recru itment and tra in ing of com batants - com posit ion of arm ies - exper ience of civi l i ans

2. Exp la i n how i m portant each of the factors was in creat ing changes in warfa re. Use one or more of the fo l l owing phrases to he lp you write a br ief answer to th is q u estion .

. . . was the ma in I m ost im portant cause of . . .

. . . p l ayed a s ign ificant I im portant I major ro le i n . . .

. . . was of some i m porta nce i n . . .

. . . was of eq ua l i m portance with . . .

Th is brief answer is now you r overa l l answer to the q u estion .

Supporting you r judgement Whatever factor, or factors, you think are most important, you need to give a reason for your judgement. You can't just say that one factor was most important; it won't be convincing. To help you prove that one factor was particularly important you could:

• compare two factors and show how one factor is more important than the other in bringing about a change

• show how the factor led to changes in lots of topic areas

• demonstrate that without the factor changes would not have taken place

• show how one factor links to lots of other factors (the most important factors usually have the most links to other factors).

Look at the two explanations opposite. For each, which factor does it think was most important in bringing about change, and how does it try to prove this.

Science and technology was the most important factor in explaining changes in tactics, in particular the shift from linear to square battle formations. This was because square tactics were a response to the technical strengths and limitations of the new match lock muskets. Square formations helped to counter the problem of the slow reload time of match lock muskets by enabling continuous fire by having rows of men firing and then rotating to the back of the square to reload. Individuals were important in developing particular tactical formations, such as Prince Maurice of Nassau's Dutch countermarch. But the general shift away from linear tactics was determined more by developments in science and technology.

Government and individuals were the most important factors in bringing about the change towards more professional, permanent armies during the early modern period. Without the increased revenues that governments raised through taxation from the seventeenth century, it would not have been possible to fund and pay the wages of a permanent professional army. Government and individuals were more important than attitudes in society in leading to this change, because at this time attitudes in society were largely hostile to the idea of a permanent, standing army, resenting its expense, fearing that it may be used by the ruler against the people, and tending to see England's best defence in its Royal Navy.


Revisiting the Word Wa l l

.-l � ' I

x factor was more im portant thai;l y factor beca use . . . j ' --.. -

x a n d y factors were eq u a l ly im portant beca use . . .

x factor was im portant but not sufficient' on its own to expla in · J-cllaiiges beca use . . . ....:::I - j l , , I .,....

without x factor then change wou l d not have take n p lace beca use . . .

The phrases shown on the Word Wall are useful in helping you to explain the relative importance of factors. Add them to your own Word Wall. You should write them in the colour used for words that help you to answer questions more clearly and effectively.

Making links between factors The factors often worked together to bring about changes in warfare. It is often helpful to talk about how the factors link together in an explanation. The activity below will help you to do this.

Expla in why a permanent standing army was establ ished i n Eng land

from the mid-seventeenth century .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Practice questions

Loo k a t t h e q u estion i n t h e facto r m a p . 1 . M a ke you r own copy o f t h e d i a g ra m . 2. Draw a rrows between t h e factors t o show where yo u th i n k a factor m i g ht have

infl u e n ced a n other factor.

3. Ann otate the l i nes to exp l a i n the l i n ks between the factors. 4. Do you t h i n k a l l the factors were of e q u a l im porta nce in exp l a i n i n g the change in the

wea pons used by i nfantrym en or do you th i n k one factor was part icu l a r ly im portant? Rem e m ber to exp l a i n yo u r answer.

. . .


3.7 Com m u n icating you r a nswer Before you begin writing your answer to the big enquiry question, it is important to plan how you are going to organise your answer. Let's remind ourselves of the question:

D evelopments in s cience and technology were the main reas on for significant changes in warfare b etween c .1500 and c.1700 . How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

It is another how far question, which means you need to reach a judgement about how far you agree that science and technology was the most important factor in causing changes to warfare. You will need to show that you can weigh the evidence for and against the statement. You might find that you 'mainly agree' with the statement or 'mainly disagree', or that you agree to 'a large extent' or 'to some extent'. The thinking you did on page 49 on deciding which factors were most significant will help you reach a judgement.

It is a good idea to discuss your ideas about which factors were the most important with a partner. Talking can really help you to clarify your own thinking, because it helps you to think carefully about how you explain your ideas when you try to communicate them to somebody else.

Visible learning: What is an argument? An a rg u m ent i n h isto ry is not a pu nch u p ! Arg u ment descr ibes you r view or j udgem ent a bout what o r why som eth i ng happened i n h i story - supported by evidence to show why you t h i n k th i s i s . Some words can be part icu l a r ly h e l pfu l i n m a ki ng you r a rg u m ent c lear, such as the words you added to you r Word Wa l l on page 51 . Fu rther powerfu l words that h e l p you write m o re effective ly can be fou n d on page 1 74 .

Organ is ing you r answer Remember there are two main ways of organising your answer to a how far question.

• Approach one is to write a paragraph in support of the statement, followed by a paragraph to counter the statement, before finishing with your own judgement in the conclusion. This might include which factor you think was most important or how the factors worked together.

• Approach two is to structure your answer by all (or some) of the main topics : weapons, composition of armies, recruitment and training of combatants, experience of civilians. For each topic that you decide to include write a paragraph evaluating the extent to which changes were brought about by science and technology or by other factors.

The second approach enables you more frequently to talk about how the factors might work together (link together) to bring about changes in different topics . The examiner will be impressed if you can do this.

You will find more guidance in the Writing Guide on pages 174-175.

Now write your answer to the b ig enquiry question .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Practice questions 1 . Exp l a i n o n e way i n wh ich t h e ro l e o f m o u nted so ld iers w a s s i m i l a r i n t h e Batt le of

Fa l ki rk (1 298) to the Batt le of Naseby (1 645) . 2. Exp l a i n why cava l ry conti n u ed to have a s ign ificant ro l e i n batt le th roug hout the ear ly

modern per iod? 3. 'The i nvent ion of the match lock m u s ket tra nsformed the nature of wa rfa re i n the ear ly

modern per iod'. H ow fa r do you a g ree with th i s statem ent? Exp l a i n you r a nswer.

.

.

.

.

Visible learning

How does talking help? Some peop le th i n k that students a re on ly worki ng effective ly if the c lassroom is q u iet. Th i s is wrong . Exper ience shows that students write better answers if they have fi rst ta l ked th ro u g h the i r answer w i th other peop le . Ta l ki ng h e l ps us o rgan ise ideas i n our m i nds , choose the r ight words a n d dec ide w h a t evidence we need to prove a po i nt.


3.8 Visi ble lea rn ing : Revise and remember

1 . Test you rself

Rem e m ber h ow im porta nt it is to test yo u rse l f to h e l p m a ke everyth i ng you have lea rned st ick i n yo u r bra in? H ave a go at a nswer ing these q u estions , and don 't be su rpr ised if yo u spot a few q u estions from the previous cha pter too (we n eed to keep refresh ing o u r know ledge to h e l p us rem e m ber! ) .

1 What weapon was fi rst i ntroduced to Eu rope i n t h e 1 320s?

5 What type of so ld ie r made u p a bout one th i rd of i nfa ntrymen i n E n g l i sh arm ies b y the seventeenth centu ry?

9 Exp l a i n one way in wh ich Par l i ament's cava l ry h e l ped them to w in the Batt le of Naseby.

2 . Set questions you rself

Work i n a g ro u p of th ree . Each of you set rev is ion q u estions on wa rfa re i n the ear ly modern per iod . Then ask each othe r the q u estions - a n d m a ke su re yo u know the answers!

2 Exp l a i n two ways i n 3 What was the n a m e of 4 What was the typ ica l wh ich a foot so ld ier the gun used by m ost rate of fi re of one of m i g ht be recru ited in the i nfa ntrymen by the these g u n s? M i d d l e Ages? seventeenth centu ry?

Why was it g iven th is n a m e?

6 What was the shape of a 7 I n what yea r was the 8 What was the n a m e typ ica l i nfa ntry format ion N ew Model Army of the leader of by the seventeenth esta b l i shed? Exp l a i n two Par l i ament's cava l ry at centu ry? Exp l a i n two th i ngs that made it n ew. the Batt le of N aseby? reasons for th i s .

10 I dentify th ree ways i n 1 1 W h a t d id y o u fi nd 1 2 N a m e one th i ng that wh ich civi l i a ns were h a rdest to u n d e rsta nd yo u lea rned i n th i s affected by war i n th i s i n th i s cha pter? H ow chapter that su rpr ised period . a re you go i ng to h e l p yo u or that y o u now

yo u rse l f u n d e rsta nd it? t h i n k d ifferent ly about. Exp l a i n why.

3. Revise and remember: the Big Story

Rem e m ber that it i s im porta nt as you work th ro u g h this book to keep in m i n d the B ig Story between c . 1 250 a n d the present . Th is is because you wi l l be tryi ng to identify patte rns of change across per iods as we l l as with i n them. Return to the b ig chart you began on page 3 1 to s u m m a rise the key deve lopm ents fo r each t ime per iod .

1 F i l l i n the second co l u m n of yo u r chart fo r the per iod 1 500-1 700 . Rem e m ber you d on't need to add l ots of deta i l - yo u have you r other Know ledge O rgan isers fo r th is . J ust add the key poi nts.

Weapons

Com posit ion of arm ies (n u m ber, type and tact ics of com bata nts)

Recru itment and tra i n i n g of com batants


In 1 700 soldiers went to war with basic and inaccurate guns and cavalrymen still wielded swords in cavalry

charges. By 1 900, powerful artillery dominated the battlefield, ending the era of cavalry charges. Did these

changes take place gradually or suddenly over a short space of time? This chapter explores both the extent

and pace of change between c. l 700 and c.l900.

4.1 H ow m uch had cha n g ed since 1700?

A SOLDIER IN 1800

A s you read a bout W i l l i a m Lawrence, be low, th i n k a bout the fo l l owing q u estions :

1 . What aspects about so ld ie rs, the i r wea pons, u n iform and tactics, a re simi lar to the period 1 500-1 700?

A sold ier in the spotl ig ht: Wi l l ia m Lawrence (i nfa ntryma n) William Lawrence was born in 1791 in a village in Dorset. His father worked as a farm labourer. William and his six siblings had no opportunity to go to school. He volunteered for service in the British Army, a permanent standing army, and received regular wages of 1 shilling a day. Lawrence's decision to enlist was mainly motivated by a desire to escape poverty and personal difficulties .

Bayonet: a thin, sharp blade that

fitted onto the end of the musket

which still al lowed the gun to be fired.

Used since the late eighteenth century.

Knapsack: contained a soldier 's

essentia l kit - a blanket, waterproof

and basic rations.

All soldiers were issued with a red

tunic. Red was easy to see on the

battlefield but this didn't matter since

soldiers fired in, and at, big formations

- a soldier was not targeted

individually. On smoky battlefie lds red

helped identify friendly troops. British

infantry were known as Redcoats.

?. 2. What aspects a bout so ld iers a re different from the

period 1 500-1 700?

3. H ow wou l d you describe the extent of the change? Look on you r Word Wa l l for he lpfu l voca bu l a ry.

Lawrence was given the uniform and equipment of an infantryman. He received a short period of training, before being sent to fight the French armies in Portugal and

•

Spain. For most of the years that Lawrence served as an infantryman, Britain was at war with France, which was ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte. Lawrence fought at the Battle ofWaterloo in 1815. It was after this battle, when he was stationed in France, that he met a young French flower seller. They married and she returned to England with him. He recorded his experiences as a soldier in his autobiography.

Brown Be ss musket: used by most

infantrymen from 1720s to 1840s. lt was:

• muzzle- loaded with a flintlock firing

mechanism (see page 36)

• capable of two to three shots a minute

• re latively inaccurate so soldiers fired

volleys in large groups to increase the

chance of hitting opposition troops

• liable to misfire

• used solid round lead ba l ls as ammunition

• produced black smoke on firing.

<11111 A redcoat infantry soldier, c . l 80 0

4 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society c.1 700-c.1 900

4.2 You r enq u i ry: measu ring the extent a n d pace of cha n g e

Visible learning Pace of change

What we have learned about William Lawrence suggests that few major changes had taken place in the weapons, uniform and tactics of ordinary soldiers since the end of the early modern period that you learned about in the previous chapter. The extent of change was limited. This implies that the pace (speed) of change was gradual; changes that did occur tended to be incremental (slowly

lt is worth rem i n d i n g o u rse lves of the ways in wh ich the pace of change can be descri bed . The g ra p h be low i l l u strates some of the m a i n types of pace of change .

building on each other) rather than sudden.

The big Enquiry Question for this chapter will explore how far it is fair to say the pace of change was gradual during this period. It asks:

1 00%

Cont inu ity (no change) � Turn ing F luctuating point change

'-y-' Accelerating pace of change 'The pace of change was gradual in the nature and experience of warfare during the period 1700-1900.' How far do you agree with this s tatement? Explain your answer.

0%�----------------------------------2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 20 1 0

WHAT CHANGED?

1 . Before you can identify patterns in the pace of change, you w i l l need to find out what actu a l ly changed . As you work through the cha pter, use the Knowledge Organ iser ta b le shown be low to record you r notes (mak ing a copy of i t on A3 paper) . Fo r each topic write you r notes i n o r across the date section (s) that app ly. For exa m ple , if a new wea pon was i ntroduced i n 1 850, write the entry for this wea pon i n the 1 850 section . Or if a wea pon was used throughout the period 1 700-1 800, write you r notes a bout th is weapon across these dates, as i n the exa m p l e entry for the B rown Bess m usket shown be low.

Knowledge Organiser

Topic 1 700 1 750 1 800 1 850

Wea pons The Brown Bess musket was used by most infantry between 1720 and 1840 - it had a limited range, rate of fire and

accuracy (typical ly two to three shots per minute).

Com posit ion of a rm ies (n u m ber, type a n d tactics o f com bata nts)

Recru itment a n d tra i n i n g o f com batants

Exper ience of civi l i a ns

2. I n t h i s cha pter you w i l l a l so read about the factors that exp la i n the changes and conti n u ities i n wa rfa re. l t w i l l be usefu l to keep a record of the ro l e of these factors. To do so, create three sepa rate factor sheets or cards, l i ke the one be low, one for each of the factors: - Science, tech no logy and com m u n ications - G overn ments and i nd ivid ua l s - Attitudes i n society

Time

1 900

Key features of Science, technology and communications, 1700-1900

Impact of this feature in explaining changes and continuities in warfare

At key points as you work through the chapter you wi l l be rem inded to fi l l i n these factor sheets.

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4.3 Case study: the Batt le of Water loo, 18 15 Let's begin our enquiry for this chapter one hundred years into the period, at the Battle of Waterloo which took place on 18 June 1815 .

Who fought at the Batt le of Waterloo? The Battle of Waterloo was fought in what is now Belgium, between the French Army, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, and an Allied Army of British, Dutch, Belgian and Prussian (German-speaking) troops who were commanded by the British officer Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington. It was the final battle of the Napoleonic Wars against France.

80,000 70,000

>- 60,000 E :u 50,000 Q) -5 40,000 0 Q) 30,000 N ;;; 20,000

1 0,000 0

A l l ied Army

6,000 (with 1 56 g u ns)

1 1 ,000

50,000

French Army

7,000 (with 246 g u n s)

1 4,000

48,000

Key • I nfantry • C ava l ry

• Art i l lery

.A The number of troops from each side at the Battle of Waterloo

Wellington's strategy at Waterloo was to wait for the French to attack. It was a sensible strategy since Napoleon's troops outnumbered his. Wellington knew that his army would have to hold back a French attack alone before Prussian troops could arrive to provide help. Wellington personally chose the

0

km

lit- A nineteenth-century cartoon entitled 'A Wellington Boot - or the Head of the Army'. Wellington was made Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in 1827. Wellington boots were named after him as he wore and made popular this style of knee-high boot.

battlefield at Waterloo because he believed the landscape had good defensive features. The map shows the key features on the battlefield and the positions of troops at the beginning of the battle. Can you see how Wellington might have used the features of the battlefield to his advantage?

..&... ,. � .»....

Marsnriaticf. This :as made more water logged by very heavy ra i n the day before the batt le . Cava l ry and i nfa ntry wou ld f ind it hard to move across th is g round .

�

Key

• Brit ish i nfa ntry

(:oil Brit ish cava l ry

: .... Wooded a rea

4 Arti l l e ry

• French i nfantry

c:;jjl French cava l ry

rll French Imper ia l Gua rd

.A The Battlefield at Waterloo showing the positions of the troops at the beginning of the Battle

•


HOW GOOD WERE? Was Waterloo Wel l i ngton's victory?

WELLINGTON'S • The Allied Army won the Battle ofWaterloo and Wellington was celebrated as a hero. What

was his contribution as an individual to the outcome of the battle? In order to evaluate DECISIONS AT how far Wellington's decisions contributed to victory, you are going to rank his actions at WATERLOO? key stages during the battle.

Wel l i ngton 's actions at key stages of the batt le a re described on pages 56-7. At each stage decide if you th i nk We l l i n gton 's actions were:

a) not good

b) o kay but cou l d have been better

c) good

d) exce l lent/i nsp i red .

G ive reasons fo r yo u r cho ices .

Stage 1 : Positioning his troops Wellington was concerned that the French would not just attack from the centre but would try to attack around his fla n ks (sides) too. With this in mind, Wellington:

• placed a small number of troops to the east of the battlefield • placed a substantial number of troops on the west of the battlefield • sent troops to occupy and reinforce Chateau d'Hougoumont and La Ha ye Sainte • placed the majority of his troops in the centre of the battlefield behind the ridge line.

Stage 2: The French attack Chateau d ' H ougoumont At 1 1 .30 a.m. a large force of French infantry attacked Chateau d'Hougoumont. If successful, this attack would have allowed the French to attack Wellington's more vulnerable flanks without the danger of being attacked by the Allies within Hougoumont. The French sent more and more troops to Hougoumont throughout the battle. Wellington decided to:

• send some reinforcements to Hougoumont, but did not take many troops away from their positions in the centre of the battlefield.

Stage 3: French artillery bombardment Despite fierce fighting Hougoumont was never captured by the French. At 1 p.m. large numbers of French artillery began firing at the centre of the British lines. The French artillery were not as effective as they might have been as heavy rain the previous day had made the ground wet so that the cannon balls did not bounce along the ground. Napoleon had delayed his opening attack by several hours in the hope the ground would dry out. Wellington responded to the artillery bombardment by:

• ordering the infantry in the centre of the battlefield to lie down on the reverse side of the ridge .

.A. Wellington's telescope. The battlefield was 2 . 5 kilometres wide and Wellington needed a telescope to make out the movements of troops in the distance. Using this telescope Wellington would have seen a line of infantry at 1 . 5 kilometres as a solid black line ; a line of cavalry as a dotted line . Wellington's orders were written in pencil on a piece of goat skin (so that they could be erased and reused) and sent by messenger on horseback .


Stage 4: The French infantry attack Behind the ridge, the British infantry had been relatively well protected from the French artillery fire. Then, at 1 . 30 p.m., 18,000 French infantry advanced towards the British infantry lines. Wellington ordered:

• the Allied artillery to fire • the Allied infantry to stand in lines and fire with bayonets fixed (see box below) • the Allied cavalry to charge, swords drawn, at the French infantry after they had begun

to retreat.

INFANTRY LINES

I nfa ntry usua l ly fi red i n l i n e formations two men deep . Th i s was i n o rder to max im ise fi repower by hav ing a l a rge n u m bers of so ld ie rs fi r i ng at once . So ld ie rs no longer had to sta nd i n severa l rows to fi re a n d re load as tech no log ica l i m provements had red u ced the re load t imes of m uskets . Each so ld ie r cou l d now fi re u p to th ree t imes a m i n ute.

Stage 5: The French

cavalry charge The French infantry attack failed, but half of the Allied cavalry were lost in the charge against them.

At 4 p.m., 5000 French cavalry began a series of repeated charges against the Allied infantry. Wellington's response was to order:

• the infantry behind the ridge to form thirteen hollow squares

• the Allied artillery to fire as the cavalry approached.

INFANTRY SQUARES

I nfantrym en made sq u a re format ions of fou r men deep to defend aga i nst cava l ry charges . The front two rows he ld the i r m u s kets at a 45-degree a n g l e with bayonets po int ing o utwards l i ke p i kes, w h i l e the sta n d i n g two rows fi red vo l l eys of shot. The centre of the sq u a re prov ided protection for officers issu i ng com m ands, and the wounded . S q u a re format ions were, h owever, vu l ne ra b l e to a rti l l e ry fi re.

Stage 6: The fall of La Haye Sainte The Allied infantry's discipline and determination ensured that all of the thirteen squares held firm and the French cavalry eventually stopped the charges . However, elsewhere on the battlefield the French did make advances . At 6 p.m. the French took control of La Haye Sainte. This left the centre of Wellington's army vulnerable. At this critical moment Wellington acted by:

• sending reinforcements to strengthen the line near La Haye Sainte

• making himself visible to the troops by riding up and down the line, despite the danger to himself, stating that 'I, and every Englishman on this field, must stand and die on the spot which we now occupy' .

. •

Stage 7: The charge of the French I mperial

G uard After the fall of La Haye Sainte, Wellington's exhausted infantry began to waver. But help came when Prussian troops began to arrive on the battlefield, forcing the French to divert troops. Napoleon knew it was his last chance for victory and ordered his elite Imperial Guard infantry to advance on the centre of the Allied line. Wellington acted by:

• ordering the Allied artillery to fire on the Imperial Guard as they advanced

• instructing the British infantry to stand up in lines and fire when the Imperial Guard were close.


BRITISH ARTILLERY

A 6-pounder a rti l l e ry g u n was the most common Brit ish a rti l l e ry p iece at Water loo. lt had a range of just over 500 metres, req u i red a crew of e ight men , was muzzle-loaded and cou l d fi re about two she l l s per m i n ute.

Arti l l e ry was becoming i ncreas i ng ly i m portant at this time, which was reflected in the esta b l ishment of a Roya l Reg iment of Arti l l e ry from c.1 700, and g u n n ers were we l l tra i ned . But a rti l l e ry n u m bers sti l l rema i ned sma l l and We l l i n gton 's use of a rti l l e ry was q u ite o ld fash ioned . H e d id not concentrate h is g u ns i n one p lace, but spread them out a long the battlefie ld . H e used a rti l l e ry to support the i nfa ntry rather than the French method of using a rti l l e ry to fi re l a rge-sca le concentrated bombardments.

Sh rapne l she l l s were a lso used at Water loo. These were a ho l l ow meta l she l l fi l l ed with a m ixtu re of meta l ba l l s and powder and a crude time fuse. The she l l exp loded shortly afte r i t was fired, re leas ing the meta l ba l ls , caus ing devastati ng i nju ries to i nfantry. The sh rapne l she l l was the i nvention of the B ritish -born H e n ry S h rapne l in 1 784, and was fi rst used by the B rit ish Army in 1 803.

Armour breast p late of a French cava l ryman shot .... through with a ca nnon ba l l .

The outcome of the battle The Imperial Guard struggled through the Allied artillery fire, but was forced back by gunfire from the Allied infantry. The French Army was defeated. Casualties were substantial. French losses were estimated at 25,000; Allied at just over 23,000 . This meant that one in three of the Allied troops became a casualty during the battle. Large losses were typical given the tactics of using maximum firepower at close range.

What does Waterloo te l l us a bout the natu re of wa rfa re, c.1 700-c.1 800? We can use the Battle of Waterloo to inform us about the nature of warfare (the weapons, composition and tactics of armies) in the period 1700-1815 . This is because there had been little change in weapons between 1700 and 1815 . Remember, flintlock muskets had been invented in the seventeenth century; they just became more widely used from 1700. Bayonets too were in use from 1700. The basic capabilities of artillery guns also remained the same during this period. You can therefore use information from the Battle ofWaterloo to tell you about the weapons and tactics of warfare c . 1700-c .1800 .

THE NATURE OF WARFARE , c . l700-c. l800 ?. 1 . Look over how you rated We l l i n gton's decis ions (page 55) .

To what extent did We l l i ngton as an i nd ivid ua l contri buted to A l l ied victory?

2. Exp la i n why i nfantry tended to be dep loyed in e ither l i ne o r sq uare formations (see page 57) .

3. Fi l l i n the wea pons row of you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le (see page 55) based on the knowledge you have a bout the weapons used at Water loo. You can write most of you r information across t h e dates 1 700 t o 1 800 as w e know there was l itt le change between these dates.

4. F i l l in the com posit ion of arm ies row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le , aga in based on the knowledge you have a bout the wea pons used at Water loo. You can write m ost of you r information across the dates 1 700 to 1 800 as we know there was l itt le change between these dates. Try to i nc l ude information a bout: - a rti l l e ry - i nfa ntry - cava l ry.

•

•


4.4 What methods were used to recru it com bata nts, c.1 700-c.1 850? The methods of recruiting combatants remained largely unchanged for most of this period.

Professiona l so ld iers By 1700 soldiers were professional soldiers, which meant that being a soldier was their job, and, for most, their only means of earning a wage. This was possible because England had a permanent standing army, even in peacetime (remember this was established in 1660, see page 40). This became the British Army in 1707 when the kingdoms of Scotland and England were joined.

How did the size of the British Army cha nge? The size of the British Army fluctuated during this period, as the graph below shows .

1 700 11 c .40,000

1 8 1 3 c . 2 50,000 (d ur i ng Napo leon ic Wars)

1 8 1 7 - c . 92 ,000 (after Napo leon ic Wa rs)

1 85 5 c . 2 50,000 (d ur i ng C r imean War)

1 883 - c . 1 2 5 ,000

1 899 c . 3 50,000 (Boer Wa rs)

.6. The approximate size of the British Army, 1700- 1 9 0 0

CHANGES IN THE SIZE OF THE ARMY

1 . Why do you th i n k there were i ncreases in the n u m bers of troops at certa i n t im es?

2. H ow wou ld you describe the overa l l pattern of change in the approximate size of the Brit ish Army?

The British Army was initially small. People were suspicious of a large army, fearing the king may use it against the people as had happened in the English Civil Wars (1642-49) .

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Its basic size gradually grew through the period although it remained small in comparison with the armies in other European countries . This was partly because the British tended to see the Royal Navy, not the Army, as their main defence and as the most useful means of controlling their overseas Empire. Peaks occurred in army size when Britain was involved in foreign wars and needed to recruit many more soldiers, for example during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15), the Crimean War (1853-56) and the Boer Wars (1899-1902).

• I


What motivated men to join the infa ntry, c.1 700-c.1 850?

Let's begin by looking in more detail at the circumstances which led to the enlistment of our soldier in the spotlight, William Lawrence, in about 1806 (see the page opposite) . These methods of recruitment were largely unchanged since 1700.

1. Over 90 per cent of recruits

to the British Army were

illiterate in the first half of the

nineteenth century

(approximately 30 per cent

of the male population were

illiterate).

2. Recruiting parties (usually

made up of a group of about

three soldiers) were sent to

local fairs and public houses to

try to attract recruits.

� �

3. As an incentive, anyone

bringing a new recruit to enlist

was given a bounty, usually of

about two guineas.

SOLDIER IN THE SPOTLIGHT WILLIAM LAWRENCE: ENLISTMENT

W i l l i a m Lawrence was the ch i l d of a fa rm l a b o u rer. He had no form a l educat ion and worked as a p l o u g h boy u nt i l he was fou rteen yea rs o l d . B y t h e n h i s father had saved e n o u g h money to send h i m as a n apprentice to a b u i l der in a d i ffe rent v i l l age . But Wi l l i a m w a s not treated k ind ly, went h u n g ry and was fl ogged . H e dec ided t o esca pe a long with a n other a p p rentice from the vi l l age . The i r p l a n was to get on a s h i p to trave l overseas, but they ended u p wanderi ng from vi l l age to v i l l age i n sea rch of work.

Then, by chance, Wi l l iam saw some so ld iers and commented that he wou l d l i ke to become one . A fa rm worker too k h i m t o a publ ic house where there was a n a rmy sergeant who gave the fa rm worke r two gu i n eas fo r br i nging W i l l i a m , a n d gave five gu ineas to Wi l l i am for agree ing to beco m e a so ld ie r. W i l l i a m was then d ressed in a so ld ie r's coat and , with ri bbons t i ed to h i m , was paraded a ro u n d othe r p u bs to persuade oth ers to e n l ist. Lawrence spent a l m ost a l l of his five-gu inea bou nty on d r i nk a n d enterta i n m ent that n ight.

The next d ay Wi l l i a m was ta ken to the town h a l l to swear before a magistrate a form a l oath to com m it to beco m i ng a so ld ie r. When asked h i s occu pation , W i l l i a m l ied , sayi n g that he w a s a fa rm l abou rer, pprentices were one o t e few g ro u ps not perm itted to e n l ist . W i l l i a m then received his u n iform and began d ri l l tra i n i n g .

6. New recruits had to swear a n oath of loyalty committing to army service to a judge before

they were formally accepted into the army This had to be done within four days of enlisting, but

officially not within 24 hours in order to give the new recruit a chance to sober up and possibly

change his mind! If a man did change his mind before he swore the oath, he would have to pay back

the bounty money and pay an additional 20 shillings. This additional money was known as 'smart

money' - this was because at this time 'smart' was used to mean a sharp, stinging pain - which

may have been how the extra payment made men feel! Many could not afford to pay and so were

forced to continue to enlist. The term of service men agreed was 21 years, a lifetime commitment.

4. Bounty was the money paid

to a man when he enlisted The

amount varied; by 1806 it was

often twelve guineas - a

substantial sum (about 40 per

cent of the yearly income of an

agricultural labourer).

5. Many recruits spent their

bounty almost immediately on

drink and entertainment.

7 The majority of recruits

were labourers (see pie chart,

page 62).

•


Other ( i nc l ud i ng shoema kers, ta i lo rs, butchers, b lacksm iths and pa i nters) : 2 1 %

.6. The working background of members of the 64'h Staffordshire Regiment , 1 8 0 6 -2 9 . The proportions of trades in this regiment were typical. Unemployment and low wages in this period that affected the agricultural and weaving trades help explain the high proportions of men from these backgrounds.

•

It could be difficult for the British Army to attract recruits. Life in the British Army was harsh, with strict discipline, including floggings, low pay and monotonous drill training, and that was if you survived battle and disease on campaign! What's more, the commitment to the Army was for life - with recruits agreeing to serve for 21 years.

Unsurprisingly, the Army was seen by many civilians as the last resort for those who had little else. Even the Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, the Duke of Wellington, said ordinary British infantryman were:

the scum of the e a rth . Peo p l e ta l k of t h e i r e n l isti n g fro m t h e i r fi n e m i l ita ry fee l i n g - a l l [nonsense] - n o s u c h t h i n g . S o m e o f o u r m e n e n l ist fro m havi n g [co m m itted cri m i n a l ] offe n ces - m a ny m o re for d ri n k.

It is important to remember that he was not talking about the officers, who were recruited quite differently, but about ordinary infantrymen. How fair were Wellington's comments?

.6. A recruitment party of the 33rd Regiment of Foot, 1 8 1 4 . A print by R . Havell from 1 8 1 4 . It shows a recruiting party gathering recruits outside a pub . A flat oatcake is depicted on the sergeant 's sword to represent the plentiful food that was promised to recruits once they enlisted in the Army.

REASONS FOR RECRUITMENT

1 . Draw a cartoon stri p (stick men is fi ne !) of six scenes showing the ma i n events in the en l istment of Wi l l ia m Lawrence .

2. List as many possib le reasons as you can to exp la i n why Wi l l ia m Lawrence en l isted i n 1 806.

3. H ow fa r do you th i n k Wi l l i am Lawrence's exper ience of recru itment was typica l?

4. Was Wi l l i am Lawrence a typ ica l recru it? G ive reasons for you r answer .

� •

Other methods of recruitment, c.1 700-c.1 850? Recruiting parties were the main way of gaining recruits during this period, but other methods were used.

The Militia Soldiers were recruited from the Militia. The Militia was an organisation whose members were equipped and trained to provide basic local defence. From 1757 counties had to provide lists of men aged 18 to 45 from which men were selected by ballot to serve in the Militia for a period of five years . Militiamen were not part of the army and were not expected to serve overseas.

Traditionally, special permission had to be granted by Parliament each time the army recruited men from the Militia. But this was ended in 1809 when recruitment from the Militia became more regular. Militiamen were encouraged to transfer to the regular army by a bounty payment which was larger than the bounty paid to volunteer recruits to the army. Between 1805 and 1815, 100,000 Militiamen joined the regular army.

Kidnap! Some men were forced to join the army. Victims were often made drunk and then held captive until they swore the oath to enlist. Kidnappers were known as crimps. Their incentive was the bounty money given to those who brought men forward to enlist. Crimps were most active in the 1790s and 1800s when there was particular need for recruits during the Napoleonic Wars.

Desertion Unsurprisingly, desertion was a constant problem. Most desertions took place soon after the men had enlisted and before they had actually joined their regiments. Between 1803 and 1812 just over 53,000 men deserted; in the worst year of 1805 there was one desertion for every 157 recruits. Desertion was an offence punishable by death, although it was only really imposed on soldiers who deserted to the enemy in a campaign. Many deserters had public sympathy, as the painting on the front cover of this book, Searchingfor the Deserter, suggests. Painted in 1868, it shows a desperate deserter hiding from pursuing troops in a family home.


How were officers recru ited? Officers (including cavalrymen) were recruited very differently from infantrymen. They were from the wealthy upper middle and aristocratic classes. The position of an officer in the army was seen as an appropriate career for the younger sons of the aristocracy and gentry (the eldest son would inherit the family estate) .

The purchase system Positions as officers were traditionally bought for money, in what was known as the pu rchase system. It was customary for parents to purchase a commission (a position/rank) as an officer for their sons. A lieutenant commission could typically be purchased for upwards of £1000 . This did not mean that officers were not brave or skilful, but it meant that they might well not be, especially since there was no formal training requirement or qualifications needed; officers were expected to learn through experience. Nepotism (favouring one's own family members) was also common. In the 1850s five of the aide-de-camps (military secretaries) were the nephews of the Commander-in-Chief, Lord Raglan.

Promotions were usually either purchased or were based on seniority (the length of period an officer had served). There was very little opportunity, although it did occasionally happen, for men from the ranks (non-officers) to become officers. During the Napoleonic Wars, however, 4.5 per cent of officers were promoted from the ranks. This was unusual and a consequence of the need to replace officers killed during the Wars. One officer remarked, 'soldiers are but soldiers, and officers are soldiers and gentlemen'. This system of recruitment was not reformed until the 1870s.

DESERTION AND RECRUITMENT � 1 . Look ca refu l l y at the image on the front cover of you r

textbook. l t i s tryi ng t o te l l a story. Write a paragraph exp la i n i ng what you th i n k t he story m ight be (try to i nc l ude h istorica l i nformation about the way so ld iers were recru ited i nto you r story) .

2. I dentify two d isadvantages of the pu rchase system .

3. F i l l i n the recru itm ent row o f you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see page 55) . Remember to i nc l ude deta i l s about how i nfantrymen and officers were recru ited .

•

•


4.5 Case study: the Batt le of Ba lac lava, 1854 We have seen that little major change took place i n warfare from 1700 until the Battle ofWaterloo in 1815 . Was there similarly little change in the almost 40 years that followed before the next major European war, the Crimean War (1853-56)?

Who fought in the Crimea n Wa r? In the Crimean War the armies of Russia fought against the Turkish forces of the Ottoman Empire, Britain and France (known as the Allies) . The war was the result of the Russian Empire's attempt to take control of the Black Sea from the Ottoman Empire. This action was resisted by the Ottoman Empire, France and Britain, who regarded Russian expansion as a threat to their own power.

The Allies believed that taking control of Russia's main port and naval base on the Black Sea, at Sevastopol, was their best strategy for winning the war. But Sevastopol was well defended with fortifications and large numbers of artillery. An Allied attack against Sevastopol failed in early 1854, after which the Allies began a lengthy siege of the city, digging numerous trenches to provide infantry with protection from Russian artillery bombardments.

Was there anyth ing new a bout the Crimean Wa r? The Crimean War is seen by some as the first 'modern war'. This is because it was one of the first conflicts to make use of new technologies that were being developed in the Industrial Revolution at this time.

Steam technologies The Crimean War was the first war to demonstrate the military use of the relatively newly developed technologies of steam ships and steam engine railways (the first commercial railway had only opened in Britain in 1830, between Liverpool and Manchester).

A The location of the Crimea

Steam ships were used to transport men, weapons, ammunition and food supplies to the Crimea more quickly and reliably than would otherwise have been possible. They were, however, also still equipped with sails since they couldn't carry sufficient coal to power their steam engines for the entire journey. Supplies for the troops besieging Sevastopol were unloaded at the small port ofBalaclava (see map).

The Crimean War was also the first war in which the military made use of steam railways. The British constructed a small purpose-built railway in 1855 to transport supplies from the port of Balaclava to their troops in the hills around Sevastopol. The 11 km of track were vital to move supplies, since the thin, hilly track roads became almost impassable in winter. This had contributed to severe shortages and terrible conditions for troops sheltering in the trenches around Sevastopol during the harsh winter of 1854-55. Deaths from disease (particularly cholera, typhus and dysentry) far outnumbered numbers killed in enemy action which made up just 8 per cent of the British military deaths during the Crimean War .

..,.. Weapons supplies unloaded at Balaclava port . Notice the steam funnel on one of the ships. The fact that this is a photograph is another new development - the Crimean War was the first war in which photographs were taken. But this picture also shows some things did not change : notice the sailing ships and the cannon and cannon balls , which were traditional weapons.


Electric telegraph Developments in communications technologies meant that the Crimean War was one of the first wars in which it was possible to communicate events that happened overseas back to Britain faster than a human messenger could carry them. This was because of the invention of the electric telegraph in the 1830s, which allowed coded messages to be sent as electrical signals along a cable (as Morse code, for example) . For the first time messages could be received from far away within hours. But this did not have much impact on communications on the battlefield which remained, as before, dependent on gesture, written messages, flags and bugle calls.

Weapons A substantial change had also taken place in the guns used by infantrymen by the time of the Crimean War. Infantrymen were no longer equipped with muskets, bur instead with rifles which had been introduced on a large scale from the 1840s . Rifles got their name from the 'rifling' or grooving on the inside of the gun barrel, which cause the bullet to spin and therefore travel straighter, thereby increasing range and accuracy. Earlier guns without grooves were called 'smoothbore'. A comparison of the capabilities of muskets and rifles are shown in the table below.

.._ An electric telegraph machine invented by Emile Baudot ( 1 8 4 5 - 1 9 03)

Effective ra nge (not maximum) in metres Rate of fire per minute

Brown Bess m usket (50 m) Poor accu racy 2-3 shots

,;<;# -

Enfie ld Rif l e c . 1 850 (500 m) Reaso n a b l e accu racy 3-4

Rifles used the new percussion cap firing mechanism (invented in 1820). The spark to fire the gun was created when the trigger caused a metal hammer to strike a foil cap made of a highly flammable chemical mixture. Percussion cap guns were more reliable, even in wet weather, than flintlock guns. But rifles continued to be muzzle loaded and were therefore reasonably time-consuming to reload.

Artillery, however, continued to be smoothbore, limiting their range and accuracy since the technology did not yet exist to create rifling in larger guns.

Cavalrymen carried pistols, although they continued to use swords frequently on the battlefield. This was because pistols still had a very short range and limited accuracy.

HOW MUCH WAS NEW BY THE

CRIMEAN WAR?

shots

1. I dentify fou r new tech no log ies that were used i n the Crimean War and exp la i n how they were used.

., •

2. I dentify three ways in which what we know a bout the Crimean War so fa r shows s im i l a rit ies with how wars had been fou g ht previous ly.

3. Add information to you r factor sheet on Sc ience, tech no logy and com m u n ications . Write about the changes i n the tech no logy of wea pons and the im pact th is had on wa rfa re.

•


The Batt le of Ba laclava: change in the natu re of wa rfa re? The Battle ofBalaclava was one of the major battles of the Crimean War, and was fought on 25 October 1854. Did it show that changes had taken place in the nature of warfare?

Balaclava was initiated by a Russian attack on Turkish-held redoubts (small strongholds containing large guns) near Balaclava. It soon broadened to include British cavalry and

BALACLAVA SIMILAR OR DIFFERENT?

Look at the two images of the Batt le of Ba lac lava a bove.

infantry troops who were positioned in the area around Sevastopol.

The images below depict different stages of the Battle of Balaclava. You will find out more about what happened in the battle on page 67.

T Artists ' impressions of scenes from the Battle of Balaclava

•

Does the natu re of the batt le look s im i l a r to or d ifferent from batt les from ear l ier in the eig hteenth and n ineteenth centu ries? Th ink about the weapons used, the com position of a rm ies and tactics (see pages 64-65). G ive reasons for you r view.

• •

What happened at the Battle of Balaclava? The main stages of the Battle ofBalaclava are described below.

Lord Rag lan

S a p o u n e H e i g h t s

Key

@ Tu rk ish redoubts (A, B, C , D)

--- Russ ian a rti l l e ry guns

� B rit ish heavy cava l ry

!lj B rit ish l i ght cava l ry

B r it ish i nfantry

� Russ ian cava l ry

Phase one (see arrow [1 ] on map) A Russian attack succeeded in taking control of the Turkish-held redoubts and Causeway Heights just before dawn. The Russians made preparations to tow away the captured guns.

Phase two (see arrow [2] on map) At 8 .30 a.m., 2 ,300 Russian cavalry attacked 700 British infantry and Turkish forces . The British infantry, and some of the Turks, formed a line two-men deep and fired repeated rifle volleys towards the approaching Russian cavalry. A nearby British artillery battery fired gra peshot. The Russian cavalry retreated. This phase of the battle became known as the Thin Red Line, from the outnumbered infantrymen in line formation.

4 Wa rfa re and B rit ish society c.1 700-c.1 900

BATTLE OF BALACLAVA

I dentify the phase of the batt le that is be ing dep icted i n each of the images on the previous page.

0

� .... - ..... --=- ......

km

""' ... "'$ Don Battery ··�.

�

South Va l l ey

Phase three (see arrow [3] on map)

r; •

At 9 .15 a.m., 300 British heavy cava l ry charged uphill, using mainly swords but also pistols, at 2000 Russian cavalry who had just appeared on the battlefield. The Russian cavalry retreated back over the Causeway Heights.

Phase four (see arrow [4] on map) At 1 1 a.m. the British Brigade of l ight cava l ry charged with swords and pistols down the North Valley towards the Russian Don Battery in an attempt to capture the Russian artillery guns. They were fired on by the Don Battery to their front and from the hills on both sides of the valley. Those that reached the Don Battery were confronted by Russian cavalry and had little choice but to return up the valley. Less than half of the 673 who began the charge returned uninjured; 1 1 3 were dead. This phase became known as the Charge of the Light Brigade.

•


The outcome of the battle The Russians claimed the Battle ofBalaclava as a victory. They had captured the redoubts and the Causeway Heights, and took seven of the large guns back to Sevastopol as trophies. However, the British infantry and the British heavy cavalry had shown superiority over the Russian troops with which they had engaged. But the tragic Charge of the Light Brigade cost the British enormous losses and soon became what was most remembered about the Battle of Balaclava.

The Battle also suggested that artillery was beginning to have a greater impact in battle and could limit the effectiveness of the traditional cavalry charge. Russian artillery bombardments from Sevastopol had also made it necessary for the British to dig extensive trenches for protection (see page 64). This type of trench warfare foreshadowed, on a smaller scale, the trench fighting of the First World War (see page 81) .

WATERLOO TO BALACLAVA: HOW MUCH HAD CHANGED? • 1 . Com pa re the Batt le of Ba lac lava and the Batt le of Water loo. H ow s im i l a r or d iffe rent were:

a) the use of i nfa ntry b) the use of cava l ry c) the use of a rti l l e ry.

2. Add notes to you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le (see page 55) about the com position of a rm ies c.1 850.

Why did the Lig ht Brigade charge? The Charge of the Light Brigade was virtually suicidal. This has inevitably prompted questions as to why it took place. Blame has been placed on key individuals:

• Lord Raglan (commander of all British troops in the Crimea) • Lord Lucan (commander of the Cavalry Division) • Lord Cardigan (the Light Brigade's commander) • Captain Nolan (a messenger sent to carry Lord Raglan's instructions during the Battle) .

Ultimately, the charge was a mistake caused by miscommunication on the battlefield, which was partly due to incompetent leadership, and partly to personal animosities between the key individuals. It showed how limited communications technologies on the battlefield could lead to tragic errors. To understand what went wrong, look at the cartoon strip on pages 68-69, which shows the main stages in the lead-up to the Charge of the Light Brigade. Then answer the questions below.

1 . Rag l a n on Sapoune He ig hts (with a c lear view of the a battl efie ld ) sent a m essage to Lucan in the South Va l l ey a ro u n d 1 0 .1 5 a . m .

. • •

2. Lucan d id not advance as he cou l d not see any i nfa ntry (they had been de l ayed).

3. Rag lan saw the Russians prepare to tow away the redoubt guns. He sent No lan with another message for Lucan .

\

5 . Luca n rode to the South Va l l ey a n d ordered Card igan 's L ight Br igade to attack the Don Battery. Lucan a n d Card igan were brothers- i n - law a n d despised each oth er. Card igan cou l d see the Don Battery but he cou l d not see the Russ ians tow ing away the g u n s from the redou bts.

WHO WAS TO BLAME?


4. Ca pta i n N o l a n was h i g h ly cr it ica l of Lucan 's leadersh i p, reg a rd i n g h i m as a lways too re l u ctant to attack. Lucan co u l d not see the Don Battery or the redou bts as h i s v iew was obscu red by h i l l s .

6 . Card i g a n ordered the L ight Br igade to attack d own the va l l ey. As they set off, Ca pta i n N o l a n a ppeared a n d rode across t h e i r path gestu ri ng with h i s a rm . H e tr ied to shout someth i ng but was struck by sh ra p n e l and fe l l dead . H a d N o l a n rea l ised t h e L ight Br igade were about to attack the wrong g u ns? Was he tryi n g to warn them?

� • 1 . Did Lord Rag l a n i ntend the Lig ht Br igade to charge towards the Don Battery?

2. H ow d id obscured views on the battlefie ld contr ibute to the m ista ken charge?

3. H ow d id unc lear com m u n ications contri bute to the m ista ken charge?

4. H ow d id persona l an imosities between the i nd ivid ua l s i nvo lved contribute to the m ista ken charge?

5. Wh ich of the i nd ivid ua l s i nvo lved do you th i n k was most to b l ame for the Charge of the L ight Br igade? G ive reasons fo r you r answer.

• •


4.6 H ow d id recru itm ent a n d tra in ing cha n g e after 1850? Britain was on the winning side in the Crimean War but there was not much about its performance to be celebrated. The war revealed problems of poor command, tactics, mismanagement of supplies and outdated artillery.

The Crimea n Wa r: cata lyst for cha nge? During and after the Crimean War pressure for military reform increased, primarily to improve military effectiveness.

A Roya l Commission was set up by the Government in 1858 to investigate mismanagement and recruitment problems during the war. The investigation condemned:

• the mismanagement of supplies and resources. There had been a failure to provide British troops with essential supplies during the winter of 1854.

• the failure to recruit sufficient numbers of men to fight in the Crimea at the beginning of the war; the army of only 25,000 that was initially sent took almost every trained soldier in Britain.

Such findings resulted in growing pressure for reform in military recruitment and training. However, change did not occur immediately after the Crimean War, mainly because of conservative vested i nterests within the military and Parliament, where positions of power were held by a relatively small number of people, all from privileged, wealthy families who had little incentive to introduce reforms. Britain's victory at Waterloo in 1815 had also encouraged enormous belief in the great ability of the British Army which had led to complacent attitudes undermining the need for reform - such attitudes were slow to erode. Public pressure was of limited impact, not least since only a little over 5 per cent of the population were eligible to vote by the 1860s . It would take a further decade before reforms began.

Prussia: another cata lyst for cha nge? When reforms came they were less due to the Crimean War than motivated by the desire to keep up with Prussia, which was increasingly perceived as a potential political and military threat in Europe. The German-speaking kingdom ofPrussia had built up a very strong military from the midnineteenth century. Their army was large, well organised, well trained and well equipped. It had won victories in a series of European wars in the 1860s and 1870s that had led to Prussia creating and assuming leadership of a united German nation.

I

Ca rdwe l l 's reforms Lord Cardwell, War Minister 1868-71, introduced a series of army reforms. These measures aimed to encourage greater professiona l isation within the army by reforming the recruitment and promotions procedures. The measures included:

• the abolition of the purchase system (see page 63): promotion in the British Army was thereafter through merit.

• an increase in Government control over the army, since the army Commander-in-chief was made directly responsible to the Government.

• the reduction of the enlistment period from 21 to 12 years (divided between six years' active service, six years in the reserve) . This was to encourage more recruits and to ensure a trained reserve of men.

• an end to paying of bounty money for recruits (see page 61) .

• the simplification of the structure of the army with the creation of 66 local regimental districts, one in each area of the country. Each area was to have two battalions: one to be sent overseas, the other to stay at home.

• the abolition of flogging as punishment during peacetime (it was still permitted on active service abroad).

• the abolition of branding as a punishment, although it had been rarely used.

� • CHANGES TO RECRUITMENT

1 . Copy the conti n u u m l i ne be low and mark on it where you th i nk each of the reforms to recru itment and tra i n i ng m ight be best p l aced .

l itt le change moderate change su bsta ntia l change

2. H ow wou l d you describe the extent of changes to recru itment and tra i n i ng that took p lace in the 1 870s? H ow m uch rea l ly changed? H ow m uch stayed the same?

3. Return to you r Knowledge Organ iser (see page 55) and add information to the row for recru itment and tra i n i ng for the 1 870s.

4. Add information to you r factor sheets on Govern ments and i nd ivid ua l s and Attitudes in society. Write a bout the changes i n these factors and how they i m pacted on warfa re.


4.7 H ow m uch d id wea pons cha n g e after 1 850? If we were to draw a graph of the pace of change in weaponry during the period 1700 to 1900, it might look a bit like this:

�� c Ql o .: c.. -111 -Ql 0 == � 0 111 :i C V 0 V

·.;:::; "' � lli '+i tn Ill c :c � c.. . 0 Ql Ill .... - 111 111 ... -� 1: c::n ·-..2 � 0 111 c Ql -5 � � -:;.

Advanced

Bas ic L._ ______________ _

1 700 1 7 50 1 800 1 850 1 900

Time

The graph shows an accelerating pace of change in weaponry after 1850. Increasing numbers of weapons were produced with increased rate, range and accuracy of fire. Many technological developments made this possible.

An increased rate of fire was achieved by the technological innovation of guns that could be loaded at the breech (not the muzzle) . This reduced reload time considerably, increasing the rate of fire .

..A.. A gun that can be loaded at the breech

Increased accuracy and range was achieved by using rifled

(grooved) barrels to control the spin of the bullet. Rifling had been used in rifles since the 1830s but became possible in artillery from the 1860s . The biggest artillery could achieve ranges of 10 kilometres by 1900 .

These developments themselves depended upon other technical innovations:

Steel The reason why i t became possible to rifle artillery pieces was because of developments in casting steel. From the 1860s artillery pieces began to be cast out of solid steel as a result of new manufacturing methods that enabled large pieces of steel to be cast relatively cheaply. Cast steel guns were much stronger and more capable of being rifled than the cast iron pieces. The British industrialist Henry Bessemer was responsible for developing a process for cheaply mass producing large pieces of steel from the 1850s . This became known as the Bessemer process.

Brass ca rtridges The reason why breech-loading guns became possible was due to developments in ammunition cartridges. Brass cartridges (developed from the 1830s) contained one bullet and gunpowder inside a brass case. Brass cartridges were quicker and less dangerous to reload and enabled effective loading at the breech, which had not been possible before when shot and powder was loaded separately.

..A.. The first 'machine -gun'. It was invented in the 1 8 6 0 s . The gun had multiple barrels which were rotated by hand. It usually fired about 400 rounds per minute . The gun made use of breech-loading and the new brass cartridge technologies


Smokeless powder Another important innovation was smokeless powder which became available from the 1880s . It massively improved visibility on the battlefield.

Mass prod uction The increasing use of factories for production from 1850 had the important result that a lot more weapons could be produced more quickly. Weapons, and ammunition, began to be available in much larger quantities than ever before.

Pace of cha nge A large amount o f change took place i n a relatively small amount of time. This was because many of the innovations built on each other. For example, the invention of the brass cartridge allowed for more effective breech-loading guns.

Visible learning: helping your memory There a re a l ot of tech n ica l deve lopments to rem e m ber here . Somet imes it can be usefu l to th ink of an acrostic when you n eed to rem e m ber l ots of th i ngs . Try us ing the acrostic he re :

B breech- loaders

R rif l i n g

A a m m u n it ion

s stee l casti n g

s smoke l ess powder

The conseq uences of cha nges i n wea pons after 1 850 The impact of these new weapons technologies would not be felt immediately since it took time, and importantly money, to fund the provision of armies with new weapons on a large scale. Governments were understandably initially reluctant to invest in new technologies in this way military spending was not a priority and they were unsure of the reliability of new weapons.

However, this changed due to increasing tensions in European relations from the 1870s which were caused by the perceived threat of Prussian and then German military strength and growing imperial rivalries (see page 70). British Governments increased their military spending, as did other European Governments, as an arms race developed in the later years of the nineteenth century.

No one really knew for sure the impact on tactics on the battlefield that the increased firepower of these weapons would have. It seemed likely it would result in all of the possibilities listed in question 4 below. One man, Ivan Bloch, a Polish railway owner and writer, wrote his vision for the future of war in 1897:

at first there wi l l be i ncreased s l a u g hter on so terrib l e a sca l e as t o render i t i m possi b le t o g e t troops to push the batt le to a decisive issue . . . everybody wi l l be entrenched i n t h e next war; t h e space wi l l be as i nd ispensa b l e to the so ld ie r as h i s rif l e .

We will see in the next chapter how far his vision became a reality.

CHANGES TO WEAPONS AFTER 1850 AND THE IMPACT ON

TACTICS

� •

1 . What was d ifferent a bout wea pons by 1 900 com pa red to before 1 850?

2. Write a few sentences to describe the pace of change i n wea pons from 1 850. G ive reasons for the pace of change.

3. Add information a bout the deve lopm ents i n wea pons to you r Knowledge O rgan iser ta b le (page 55 ) for the dates after 1 850.

4. Which of the fo l l owing do you th i n k were a l i ke ly tactica l conseq uence of the deve lopments i n weapons? You can choose more than one . G ive reasons for you r answer.

• An i ncrease in the size of a rm ies • Arti l l e ry becoming more im portant on the battlefie ld • Cava l ry becoming less effective on the batt lefie ld • An increase i n d ifficu lty for i nfa ntry attack ing i n l i ne fo rmations • An increase i n the size of battlefie lds • An i ncrease i n the use of trenches to protect i nfantry from a rti l l e ry bom bard m ent

5. Add information to you r factor sheets on Science, tech no logy and com m u n i cations, and Govern ments and i nd ivid ua l s . Write about how the changes i n these factors i m pacted on warfa re.


4.8 H ow m uch cha n g ed in the civi l ia n experience of wa rfa re, c.1 700-c.1 900? No wars were fought in Britain between 1700 and 1900 so civilians did not have to deal directly with the impact of fighting. However, they were affected indirectly by war. Perhaps the greatest change was the increased information the public received about foreign wars due to advances in communications technologies .

Recru itment and conscription Civilians provided recruits for the armies . I n the Napoleonic Wars (see page 56) it is estimated that almost 10 per cent of the population fought at some point, with a death toll amounting to over 2 per cent of the population. The proportion of the population participating in the Crimean War was more modest, with the death toll accounting for 0 . 1 per cent of the total population.

Women were also recruited for service abroad, in the medical services, mainly as nurses . Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole may have been the most famous during the Cri mean War, but they were just two among many nursing volunteers from Britain.

Free food and quarter The req uisitioning of food and provision of accommodation to troops became less of a requirement during this period. This was partly because troops were increasingly accommodated in purpose-built barracks. The construction ofbarracks was initially slow; by 1800 there were only seventeen permanent infantry barracks. However, in just twelve years, by 1812, there were 168 barracks accommodating 133,000 men. This rapid increase in barrack building was encouraged by the huge increase in troops during the Napoleonic Wars (see page 56). Nevertheless billeting in inns and towns continued in the early nineteenth century, with civilians complaining of soldiers being drunk and fighting on the streets.

Taxes Taxes became increasingly regular during this period. Taxes were particularly high in the early 1800s to fund the lengthy Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) . During this time indirect taxes (taxes on products) were imposed on an unprecedented number of goods, from hats, ribbons and wigs, to windows, horses, carriages, newspapers and beer. A tax on income was imposed annually between 1802 and 1815 to help fund the Napoleonic Wars. This tax had first been introduced in 1799 when it required a payment in tax at a rate of 10 per cent on

all incomes over £200 (incomes between £60 and £200 were also taxed but at lower rates) . However, it was very unpopular, and no further income taxes were imposed after 1816 for many years.

Income tax was reintroduced in the 1840s, and during the Crimean War the rates temporarily doubled. However, as it was a tax only imposed on those with quite a high income, relatively few people actually qualified to pay.

Reporting the wa rs This period saw significant changes in the amount of news civilians received about foreign wars . At the beginning of the period, however, communications remained slow and dependent on human messengers . Civilians did not receive up-to-date reports. Even in 1815, it took three days for news of the Battle of Waterloo to reach England - carried by a messenger on horseback and by ship.

By the time of the Crimean War (1853-56), the invention of the electric telegraph (see page 65) enabled much faster communication. But even short dispatches sent by electric telegraph took several days to be published. Longer articles were still sent by boat and took much longer. The article on the Charge of the Light Brigade, written by the most influential war correspondent of the time, William Howard Russell, for The Times did not appear until twenty days after the charge.

It is difficult to measure the impact that reports had on public attitudes. However, Russell's criticisms of mismanagement of resources in the Crimea did encourage public outrage and pressure for reform, contributing to the resignation of the Prime Minister Lord Aberdeen and his government in January 1855. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that the direct impact of newspapers was limited given that at least 30 per cent of men and 40 per cent of women were illiterate in the 1850s.

In addition, the impact of public opinion on politics was slight given that only a fraction of the population was eligible to vote. The fra nch ise was broadened in 1884, but 40 per cent of adult males and all women were still unable to vote.

It is also important to remember that education and most media emphasised the glory and patriotism of serving in the British Army. The Army and the Royal Navy were crucial to the establishment and maintenance of the British Empire, which was a key source of national pride.


Photog raphy The Crimean War was the first 'photographed' war. But these photographs did not really help the public to 'see' the realities of the war. Firstly, the technological limitations of early cameras meant that only static scenes, not action shots, could be captured. Most photographs were posed portraits of soldiers in studios or beside guns. Roger Fenton, the main photographer of the war, deliberately chose relatively safe and reassuring subjects; there were no images of dead and wounded British soldiers.

The photographs themselves could not be printed directly into newspapers until the 1880s, instead they had to be copied by hand onto engraved printing plates. In fact, most newspapers continued to use war artists, not least because they could inject heroism and excitement into their pictures (see page 32).

By 1900, technology had improved so that greater action could be captured on camera and it was even possible

to shoot basic (silent) moving film footage. Film and photographs had great potential to be used for propaganda purposes, and were increasingly made use of in this way. This is seen in the images taken during the Boer War (1899-1902). This war was fought in South Africa between the British and the Boer (Afrikaner) republics, and resulted in a British victory.

THE IMPACT OF WAR ON CIVILIANS

1 . I dentify aspects of the im pact of war on civi l i ans wh ich : a) changed d u ri ng the per iod c.1 700-c.1 900 b) rema ined the same d u ri ng the period c.1 700-c.1 900.

2. Fi l l i n the row on the civi l i an exper ience of wa r i n you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le (page 55) .

•

3. Add i nformation to you r factor sheet on Attitudes i n society. Write a bout the changes (o r conti n u ities) i n Attitudes i n society and how these i m pacted on wa rfa re.

<11111 ' The Dying Bugler's Last Call', photographed in 1 8 9 9 b y the professional firm o f photographers Underwood and Underwood, during the Boer War, was most likely staged to evoke emotions of heroic sacrifice

The horror of war was captured more fully than ever before in such photographs of dead British troops at Spion Kop in 1900 during the Boer War. It showed a very different image of war than photographs from the Crimean War 50 years earlier T


4.9 Com m u n icating you r a nswers Let's return to the enquiry question for this chapter.

'The pace of change was gradual in the nature and experience of warfare during the period 1700 to 1900 .' How far do you agree with this s tatement? Explain your answer.

This question requires you to reach a judgement about the pace and extent of change. To help you reach a judgement you may find it helpful to think about timescales and topics . For example:

• do you agree with the statement for the period 1700-1850, bur think that the pace of change increased significantly from 1850 to 1900?

• do you agree that the civilian experience of war demonstrated only limited change in this period, but that for weapons and tactics there was much greater change?

Remember to think about how you are going to organise your answer before you begin to write. As a how far question you will need to evaluate evidence for and agains t the statement, and reach your own judgement. You could structure your answer using for and against paragraphs followed by a conclusion in which you write your own judgement. Alternatively you could structure your answer by topics, evaluating the extent and pace of change as you go through each topic. Remember to use your Word Wall for helpful vocabulary. You will also find more guidance in the writing guide on pages 162-75.

N ow write your ans wer to the enquiry question.

Using the factors to explain why Now let's look at questions that ask you to 'explain why' changes did (and didn't) happen. Here is an example of this type of question:

Explain why there was relatively little change in the nature and experience of warfare, 1700-1850?

You can use the factors to help you explain the reasons for continuities in warfare. The activities below help you to think about how you might use the factors.

1. M a ke a copy of the ta b le be low.

2. F i l l in the second co l u m n to show how each factor exp la i ns conti n u ities in wa rfa re 1 700-1 850.

Use the factor sheets that you com pleted for each factor throughout the chapter to he lp you (see page 55) .

Factor How does the factor expla in why there was relative ly l itt le cha nge in wa rfa re, 1 700-1 850?

Science, tech n o l ogy a n d com m u n ications

G overnment a n d i n d iv id u a l s

Att itudes i n society

? •


Expla in ing the connections Remember i t i s not enough to just describe each factor and say that they led to continuities - you need to explain how the factors contributed to the continuities . You have already practiced using connective phrases to help do this (see page 29). Read the paragraph below and identify how it uses connectives to show how the factor explains continuities .

There were no dramatic technological innovations in artillery weapons for much of the period 1700 to 1 850. Field artillery continued to be re latively smal l and smoothbore, which limited their power, range and accuracy. This meant that artillery rarely had a decisive ro le in battles. it a lso helps explain why the cavalry charge could still be effective in this period (for example, the charge of the British Heavy Cavalry at the Battle of Balaclava in 1854). This is because had arti l lery been more numerous with greater range and accuracy, successfu l cavalry charges would have been virtually impossible as they would have been blown apart.

1. Write some sentences to explain how the factors explain the lack of change in warfare 1700-1850.

How did the factors work together? The factors often worked together to explain changes or continuities. It can be helpful to draw a factor map that you can annotate with arrows.

Why was there relatively l ittle change in the nature and experience

of warfare, 1 700-1 8507

The paragraph below describes links between some of the factors, showing how they worked together to limit change. Identify the factors it links and how they are linked.

The limited changes in weapons technologies in the period 1700 to 1 850 were part ly a result of government lack of investment in technological innovation (invention was carried out by individuals rather than sponsored directly by governments

1 . M a ke a copy of the factor map .

2. Draw a rrows between the factors to show where you th i n k a factor m i g ht have infl uenced another factor.

3. Annotate the l i nes to exp la i n the l i n ks between the factors.

4. Do you th i n k a l l the factors were of equa l im porta nce in exp la i n i ng why there was re lative ly l itt le change i n warfa re? Exp la i n you r answer.

Practice question 1 . Exp l a i n o n e way i n wh ich t h e ro l e o f i nfantry was

s i m i l a r i n the Batt le of Naseby (1 645) and at the Batt le of Water loo (1 8 1 5) .

2. Exp l a i n why changes too k p l ace i n h ow wars were

re ported between 1 700 a n d 1 900 . 3 . 'The re was l itt le change i n the recru itment of

com bata nts i n the per iod 1 700 to 1 900. ' H ow fa r do you a g ree w i th th i s statement.

?. •

at this time). This lack of government investment was partly the result of attitudes of complacency following the British victory at the Battle of Water loo in 1815, and so did not regard innovation and the development of new weapons as a priority. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Organ is ing you r answer Remember to think about how to organise your answer before you begin to write. You could organise your answer by using one paragraph for each factor and explain how each contributed to continuities between 1700 and 1850. Alternatively, you could use some, or all of, the topics to structure your answer. This would mean writing a paragraph on how the factors contributed to continuities in weapons,

followed by for example the composition of armies and so on. Remember that you need to have a conclusion in which you can show how the factors worked together or if there was a most important factor. Now answer the question:

Explain why there was relatively little change in the nature and experience of warfare, 1700-1850?


4.9 Visi ble lea rn i ng : Revise and remember

Contin u ity or change in the natu re of batt le

Yo u have now looked a t batt les i n th ree d iffe rent per iods from 1 000 to 1 900 . The tech no log ies used to fig ht batt les certa i n ly changed a l ot over th i s t ime, part icu l a r ly with the i ntroduct ion of g u n powder wea pons . But some h istor ians have a rg ued that a ltho u g h the 'tec h n i q u es' o f batt le changed rad i ca l ly, there w a s actu a l ly a l ot o f conti n u ity i n the 'nature' of batt les . They a rg u e that i n te rms of s ize of the batt lefie l ds , the d u rat ion of the batt les , the com posit ion of arm ies, a n d com m u n icat ions on the battl efie ld there were actu a l ly m a ny s i m i l a rit ies across the periods, especi a l ly between 1 500 a n d 1 900 .

1 . M a ke a co py of the s u m m a ry ta b l e be low. 2 . F i l l in info rm at ion for each of the batt les yo u have stud ied . The Batt le of N aseby has

been done for you . 3. Write a short paragra p h to s u m m a rise t h e m a i n conti n u it ies i n t h e nature o f batt le . 4. I d entify im porta nt differences i n the natu re of batt les between 1 500 a n d 1 900 that

a re not i nc l uded on th is ta b l e (th i n k a bout the ro l e of a rt i l l e ry a n d the format ion of i nfa ntry) .

Battle of Naseby Battle of Batt le of {1 645) Waterloo {1 81 5) Balaclava (1 854)

M a i n e l em ents Infantry (mostly (com posit ion) of a rmy musketeers, some (e .g . i nfa ntry, a rt i l l e ry) pike)

Cava lry

Arti llery

Com m u n ications on the Handwritten battl efie ld messages carried

on horseback

Bugles

Flags/signs

Spoken command

Close -qua rter fig hti ng Yes

Approxim ate d u rat ion of Three hours batt le (m i n utes, h o u rs, o r approximately days)

Casua lt ies (ki l l ed , 7 % (very wou nded or m iss ing) as a approximate) percentage of a l l troops i nvolved i n the batt le


Test you rself

Rem e m ber tha t yo u need to m a ke a l l t ha t know ledge st ick i n you r b ra i n fo r the exa m . T h e more yo u practise tryi ng t o rem e m ber th i ngs now, t h e more l i ke ly yo u a re to rem e m ber them in the exa m . H ave a go at these q u estions - don 't be su rpr ised to read some from ear l i e r cha pters too - to h e l p you rem e m ber th e m !

1 What was the n a m e of 2 Exp l a i n two ways i n 3 What was the shape the K ing of E n g l a n d wh ich a typ ica l foot of a typ ica l i nfa ntry who led the Eng l ish so ld ier by the end of the fo rmat ion by the troops at the Batt le of M i d d l e Ages d iffe red seventeenth centu ry? Ag incou rt? from a typ ica l foot Exp l a i n two reasons for

so ld ie r at the beg i n n i n g th i s . of the per iod?

5 What was the n a m e of 6 What two m a i n 7 H ow m a ny yea rs of the B rit ish com mander format ions d id t he se rvice were m ost at the Batt le of i n fa ntry use at the i nfantry recru its Water loo? And i n what Batt le of Water l oo? expected to g ive d u ri ng yea r d id it ta ke p l ace? the e ig hteenth a n d

n i n eteenth centu ries?

9 List two of Cardwe l l 's 1 0 Exp l a i n two i n n ovations 1 1 I dentify two ways Army reforms . In what i n wea pons that too k i n w h i c h the civi l i a n yea r d id they ta ke p l ace between 1 850 experience of wa rfa re p l ace? and 1 900 . was d iffe rent i n 1 700

a n d 1 900 a n d two ways in wh ich it was s i m i l a r.

The Big Story

4 What was the n a m e o f the l e a d e r of Pa r l i ament's cava l ry at the Batt le of N aseby?

8 Exp l a i n two ways i n wh ich the Crimean Wa r suggested a new type of wa rfa re and two ways i n wh ich it showed conti n u it ies with prev ious wa rs?

1 2 N a m e one th i ng that you lea rned i n th is chapter that su rpr ised you or that you now t h i n k d iffe rent ly a bout . Exp l a i n why.

Set questions you rself

Work i n a g ro u p of th ree. Each of yo u set rev is ion q u estions on wa rfa re between 1 700 and 1 900. Use the sty le of questions on page 29. Then ask each oth er the q uestions - and m a ke su re yo u know the answers!

N ow it's t ime to return to yo u r chart s u m m a ri s i ng the m a i n po i nts of the Big Story. You have a l ready com p l eted the co l u m n s fo r 1 250-1 500 a n d 1 500-1 700 . N ow fi l l i n the co l u m n for 1 700-1 900 . Rem e m ber that yo u don 't need to add l ots of deta i l - you have yo u r other Know ledge O rg a n isers for th i s . J ust add the key poi nts.

• •

Weapons

Com posit ion of arm ies (n u m ber, type a n d tactics of com bata nts)

Recru itment and tra i n i n g of com bata nts

Exper ience of civi l i a ns

1 250-1 500 1 500-1 700 1 700-1 900 1 900-present

Warfare and British society in the m.odern era, c.l900-present

Warfare in the modern era has changed more

rapidly in a relatively short space of time than

during any other period. There have been

substantial innovations in weapons, including

tanks, nuclear weapons, precision guided missiles

and unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) . Science,

technology and communications have driven many

of these changes, but have they been completely

responsible for changing the nature of warfare?

This chapter will explore such questions.

5.1 The Fi rst World Wa r: a d ifferent kind of wa r? We will begin the modern era with the First World War (1914-18). In this war the armies of Germany, AustriaHungary, Italy and their empires, fought against Britain, France, Russia and their empires .

How different was this war to the wars of the nineteenth century? Technological developments in weapons and rail transport meant this was a war on a much larger scale. It involved huge armies (4 million were in the British Army at

its peak), with massively increased firepower and affected large sections of the civilian populations.

But, in some ways, it was not so very different to previous wars . Its great tragedy was, perhaps, the terrible juxtaposition of traditional and modern war: men with rifles and bayonets advancing towards modern machine guns. The men had little chance.

HOW DIFFERENT WAS THE FIRST WORLD WAR? ?. 1 . I dentify what is be ing shown in each p ictu re be low.

(Answers can be found on page 1 79.)

A

2. Does each p ictu re suggest d ifferences or s im i l a rit ies between the F i rst Wor ld Wa r and wars of the n i neteenth centu ry?

B

D

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Ttif: GROUP S'I'STEM and llo callfd up in d� CClUr.!@o with hi3 Group. , ... .... ... ha: . th•d - - "'" liE WILL BE DEEMED TO IIAVE

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•


5.2 Case study: the Batt le of the Som me, 1 9 16 We will begin by looking in detail at one battle in the First World War, the Battle of the Somme, which took place in 1916 .

BATTLE OF THE SOMME : A DIFFERENT KIND OF BATTLE? ?. 1 . M a ke a copy of the ta b le be low.

Simi la rities to the nature of warfa re Differences from the nature of in the n ineteenth century wa rfare in the n ineteenth century

N ature of the batt le i nc l u d i n g : • d u rat ion of the batt le • size of batt lefie ld • n u m bers of casua lt ies • tactics

Wea pons

Com m u n ications on the batt lefie ld

Com posit ion of a rm ies (n u m ber, type and tactics of com bata nts)

Recru itment a n d tra i n i n g of com batants


2. As you read through pages 80-86 about the Battle of the Som me, add information to the ta b le . You m i g ht fi nd it usefu l to read through the pages fi rst, without writi ng anyth ing down, and then re-read the pages and record you r notes.

The Western Front

•

The Battle of the Somme was fought in France. The majority of fighting in Western Europe during the First World War took place in France and Belgium. A German invasion in September 1914 had been halted by British, French and Belgian troops, but they had been unable to force the Germans to completely retreat. A sta lemate had resulted, with neither side able to

make a breakthrough. Both sides dug trenches as a means of providing protection from intense artillery fire (all sides had far greater numbers of artillery than they had had in previous wars). Eventually the trench lines extended from the English Channel to the Swiss border. These trench lines became known as the Western Front.

AN INFANTRYMAN AT THE SOMME

Wi l l i a m T ick le was one of thousa nds of civi l i a n men who vo l u nteered to jo in the Army at the beg i n n i ng of the war. He was about yo u r age when he jo ined u p. At j ust fifteen yea rs o l d , he was too yo u n g to serve overseas (m en had to be at

least n i n eteen) but, l i ke m a ny, he l ied about his age. N ew recru its received bas ic tra i n i n g before be ing sent to Fra nce and B e l g i u m ; m a ny wou l d have had l itt l e com bat exper ience before the Batt le of the S o m m e i n the s u m m e r of 1 9 1 6 .

An i nfa ntryman l i ke W i l l i a m T ick le wo u l d have worn a khaki u n ifo rm . (Khak i is a co l o u r that had been worn by the B rit ish Army s i nce the 1 900s as it p rovided better ca m oufl age than red u n iforms .) At the Batt le of the So m me a typ ica l i nfa ntryman wou l d have carr ied the fo l l ow ing :

• a Lee-Enfie ld rifle - this was breech- loaded • gas mask (from 1 9 1 5) and capable of about fifteen rounds a m inute, with bayonet attachment*

• 220 ro unds of a m m u n it ion

• two g renad es**

• wire cutters (to cut barded wi re)

• emergency rations (typ ica l ly a t in of corned beef a n d h a rd biscu its)

• two em pty sand bags (fo r b u i l d i n g trench defences).

* Bayo n ets were rarely used - bayo n et wo u n d s c a u s e d j u st 0.3 p e r c e n t o f casua lt ies. S o l d iers made g reater use of them as toast ing fo rks!

**Ear ly g renades were very basic and cou l d explode in the th rower's hand. A more re l iab le g renade was developed from M ay 1915 , ca l led the M i l l s bomb.

5 Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society i n the m o d e r n era, c.1 900-present

The trenches FIRST WORLD WAR TRENCHES ?. • The trenches were often well defended and it became increasingly difficult for infantry to break the stalemate; neither side moved very far forwards or backwards from these positions until the end of the war four years later in 1918 . The diagram below shows the common features of the trench system.

Choose five featu res and exp la i n why each wou l d have made it d ifficu l t fo r i nfa ntry to attack the trenches .

To the enemy trenches These were typ i ca l ly 2 50m away, but cou l d be as c lose as 3 0 m o r as far away as a k i l ometre .

No-man's land Th is was the name g iven to the l a n d between t h e oppos i n g t renches . l t was a ba rren place f i l led with she l l ho les .

Barbed wire

Frontl ine trench Trenches were usua l l y a bout 2 m deep .

Support trench So ld ie rs typ i ca l ly spent 1 0 d ays a month i n the Machine gun

emplacement

Deep dugouts

Commun ication trench

Artillery were situated behind the lines. They had ranges of up to 1 3 km.

Sandbags 1 . 3 billion were used by the British during the war.

.6. The trench system and the proportion of casualties by weapon type Some trenches had deep dugouts for protection against shell fire.

COMMUNICATING ON THE BAT TLEFIELD

Laying telephone cab les in a trench

Ma inta i n i ng com m u n ication with troops once an attack was underway was d ifficu lt . Trad itiona l com m u n ication methods conti n ued to be used and inc luded : h u m a n ru nners, semaphore, co lou red fl a res, tra ined dogs and carrier p igeons (each tan k ca rried two p igeons, see photo on page 79) . N ewer methods i nc l uded the porta b le fie ld te lephone (p ictu red) wh ich sent speech and Morse code messages through ca b les . But ca b les were d ifficu l t to lay d u ri ng a n attack a n d were frequent ly d a m a g e d b y she l l s .

• •


What happened at the Batt le of the So m me? The Battle of the So m me took place along a 30-km stretch of trench lines in northern France. The aim of the British and French attack was to achieve a decisive breakthrough of the German trenches to end the stalemate. The main stages of the battle are described below:

Stage 1 : The artillery bombardment The first phase of the attack was a massive, week-long artillery bombardment of the German trenches and their defences, using almost 500 heavy guns. It was hoped the shell fire would destroy the majority of the German trench defences and cut the barbed wire before the infantry attack began. High explosive and shrapnel shel ls were used. This was despite the limited effectiveness of shrapnel shells against trench defences; there were simply not enough high explosive shells produced at that stage in the war.

• Large guns like this 8 -inch howitzer could fire shells several km, but they could not be aimed to hit with precision accuracy. Artillery gunners could not see their targets and relied on communication about where to aim from observation officers, usually by field telephone (see box on page 81). However, phone lines could often be cut by shell fire in battle .

Stage 2 : Poisonous gas In some places along the trench lines chemical weapons were used. Poisonous gases (mainly chlorine, which caused suffocation) were released from cylinders. This was blown by the wind towards the German trenches (later in the war gas shells were developed that could be fired from artillery) . Gas had been first used in 1915 but it never made a big impact on the fighting since effective gas masks were quickly developed (also in 1915) . Gas could be counter-productive since it could be as harmful to the

• •

side that used it as to the enemy, for example, if the wind changed direction or if gas lingered in territory where an advance was to be made. Gas attacks were hugely feared, in part because of the terrible effects of gas which included suffocation, blindness and blistering of the skin. There was huge fear about the future use of gas in war and in 1925 the Geneva Protocol, signed by 65 countries, outlawed the use of poisonous gas in warfare (although it has not been able to prevent its use entirely).

Stage 3: The detonation of mines A series oflarge explosive mines that had been laid in tunnels dug by the Allies near the German frontline trenches were detonated early on the morning of 1 July 1916 . Some of these explosions made craters of SO m in diameter. The plan was that these would destroy key strong points and cause chaos in the German trenches shortly before the Allied infantry began their attack.

Stage 4: The infantry attack An enormous infantry force of about 700,000 infantrymen was gathered for use at the Somme. The attack began at 7.30 a.m. when the first wave of infantry went 'over-thetop' of their trenches into no-man's land . The plan was for massed infantry to advance in successive waves, one after the other, to capture the German frontline trenches and begin a breakthrough.

The infantry would only have limited support from their own artillery. In some areas a creeping barrage was used in which artillery shells were fired to explode just ahead of the advancing infantry so that German troops would not be able to operate their guns. Although successful in places, the difficulties of communicating on the battlefield meant that there was often poor co-ordination between infantry and artillery. This meant that creeping barrages sometimes got too far ahead of the infantry rendering them useless, or in some cases, caused friendly fire casualties .

Proportion of casua lties ca used by each wea pon type

1 % Other

39% B u l l ets ( r i f le or mach i ne g u n)

2 % G renades

5 8 % Arti l l e ry she l l s


Outcome of the fi rst day: huge casua lties British troops did not achieve a swift and decisive breakthrough on the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Some troops achieved their objectives, but most found the German trench defences had not been destroyed by the artillery bombardment, and found themselves advancing towards a hail of machine gun bullets, under artillery fire and halted by uncut barbed wire.

Infantry losses were horrendous; there were almost 60,000 British casualties on the first day alone, including 20,000 deaths . This remains the highest British losses in a single day of combat.

William Tickle was among the dead. His body, perhaps hit by a shell, was never identified. His name, along with the names of over 72,000 other 'missing men' of the Somme is commemorated on the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing in France.

..._ A British tank broken down on the Somme , 1 9 1 6

The batt le contin ued By 11 July 1916 most of the German front line had been captured by Allied troops. However, the Germans sent reinforcements and further Allied progress was minimal. Cavalry troops were only used to attack on two occasions during the Somme, and both times made no significant impact.

In September the British made the first use of the newly invented tank in an attack near the village ofFlers . German troops initially retreated, horrified by these metal monsters, but soon launched a counter-attack and the British infantry were unable to retain the initial gains made by the tanks .

The role of tanks

Although tanks had shown their potential to assist infantry in an advance against machine guns, on the Somme they were unable to achieve a breakthrough. This was partly because tanks were:

• too few in number: only 49 were used at Flers • technically problematic: many broke down and were

only capable of a speed of 7 km per hour • not used to their greatest tactical advantage: tanks were

used in pairs, between lines of infantry on foot, whereas a massed tank advance might have been more effective .

• •


The outcome of the Batt le of the Somme B y the end o f September 1 9 1 6 the weather had become very wet, turning the battlefields into virtual swamps (see photo opposite) . This made the logistics of supply very difficult; it became almost impossible to transport artillery and shells forward to support infantry advances, and without artillery support the infantry could not successfully advance.

When the Battle of the So m me finally ended on 18 November 1916, almost five months after it began, the Allies had gained just over 10 km at the maximum point of their advance. This was at a cost of over 400,000 casualties; 1 in 37 men were killed, and 1 in 19 were wounded. Proportionally this was less than the Battle of Waterloo (see page 59) where 1 in 20 troops were killed and 1 in 7 wounded, but of course the scale on the Somme was much greater (the deaths at Waterloo numbered 23,000; a fraction of the So m me campaign).

The Somme had become a battle of attrition - a battle in which both sides seek to wear down the enemy and their resources by sustained, lengthy bombardment. This is what the war would become; the slow, steady grinding down of the enemy with its consequent terrible slaughter of men. Almost one million soldiers from the British Army and British Empire were killed during the war; nearly one in every ten soldiers . However, the British Commander-inChief did not begin the Battle of the Somme as a policy of attrition. He had hoped that it would bring a breakthrough of German lines.

Was Haig accounta ble for the s laug hter on the Somme? Douglas Haig was Commander-in-Chief of the British Army during the First World War. He has been much criticised for his leadership of the Battle of the Somme. His critics condemn him for:

• being obstinately optimistic: continuing to send men over the top when there was little real hope of a breakthrough. Some of his generals, such as Henry Rawlinson, suggested more limited objectives, making a series of smaller gains might be more likely to succeed.

• failing to carry out adequate surveillance: being unaware that the majority of German trench defences were intact after the Allied artillery bombardment.

• being old-fashioned: remaining committed to the view that massed infantry advances could achieve a breakthrough against machine guns and artillery, and failing to make the best use of tanks or new tactics such as the creeping barrage.

But there are those who defend Haig, arguing that his tactical options were limited by available resources and technology. They point out that a high proportion of shells were duds or unsuitable shrapnel shells, and while Haig had been promised 150 tanks for the Somme offensive, only a fraction of this number was actually ready on time.

.&. Douglas Haig Haig was also under enormous political pressure from the British Government to achieve a breakthrough attack after two years of stalemate on the Western Front. The French military were also desperate for a British attack to force the Germans to divert resources away from their immense attack on the French at Verdun.

WHAT HAPPENED DURING THE BATTLE ? OF THE SOMME?

Ultimately, it was unlikely that any individual commander could have made a breakthrough at the Somme. Haig's culpability lies in his failure to recognise that the limitations of his resources made a breakthrough impossible, and that the attempt to do so meant an unacceptably high sacrifice.

: '

1 . Describe or i l l u strate the ma i n stages of the Battle of the Som me between J u n e and November 1 91 6 .

2. Exp la i n why the B rit ish casua lt ies were so h igh on the fi rst day of the Batt le of the Somme.

3 . H ow s ign ificant was the im pact of tan ks i n the Batt le of the Som me?

4. Why has H a ig's leadersh ip at the Somme been: a) crit icised? b) defended?


What was the civi l ia n 'experience' of the Somme? Although civilians in Britain were not directly affected by the Battle of the Somme, many of the troops who fought at the Somme were civilian-soldiers, ordinary men like William Tickle who had enlisted in the early weeks and months of the war.

Civilians in Britain were also affected by the huge demand for weapons and ammunition that battles like the Somme demanded (the week-long artillery bombardment before the Battle of the Somme used approximately 2 million shells) . The production of munitions

increased dramatically during the war and the Government encouraged large numbers of civilians to work in wartime industries . This included millions of women, whereas before the war such work would have been seen as 'men's work'.

Receiving news a bout the Batt le of the Somme Civilians received news about the Battle o f the Somme from newspapers. Improved communications meant that reports came through relatively quickly. The Times newspaper printed a brief preliminary report on the first day of the Somme on 3 July, just two days after it happened. But reports were not entirely accurate, as this report suggests:

First Day's Results It i s now possible to get something like an

accurate picture of the results of the first day's

fighting in the battle which is now raging here . . .

the success of the advance on this main section of

the front is most heartening.

I have seen taken large numbers of German

prisoners . . . I have also visited some of our

wounded. They are extraordinarily cheery

and brave. It is gratifying to know that an

exceptionally large proportion of our casualties

are very slight wounds, being injuries from

shrapnel and machine gun fire . . . Our artillery

fire had over most of the front been extremely

destructive and very good . . . As always, however,

there were places where individual bits of trench

and stretches of the protecting barbed wire had

miraculously escaped . . . causing our attacking

infantry considerable losses .

.A. An extract from The Times on 4 July 1 9 1 6 reporting the results of 1 July 1 9 1 6

<Ill Women munitions workers making shells . By the end of the war 2 . 9 million women were employed in the munitions industry - three and a half times more than in 1 9 14 . It could be dangerous work; 1 0 9 women died during the war as a result of exposure to dangerous chemicals in the factories. The chemicals dyed their skin and hair yellow, earning munitions workers the nickname 'canary girls ' . An explosion in the Silvertown Munitions Factory in east London in January 1 9 1 7 also killed 73 and injured many more

• •


• • •

Censorship and propaganda The information the public received about the war was tightly controlled, both for military reasons and to help maintain public support for the war. Journalists were not allowed in the trenches. They received information from official war correspondents appointed by the government and official photographers (from 1916 possession of a portable camera in front line trenches without permission was a court martia l offence) . The government imposed wartime censorship, forbidding newspapers to print information about troop movements or anything that was likely to harm public morale. Articles and photographs rarely lied outright, but presented a sanitised version of the truth; in images casualties were rarely shown and action shots tended to be posed because photographers did not have access to frontline fighting.

Cinema Capturing moving (but silent) images on film and showing them in cinemas was a very new technology in the 1900s . 'Information films' showing the public images of the war on the Western Front were produced during the war. The most famous of these was the documentary film The Battle of the Somme which was shown in cinemas from 21 August 1916 . As many as 20 million people watched the film in the first six weeks. It showed images from the trenches, including the detonation of mines before the attack and troops going over the top, but most action scenes were staged, and relatively few casualties were shown .

.A. Still from the film The Battle of the Somme

A DIFFERENT KIND OF WAR? ?. 1 . Now you have read the sect ion on the Batt le of the Somme, retu rn to, and fi l l i n , the ta b le

you created on page 80 to identify i t s s im i l a rit ies to and d ifferences from the wars of the n i neteenth centu ry.

2. S u m m a rise in a paragraph the extent to wh ich the Batt le of the So m me suggested that the Fi rst Wor ld Wa r was a d ifferent k ind of wa r from those i n the n i neteenth centu ry.

3. What m ight be the prob lems of d rawing conc l us ions a bout the F i rst Wor ld Wa r from the Batt le of the Som me?

•


5.3 I d entifying patterns of change in wa rfa re i n the modern era Now we have a good idea about what warfare was like at the beginning of the modern era, we can begin to build up a picture of how much things have changed from the First World War to the present.

IDENTIFYING PATTERNS OF CHANGE

Use th is Knowledge Organ iser to record the information as you gather it.

1. M a ke a l a rge copy (A3) of the ta b le be low.

2. Record information that you have learned a bout the Fi rst Wor ld Wa r i nto the re leva nt date

sect ion of the ta b le .

Topic 1 900-1 925 1 925-1 945 1 945-1 965 1 965- What was the pattern {the present pace and extent) of change?

Weapons , tra nsport a n d su rve i l l a nce

Com posit ion of arm ies (n u m ber, type a n d tactics of com bata nts)

Recru itment a n d tra i n i n g of com batants

Exper ience of civi l i a n s

At key po ints as you work th rough the chapter you w i l l be rem inded to fi l l i n t h i s ta b le fu rther.

You wi l l need a secure knowledge of what changed in order to tack le the b ig Enqu i ry Question of th is chapter wh ich focuses on the reasons for change :

'D evelopments in s cience, technology and communication were the main reas on for rapid changes to the nature of warfare in the modern era.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

3. lt w i l l be usefu l fo r you to keep track of the ro le of factors in bri ng i ng a bout changes in wa rfa re as you work through the chapter. Create three sepa rate factor sheets or cards, one for each of the ma i n factors: - Science, tech no logy and com m u n ication - Govern ments and i nd ivid ua l s - Attitudes i n society

An example is given below:

Key features of Science, technology and communications, 1 900-present

Impact of this factor in explaining changes and continuities in warfare

At key points as you work through the chapter you wil l be reminded to fil l in these factor sheets.

• •

? •


5.4 H ow have wea pons cha n g ed in the modern era? The technical sophistication of weapons has decreased dramactically in the modern era.

Weapons have tended towards increased:

• precision (accuracy) • rate and range of fire • manoeuvrability in combat.

An infantryman's equipment by 2000 was very different from the Lee-Enfield Rifle, bayonet and Mills Bombs of soldiers like William Tickle in 1916 (see page 80). A twentyfirst century infantryman is equipped with:

• an automatically loaded assault rifle, with telescopic sight, a laser aim effective up to 400 metres, and also capable of bursts of rapid machine gun fire, and a grenade launcher

• body armour • personal radio.

.,. A British infantryman's equipment from c . 2 0 00

What were the big developments in wea pons 1 900 to the present? There have been many new weapons in the modern era, but the five weapons identified below have had a particularly important impact on changing how wars have been fought.

Machine g u ns

A mach i ne g u n is a n a utomat ic wea pon ca pab le of fi r i ng b u l l ets i n very q u ick successio n . i t was deve l o ped i n the l ate n i n eteenth centu ry and used on a s ign ificant sca l e for the fi rst t ime i n the F i rst Wor ld Wa r. Ea r ly mach i ne g u ns were not very m o b i l e, a ltho u g h l i g hter, m o re po rta b l e mach i ne g u ns were deve l o ped d u ri n g the F i rst Wor ld Wa r. Mach i ne g u n s have evo lved so that, today, l i g htwe ight vers ions a re used by i nfa ntry a n d l a rger g u ns a re m o u nted on h e l i copters and ta n ks .

• • • •

Ta n ks

The fi rst ta n ks were used in 1 91 6 . They were a rmourp l ated veh ic l es, a rmed with mach ine g u ns . Ear ly ta n ks were s low (7 kmph) and mechan ica l l y u n re l i ab le (see page 83). Tan ks evo lved ra p id ly so that by the Second World War they were stronger, more re l i ab le and ca pab le of speeds of u p to 40 km per hou r. Ta n ks changed warfa re by enab l i ng i nfa ntry to attack even aga inst strong defensive positions . They gave massive ly i ncreased mob i l ity to i nfantry, encou rag ing more mob i l e wa rfa re. Ta n ks rema in an i m portant part of the Army today. Modern ta n ks, l i ke the Cha l l enger 2 (in se rvice from 1 998) a re enormous ly we l l protected with Chobham armour that can destroy on im pact even armour-p ierc ing m issi l es . They can trave l u p to 50 km per hou r, and a re a rmed with two l a rge g u n s and a mach ine g u n .


N uclea r wea pons N uc lear wea pons prod uce massive exp los ions that a re t h e resu l t o f reactions i ns ide the n u c leus of an ato m . Letha l a n d ha rmfu l rad iation is a l so re l eased by the exp los ion . N uc lear wea pons have on ly been used twice i n war : the two atom ic bom bs d ropped on H i rosh i m a a n d N agasak i i n Japan at the end of the Second Wor ld Wa r i n Aug u st 1 94S. H owever, at least e ight cou ntr ies now have stocks of n uc lear wea pons (B rita i n deve loped i t s fi rst n u c lea r wea pon i n 1 952) .

At fi rst n u c lea r wea pons cou l d o n ly be d ropped by bomber a i rcraft (th i s is how they were d ropped on Japan in 1 945), but fro m the 1 950s new d e l ivery systems were deve loped so that n u c lea r wea pons cou l d be dep loyed i n m iss i l e warheads, i n c l u d i n g i n extreme ly l ong- range i nte rcont inenta l ba l l ist ic m iss i les ( ICBMs), a n d l a u nched from n u c lear s u b m a rines . For exa m p le , B rita i n 's Trident n u c lea r p rogra m m e means B rita i n 's operationa l n u c lea r wea pons a re located a board fou r n uc lear s u b m a ri nes . The use of these wea pons changed wa rfa re by making d i rect confl ict between two cou ntries i n possession of these wea pons i ncred ib ly u n l i ke ly as the resu l t wou l d be M utua l ly Assu red Destruct ion (MAD). The i r deve lopm ent was in the era of the Cold Wa r, when there was hosti l ity, but no d i rect wa rfa re, between the superpowers: the USA and the USSR.

Wa rs were sti l l fo ug ht, but these tended to be sma l l e r sca l e confl icts with the superpowers 'ass ist i ng ' riva l s ides, fo r exa m p l e i n the Korea n Wa r (1 950-53) .

With these wea pons as the u lt imate deterrents there seemed l itt l e po int i n conti nu i ng to bu i l d vast a rm ies with conventiona l wea pons, and so a rmed forces tended to become sma l l er, but more profess iona l and specia l ised .

Precision g u ided missi les (PG Ms)

Precis ion g u ided m iss i les do not fo l l ow a ba l l ist ic trajectory (path of f l ig ht) based on the l aws of physics, but a re g u ided to the i r ta rg et, a n d can change d i rection i n fl ig ht . The fi rst rea l p recis ion g u ided m iss i les a p peared i n the l ate 1 960s. They ca n be g u ided by a va r iety of means : rada r, heat sensors, G loba l Posit i on i ng Sate l l ites (G PS). G PS tech n o l ogy has made these m iss i les m uch cheaper to prod uce than the prev ious rad a rg u ided mode l s . They a re i ncreas i ng ly beco m i n g t h e m a i n m iss i l es u s e d i n modern wa rfa re .

HOW HAVE WEAPONS CHANGED

WARFARE?

�

Unmanned aeria l vehicles (UAVs) UAVs, somet imes known as d rones, a re p i l ot less a i rcraft that can be contro l led rem ote ly. F i rst i ntrodu ced i n t h e 1 970s, recent deve lopm ents i n m icro e lectr ics have e n h a n ced the i r capa b i l it ies so that they can now be used for reconnaissa nce, su rvei l l a nce and ra ids . Experim ents a re be ing carr ied out to equ ip them with m iss i les . Th ese wea pons a re chang i ng wa rfa re by rem ov ing so ld ie rs from the battl efie lds .

1 . Describe the im pact of each of these wea pons on warfa re: - ta n ks - n uc lear wea pons - u n m a n ned aeria l veh ic les (UAVs) - mach ine g u ns - precis ion g u ided m issi l es

2. Add information a bout the wea pons on these pages to the fi rst row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see page 87) . M a ke su re you add the deta i l to the correct date on you r tab le .

3. Write a few sentences to describe the pattern of change i n wea pons i n the fi na l co l u m n of you r tab le .

4. F i l l i n you r factor sheet on Science, tech no logy and com m u n ications (see page 87). Note the key featu res of deve lopments in Science, techno logy and com m u n ications, and briefly describe the im pact they

have had on warfa re.

• • •

•


How m uch d id new wea pons change wa rfa re? New weapons are often seen as the driving force behind change in the nature of warfare; they certainly make new tactics possible. But the change brought about by new weapons is rarely immediate. It takes time and vast cost to equip entire armies with new weapons and to gain the experience to learn how tactically to make best use of them. Tanks, for example, showed their potential in the First World War, bur did not really transform the nature of warfare until the Second World War (1939-45) .

There have also been fundamental continuities in warfare during the modern era despite the many changes in weaponry. These continuities include:

• Infantry remain the largest part of the British Army. There are many tasks for which only an infantryman on the ground is capable. For example, defending territory that has been gained and disarming enemy fighters in urban centres .

• Combined arms (see below) remains the main strategy of attack.

• Armies still rely on motorised transport for the movement of troops, equipment and supplies .

Com bined arms tactics refers to the c lose co-ord ination of land troops and m i l itary a i rcraft in an attack. From the Second World War, com bined a rms have been a key strategy in modern warfa re. One of the fi rst exam ples of com bined a rms was the German B l itzkrieg (Lightn ing War) tactics in the Second World War. Fi rst a i rcraft wou ld be used to achieve a i r supremacy by destroying the enemy's a i rcraft, and then to bom b commun ications and defence centres. Ai rcraft wou ld then be used to provide c lose a i r support for the army by shooting and bombing enemy land troops as they advanced . Tanks wou ld often advance en masse (often in their thousands) to penetrate enemy defences, cut supp ly l i nes and seize key defensive positions. I nfantry (usua l ly us ing motorised transport) conso l idated ga ins by taking up defensive positions to ho ld the territory. These attacks were fast moving and were on ly possib le because rad io enab led the d ifferent e lements of the attack to co-ord inate. Com bined a rms have remained a key strategy in modern warfa re, being crucia l to the I raq invasion of 2003 (see page 1 03).

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT � •

1 . Compare the two g raphs . Do you notice any re lationsh ip between G overn ment spend ing and the tech n ica l soph isticat ion of weapons?

2. F i l l in you r factor sheet on Govern ments and i nd iv id ua l s (see page 87) . N ote the key featu res of deve lopm ents i n G overn ment, and br iefly descr ibe the im pact they have had on wa rfa re.

• I

The ro le of Government i n the development of wea pons Until 1918 weapons development usually began with individual inventors or was funded by independent industrial companies . This changed after the First World War when the Government took a more active role in funding technical innovations in weapons, having seen how crucial technology could be to winning wars . Radar (see page 92), jet engines and nuclear weapons were all developed under the direct supervision and funding of the Government during the Second World War. Innovations in weapons technologies occurred particularly during periods of war (the First World War, the Second World War and the Cold War) and this is, at least partly, because it was in periods of war that Government expenditure on the military increased (see graph below) .

"' s::: 0 a. "'

� s::: 0 .., rl �

:;: a. � "§ ·c: -5

Adva nced

t!:! BaSic'---------------------1 900 1 9 1 0 1 920 1 930 1 940 1 9 50 1 960 1 970 1 980 1 990 2000 2 0 1 0

y � V F i rst

World War Second

World War Co ld War

Iraq War

£. Technical sophistication of weaponry, 1 9 0 0 - 2 0 1 0

U K Government defence spending, 1 900-201 5 200

1 50 1:: .!2 :.0 1 00

�

50

0 1 900 1 92 0 1 940 1 960 1 980 2000

£. UK Government defence spending, 1 9 00-2005 (£ equivalent to 2 0 0 5 values)

The investment of Government is vital in equipping modern armies, given the enormous cost of many of these high-tech modern weapons (a single Challenger 2 tank alone costs £4 million). The fact that the UK Government has become increasingly wealthy during the modern era is essential to its ability to afford to equip and maintain a modern army. Britain's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has increased fivefold between 1900 and 2005, and Government's revenues from direct taxation (one of its main sources of income) has risen from £17 billion in 1900, to £110 billion in 1945, to almost £700 billion in 2005 (relative to 2005 values).


5.5 H ow sig n ifica nt were cha n g es i n tra nsport to wa rfa re? Developments in transport have had an enormous impact on the nature of warfare. Modern armies require enormous log istica l support due to the nature of their weapons, which require large amounts of oil, petrol, ammunition and electrics . Armies can only advance as fast as these things can be supplied.

There have been substantial changes in transport since 1900, enabling the more rapid movement of larger quantities of equipment over longer distances . Some historians see developments in transport as more significant than innovations in weapons in changing the nature of warfare.

The importance of logistics is reflected in the growth of the Royal Logistic Corps which is the largest corps in the British Army. It was formed in 1993 by unifying five existing corps . _.. C - 1 3 0 Hercules aircraft

Developments in transport that have improved the operation of logistics include:

• Railways - were first used on a large scale during the First World War, enabling the mobilisation of mass armies. But they lacked the flexibility to transport croups and equipment to precise locations on the battlefield.

• Motoris ed road transport - by the time of the Second World War, motorised road vehicles, which offered greater flexibility than railway transport, had become the main means of transporting supplies. This has continued into the twenty-first century, with the bulk of supplies in the Iraq War transported by motor vehicles .

• Air transport - aircraft have been used since the Second World War to transport troops, equipment and supplies . Most transport aircraft are used to transport troops and supplies within a conflict zone. Aircraft such as the C-130 Hercules are able to transport up to 70 troops with an additional cargo bay suitable for lighter-weight motorised vehicles . In use since 1954, they were also used in the invasion oflraq in 2003. Helicopters can be used to transport troops and supplies within combat zones.

However, aircraft have a limited capacity and are very expensive, and it is impossible to transport a mechanised force (especially tanks) by air alone.

• S ea transport - ships have always been the method most frequently used to transport large mechanised force, especially tanks, to combat zones overseas. Ships transported more than 90 per cent of the equipment to the Middle East for the Iraq invasion in 2003, which included 15,000 vehicles (including hundreds of tanks) and 9100 shipping containers of supplies . Much of this was transported on roll-on roll-off (ro -ro) vessels, capable of transporting 8000 tonnes (over 200 vehicles) .

The vast logistical support required by modern armies is hugely expensive and requires considerable financial expenditure by the Government (one C-130 Hercules transport aircraft costs c .£19 million, for example) .

CHANGES IN

TRANSPORT

� •

1 . Add the ma in changes in transport to the re levant co l u m n of your Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see page 87) .

2. Add i nformation to you r factor sheet on Sc ience, tech no logy and com m u n ications . Write a bout changes i n tech no log ies and how this has i m pacted on warfa re.

•


5.6 H ow sig n ifica nt were changes in com m u n ications to wa rfa re? Dramatic advances in communications during the modern era had a considerable impact on how battles were fought and in the surveillance of the enemy. Before the 1900s, most battlefield communications continued to rely on traditional voice command, gesture and signalling with flags or similar. Surveillance relied on the work of spies or, during the First World War, small reconnaissance aircraft flying over enemy territory.

How might the developments in communications ? technologies described below have changed the ways in

which wars could be fought (including surveillance of the

enemy)?

Ca ble te lephones

A. A ca ble te lephone

Ava i l a b l e from the l ate n i n eteenth centu ry, a n d used a l ot i n the F i rst Wor ld Wa r, ca b l e te l e phones were capa b l e of transm itti ng M o rse code a n d spoken m essages d own ca b les . Cab les needed to be l a id befo re m essages co u l d be transm itted but these ca b l es co u l d be cut by she l l s (see page 8 1 ) .

Deciphering coded messages

Wireless/radio

A A wireless radio

Wire l ess rad ios (wide ly ava i l a b l e from the 1 920s) , co u l d transm it M o rse Code a n d spoken m essages without the use of ca b les . Such rad ios were fi rst used by p i l ots i n the l ast yea rs of the F i rst Wo r ld Wa r. Wi re l ess rad io had enormous m i l ita ry a p p l icat ion s i nce it e n a b l ed troops i n the fie l d (a nd p i l ots i n the a i r) to com m u n icate with each othe r and hence to co-ord i n ate the i r attacks. Co-ord i nat ion between l and troops and air support was cruc ia l to the deve lopm ent of com bined arms tactics from the Second Wor ld Wa r onwards (see box be l ow) .

Rad a r

Radar stands for RAd io Detection A n d Ra ng ing . l t uses rad ion waves t o locate t h e posit ion o f objects by detecti ng when rad io waves 'bounce off' so l id objects. lt was deve loped d u ri ng the 1 930s and was fi rst used by the Brit ish in the Second Wor ld Wa r when it was crucia l in ensur ing the B rit ish reta ined air supremacy over Brita i n . lt is a key su rve i l l a nce tech no logy and is sti l l used i n su rve i l l a nce and for target ing g u ided m iss i les .

Important military communications, including those sent by spies working in the Special Operations Executive (SOE), were usually sent by Morse Code, having first been enciphered (put into code) . But, despite this, it was usually possible for enemy code-breakers to decode enciphered messages sent by radio. In Britain a code-breaking centre was set up during the Second World War at Bletchley Park for the purpose of intercepting and decoding enemy messages. The surveillance work of these code-breakers had an enormous impact in enabling the Allied victory .

•


H i g h -tech dig ita l tech nology

The deve lopm ent of d i g ita l tech no log ies from the 1 970s h e l ped to overcome one of the m ajor weaknesses of w i re l ess rad io com m u n ication , n a m e ly the r isk that enem ies co u l d i nte rcept m essages a n d learn a b o u t m i l ita ry p reparations a n d m ovements. T h i s is because, i n d i g ita l tech n o l ogy, messages can be encrypted (cod if ied) i n very com p lex ways wh ich m a kes dec ipher ing extreme ly d i fficu lt . M essages a re converted i nto e lectron i c i m p u lses which a re then sent to the 'receiv i ng ' device where they a re converted back i nto the i r o rig i n a l sound/ pictor ia l fo rm . Enc ipher ing m essages (a nd tryi ng to deci pher en emy codes) is now a key a rea of su rve i l l a nce i n m odern wa rfa re.

D ig i ta l tech n o l og ies have enab led the deve l o p m ent of a wide var iety of h i g h -tech com m u n icat ion devices that i nc l ude:

e m o b i l e phones (fi rst i ntroduced i n the 1 970s)

• the i nte rnet • sate l l ite com m u n ications (such as G loba l

Position ing Sate l l ites (G PS) which have in tu rn enab led the deve lopment of precision ta rgeted weapons, such as precision g u ided m issi l es (PG Ms) and U n manned Aeria l Veh ic les (UAVs or d rones).

� Modern h igh-tech Unmanned Aeria l Vehic les or d rones have, s ince the 1 960s, been used in survei l la nce operations. Their uses include flying reconnaissance missions over enemy territory to gather information about enemy troops movements and gathering data to assist in ta rget acquisition. There was extensive use of survei l lance d rones such as this one in the I raq Wa r from 2003

CHANGES IN COMMUNICATIONS AND SURVEILLANCE • (see page 87) . M a ke su re you add the deta i l to the correct 1. Draw a time l i ne from 1 900-201 0 . M a rk on the time l i ne

when the key com m u n ications tech no log ies described on pages 91 -92 were i ntrod uced .

2. Exp la i n how the deve lopment of rad io changed how wars were fou g ht .

3. Wh ich of the tech no log ies described above a re usefu l i n the su rve i l l a nce of the enemy?

4. Add information a bout deve lopments in com m u n ications to the re levant row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le

date on you r ta b le .

5. Write a few sentences describ ing the patte rn of change i n com m u n ications to the fi n a l co l u m n on you r ta b le .

6. F i l l i n you r factor sheet on Science, tech no logy and com m u n ications (see page 87) . N ote the key featu res of deve lopments i n com m u n ications tech no log ies, and briefly descr ibe the im pact they have had on wa rfa re.

•


5.7 H ow has the com position of the Army cha n g ed in the modern era? The modern era has seen dramatic variations in the size of the British Army. The graph below outlines the main changes in its size.

5,000

4,000

3 ,000

2 , 000

1 ,000

0

F i rst Wor ld War 1 9 1 4-1 9 1 8

Second Wor ld War 1 93 9-1 945

Afg h a n ista n Wa r began 2 0 0 1

I raq Wa r began 2003

1 900 1 9 1 0 1 92 0 1 93 0 1 940 1 950 1 960 1 97 0 1 980 1 990 2000 2 0 1 0

A The size of the British armed forces 1 9 0 0 to the present (thousands) . This graph shows the numbers in the British Military (including Army, Navy and Airforce) . Army numbers make up about two thirds of the total

The two peaks in army size took place during the two World Wars when conscription was introduced to create mass armies. The period after 1945 has been characterised by shrinkage in the size of armies. This is largely a consequence of the development of nuclear weapons which meant military deterrent lay not with the size of armies, but with the possession of nuclear weapons (see page 89). The development of other high-tech weapons continued to apparently reduce the need for troops on the ground, contributing to further shrinkage.

HOW HAS THE ARMY CHANGED IN SIZE?? 1 . Add information from the g raph above i nto

'com posit ion of a rm ies' row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see page 87) .

2. Write a sentence i n the fi n a l co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser to descr ibe the ma in pattern of change i n the size of the Army.

. '

I ncreasing professiona l ism and specia l isation A trend during the modern era has been for the increased specialisation of roles within the Army. Before 1900 the Army was mainly divided simply into artillery, infantry and cavalry, but now there are many different specialisms. The British Army recruitment website advertises roles for radar surveillance operators, rocket system gunners, tank gunners, infantry, artillery IT systems operators, tank crew, logistical support and many more.

The growth in specialist roles is in large part a consequence of the development of new and numerous high-tech weapons and communications technologies that require more specific training and expertise to use. The trend for increased specialisation was evident from the First World War when the following were established:

• Specialist schools for the training of snipers • An Intelligence Corps (for the gathering of intelligence

and aerial photographs - a new possibility due to technical developments in photography and aircraft)

• Specialised bomb disposal units to dispose safely of unexploded bombs


SPECIALISED BOM B DISPOSAL UNITS

The n u m ber of speci a l ised bomb d isposa l u n its g rew cons iderab ly d u ri n g the Second Wor ld Wa r a n d the m ass bomb ing of B rit ish cit ies d u ri ng the B l itz (see pages 1 32-38) . An Expl os ive Ord n a n ce Disposa l (EOD) Reg im ent (part of the Roya l Log istics Corps) was esta b l i shed after the Second Wor ld Wa r. Its i m porta nce conti n u ed with the g rowth in terror ist tactics, such as bomb th reats to B rit ish cit ies by the I RA d u ri n g the Troub les in N o rthern I re l a n d i n the 1 970s and 1 980s, and , more recent ly, by I s l am ic extrem ists .

.A. Royal Navy Bomb Disposal with their robot detonator at Brighton Station

Dealing with guerrilla warfare The increase of guerri l l a wa rfare from the 1970s has also created the need for more specialised forces . Guerrilla insurgents avoid fighting conventional battles because they lack the high-tech weaponry of modern state armies. Instead they use tactics of ambush that exploit their greater knowledge of the local terrain. For all their sophistication, high-tech modern state armies find it difficult to deal with such threats; even the most modern weapons are of little use against suicide bombers and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) left at the roadside or under trucks . IEDs accounted for approximately 63 per cent of British and American troop deaths in the first four years of the Iraq War (see page 103). The precision guided weapons of modern armies are also of limited use against insurgents, since the attacks tend to be based in cities, where even precision guided weapons will result in unacceptably high civilian casualties .

One response to these challenges has been the development of specialist counter terrorism forces that try to use the tactics of the terrorists themselves . A former soldier in the Special Air Service (SAS), Andy Mcnab wrote: 'Part of learning to fight terrorists was knowing how to be one.'

.A. The badge of the Special Air Service (SAS) carrying their motto: Who Dares Wins. The SAS was first established during the Second World War to carry out operations behind enemy line s . It has since developed into an elite , tough regiment specialising in counterinsurgency operations against guerrilla forces and in counterterrorist operations

COMPOSITION OF ARMIES: ?. INCREASED SPECIALISATION AND

PROFESSIONALISM

1 . Add information a bout the specia l isat ion of ro les i n the Army i nto the 'com posit ion of a rm ies' row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see p a g e 87).

2. Write a sentence i n the fin a l co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser to descr ibe the ma in pattern of change i n the specia l isation and profess iona l isation of the Army.

•

•


5.8 H ow has recru itm ent cha n g ed in the m odern era? The recruitment and training of combatants has changed significantly in the modern era.

CHANGING METHODS OF RECRUITMENT ?. 1 . Read the information on pages 96-97 and i nd icate whether a 23-year-o ld i nd ivid ua l

servi ng i n t he a rmy a t each of t he dates be low is l i ke ly to have been a vo l u nteer o r conscr ipt (o r cou ld have been e ither) .

a) 1 9 1 4 b) 1 9 1 6 c) 1 932 d) 1 940 e) 1 961 f) 2003

Recruitment in the Fi rst World Wa r

•

At the start of the First World War, the British Army was relatively small (250,000 regular soldiers in the standing army; 700,000 including reserves). There was therefore an urgent need to recruit more troops. The Government began an enormous recruitment campaign, organised by the Minister for War, Lord Kitchener. This campaign used a variety of means including posters, newspaper and songs to encourage men to enlist. Serving in the Army was presented as a man's glorious patriotic duty, an opportunity for adventure, and necessary to defeat the 'evil' enemy. The public response was enthusiastic, reflecting a society in which patriotism, duty and fear of the threat of German militarism was deeply ingrained. Within eight weeks 750,000 men had volunteered. By the end of the war, some 2 .67 million men had voluntarily enlisted; most had done so by early 1916 . By the end of the war, almost onequarter of the total male population of England and Ireland had joined up.

Private George Morgan, a volunteer soldier, describes how many people enlisted in the First World War:

We h a d been b ro u g ht up to b e l ieve that B rita i n was the best cou ntry i n the wo r l d and we wa nted to d efe n d h e r. The h istory ta u g ht to us at schoo l s h owed that we were better t h a n oth e r p e o p l e (d i d n 't w e a lways win the l a s t wa r?) a n d n ow a l l t h e n ews w a s t h a t G e rm a ny w a s the a g g ressor a n d w e wa nted to s h ow the G er m a n s what we co u l d d o .

Conscription The decline in volunteer recruits from 1915 compelled the Government to introduce conscription in March 1916 for men aged between 18 and 41 . At first only single men were conscripted, but this was broadened to include married men from May 1916 . There were exemptions for those with certain medical conditions or for those working in vital war industries such as steel production, munitions and ship building. Eventually 2 .77 million British men were conscripted into the Army.

Recruitment between the World Wa rs Conscription was ended after the First World War, the size of the Army was reduced considerably and recruitment returned to being voluntary.

<11111 A recruitment poster during the First World War


Recru itment d u ring the Second World Wa r The need for enormous numbers of combatants in the Second World War meant that conscription was brought in again, this time from the start of the war in October 1939. It was applied to an increasingly wide age group as the war progressed, eventually with men between the ages of 18 and 51 liable to be called up, although there were exemptions as in the First World War. Over 3 .5 million men had been enlisted into the Army by the end of the war (the majority of these were conscripted) .

Recru itment after 1 945 Conscription continued to a more limited extent in the years after the end of the Second World War, partly due to the needs of maintaining the British Empire and partly due to needs of defence in Cold War era (see page 101) . This peacetime conscription, known as Nationa l Service, was introduced in 1948. This stated that men aged between 17 and 21 were expected to serve in the Army for 18 months and to remain on the reserve list for four years. National Service lasted until 1960 . Of course, during the period of National Service, men did still volunteer for the Army and became professional soldiers.

Recru itment after 1 960 After 1960 recruitment returned to being entirely voluntary and has remained so to the present day. Recruits are accepted from the age of 16 (although troops have to be 18 before they are allowed on active service) . The maximum age for recruitment is 33 years . Troops usually serve for about 22 years (the minimum requirement is four years) .

A significant recent change has been to the position of women in the Army. Although women did serve in combat operations during the Second World War, this was as part of special missions and not as part of the regular army. Their roles included:

• flying aircraft from factories to airfields • deciphering coded messages • working as spies in the Special Operations Executive

(SOE).

From 1949 women were recognised as part of the Amy, serving in the Women's Royal Army Corps, although their combat roles remained restricted until 1991 when women first served alongside men in combat. The proportion of women in the Army in 2014 was 9.9 per cent. However, women remain excluded from certain regiments including the SAS (see page 95).

.A. A female soldier c . 2003

Officers The majority of officers in the modern era enter the Army at officer level. Most have gained a university degree followed by officer training at military training colleges like Sandhurst Military Academy. As was the case in the past, few officers were promoted from the ranks. This contrasts with the situation during the First World War when as many as 41 per cent of officers were commissioned from the ranks (the figure had been less than 5 per cent before the war) . However, this was less due to a change in attitudes about promotions than to necessity because of the extremely high casualty rate among officers (particularly junior officers) in the First World War.

HOW HAD RECRUITMENT CHANGED?

1. Add information a bout recru itm ent to the re leva nt row of you r Knowledge Organ iser tab le (see page 87) .

2. Add a sentence descri b ing the overa l l patterns of change i n recru itm ent to the fi na l co l u m n of you r ta b le .

•

?. •


5.9 H ow has the civi l i an experience of wa rfa re cha n g ed in the m odern era? Civilian involvement in warfare was at its greatest during the tota l wars of the first half of the twentieth century (First World War and Second World War). One of the features of the modern era has been the blurring of the distinction between civilians and combatants .

The Fi rst World Wa r, 1 91 4-1 8 Some of the ways in which civilians were affected by the war are described in this extract from a letter written by Joe Hollister (living and working in New Cross in south-east London) to his father on 19 March 1917.

We received Amy's letter and were pleased to hear you were better after

be ing i l l . . . Events seem to be moving more rapid ly now on the Western

Front, [once we] get the Germans out of their trenches perhaps our

cava l ry w i l l get a look i n and keep them on the run ! My [co l league] at the

office d ied of pneumon ia i n France i n January after serving with the

Arti l lery for a year and eig ht months without having been up to the

fighting l i ne, yet you hear of others being out and k i l led four months after

jo in ing up . . .

it's extraord inary the amount of female labour employed in the City now,

in the tra ins of a morn ing of ten passengers in a compartment there is

genera l ly an average of 8 females . . . the ra i lway compan ies have employed

them for a long whi le, [and as] tramcars, lamp l ig hters . . . in fact in a lmost

every sphere of activity. When 'Tom my' [the n ickname g iven to British

i nfantry] comes home he wi l l be keep ing and m ind ing the kids whi le the

women go out to work.

The Zepps [Zeppel i ns] made another futi le attempt to pay us a visit on

Friday n ight, but I don 't th i nk they wil l get as far as London aga in . I expect,

however, they wi l l continue to harass the coast towns where they can

drop their bombs . . . We rea l ly need to find means to deal effectively with

German submarines to rel ieve the scarcity of food stuffs . . . th ings in

London i n this respect are beg i nn i ng to be serious, no potatoes to be had,

sugar a lmost unobta inable, meat and cheese becoming [very expensive] . I

tried [to g row] vegetables instead of flowers in the garden last year . . .

1 . Does the letter suggest that civi l i ans were very we l l informed a bout the rea l ity of the fig ht ing on the Front? Why? The information on pages 85-6 m ight be usefu l to answer th is q uestion .

2. What d id the writer notice about women worki ng d u ri ng the war?

3. I n what way were civi l i ans endangered? Does th is threat seem to have affected many peop le i n B rita i n?

4. What shortages d id peop le exper ience? Why?

• • •

)


The im pact of the Fi rst World Wa r on civi l ians During the First World War, civilians i n Britain were affected to a degree that was previously unknown. It was the first total war, requiring people living in Britain to play a key role in the fight for victory. Indeed, Britain itself was referred to as the Home Front. This was because military success depended on mobilising vast resources of manpower, weapons, ammunition and food. Civilians were conscripted into the army or encouraged to work in munitions production and other vital war industries .

Women at work With so many men enlisted in the Army, women took over many of the jobs formerly done by men, such as in the munitions industries, transport and farming, joining, for example, the Women's Land Army. This was a contrast to before the war where women in paid employment would mainly have worked in domestic service or textile industries . By the end of the war the number of women in paid employment had increased to 7. 3 million; a rise of almost 1 . 5 million since 19 14.

Bombing raids German Zeppelins (airships) dropped bombs on England in a total of 556 raids throughout the war. From May 1917 Germany began using Gotha bomber aircraft in bombing raids over Britain; in one raid in London on 13 June 1917 158 people were killed. Overall, German air raids accounted for 1413 of the 1570 wartime military and civilian deaths in Britain (159 of these were killed in Zeppelin raids) . Only in 1917 was an official air-raid warning system introduced, with blackouts and policemen on bicycles issuing warning. Public air raid shelters were informal, such as the London Underground. Since civilians were a vital part of the war effort in 'total war', they were seen in many ways as legitimate targets.

Food shortages Food shortages were a significant issue, with German U-boats sinking ships importing essential foodstuffs . The Government intervened to manage the situation. Rationing of basic food items such as fats, sugar and meat was introduced from February 1918 , and price controls were imposed on essentials like bread.

CIVILIANS IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The increased role of G overnment A total war such as the First World War was only possible because the organisational ability of the Government had increased enormously by the twentieth century. It required massive government intervention to manage the economic and manpower resources necessary to sustain war on the scale of the First World War for four years. The Defence of the Realm Act, passed in August 1914, gave the Government emergency powers to issue directives that had the force oflaw without obtaining consent from all of Parliament. During the war government:

• took control of the railways and requisitioned merchant ships for the transportation of military supplies and troops

• controlled wages in the munitions and mining industries, and forbade strikes in government controlled industries

• set up a Ministry of Food which controlled and subsidised the price of bread (at 9 pence) to ensure even the poorest could afford bread despite food shortages, forbade the feeding of bread to birds (to prevent waste) and, in January 1918, introduced rationing

• forbade the flying of kites, purchase ofbinoculars, lighting of bonfires, talking about military affairs in public places, all of which were attempts to minimise the risks of signalling to or communicating with the enemy.

The importance and impact of Government intervention was demonstrated by the Munitions Crisis of 1915 . In 1915 a shortage of shells, particularly high-explosive shells, was blamed for the failure of British offensives on the Western Front. The so-called Munitions Crisis was widely publicised in the media. The Government responded by establishing a Ministry of Munitions which oversaw increased Government investment in, and control and management of, the munitions industries to increase production and efficiency: the Government directly managed 250 factories and supervised a further 20,000 . The impact of the Government measures were considerable: in 1914 only half a million shells were produced; in 1917 the figure was 76 million.

?. •

1 . Add information a bout how civi l i ans in B rita i n were affected by the F i rst Wor ld Wa r to the fi na l row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le from page 87.

2. Add to you r factor sheet on Govern ments and i nd iv id ua l s (see page 87). N ote the key featu res of deve lopments in government, and briefly descri be the im pact they had on wa rfa re d u ri ng the F i rst Wor ld War.

• •


The Second World Wa r British civilians were affected by the Second World War to an even greater degree than they had been by the First World War. The Second World War was also a total war and government again took on emergency powers (through another Defence of the Realm Act) to control and organise the Home Front. New Government controls included compelling factories to shift to war production, introducing conscription, organising the evacuation of children from cities that were being bombed (see page 127), banning strike action in war industries, implementing rationing, and forbidding the use of petrol in private cars.

Shortages e Ration i ng of essentia l foodstuffs, i n c l u d i n g

sugar, butte r a n d m eats, w a s i ntroduced i n J a n u a ry 1 940.

I nformation a bout the wa r: censorsh ip a n d propaganda

e U p to ha l f o f a l l i nd ustry was devoted to the war effort so there were very few consumer goods .

e N ews a bout the war was received th ro u g h newspapers, photog ra phs, c i n e m a and rad io (wh ich had beco m e com m o n i n homes i n the 1 930s) .

e Recyc l i ng ca m pa igns l i ke ' M a ke d o a n d m e n d ' enco u raged re -us i ng o ld c loth i n g .

e Reporti ng a b o u t t h e wa r w a s c lose ly censored by the G overn ment.

• Propaganda posters and reports were prod uced .

British civi l ian experience in the Second World Wa r

\.

Ta rgeted i n a i r ra ids • There were frequent and i ntense

a ir ra ids on civi l i a n ta rgets, part icu l a r ly in London , d u ri n g w h a t beca m e known as the B l itz i n 1 940. Approxi m ate ly 60,000 civi l i a n s were ki l l ed and 2 m i l l i on homes destroyed (see page 1 32) .

• In tota l wa r, civi l i a n s were regarded as leg it im ate ta rgets and a i r ra ids had a strateg ic s ign ificance as it was hoped that i ntense bombings wo u l d weaken civi l i a n m o ra l e .

Conscri pted • Conscri ption was

i ntroduced from Octo ber 1 939 (see page 96) .

How did the Government intervene to organise and manage the home front in the First

and Second World Wars?

..

?. •

Workforce • M i l l i ons of women

were e m p l oyed i n war i n d u str ies such as m u n it ions and sh ip b u i l d i n g - 6 .5 m i l l i on women were e m p l oyed i n factories o r sh ipya rds .


THE TREATMENT OF CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORS IN THE WORLD WARS

Consc ient ious o bjectors refused to serve i n the Army sayi ng that to fig ht went aga i nst the i r conc ience or be l i efs . M a ny were re l i g ious (often Ch risti an Quakers), others were pacifists. I n the F i rst Wor ld Wa r 1 6,000 men a p p l ied for exe m pt ion from m i l ita ry service on the g rounds of consc ience; i n the Second Wo r ld Wa r th is f ig u re was 60,000 men and 1 000 wom e n .

I n both wa rs consc ientious objecto rs had t o prove the i r be l i efs were g e n u ine ly he ld at tri b u n a l s . I n the F i rst Wor ld Wa r these tr i b u n a l s often d id not p rov ide a fa i r heari n g . Pa ne l m e m bers, w h i c h i n c l u d e d m i l tary persone l , were often hosti l e to consc ientious objectors; they tended to be fa i rer d u ri n g the Second Wo r ld Wa r.

If the conscient ious o bjectors' c l a ims were judged to be g e n u i n e they wou l d be g iven cond it ion a l exe m pt ions wh ich offered them a lte rnative non -com bative war work , such as a m b u l ance d rivers, i n a g ricu ltu re or i n bomb d isposa l u n its . Those who refused t h i s work or who refused to e n l ist desp ite the i r objections not be ing judged g e n u i n e, faced im pr iso n m ent . A lmost 6000 were im pr isoned d u ri n g the F i rst Wor ld Wa r, a n d 3000 d u ri ng the Second Wo r ld Wa r.

Attitudes i n society towards conscient ious objectors were freq uent ly hosti l e in both wars, a l though to a lesser extent i n the Second World Wa r. Conscient ious objectors were condemned as 's l ackers', cowa rds and sym path isers with the enemy. They and the i r fa m i l ies were freq uent ly ostracised and som etimes even faced verba l and physica l assa u lt .

Attitudes in society The harsh treatment of many conscientious objectors (see box) was partly a result of the widespread belief in the patriotic duty to defend Britain against the enemy, which meant that the majority of men did enlist when they were conscripted. This was very different to attitudes in society by 2000 which tended to stress individual freedom over duty and loyalty to a particular state.

,.. A badge that could be displayed in the window of a home . It showed the pride felt at having a member of the family serving in the Army

� • ATTITUDES IN SOCIETY

Add to you r factor sheet on Attitudes in society (see page 87). Note the key featu res of Attitudes i n society, and br iefly descr ibe the im pact they have had on wa rfa re.

The Cold Wa r - fea r of nuclear wa r Hostilities between the two world superpowers, the USA and the USSR, dominated international politics between 1945 and 1991 . This conflict became known as the Cold War since, despite threats and propaganda, the two superpowers never engaged in direct conflict with each other. The greatest fear for civilians in the Cold War (c. 1945-91) was the threat of a nuclear strike. In Britain this threat felt very real, especially in the 1980s when US bombers and missiles stationed in the UK made Britain feel like it could be a legitimate target for Soviet missiles. The Government issued public information in leaflets, and broadcasts on radio and television to inform people about what to do in the event of a nuclear attack.

.6. Protect and Survive leaflet (how to protect your home from nuclear strike)

Attitudes towards war appeared to be changing with increasing numbers of civilian opposition groups to war, such as the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). But peace campaigners had little effect on policy as escalation of the nuclear arms race continued until 1991 and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

•


The 'Wa r on terror' - the fea r of terrorism Most recently the threat to civilian populations has come from acts of terrorism. Just how much acts of terrorism could affect civilians was demonstrated in the mi l itant Is lamist al-Qaeda attacks on 1 1 September 2001 , when hijacked airliners flew into the World Trade Center Towers in New York killing nearly 3000 civilians. A 'war on terror' was subsequently declared by the USA, supported by its allies including Britain. Terrorist organisations and those who supported them have been the targets of military action around the world, particularly in the Middle East.

The threat of terrorism, from organised groups or disaffected individuals, has continued. On 7 July 2005 four Islamist extremist suicide bombers detonated bombs on the London Underground, killing 52 people and injuring 700. The rise of the militant Islamist extremist Islamic State oflraq and the Levant (ISIL) from 2014, following the breakdown of government in Iraq and Syria, has intensified the terrorist threat. It was members ofiSIL that claimed responsibility for the massacre of l30 civilians in the terror attack in Paris on 13 November 2015.

Cha nging attitudes towa rds wa r and their im pact Modern attitudes are likely to be less supportive of Britain going to war than they were in 1900 . This is partly a result of changes in education and attitudes, which no longer promote unquestioning patriotism. It is also due to the growth of media reporting (on television and especially on the internet, which is harder for the Governnment to attempt to control or censor) which has presented the public with a more 'real' view of conflict and of its horrors, including civilian casualties and military errors . This increased power of the media to influence attitudes and hence Government policy and military strategy has become known as the CNN effect (named after the 24-hour US news channel).

The increase in civilian concern about casualties has had an impact on government policies . This is because the twentieth century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the electorate (men and women from the age of 21 were permitted to vote from 1928; this was lowered to 18 in 1969). For governments to stay in power they have to be seen to be sensitive to public opinion. This can have an impact on military strategy because governments are keen to minimise casualties, which means they employ military tactics which minimise their likelihood, such as using drones and surgical air strikes (highly targeted bombing raids), even when it is arguable whether these are the most appropriate military solution. Negative public opinion (heavily influenced by media reporting) also encouraged military withdrawal in 2009 from the Iraq War, before the region was adequately stabilised (see page 103). However, the power of public opinion should not be exaggerated; anti-war demonstrations, however strong and well supported, frequently achieve very little.

HOW DID THE CIVILIAN EXPERIENCE OF WARFARE CHANGE IN THE MODERN ERA? ?. • 1 . M a ke a copy of the Ven n d iagra m . Record s im i l a rit ies and

d iffe rences between the ways i n wh ich civi l i ans have been affected by wa rfa re d u ri ng the modern era . Try to i nc l ude i nformation a bout: attitudes to war, im pact on da i l y l i fe, governm ent contro ls , media reporti ng , propaganda and censorsh ip .

2. Com p lete the fi na l row of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le (see page 87 ) a bout the civ i l i an exper ience of wa rfa re.

3. Write a few sentences in the fi n a l co l u m n of you r Knowledge Organ iser ta b le describ i ng the pattern of change .

4. Add to you r factor sheets on G overn ments and i nd ivid ua l s and Attitudes in society (see page 87 ) . N ote the key featu res, and briefly descr ibe the im pact they have had on wa rfa re .

•

S econd Wo rld War

F i rst Wor ld War

C onfl ict post 1 94 5


5.10 Case study: The invasion of I raq, 2003 This chapter has shown that rapid and dramatic changes took place in the nature of warfare during the modern era. Just how different had warfare become by 2000?

• Had modern weaponry completely transformed warfare? • Were there any continuities in the tactics and problems

facing troops at war?

To try to answer such questions we will look at your final case study: the Iraq War that began in 2003 .

Who was involved in the 2003 I raq Wa r? The invasion oflraq was led by US troops. Britain sent significant numbers of military personnel (almost 40,000 from the Army, Royal Airforce and Royal Navy), but the US deployed almost four times this number. Troops were equipped with a wide range of modern weapons, giving them enormous firepower and precision targeting. They faced an Iraqi Army of approximately 375,000, but with mostly outdated weaponry dating back to the Cold War era.

WHY THE INVASION OF IRAQ?

The pu rpose of the i nvas ion (codenamed Operat ion I ra q i Freedom) was to depose the I ra q i d i ctator Saddam H usse i n , whom it was fea red was deve lop i ng Weapons of M ass Destruction (WM Ds), i nc l ud ing n u c lea r, chem ica l a n d b io log ica l wea pons, that m i g ht be used to attack n e i g h bo u ri ng cou ntr ies and to s u p port i nternationa l te rror ism aga i nst America a n d i t s a l l ies . l t was part of the US Pres ident G eorge Bush's 'wa r on terror' (see page 1 02) .

What happened d u ring the invasion? The Allies used 'shock and awe' tactics to invade Iraq, meaning that they used their overwhelming firepower to dominate and make rapid progress against the Iraqi military. The main elements of the invasion were:

• Extensive surveillance of the location and nature of Iraqi territory, particularly of key missile and defence sites . A lot of this surveillance was carried out by UVAs or drones .

• Air strikes (beginning some weeks before the invasion) against key Iraqi defence, missile and communications sites .

• An armoured infantry advance (using tanks and armoured personnel carriers), supported by aircraft, to achieve a rapid advance on key cities, particularly Baghdad (the Iraqi capital) and Basra (the main British objective) .

It took only sixteen days for US troops to capture Baghdad, and within 21 days most of the key Iraqi cities had been occupied by Allied troops. Saddam Hussein was finally captured in December 2003 and subsequently tried and executed for war crimes in 2006 .

How effective were Al l ied wea pons? Allied weaponry performed well, although it was not invulnerable. The British Challenger 2 tanks were able to make rapid progress and offered excellent protection to their crews. Only two of these tanks were lost in the invasion (one due to friendly fire). The Americans lost sixteen tanks, with 35 more damaged. Most were damaged by Iraq rocket propelled grenades (RPGs) in close-quarter fighting in urban centres .

But not all infantry were so well protected. Many infantry travelled in armoured personnel vehicles, such as Scimitars, carrying out reconnaissance patrols, but these offered little protection for the crews against rockets and small arms fire or improvised explosive devices (IEDs) .

.A. Household Cavalry Regiment take fuel , water and food on board a scimitar tank in Southern Iraq, April 2003

In the invasion the casualties were 139 US and 33 UK dead. Iraqi civilian casualties are estimated at between 3200 and 7200.

•


. '

THE INVASION OF IRAQ � 1 . Read the acco u nt be low by M i ke F lynn of h i s exper ience in the i nvas ion of I raq . What

does it suggest a bout: a) the effectiveness of the modern wea pons used by the A l l ies? b) how good com m un icat ions he lp i nfantry in battle? c) the prob lems sti l l faced by i nfantry in battle, and the reasons for these prob lems?

B An account of the i nvas ion of I raq by M ick Flynn taken from h is book Bullet Magnet, published i n 2 0 1 0 . Flynn was travel ing i n a sc imitar i n a g roup o f fou r veh icles that were part o f a n armoured reconna issance patrol on 28 March 2003 .

•

A m o rt a r b o m b exploded a b o u t 2 0 0 m to o u r rea r wi th a n a l m i g hty b a n g ! We ' d ru n r i g h t

u p o n t o t h e I ra q i p o s i t i o n a n d w e we re u n d e r d i rect e n e my f i re [fro m a n a r m o u red

p e rso n n e l c a r r i e r a rm e d w i t h m a c h i n e g u n and a n t i - ta n k m i ss i les] . T h e m e t a l ra i n was � c re e p i n g eve r- c loser to o u r ve h i c l e . B u t [o u r] s c i m ita r's n ew laser a i m i n g a n d ra n g i n g

system was d e a d ly a c c u rate : I g ave h i m t h e o r d e r. ' F i re ! ' . . . I co u ld s e e o u r ro u n d s

[su ccessf u l ly] e x p lo d i n g o n a n d a ro u n d t h e I ra q is .

. . . I wa nted s o m e a i r s u p p o rt . . . [ b u t o n ly s p e c i f i c fo rwa rd a i r c o n t ro l le rs ca n c a l l i n

a i r s u p p o rt so a s t o m i n i m ise t h e r isk o f fr i e n d ly f i re i n c i d e nts] W h e n o u r fo rwa rd a i r

c o n t ro l l e r was h a p py t h e t a rg e t was a safe d ista n c e f ro m a l l fr i e n d ly fo rces , a n d t h a t i t

was c o n f i r m e d a s h o s t i l e , h e ca l led i n t h e [a i rcraft b y ra d i o] . A few m i n utes late r, a p a i r

o f a i rc raft c a m e s c rea m i n g u p . Po p p i n g o u t a consta nt stre a m o f b r i l l i a n t o ra n g e i nfra

red d e coy f la res , t h ey w h e e l e d a ro u n d rea d y t o r u n i n o n t h e [e n e my] ro c ket la u n c h e r.

T h e o n ly p ro b le m be i n g , t h ey c o u ld n 't a c t u a l ly see it a m o n g t h e t rees [afte r seve ra l

atte m pts t h e a i rc raft m i ssed t h e i r ta rgets a n d ret u rn e d to base] .

[T h e s c i m i t a rs we re t h e n confronted by a n I ra q i ta n k . ] At t h e sa m e t i m e as I saw t h e

ta n k , i t s a w u s : t h e t u rret s lewed ro u n d , a n d t h e g u n l a i d o n o u r p o s i t i o n . . . t h e ta n k

o p e n e d f i re a n d t h e ex p los i o n s h o o k t h e s c i m i t a r t o i t s m e t a l b o n e s . . . w e ra d i o e d

for ass ista n c e . T h e n t h e re w a s a d e e p roa r of j e t s f ro m t h e s ky. I looked u p to s e e

t h e u n m ista ka b le s i l h o u ette of a n A-1 0 [a i rcraft] lo o m i n g u p . . . i t ca rr i e d a n t i ta n k

m i s s i le s , rockets , b o m bs a n d . . . rota ry ca n n o n . . . t h a t f i res a c o n c e n t rated storm of

d e p leted u ra n i u m ro u n d s t h a t ca n m i n ce a rm o u r a t m o re t h a n 6 0 ro u n d s per seco n d .

. . . [ B u t] what we re t h e A-1 0 p i lots a i m i n g at? As t h a t t h o u g h t s t r u c k h o m e , t h e p i t of

my sto m a c h d ro p p e d away. I h e a rd s o m e o n e [ove r t h e ra d i o] s h o u t on t h e n et 'we ' re

b e i n g e n g a g e d by A-1 0 s ! C h e c k f i re ! C h e c k f i r e ! C h ec k f i re ! ' T h e c h e c k f i re co m m a n d

te l ls every u n i t a n d c a l l s i g n o n yo u r s i d e t o cease f i re i m m e d iate ly . . . a nyo n e c a n m a ke

t h e c a l l , b u t yo u h ave to m a ke it i n a d i re e m e r g e n cy. W i t h a terr i b le s i n k i n g feel i n g . I

rea l i s e d t h e A-1 0 p i lots we re n 't patc h e d i nto t h e assa u lt b r i g a d e ra d i o n e t . T h ey we re

u n a b le to h e a r. [Two of t h e S c i m i t a rs i n t h e g ro u p we re h i t a n d t h re e B r i t i s h troops

we re s e r i o u s ly i nj u red a n d one was k i l le d . ]

. . . I [ h a d to] switch m y atte n t i o n b a c k o nto t h e e n e my a r m o u r . . . I h a d t h ree Arm o u r

P i e rc i n g Sa bot ro u n d s loa d e d rea d y t o f i re . 'Sa bot ' i s extre m e ly effect ive w h e n i t c o m e s

to destroyi n g e n e my a r m o u r. A sa bot ro u n d is a lo n g t h i n d a rt of extre m e ly d e n s e , h e avy

meta l or d e p leted u ra n i u m . . . t rave l l i n g at hyperso n i c s p e e d , t h e meta l a rrow str i kes

a t i ny a rea of t h e e n emy a r m o u r, va p o u r ises in o n contact and p u n c h es t h ro u g h . We ' d

f i red a t least 2 0 ro u n d s a n d I s t i l l h a d n 't s e e n a h i t . . . t h e n I saw o n e o f o u r ro u n d s str i ke

h o m e . . . t h e ta n k sto p p e d d e a d i n i ts t ra c ks a n d I watc h e d t h e c rew d i s m o u n t a n d r u n

away. What a bo u t t h e seco n d ta n k . . . a f t e r a s l i g h t p a u s e i t sta rted to ro l l fo rwa rd a g a i n .


From invasion to insurgency Although the invasion oflraq was rapid and successful in defeating the Iraqi military, gaining control of the cities proved much more difficult. Violent attacks on Allied troops by anti-American insurgents quickly escalated, as did conflict between rival Iraqi militant groups who sought to establish control. This type of warfare against small militant groups, rather than against a country's legitimate armed forces, is known as insurgency.

Much of the violence took the form of guerri l la or terrorist activities against US and British troops. They included ambushes by hit and run gunmen, car bombs, roadside improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and suicide bombers. The insurgents usually fought in the cities, making good use of their knowledge of the local environment and blending in with civilians. All this made it particularly difficult for the Allies to defeat the insurgents (see page 95).

The insurgency became unmanageable, and Allied military casualties steadily rose far higher than the numbers killed in the invasion oflraq. Public opinion in Britain became increasingly hostile to the continuation of the war. After some, but not complete, success in reducing the insurgency, and transferring power to the new Iraqi military, British troops withdrew from Iraq in 2009 (the US withdrew in 2010). The casualties from 2003 to the final withdrawal numbered 179 British dead and 4400 US dead and 32,000 wounded.

The difficulty in dealing with Iraq insurgency highlighted that for all their effectiveness there is a limit to what modern high-tech weapons can achieve. It has led to further calls for an increase in the role of specialist counterinsurgency troops and tactics .

.A. Fighting insurgents in urban centres proved a difficult task for the Allied militaries

HOW FAR HAD ?. •

WAR CHANGED

BY 2003?

1 . What evidence i s there from the I raq War that modern h igh -tech weaponry had changed the nature of warfa re? Th i nk a bout : - the strength of the

weapons used - precis ion targeti ng - d rones .

2. Did the I raq War show any fu ndam enta l contin u ities with previous wa rs? Th i n k a bout: - use of com bined

a rms tactics - need for i nfa ntry on

the g round - prob lems with

com m u n ications .

3. Write a paragraph with you r thoug hts on how fa r modern wea ponry had transformed the nature of warfa re by 2003 .

•


5.11 Reach ing a judgem ent Let's now return to the big Enquiry Question for this chapter:

'D evelopments in s cience, technology and communications were the main reas on for rapid changes to the nature of warfare in the modern era.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

This question asks you to reach a judgement on how far science, technology and communications were the most important factor in explaining changes in warfare. The table and activities below will help you do this.

Main changes Evidence of the ro le of science, Evidence of the ro le of other factors

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

tech nology and comm u n ications in in expla in ing the changes in warfa re expla in ing the cha nges in warfare

a h u g e n u m ber of n ew types of wea pons wea pons i n creas i n g ly more powerfu l and accu rate su bsta nt ia l advances i n com m u n ications enab l i ng more ra p id and re l i a b l e com m u n icat ions on the batt lefie ld

s ign ificant var iations i n the s ize of B rit ish arm ies - from the l a rg est ever ( i n the two wor ld wa rs) to dec l i n i n g n u m bers fro m the 1 980s i n creased speci a l isat ion a n d profess ion a l isat ion o f troops

conscr ipt ion i n the two wor ld wa rs i n creased speci a l ised tra i n i n g

g reatest i ntens ity o f civi l i a n i nvo lvement a n d exper ience o f war i n the two wor ld wars fea r of n u c lea r war i n Co ld Wa r a n d terrorist th reat from 1 970s i n creased med ia coverage of wa rs

1 . Draw a large copy of the table above .

2 . Fill in the second column of the table by adding evidence

where appropriate to show how science, technology and

communications explain the changes in warfare . Use the

factor sheet you created for ' Science, technology and

communications' on page 87 to help you .

3 . Fill in the third column of the table by adding evidence

where appropriate to show how the other factors explain

the changes in warfare . Use the factor sheets you created

on page 87 to help you .

4 . The factors often work together to bring about changes .

Suggest some explanations o f where the factors worked

together to bring about changes? You can draw a factor

map and label arrows to show this if you wish.

5. Place the three factors in order from the most to the least ?. . . . . . . . 1mportant m explammg the changes wh1ch took place m

each of the following topics :

- weapons

- composition of armies

- recruitment and training of combatants

- experience of civilians

6 . Explain how important each of the factors was in creating

changes in warfare .

This brief answer is now your overall answer to the

question.


Com m u nicating you r a nswer Remember that it is important to think carefully about how you are going to organise your answer before you begin to write.

As a how far question you will need to show that you can evaluate the evidence for and against the statement that science, technology and communications were the most important cause of change in warfare in the modern era. You could write your answer with a for and against structure with a conclusion in which you evaluate and present your own judgement. Alternatively you could organise your answer by topics, evaluating the relative importance of the different factors in explaining change in each. You will find further guidance in the writing guide on pages 162-76.

N ow write your answer to the enquiry question.

Visible lea rn ing : Revise and remember

Test you rself

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

: Practice question :

1 . Exp l a i n one way i n wh ich com m u n icat ions

on the batt lefie ld d u ri n g the Batt le of the Som m e (1 9 1 6) were s i m i l a r to those at the Batt le of Water loo (1 8 1 5) .

2. Exp l a i n why the methods of recru itm ent

to the B rit ish Army changed so m uch between 1 900 and 2000.

3. 'The im pact of war on civi l i a ns' l ives has

been enormous i n the modern era . ' H ow

fa r d o yo u a g ree with th i s statement?

Exp l a i n yo u r a nswer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

N ow have a go at test ing you rse l f to h e l p m a ke a l l that know ledge st ick! H ave a go at these q u estions . Rem e m ber there wi l l be some q u estions from prev ious cha pters too - see how m u ch you rem e m ber.

1 What two m a i n 2 Exp la in two ways in which 3 Exp l a i n two i n n ovations 4 I n what yea r d id the format ions d id the the Cr i mean War suggested in wea pons that too k Batt le o f t h e Somme ta ke i nfantry use at the Batt le a new type of warfare and p l ace between 1 850 and p l ace? of Water loo? two ways in which it showed 1 900 .

continu ities with previous wars.

5 Exp l a i n th ree reasons 6 Exp l a i n th ree s i m i l a r it ies 7 I n what war was rad a r 8 List fo u r wea pons used why the B rit ish casua lt ies between the civi l i a n fi rst u s e d ? F o r what? by the A l l ies d u ri ng the were so h igh on the fi rst exper ience of war i n I raq i nvas ion i n 2003. day of the Batt le of the B rita i n d u ri n g the F i rst S o m m e. a n d Second Wor ld Wa rs.

N ow, set some q u estions yo u rse l f.

The Big Story

N ow it's t ime to retu rn for a fi n a l t ime to yo u r big chart s u m m a ris ing the m a i n po i nts of the B ig Story. F i l l in the rem a i n i n g co l u m ns for the per iod 1 900 t o t h e present day. Rem e m ber y o u don 't n e e d lots o f deta i l , j ust s u m m a rise the m a i n po i nts.

1 250-1 500 1 500-1 700 1 700-1 900 1 900-present

Wea pons

Com posit ion of arm ies (n u m ber, type and tactics of com bata nts)

Recru itment and tra i n i n g of com batants

Experience of civi l i a n s

I

Conclusion: identifying patterns of change and continuity

Congratulations - you have finished your study of almost 800 years of history! That's a lot of history. You now have a good understanding of the changes (and continuities) that took place in warfare between c .1250 and the present.

The table below gives a very basic summary of the main developments in the nature and experience of warfare. You probably have a similar, even more detailed table that you created as part of your 'revise and remember' work throughout in the book.

Topic 1 250-1 500 1500-1 700

Weapons . swords . l o ng bow . m uskets (match lock a n d fl i nt lock) . l a n ces . crossbows . a rti l l e ry (ca nnon) . spears . ca n n o n (from c.1 320) . pisto l s

. p ikes

. swords

Com position of . kn ig hts . cava l ry armies (n u m ber, . i nfa ntry the m ajor p roport ion of the a rmy ( i ncreas ing ly . i nfa ntry the m ajor proport ion of type and tactics l ong bow men) the a rmy (m usketeers a n d p i ke men) of com bata nts) . no permanent a rmy . a rt i l l e ry (ve ry sma l l i n n u m ber)

. perm a n e nt a rmy from 1 660

Recru itment . kn ig hts from soci a l e l ites: feu d a l s u m m ons, vo l u nta ry . cava l ry from soci a l e l ites and tra in ing of service, contracts ( i ndentures) . i nfa ntry: Com m iss ions of Array a n d combatants . i nfa ntry i n it ia l ly co m p u ls ion (Co m m iss ions of Array) but co nscr ipt ion i n Civ i l Wa rs

late r contracts ( i ndentu res) especi a l ly l ong bow men . afte r 1 660 perm a n e nt a rmy, made u p . no offic ia l tra i n i n g but enco u ragement to a rchery practice of p rofess iona l pa id so ld ie rs . e l ite ch iva l ric cu l tu re e m p h asised the im porta n ce of . i n creased e m p h as is on d ri l l tra i n i n g ,

m i l ita ry p rowess th ro u g h tou rnam ents a n d jousts part icu l a r ly fo r i nfa ntry

Experience of . co u l d be com pe l l ed to serve i n a rm ies . co u l d be com pe l l ed to serve i n a rm ies civi l ians . food req u is i t ioned (pu rveyance) . food req u is i t ioned

. provided she lte r fo r troops . provided she l te r to troops

. taxes pa id to fu nd wars . taxes d i rect ly im posed to fu nd wars

. victims of ra id a n d p i l l age (m a i n ly border a n d coasta l . vict i ms of ra id a n d p i l l age, especia l ly a reas) d u ri ng Civi l Wa rs

. received l itt le n ews a bout wars . received some n ews a bout wa rs th ro u g h propaganda (pr i nted news pa m p h l ets)

6 Conc lus ion : i d e ntifyi n g patte rns of c h a n g e a n d conti n u ity

Identifying patterns of change and continu ity Now you have a broad view of the entire period from c .1250 to the present, it becomes easier to identify patterns of change across the time periods. Trends become more apparent, as do possible turning points.

Look back to page 6 to remind yourselves of the patterns of change you might find. It is worth thinking a little bit about what these terms mean.

1700-1 900

. m uskets (fl i n t lock) . a rt i l l e ry

. rif l es . swords

. pisto l s . mach ine g u n s

. cava l ry

. i nfa ntry the m ajor proport ion of the a rmy (m usketeers a n d rifl em en)

. a rti l l e ry (a n i ncreas ing n u m ber)

. cava l ry from soci a l e l ites - p u rchase system

. i nfa ntry profess iona l pa id so ld iers (se rv ice per iod typica l ly 2 1 yea rs), but l ow pay

. d ri l l tra i n i n g im porta nt for i nfantry

. provided she lter and food to troo ps, but less so as ba rracks were b u i l t

. taxes i ncreased to fu nd wa rs, e .g . i ncome tax

. received news (a nd photog ra phs) of fore ign wa rs m o re q u ick ly d u e to i m p rovements in com m u n ications (te legra p h)

IDENTIFYING PATTERNS OF CHANGE

1 . I dentify two contin u ities and two trends across at l east two periods i n the natu re or exper ience of warfa re. Write a few sentences to support you r view.

2. I dentify two possib le turn ing points in the nature or exper ience of warfa re. Write a few sentences to support you r view. You w i l l need to refer backwards to show why it was a b ig change and forwards to show evidence of lasti ng change .

• a turning point is a decisive or very significant change (usually a change in the direction of a development) that often has long-lasting results .

• a trend is usually a gradual, predictable change in the same direction. For example, it might be a weapon that continues to be used, but by an increased number of troops, or gradual technical improvements of a weapon.

• a continuity describes something that stays the same.

Now, using the chart below (or your own version) have a go at identifying different patterns of change in the nature and experience of warfare.

1 900-present

. r if les . ta n ks

. mach ine g u ns . n u c lea r wea pons

. a rt i l l e ry . Precis ion g u ided m iss i les

. a i rcraft . U n manned aer ia l ve h ic les (d rones)

. chemica l wea pons (gas)

. i nfa ntry the m ajor p roport ion of the a rmy

. a rt i l l e ry

. l og ist ics i ncreas i ng ly i m porta nt

. g rowth of speci a l ised troops

. conscr ipt ion d u ri ng F i rst and Second Wor ld Wa rs a n d N at ion a l Service, 1 948-60

. profess ion a l , pa id vo l u nteer troops fo r m ost of the per iod

. speci a l ised tra i n i n g has become i ncreas i ng ly i m porta nt .

. conscr ipts i n F i rst a n d Second Wo r ld Wa rs

. victims of aeria l bombings in F i rst and Second World Wa rs

. women i nto factor ies and othe r essentia l war work i n F i rst a n d Second Wor ld Wa rs

. food shortages in F i rst a n d Second Wo r ld Wa rs

. propaganda a n d censors h i p i n re porti ng i n F i rst a n d Second Wor ld Wa r, but i n more recent confl icts i n creased media coverag e and less censors h i p due to i m p rovements in com m u n icat ions

. fea r of n uc lear war (d u ri ng Co ld Wa r)

. fea r of terro r ism

� 3. I n what period/periods does the greatest amount of change

appear to have taken place? G ive reasons for your view.

4. Exp la i n one way in wh ich the exper ience of civi l i ans was: a) s im i l a r i n the 1 400s and the 1 600s b) d ifferent i n the 1 700s and the 1 900s.

6. Exp la i n one way i n wh ich the recru itment and tra i n i ng of com batants was: a) s im i l a r i n the 1 700s and the 1 900s b) d ifferent i n the 1 400s and the 1 700s.

• •

•


A bit more on turn ing points You might get asked in the exam to explain if or why something was an important turning point in a particular topic. Let's have a look at a few changes that might be considered to have been significant turning points in the nature and experience of warfare (the page numbers indicate where you will find relevant information in the rest of the book) :

• the introduction of gunpowder weapons (particularly matchlock muskets) from the late fifteenth century (page 34)

• the establishment of the New Model Army in 1645 (page 41)

• the invention and use of railways from the nineteenth century (page 64)

• the introduction of machine guns from the late nineteenth/early twentieth centuries (page 88)

• the development of radio (enabling communication with and between troops in the field from the Second World War) (page 92)

• the development of nuclear weapons (from 1945) (page 89).

To make a case for something being a turning point you will need to:

• explain how it led to a decisive change in weapons / composition of armies / recruitment and training of combatants / experience of civilians. You will need to refer back to before to show how it changed things.

• provide evidence that the change was long lasting.

�------------------�?. TURNING POINTS • 1 . Divide the c lass i nto g roups . Each g roup shou ld take

one of the deve lopments a bove and make a case for that deve lopm ent be ing an im portant tu rn i ng po int.

2. Th ink of a rg u ments as to why each of the deve lopments a bove m ight not be seen as a tu rn i ng point . C l ues:

D id anyth ing stay the same despite these deve lopments? H ow long d id it ta ke to bri ng a bout s ign ificant change? Can someth ing that ta kes a very long t ime to change th ings be ca l l ed a tu rn i ng point? Th is is probab ly a matter of op in ion , but worth cons ideri ng .

3 . Wh ich of the deve lopm ents a bove do you th ink b rought about the most im portant changes? Exp la i n you r answer.

'

Science, tech nology and com m u nications: a d river for change? You may have noticed that all the turning points you looked at on the previous page were related to the factor of S cience, technology and communications. This seems to have been a particularly important factor in driving changes in warfare. Here are just a few examples:

• The shift in tactics during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when infantry came to be deployed in squares, rather than the linear formations of the Middle Ages, was largely a result of the new dominance of the musket (page 38).

• The decline in the role of cavalry on the battlefield, which had become obsolete by the early twentieth century, was mainly a result of developments in science and technology which increased the power, range and numbers of artillery on the battlefield (page 72).

• The increased use of radio from the 1920s made possible new tactics of combined arms (the co-ordinated use of infantry, motorised and air power) that have remained central to the tactics of modern armies up to the present (page 90).

• The development of motorised road transport transformed the logistical supply of armies from the 1930s, making possible large, mobile campaigns since the Second World War (see page 91) .

• The increased specialisation of modern military personnel was a direct consequence of the growth of specialised weaponry that required particular knowledge to operate (page 94).

• The shrinkage in the size of the army after 1945 was a consequence of the development of nuclear weapons, as nuclear power, not mass armies, became the main military deterrent; it was no longer worth the expense of maintaining very large armies (page 89).

Does this mean that Science, technology and communications should be seen as the most important factor in driving change in warfare? Certainly it was a very important factor. But, there have been significant changes that have not depended on developments in Science, technology and communications. Here are some examples:

• The dominance of longbow men in the armies of the later Middle Ages was a change that did not depend on technological innovations in weaponry since the longbow had been in existence even in the early Middle Ages .

• The establishment of permanent standing armies from the 1660s owed more to developments in government than science and technology.

• Changes to the recruitment of officers in the nineteenth century with Card well's reforms were not a consequence of Science, technology and communications.

6 Conc lus ion : i d e ntifyi n g patte rns of c h a n g e a n d conti n u ity

Science, tech nology and com m u nications: not sufficient a lone Most major changes do appear t o b e connected t o Science, technology and communications. But this does not mean that on its own, the factor was enough to explain these changes . Other factors also played an important role. We can visualise how the factors often worked together in a factor map.

Science, technology and communications often worked with the other factors to bring about changes in warfare. For example:

1. G overnment was often responsible for funding the development or adoption of new weapons, communications or transport systems. There is a strong correlation between increased government investment in the military in wartime and an increase in innovations in weapons technologies (see page 90) .

2. G overnment might also act as a block on the use of particular weapons, for example, chemical and nuclear weapons - fearing the political, social and economic consequences of their use.

3. S cience, technology and communications produced new weapons which enabled new tactical possibilities, encouraging individuals to develop new tactics. There was often a time lag between the invention of a new weapon and the development of tactics that made best use of the weapon's capabilities, as with the deployment of tanks in the First World War (see page 83).

4 and 5. Attitudes in society have impacted on the use of weapons as much as their technological capabilities. Knights of the Middle Ages disparaged missile weapons as unchivalrous, contributing to their continued use of sword and lance rather than arrows. More recently, civilian discontent at military

LINKING SCIENCE ,

TECHNOLOGY AND

COMMUNICATIONS

?. •

Can you th i n k of exp lanat ions that m ight exp la i n the l i n ks between Science, tech no logy and com m u n ications and each of the other factors?

personnel and civilian casualties have increased the likelihood of the government prioritising the use of precision air strikes and drones as a way to minimise casualties (although this is not always the most effective way to counter guerrilla tactics).

We can therefore conclude that Science, technology and communications was a particularly important factor in explaining changes in warfare. But, it rarely brought about immediate dramatic change as new weapons tended to be introduced gradually (often due to the costs involved), and it took time for their best tactic uses to be realised. Ultimately, Science, technology and communications were rarely sufficient on their own, without the other factors, to explain the changes that have taken place in the nature and experience of warfare between c .1250 and the present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

· Practice questions 1 . 'The i ntroduct ion o f ca n n o n i n t h e fo u rteenth centu ry

was the m ost i m p o rtant change in the natu re of wa rfa re i n the M i d d l e Ages. ' H ow fa r do you a g ree?

Exp l a i n yo u r a nswer. 2. 'The widespread adopt ion of m uskets in the s ixteenth

centu ry was a s ign ificant tu rn i n g po int i n the natu re of wa rfa re .' H ow fa r do yo u ag ree? Exp l a i n yo u r answer.

3. 'Deve l o p m ents in a i r transport a n d aer ia l s u p po rt tra nsformed the natu re of wa rfa re i n the twentieth

centu ry.' H ow fa r do you a g ree? Exp l a i n you r answer. 4. 'Sc ien ce, tech no logy a n d com m u n icat ions was the

m ost i m porta nt factor i n exp l a i n i n g changes i n the natu re a n d exper ience of wa rfa re.' H ow fa r d o yo u

ag ree? Exp l a i n you r answer.

What is th is h istoric envi ro n m ent u n it a bout? This unit counts for 10 per cent of your GCSE course. It is linked to the thematic unit on Warfare and British Society in this book in two ways:

1. You will use your knowledge of warfare in the early twentieth century in this unit. 2. The enquiry approach you used to study 'Warfare' will help considerably because this

unit is designed to develop your skills in historical enquiry - from asking questions to communicating your answer. We spent a lot of time on enquiry in 'Warfare' to prepare you for this.

There are also three major differences with your work on the thematic unit on Warfare:

1. This unit focuses on a single place, a historic site - London. 2. It focuses on a very short period, the years 1939-45. 3. It looks much more closely at the contemporary sources and how we use them in an

enqmry.

Th is book does not p rov ide a l l the m ateri a l you wi l l use fo r th i s u n it . Th i s is d e l i berate! We have g iven yo u the stru ctu re fo r yo u r enq u i ry and p lenty of inform ation and so u rces but you r teacher wi l l add more so u rces, perhaps re lat i ng to peop l e's exper iences i n London d u ri n g the war.

ENQUIRY ?. •

Describe in you r own words the enqu i ry process you use to i nvestigate a new h istor ica l topic .

Part 2: The h isto ric enviro n m ent : Lo n d o n a n d the Seco n d Wo r ld Wa r, 1 939-45

1 .1 Wa r ch i ld ren - q uestions a n d so u rces

When I was researching this part of the book, I came across the phrase 'dead end kids' on a website dedicated to local history in the East End of London (www.whitechapelsociety. corn) . The website explained that during the Bl itz, the large-scale air raids on London carried out by the German luftwaffe in 1940-41, groups of children and teenagers had banded together and worked as unofficial firefighters and air-raid wardens. I wondered if there were any pictures . So, I used an internee images search to look for 'dead end kids'. This first search was a red herring, as this was the name given to a group of child-actors in Hollywood in the 1930s - I later discovered that the Wapping 'Dead End Kids' had copied the name of the gang of young film stars. My second search term: 'Wapping dead end kids Blitz' brought up the picture you see here, with the caption 'Ten-year-old Shamus O'Brien, mascot of the 'Dead End Kids'. I found this picture really moving - the way that this boy is grinning, the hat that is far too big for his head, and the man's coat that is too big for his shoulders. I wanted to know why these young people were taking on the wartime roles that we would expect adults to have. All of a sudden I was hooked on their story, I wanted to know more - this was my starting point for exploring life in London during the Second World War.

This is the sort of thing that happens when you start to investigate history for yourself Sometimes it's a note in a book or diary. Sometimes it happens when you find something that doesn't fit in with what you thought you already knew, and sometimes it is a face in a picture that grabs your attention, and makes you ask questions. I wanted to know more about this boy Sham us, and the Dead End Kids. I was surprised to read his story because I had thought that children were evacuated from London early in the war.

Developing you r enq u i ry - na mes

When we a re study ing h i sto rica l sou rces, even those from the age of d ig it isation a n d e lectron i c records, w e n e e d t o rem e m ber t h a t i t i s h u ma n s who a re m a ki n g m ost o f t h e records - writ i ng or typ i ng n a m es a n d data onto p ieces o f p a p e r o r i nto data bases. T h i s means t h a t n a m es o f peop le , p l aces, dates and t i m e s o f events a re somet imes record ed i n one way i n one sou rce, and i n a d i ffe rent way i n a n other so u rce.

Where can I start? Well, an internee search can only get me so far. The image of Sham us had a caption which told me that it was taken for a photographic newspaper called the Picture Post in April 1941, but also that it was never published. I was able to find some more names of the other young people involved, and some more pictures, but these could not answer the many questions that I had about the Dead End Kids.

ASKING QUESTIONS

One of the ski l l s you practised i n the thematic u n it on Warfare was ask ing good h istor ica l questions . Ask ing q uestions is an im portant part of th is u n it beca use it p l ays a part i n you r GCSE exam inat ion . So, we' l l pause here, and ask you to ask some q u estions .

M a ke a l ist of q u estions you want to ask a bout London d u ri ng the Second Wor ld Wa r. They cou l d be about the Dead End Kids, or about the exper ience of others l iv ing i n London . Use the q u estion sta rters be low to he lp you .

When . . . ? What . . . ? Why . . . ? How . . . ? What happened . . . ? What effects . . . ? How significant . . . ? Did it really . . . ? Who . . . ?

?. •

Where . . . ? Did they . . . ?

.._ A photo of Sham us O ' Brien from the Picture Post, 1 9 4 1

PART 2: Wa rfa re a n d B rit ish society, c.1 250-present

Asking questions, identifying sou rces QUESTIONS AND SOURCES ?.

This page shows you some of the questions you could ask about life in London during the Second World War, together with some of the sources you might use to answer those questions. Both questions and sources are here because one aim of this unit is to work out which sources might be most helpful in answering individual questions. You know by now that sources are not 'useful' or 'useless' in themselves - their usefulness depends on what question you are trying to answer. For example, one source may be very useful for learning about the techniques used to raise morale, but completely unhelpful if you want to find out about how many shelters were built in back gardens.

Some q uestions

Sources

Offic ia l records of i n d iv idua ls , e .g . b i rth certificates

N ation a l n ewspa per repo rts

N ewsree ls

Choose two of the q uestions be low or from you r l ist of q uest ions from page 1 1 3 . Which of the sources be low do you th i nk m i g ht be most usefu l fo r answering each of you r two q uest ions? Exp la i n why you th i nk each source m i g ht be usefu l .

We do not expect you to know the 'rig ht' answers a t th is stage. Th is task is to get you th i n king about what k inds of information m ight be i n the sources and which q uest ions they may he lp with . I n the rest of th is u n it you wi l l get to know most of these sources and fi nd out which questions they a re m ost usefu l fo r answeri ng .

Loca l Counc i l Records

Posters and info rm at ion pa m p h l ets pr i nted by the G overn m e nt

N ation a l census docum ents a n d records

Photog ra phs

Reports on mora l e sent to the G overnm ent by 'M ass Observat ion '

D ia ries written at the t ime

M e m o i rs by those who l ived th ro u g h the B l itz

•


Organ is ing you r u nderstand ing of the sou rces Why did we set up the activities on the opposite page? It is because this unit is about how you undertake a historical enquiry and about the kinds of sources we use as well as being about London during the Second World War. Therefore you are going to use a variety of sources and learn different things from them. The first thing you will learn is the most obvious - the sources will:

• Increase your knowledge and understanding of the Second World War and London's part in it.

However, other things you learn about the sources are just as important and will be tested in your examination. You will find out:

• What kinds of sources help us investigate London during the Second World War 1939-45.

• Which sources are most useful for investigating individual aspects of life in London at that time, and for answering particular questions.

To keep track of the sources and what we can learn from them we suggest you use a Knowledge Organiser such as the table below, perhaps on A3 paper or as a Word document. You may wish to keep additional, detailed notes to support the summary in your table. Completing the table is an important reminder that this unit is about enquiry and sources as well as about London during the Second World War.

Here is a guide to completing your table over the next few weeks:

1. After you have worked on a section of this unit identify which sources you have used and fill in a row of this table for each source. Decide which type of source each items is, e.g. is it a personal account, photograph, etc .? The text will remind you to do this.

2. Put the category in column 1 and the example (e.g. a newspaper article about the Dead End Kids) in column 2 .

3. Then complete columns 3-6 for the source.

You may use sources that fit more than one category of source or you may use other kinds of sources not listed below. Don't worry if sources do not fit neatly - historical research is unpredictable and you often find things that you don't expect. That's one of the reasons why it's enjoyable !

It is also important to remember that one source will not tell us everything we want to know. We should always try to use a combination of sources. This is because each source may add different information, perhaps because different people created them at different times, or because they are different types of source - a photograph and a diary perhaps. Using a variety of sources also allows us to check what each is saying as we always need to ask whether the evidence in a source is typical of the evidence as a whole.


Dead ends and new d i rections I'd like to know more about the lad i n the picture o n page 1 13, and the Dead End Kids . Usually I'd look at the census. The census is a survey of the population that the government has carried out every ten years since 1801 . The census is designed to help the Government collect taxes and plan the services that it needs to provide. It gives us a record of who was living in each house on every street, and what they did for work. However, census material is not released for 100 years. I therefore would not expect the 1931 census to be released until 2031 . However, in fact, the 1931 census will never be released.

The story of the 1931 census teaches historians an important lesson - documents do not always survive. Censuses are collected on paper, and before computerisation they were collected and written onto lists, record books and maps. In 1942 a fire started in the warehouse where the records were stored. It was probably started by a cigarette smoked by one of the people employed to watch out for fires. The entire census was destroyed. The 1941 census never happened, because of the war. There was a national survey in 1939 so that the government could create the records it needed for a national identity card scheme - to combat German espionage, and to help organise rations and conscription. This led to further frustration for me. The 1939 survey is being digitised, and was only released just as I finished writing this section. However, you might be able to use it in your enquiries .

Though I could use an online search of deaths and births to trace the Dead End Kids, all I would get is a place and date of birth and death for each - these pieces of information are useful for checking other documents, but they wouldn't tell me anything about their wartime experiences.

Instead I turned to newspapers. Public libraries often have access to these, electronically or on paper. I found a reference to the Dead End Kids ofWapping in the Reading Eagle newspaper from June 1941 . This is the earliest reference to the Kids that I can find - and it has in it many of the features that are found in later re-tellings - rescues and tragic deaths, and a reference to Patsie Duggan, the 'young truck driver' who led the gang. Patsy is also mentioned in a report from 1945 entitled 'The Duggans ofWapping', written by Mollie Panter-Downes, an American reporter for the New Yorker magazine. Panter-Downes tells the wider story of the Duggans' war. The article filled in some details that I was able to use to find out some more of the story.

Na mes a n d p laces - spe l l ings i n newspa per a rticles

Sometim es, and especia l ly i n news reports when th ings were written down by journa l ists for typ ing up l ater, names have d ifferent spe l l i ngs i n d i fferent reports or d ifferent records . The news stories a bout Patsy Duggan spe l l h i s name i n two ways, but th is doesn't mean that these a re necessa r i ly two d ifferent peop le - though sometimes it cou ld !

Sou rce A: A n extract f rom a n i nterv iew wi th E i l een Duggan , Patsy's s is ter, i n 1 94 5 . From a n ews p a p e r a rt i c le 'The D u g g a n s of Wa p p i n g ' , wr i t ten by Amer i can J o u rna l ist M o l l ie Panter- D ownes , p u b l i shed i n M a rch 1 945

The n i g hts was awf u l i n 1 940 because the J e rr ies was try i n g to knock ou t the poor o ld East End because of the d ocks b e i n g so i m p o rtan t , see . My b rother Patsy wasn ' t in t he Army t h e n ; 'e w a s at ' ome , wo rk i n g d own at the d o c k s , a n d 'e got togeth e r a b u n c h of the boys rou n d ' E rmat i ge Wa ll a n d sta rted t ra i n i n g t h e m f o r f i re spott i n g . They was a l l a g e s , from n i neteen to t h i rteen - all boys except M a u re e n , and they let ' er i n because sh e's a lways ro u n d with t h e i r g a n g , a n d as n i p py as a ny o f t h e m . They ca l led themse lves t he Dead E n d K i d s , a n d p retty soon they wasn ' t o n ly spott i n g f i res , they was f i g h t i n g them. They c lubbed together and b o u g ht 'atchets a n d 'oses , a n d the A . R . P. peop le g ive t hem t i n 'a ts , a n d when a n i n c e n d i a ry d rops a nywhe re i n our d is tr ic t , off they g o to i t w i th a l l the i r f i re m a n 's stuff p i led u p o n a ba rrow.


Sou rce B Later in the report the reporter goes on to describe in detail some of the Kids' adventures, and tells us that Patsy's cousin Leslie was one of the Kids who died while fighting fires, along with two others, Ronnie Ayres and Bert Eden. PanterDownes also tells us the names of Patsy's brothers and his father. These details enabled me to use the online databases of births and deaths to find out that Patsy survived the war, and died in 1990 in Kent. Though I knew that Patsy had a long life, I seemed to have reached the end in my research about the 'Dead End Kids' ofWapping.

.A. A p i c t u re of t h e Dead E n d K ids ' rus h i n g to t h e sce n e of a f i re ' in t h e East E n d in A p r i l 1 941 . Al l these p i c t u res of ' t he K ids ' we re taken b y B e rt H a rdy, a ta le nted photo g ra p h e r o f o rd i n a ry l i fe d u r i n g a n d af ter t h e Wa r

But sometimes in history one question leads to others. As I read through the other news reports which had the phrase 'dead end kids' in them, an interesting picture and a new direction in my research started to appear. It seemed that the name 'dead end kids' was often used to describe children very negatively. In fact, the newspaper headlines about these children much more often went like this:

GREAT ARMY OF LEFT BEHIND CHILDREN Daily Mail, 5 Nove m ber 1 940

DEAD END KIDS SPEND LIVES UNDERGROUND Daily Mail, 6 Nove m ber 1 940

LONDON'S DEAD END KIDS MUST GO BACK TO SCHOOL - BY ORDER Daily Mail, 4 Dece m ber 1 940

FLOOD OF CHILD CRIME [ . . . ] SWEEPING THE COUNTRY Daily Mail, 1 1 Septe m ber 1 94 1

So, for the editor of the Daily Mail at least, children in London were a problem, and were thought of as 'left behind' and criminals. I had thought that all the children in London were evacuated out of London in the first weeks of the war in 1939, but it seems that perhaps large numbers were 'left behind'. Why did so many stay? What problems did this cause? Why didn't the Daily Mail pick up the heroic story of the Dead End Kids that so interested the photographer Bert Hardy?

THE DUGGANS OF WAPPING

1 . Why do you th i n k the story of the Duggans was so interesti ng to readers i n Eng l and and America?

2. Why has Panter- Downes left off the 'h ' from the front of so many words?

3. F ind out what the fo l l owing te rms mean .

fi rewatch ing ARP Jerries i ncend ia ries

4. Why did the Dead End Kids choose th is name for the i r gang?

5. What ca n you learn from the extract a bout the ways i n wh ich the G overn ment and peop le tried to cope with the bombings that it faced i n 1 941 ?

6. What other q uestions wou l d th is k ind of document be usefu l fo r? Exp la i n why it wou l d be usefu l .

� •

PART 2: Wa rfa re T h ro u g h T i m e, c.1 250-present

Visible Lea rn ing : Plann ing my enq u i ry

0 0 0

I know a little a bout some of the Dead End Kids, but I have a lot of questions. How do I plan my way from knowing a little and having

lots of questions to finding the answers and knowing

a lot more?

Visible learning

S�e- 1 Wnar do I hwwf Th i s is a su m m a ry of my m a i n sta rt i n g po i nts:

• D u r i n g the Seco n d Wor ld

Wa r some ch i l d re n were

' l eft beh i n d ' .

• Some peop le were wo rr ied

about the ' l eft beh i n d ' ch i l d re n .

• B o m b i n g ra i d s o n Lo n d o n

i n 1 940 were terr i b l e .

• Peop l e we re k i l led d u r i n g

t h e bom b i n g ra i d s .

• The G e r m a n s d rop ped

i n ce n d i a ry b o m bs on Lon d o n .

Tackling new topics with confidence

s�e- 2 whar do I � to find outf I n eed a set of q u est ions as ta rg ets when I do my resea rch so I know when I 've com p l eted my e n q u i ry :

• What m a d e Lon d o n a n i m porta nt

ta rget?

• What d i d the G ove r n m e nt do

to p re p a re for the bo m b i n g

a n d t o p rotect peo p l e ?

• Why h a d the evacuat ion l eft so

m a ny ch i l d re n beh i n d ?

• What k i n d s o f wea pons a n d

defe n ces were used ?

• W h i c h p l a ces faced the wo rst

bom b i n g ? Why?

• What effects d id the bom b i n g

h ave o n everyd ay l ife a n d o n

the b u i l d i n g s o f Lon d o n ?

B ut I m u st be f lexi b l e a n d a d d to

my q u estio n s if I f i n d u n expected

i nformati o n .

I use th is p l a n to h e l p m e exp lo re any h isto rica l top ic that is new to me . Sta rt i ng to i nvestigate a new to p ic can fee l worryi ng , l i ke starti n g com p lete ly from scratch , because dates, n a m es and events a re d i ffe rent but i t 's i m porta nt to rem e m ber that how we study every to p ic is very s i m i l a r. We use th is same p lan whethe r we're exp lor ing Rom a n h istory or the Second Wo r ld Wa r. We have shown you th is a p p roach very v is ib ly so you fee l more confident whenever yo u start to tack le a new to pic . Look back to pages 1 1 4-1 5 for more deta i l on how to ca rry out an e n q u i ry .

• •


Lett i n g you i nto a secret

I have written a few h i story books, a n d I was a h i story teacher fo r more than ten years. Yo u m i g ht t h i n k I m ust know everyth i ng there is to know about h istory, but that's not tru e . The 'secret' is that there a re q u ite a few h isto rica l top ics I d on 't know m uch a bout at a l l because I have n ever had to study or write a bout them. Though I know q u ite a lot about the i nternat iona l s i tuat ion d u ri n g the Second Wo r ld Wa r, I a m not a n expert i n every aspect of what ha ppened to London d u ri n g the war. I therefore n eed to fi nd out a lot more a bout the war, and a bout London i n o rder to start to fi nd the answers for my q u estions a bout the 'Dead End Kids' and the other ' l eft beh i nd ' c h i l d re n .

st�� 3 wher� wilt I ruearclt, and jUut thi IUUuterff There a re two k i n d s of sou rces I ca n use .

1 . Books, a rt ic les and websites writte n by experts

on the wa r

2 . S o u rces from the wa r - p h otog ra phs ; accou nts

writte n by c it izens, G ove r n m e n t off ic ia ls ,

ARP wa rd e n s and oth ers

St�� 4 How-wilt ! do tlt.U ruearclt,f I n eed to:

• H ave my q u estio n s i n m i n d so I a lways read

with a p u rpose - to a n swer th ose q uestio n s . • Keep ca ref u l n otes, u s i n g my own Knowl edge

O rg a n isers, so that I d o n 't e n d up with a h e a p

o f d i sorg a n i sed i nformat io n . • M a ke s u re the books I rea d a n d webs ites I use

a re rea l ly by experts . Th is means c h eck i n g who

wrote them and h ow they k n ow what they' re

te l l i n g m e . • A s k q u estio n s a b o u t the sou rces I use . For

exa m p le , i s a p h otog ra p h typ i ca l of co n d it ions

i n Lon d o n at that t ime , was the a uthor p rese nt

at the events h e or she i s descr i b i n g , which a re

the m ost usef u l sou rces for each q uestio n ? • Re m e m be r that I m a y not be a b l e t o f i n d exact

a n d co m p l ete a n swers to a l l my q u esti ons so

I need to use words such as ' p ro b a b ly' , ' i n

a l l l i ke l i h ood ' , ' possi b ly' . • There may be q u estio n s I ca n 't a n swer at a l l !

• M ost of a l i i n eed to keep th i n ki n g ! I m i g ht

f ind u n expected i nformation which prom pts

new q u estions or suggests I look in other

books or records . I ca n't pred ict exactly what

I ' l l f ind at the beg i n n i n g of a n enq u i ry. I need

to remember that I'm a l l owed to change

my mind a bout my a n swer to a q u estion as

I f ind out more.


1 .2 The context of London a n d the Second Wor ld Wa r, 1939-45 Let's begin by exploring the location - London during the Second World War.

A QUICK HISTORY OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1 . Read th rough the t ime l i ne on pages 1 20-21 once. a) Produce a l iv ing g raph of the war l i ke the one opposite to record

the hopes and fea rs of B ritons d u ri ng the war. b) Then focus in on Londoners in part icu l a r and m a ke a l iv ing g raph

for them. When wou l d the i r hopes have peaked? When wou l d they have fe lt most scared?

2. Discuss with a friend and see if you can d iv ide the Second World Wa r i nto d iffe rent phases, or t imes when th ings seemed to be go ing better or worse.

Hopeful

X Germany invades the Sudetenland

3. Why m ight the bombing in 1 940 stand out as be ing so terri b le in E i leen Duggan's memory?

Fearful L--,----.!,_ I _____ ...!..,__..;_ __

I

\.

1 938

German fo rces m a rched i nto Austr ia, then th reatened the Sudete n l a n d i n Czechos l ova k ia . I n London gas masks were g iven out t o the popu l at ion and mock gas attacks were carr ied o ut. Trenches were dug i n pa rks and sq u a res, to g ive some she lter i n the case of a i r ra ids . B rit ish Pr i m e M i n iste r N evi l l e Cham berl a i n trave l led t o M u n ich t o m eet H it le r. H e agreed to G erma ny's ta ke-over o f t h e Sudeten l a n d .

Septe m be r 1 939-Ap ri l 1 940

The long period of Phoney Wa r. For the e ight months im med iate ly after Brita i n and France entered the war, there were no major m i l itary l and operat ions on the Western Front. Germany then q u ickly conquered Norway, Be lg i um , Ho l l a nd and France. They used new tactics of a rm o u red u n its moving q u ickly with air support, ca l l ed B l itzkrieg or l i ghtn ing-war.

S u m m e r-Autu m n 1 940

Time 1 938

Information highlighted in blue refers to events that directly affect Londoners .

1 939

In M a rch Germany i nvaded the rest of Czechos l ova kia . London 's a uthorit ies hasti ly recru ited wa rdens a n d vo l u nteer fi refig hters i n p reparat ion fo r attack, a n d im posed a b l acko ut, as we l l as o rg a n is i ng the evacuat ion of thousands of c h i l d ren out of the city. Two m i l l ion Anderson She l te rs were d istri buted. On 1 Septem ber Germany i nvaded Po l a n d . B rita i n and Fra nce dec la red war on 3 Septem ber.

Germany p l a n n ed a sea-borne i nvas ion of B rita i n but fi rst tr ied to destroy B rita i n 's a i r defences. The Batt le of B rita i n was fo u g ht by B rit ish fig hter p l a n es aga i nst German bom bers a n d fig hte rs to sto p th is destruction .

Autu mn-Winter 1 940

As the weath er changed , the w indow fo r a sea i nvas ion c losed a n d G e r m a n tactics sh ifted t o bomb ing towns a n d cit ies, a ca m pa ign wh ich beca me known as the B l itz. Counc i l s , F i re Authorit ies a n d the ARP wa rdens were c lose to be ing overwhe lmed . S h e lte rs were crowded, i nsan ita ry a n d often u nsafe .

Spring 1 941

A l u l l in the bomb ing in London ended on 10 M ay 1 941 when the l a rg est ra id of the war took p l ace. A lmost 1 500 peop le d ied , a n d 1 1 ,000 homes were destroyed .

� •


S u m mer 1 941

There were a few s m a l l ra ids in J u n e a n d J u ly, b u t w h e n G ermany attacked Russia i n J u n e 1 941 it beca me c lear that her attent ion had sh ifted away from B rita i n .

Spring 1 942

Autumn-Winter 1 941

The Japanese attacked the American nava l base at Pear l H a rbor, and then took over American and B rit ish territo ry i n Asia . Food shortages eased as supp l ies from Am erica a rrived . D ia ries suggest that people in London tu rned their attent ion to the wider war, rather than just the i r own c ircu mstances.

Autu mn-Winter 1 942

Bad n ews conti n u e d . Defeats i n N o rth Africa and across Asia led to low mora le , and a fu rther shortage of m ateri a l and food such as t in , r ice, sp ices and rubber. ARP wa rdens and fi refig hters conti n ued to tra i n and to ca rry out mock gas attacks and bom b ings, but on l y scattered attacks occu rred .

There was n ews of victories i n N o rth Africa, t h e n ce l eb rat ions when the German Army was defeated at E l A l ame in i n Egypt.

1 943

Sporad ic s m a l l a i r ra ids conti n u e d . Enemy forces were s lowly pushed back after a ser ies of victories in N o rth Africa, Russ ia a n d the Pacif ic . In the s u m m e r b l ackout restrictions were re l axed - l i g hts in tra i n s stayed on, as d id traffic l i g hts, and peo p l e were a l l owed to ca rry torches .

Spring 1 945

By M a rch the threat of air attack van ished as German a i rbases and V-weapon l a unch s ites i n Northern France were captu red .

Spring 1 944

S m a l l e r-sca l e a i r attacks wh ich Londoners ca l l ed ' Litt le B l itz' faded as the Luftwaffe l osses mou nted u p .

S u m m e r 1 945

S u m m e r-Aut u m n 1 944

The D-Day l a n d i ngs in J u n e a n d the fa l l o f Rom e t o America n troops made Londoners fea r a l a rg e revenge attack. V1 a n d V2 'p i lot l ess' wea pons began fa l l i n g i n Septem ber 1 944.

On 8 May 1 945 Germany su rrendered. Crowds flocked to centra l l andmarks l i ke Trafa lgar Square and Buckingham Pa lace to ce lebrate VE Day. VJ (Victory over Japan) fo l l owed in August.

WHY WASN'T LONDON A TARGET BEFORE SEPTEMBER 1940?

The long Phoney Wa r ended with the attacks on B e l g i u m , H o l l a n d a n d Luxe m b o u rg on 1 0 M ay 1 940. For the rest of the s u m m e r of 1 940 German fig hters a n d bom bers attacked RAF g ro u n d bases and a i rcraft. l t wasn't u nt i l Septem ber that the fi rst ta rgeted ra ids on London took p l ace . Why d i d the Luftwaffe ta ke so l ong to ta rget London? The answer isn 't c lear, bu t there a re two poss ib l e reasons :

• Fi rst ly, it seems that German m i l itary p l a n n e rs d id not t h i n k that a 'knock out b low' to a ca p ita l city co u l d q u ick ly defeat a co u ntry. The i r B l itzkr ieg tactics actu a l ly meant us i ng bombers as s u p port for i nfantry a n d mechan ised arm ies as they too k enemy te rrito ry. Therefo re, they d i d not see any m i l ita ry reason to ta rget l a rge cit ies u n less these were a l so under attack fro m the i r i nfa ntry.

• Second ly, the h isto rian George Ouester has a l so suggested that both s ides wanted to avo id bombing cit ies i n the ear ly days of the war as they were afra id of 'reta l iat ion bombing ' that wou l d damage their own popu lat ion and mora le . Ouester a rgues that H it ler only ordered attacks on London after Chu rch i l l ordered an attack on Ber l i n on 25 Aug ust to d ivert the Luftwaffe's attent ion from its attacks on B rit ish a i rfie lds and radar stations . I f this was the case, it was effective. Three weeks after the Brit ish attack on Ber l i n , the B l itz sta rted .


We need to know about the important places that made London a target, the places where the bombs usually fell, as well as the names of the boroughs that made up London. We should also look out for the parks and buildings where shelters and deep shelters were built, and the underground rail stations where thousands sheltered from the bombing raids.

Key

0 C o unty Ha l l

f) H o u s es of Par l iam ent

0 B ucking ham Palace

1 0 Wat er loo Stat ion

Q Tow er of London

0 wh it ehal l

.A. London and Central London in 1 9 3 9 (since 1 945 the boundaries and names of some of these boroughs have changed)

() Wapp ing

0 I s l e of Dogs

� Down ing Str e et

6) St Pau l 's Cath ed ral

i} Victor ia and A lb ert Docks

� Batt ers ea Pow er Station

0


Fou r key p laces London d u ring the Second World Wa r London is a very large place, and there are many areas that I could have chosen to write about. Investigating and writing your own history means that you sometimes have to decide not to follow up certain routes or opportunities . Sometimes this is because of space or time; sometimes because you can't find the information you need. In this case I have decided to focus on those areas that will give you a good idea of the variety of experiences in the war, as well as helping you understand why

RECORDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE DIFFERENT

PARTS OF LONDON

�

London was a target.

The East End

M a ke a Knowledge Organ iser to record the d iffe rent reasons why each part of London was a ta rget. Use a ta b le l i ke the one be low. Write in any evidence that suggests each reason was im portant i n those a reas being ta rgeted .

Place Reason 1 : Reason 2: Reason 3: Reason 4:

The East End

Westm inster

The City of London

The subu rbs

To damage To damage the To damage the To damage London's popu lation's Government Brita in 's economy mora le mi l ita ry

•

THE EAST END ?. 1 . What does Source A

te l l us a bout : a) Why th is part of

London was a ta rget?

b) What cond itions were l i ke i n the she l ters?

• The East End (see the map on page 122) is the area on the north of the River Thames, to the east of the Tower of London, which is marked on the map. In 1939 it was a mixed area of dense housing, often in terraces or tenement flats; cinemas; theatres; pubs; shops; gas works; warehouses and factories . However, the most important targets were the docks, where food, raw materials and weaponry were loaded and unloaded. Wapping, where the Dead End Kids lived, was the riverside part of the borough of Stepney, which was one of the biggest boroughs of the East End, and is on a slight curving bend of the river just to the west of the famous loop which makes up the Isle of Dogs. The East End was the first part of London hit, during a mis-targeted raid in August 1940, and was then actively targeted during the first Blitz in 1940-41 .

The East End was a focus of the attacks throughout the Blitz of the winter of 1940-41, and into the spring of 1941 because of the port of London, and because of its eastern position nearer the German air bases in northern France. In the 'Little Blitz' of January to April 1944, and the V1 and V2 rocket attacks of summer 1944 into the spring of 1945, the East End of London was hit badly again. Sources A and B are two people's recollections of the Blitz in the East End.

2. What does Source B te l l us about t h e effects

Source A Gerry M ichae ls re m e m b e r i n g how he a n d h i s fa m i ly wo uld s h e lter i n a wa rehouse i n T i l b u ry i n Ste p n ey d u ri n g t h e ra i ds , from t h e a rch ive of t h e M useu m of London

At e i g h t yea rs of a g e I , wi th my s iste r who was twe lve ,

of the fi rst attacks on ord i na ry Londoners?

Source B Len J o n es a n East E n d res i d e n t , m e m b e r of t h e H o m e G u a rd , a n d su rvivo r of t h e wa r, f r o m J o h n M a rr iot 's book Beyond the To wer: A History of East London, p u b l i shed i n 2 0 1 1

I went ou t to see how o u r house was , a n d when I got t here t he front d o o r was ly i n g back , a n d the g lass of the w i n d ows h a d fa l len i n , a n d I cou ld see t he house h a d v i rtua l ly d isappeare d . I ns i d e , everyth i n g was b lown to p i eces , yo u cou ld see i t a l l by the red g low ref lect i n g f ro m the

wo u ld g ra d u a l ly work our way to t he f ron t so tha t when t he d o o rs opened i n we wo u ld rush to c la i m o u r bed spaces by sprea d i n g o u r b l a n kets i f poss i b le a g a i nst the wa l l i n o n e o f the e m pty loa d i n g bays . Peop le who came l a te wo u ld h ave to spend t he n i g ht s le e p i n g o n the rol ls of u ny ie ld i n g newspr i nt o r stacks of boxes of margar i ne . The latter wasn ' t so bad as g ra d u a l ly d u r i n g the n i g ht the heat of t h e i r b o d i es wo u ld seep t h ro u g h the ca rto ns soften i n g the m a rg a r i n e wh ich wo u ld g ra d u a l ly assume the shape of t h e i r bod i es .

f i res tha t were ra g i n g ou ts i de . Then I looked o u t t he back a n d s u d d e n ly I rea l ised tha t where my fathe r's shed and wo rkshop used to be , was j u st a p i le of r u b b le , br i cks . Then I saw two b o d i es , two heads st i ck i ng u p a n d I reco g n ised o n e head i n p a rt i c u l a r; i t w a s a C h i nese m a n , M r Say, he h a d o n e eye closed , a n d t hen I began to rea l ise tha t he w a s d e a d .


Source C

Westminster Westminster is home to Buckingham Palace, which was the residence of King George VI. The centre of national government was also at Whitehall, by the river in Westminster, and therefore the place where the war effort was organised. Downing Street, where the Prime Minister and Chancellor of the Exchequer still work, is also in this area and the Palace ofWestminster nearby is where the Houses of Parliament sat during the war. Westminster wasn't directly targeted in the first few days of the Blitz. Buckingham Palace was hit on 13 September, but it wasn't until May 1941 that this part of London was heavily hit. On 10 May 1941, the last of the large raids of the Blitz, the House of Common's chamber was destroyed by a fire started by an incendiary bomb on the roof of the Palace ofWestminster.

.&. Repo rters i nspec t i ng t h e d a m a g e to t h e House of C o m m o n s cha m b e r on t h e m o r n i n g of 1 1 M ay 1 941


Visible learning

Warning ! General isations can be bad for your marks

Genera l isations a re b ig statements that, fo r exa m p le, ca n m a ke cond it ions everywhere i n London d u ri n g the war so u n d the same . When we th i n k of London d u ri ng the Second Wor ld Wa r severa l p ictu res m i g ht sp r i ng i nto o u r m i n d s - perhaps the fires of the B l itz o r h u n d reds of peop le bedd ing down for the n i g ht i n a tube statio n . These th i ngs d id h a p pen at some t im es, but, as we have seen, not everywhere fitted i nto that genera l isat ion . Some pa rts of London saw terri b l e damage d u ri ng the B l itz, but were q u iet afte rwa rds . Oth ers were affected m uch less . These pages te l l you a bout va r iety as we l l as te l l i n g yo u what was u n usua l a bout some of the events i n London d u ri ng the war. G enera l isat ions g ive us a 'genera l ' p ictu re, but we m ust a lways ask of any descr iption o r photo g ra p h , 'Was this rea l ly typica l of experiences and conditions a l l over London d u ring the Wa r?'

The City The City of London is the area to the east ofWestminster and covers the area that was the original walled Roman city. It is the financial centre of England, and contains important buildings such as the Bank of England, the Stock Exchange and important rail and telephone links, such as the Faraday Building which contained London's telephone exchange. You couldn't just dial a phone number in the 1940s; you had to talk to an operator to connect you with the person you needed to talk to, so this building was vital for communications. During the war these institutions kept the economy working, and the Bank raised money through wa r bonds to enable the Government to spend money on the war effort. The City was the target of intensive bombing on 29 December 1940. The fires that threatened St Paul's Cathedral in the centre of the City became known as the Second Great Fire of London. St Paul's was saved, but large areas of the City were destroyed as a result of the 1500 fires started by more than 100,000 incendiary bombs.

LONDON AS A TARGET

S u burban London Most of London's population lived in the suburbs surrounding the centre, in places that were technically part of Essex, Kent, Middlesex or Surrey. Some of these places were towns in their own right, such as Croydon. Many suburbs had been built since the early twentieth century, so there were regulations which set out minimum sizes for each house, and houses often had good sized gardens with room for Anderson Shelters (see page 129).

However, we should not assume that all these places were the same or had the same experiences during the war. Those to the east such as Croydon, Greenwich, Barking and Bromley seem to have suffered a larger tonnage of bombs than those to the west of London. When we take into account the size of each borough, the central and eastern boroughs definitely suffered the greater density of bombs. Those suburbs to the west were not on the flight path from German bases in northern France, and tended to have fewer bombs dropped on them, though even some of these western boroughs did see terrible bombings and casualties .

� • 1 . What made the East End a particu l a r target throug hout the d iffe rent bom bing

cam pa ig ns?

2. Exp la i n why the Luftwaffe targeted : a) Westminster b) the City c) the suburbs

3. Exp la i n why the Dead End Kids' exper iences d u ri ng the war m ight have been d ifferent from those of many ch i l d ren l iv ing i n the suburbs.

4. Read the time l i ne on pages 1 20-21 and the description of the d ifferent parts of London aga in and m a ke a l ist of the d iffe rent k inds of wea pons that the Luftwaffe used .


USING ONLINE SOURCES OF DATA IN YOUR ENQUIRY

I wanted to know wh ich pa rts of London were h a rdest h it . I used a webs ite created by the U n iversity of P lymouth , www. bom bsig ht .org, wh ich g ives a n esti m ated tota l fo r the n u m ber of bom bs d ropped i n each boro u g h of London between Octo ber 1 940 and J u n e 1 941 . The i r data is co l l ected from the re po rts made by the London F i re Br igade d u ri n g the B l itz. I dec ided to take the tota ls fo r each boro u g h a n d p l ace them i n a spreadsheet, so that I co u l d com p a re them by the n u m ber of h i g h exp los ive bom bs d ropped . I then added a co l u m n for the a rea of each boro u g h , and used a fo rm u l a to ca l cu l ate the b o m bs per sq ua re m i l e . When I 'd done th is I sta rted to th ink that each

part of London wo u l d have had a very d i ffe rent popu lat ion density - the n u m ber of people l iv i ng per sq ua re m i le . Us i ng d ata from the G reater London Authority's ' London Datastore', at http:!/d ata . l ondon .gov. u k/d ataset/popu lation change-1 939-201 5 , I was a b l e to add a n other 'po p u l at ion ' co l u m n and work o ut, with a n other fo rm u la , the n u m ber of bom bs that had fa l l e n i n each a rea for each 1 000 peop le l iv i ng there . The d iffe rences a re rem a rka b l e, even as we rem e m ber that these a re esti m ates. The data was co l l ected us ing modern boro u g hs, wh ich were re-organ ised afte r the war. The o ld boro u g h of Stepn ey, where the Dead End Kids wo rked, is now part of Tower H a m l ets.

Worst affected a rea by number of bombs d ropped

Worst affected a rea by density of bombs d ropped

Borough Bombs per Borough Bombs per High-explosive sq uare mi le resident

Borough bombs d ropped City 242 City 30 B ro m l ey 2 ,228 Westm inster 1 73 B ro m l ey 9 Southwark 1 ,651 Tower H a m lets 1 65 Bexley 7 Westm inster 1 ,436 So uthwa rk 1 48 G reenwich 5 G reenwich 1 , 396 I s l i ngton 1 1 9 R ich m o n d - u pon- 5 Croyd on 1 ,338 La m beth 1 1 7 Thames

Bexley 1 , 296 H ackney 1 00 Croyd on 4

Tower H a m l ets 1 , 259 Kens ington and 1 00 Westm inster 4

N ewham 1 , 240 Che lsea H i l l i ngdon 3

La m b eth 1 , 2 1 5 Camden 97 Southwark 3

Look ca refu l ly at the m a p on page 1 22, a n d use a modern m a p of London to work out where the p l aces i n these ta b l es a re . Look at the descri ptions of the d iffe rent p l aces i n London (pages 1 23-25) and see if yo u ca n understa nd why these p l aces m i g ht have been a partic u l a r targ et fo r the Luftwaffe.

So the Duggans and the Dead End Kids were living right in the eye of the storm in 1940 when the bombs started falling. Not only did they live in a heavily populated area, which meant that attacks there could affect morale, the same area was filled with businesses, warehouses and ports which meant that attacks here could affect the economy and affect supplies for the military. Finally Stepney and the East End were on the flight path from the German bases in France to the rest of London, where there were other economic, military and government targets.

Explain each of the reasons why London was a target in September 1 9 4 0 . Use what you

have read and the map below to help you .

?.

Westminster (Government and mora le)

Suburbs (mora le and economy)

ity of London (economy, Government,

m i l itary and morale) ..

East End (morale, economy

and m i l ita ry)

"" Areas of London targeted during the Blitz and reasons they were targeted

•


1 .3 Prepa rations for wa r I now know that the Duggans and the Dead End Kids were living Wapping, in Stepney and that this was part of London that was especially heavily affected by the Second World War. The factories, docks and number of people crowded together made this area a high-priority target for the Luftwaffe. What I don't understand is why there were so many children left in Wapping, and why they were all together during air raids. I had thought that children had been evacuated from London. Why were they still there, in danger?

WERE THE PREPARATIONS FOR WAR SUCCESSFUL? • Look at the information on pages 1 27-30. You a re go ing to use them to weigh u p the evidence and m a ke a judgement a bout whether the preparations for war were successfu l .

F i rst make a Knowledge Organ iser l i ke t h e o n e be low to record you r th inking and fi l l i t i n as you read pages 1 27-30. Then, us ing the evidence you have co l l ected, exp la in whether you th i nk the preparations for war were successfu l or not.

Preparation Successes Fa i l u res

Evacuat ion

She lters

Gas masks

B l ackout

Preparations for wa r: evacuation Before the war, military planners had feared that bombing raids would destroy whole cities . London, with its industries, the centre of government and a large proportion of the country's population, was an obvious target. A committee set up to estimate Germany's air power feared that up to 3500 tons ofbombs would be dropped in the first attack on London, killing 58,000 people in the first 24 hours.

It was also feared that millions of people would flee from London and other cities, so the government planned an orderly evacuation. In 1938 an Air Raid Precautions (ARP) committee led by Sir John Anderson, a civil servant and later Home Secretary, split the country into three types of area. Danger areas were those thought likely to be attacked, neutral areas were those thought to be not direct targets but which might be attacked, and reception areas were those thought to be safe. The idea was to give free transport to 1,400,000 people (schoolchildren under the care of their teachers, young infants and their mothers, pregnant women

Sou rces - and why Further questions I they are usefu l i n need to ask he lp ing me decide

and the blind or disabled), and to ask for those who could afford it to pay towards their 'billeting' - their food and shelter in reception areas.

War was declared on 3 September but two days earlier, evacuation from London began. A total of 1 .3 million people, mostly children, were evacuated on special trains, and 600,000 on red London double decker buses. They had a mixed welcome in the towns and countryside of the reception areas. Some found good homes, a few staying in their evacuation billets for the duration of the war. Some found it difficult to fit in with their new families and neighbours, and some were cruelly treated. During the Phoney War, when the threat of air raids seemed to diminish, the majority of the evacuees returned. By January 1940, 300,000 had already done so, and by March there were only 300,000 evacuees still in the reception areas. The sources on page 128 give some newspaper accounts of the evacuation.


How could I find out more about evacuation? These three extracts seem to provide valuable evidence about the process of evacuation, but before I can decide how useful they are as evidence, I have to think about the questions below them.

Source A From The Times

n ews p a p e r, 5 S e pte m b e r 1 939

Evacuation from London

U p to S u nday n i g ht a bout 600 , 000 ch i ld ren a n d a d u lts had been evacuated from the London a rea , and yesterday probab ly another 50 , 000 were added to that tota l . The ch i ld ren went away i n h i g h sp i r its . . . . from the recept ion a reas mothers have a lready received news of the i r ch i ld re n , for each ch i ld was prov ided with a postca rd wh ich was d ispatched on a rriva l .

1 . What valuable i nformat ion does each rep o rt g ive m e?

For exa m p l e, S o u rce A te l l s me tha t the G overn m e nt wanted to present the evacuat ion as a com p lete success.

What do Sou rces B and C te l l m e? What e l se does A te l l m e?

Visible learning

Source B From The Times

n ews p a p e r, 20 October 1 939, re port i n g on a b road cast by Lord De La Wa rr, the m i n is ter for E d u cat i on

. . . c h i ld re n , Lord De La Wa rr sa i d , h a d b e e n left b e h i n d i n Lo n d o n , w i th l i t t le o r n o control o r s u p e rv is i on a n d w i t h eve n less e d u cat io n . M a ny of t hem a re ru n n i n g w i l d , a n d a l l sorts of stor ies we re h e a rd abou t what was h a p p e n i n g . He wo u ld l i ke to open the schoo ls , but h e d id not feel j ust i f i e d , as yet , i n ass u m i n g t h a t t here wou ld be n o a i r ra i ds .

2 . Does Lo rd De La Wa rr !Source B ) seem well i nformed a n d does h i s ev i dence a g ree w i th o ther sou rces?

For exam ple, De La Warr seems to be repeating 'stories' with l ittle deta i l , possib ly those reported under head l ines l i ke the ones on page 1 1 7. What do we a l ready know about what some of these ' left beh ind' ch i ldren were doing?

EVACUATION

Source C From T h e Daily Mail

n ews p a p e r, 27 D e ce m b e r 1 94 0

20,000 Ch i ldren Go Home

At least 2 0 , 0 0 0 c h i ld re n , i t is est imated , returned to t h e i r homes f rom evacua t i on a reas d u r i n g t he C h r istmas ho l i d ay. P a rents e a g e r t o h ave t h e i r sons a n d d a u g hters rou n d t h e m a g a i n i g n o re d t he a p pe a ls of the M i n istry of H e a lth to leave t h e i r c h i ld re n . Alrea dy 5 0 percent o f t he c h i ld re n eva c u ated f rom Lo n d o n have retu rned .

3 . Does my knowledge of evacuation s u g g est these s o u rces a re usef u l evi d e n ce?

For exa m p le , Sou rce A te l l s us about the way the G overnment t r ied to present evacu ation .

What e l se a re these sou rces usefu l fo r?

?. •

Thinking careful ly about sources 1. Exp la in why the government created an evacuation p lan .

When you use a so u rce there a re th ree stages to th i n k abo ut:

a) What is it te l l i n g you a bout the s u bject of the e n q u i ry eithe r d i rectly or th ro u g h what yo u can i nfe r?

b) What does the i n fo rm at ion a bout the a uthor or speaker a n d deta i l s such as the date suggest about h ow re l i a b l e o r usefu l the so u rce is fo r the e n q u i ry?

c) H ow does yo u r know ledge of the to p ic h e l p you dec ide how usefu l the sou rce is? For exa m p le, from yo u r know ledge, does a n account seem typ ica l o f other accou nts of the same top ic?

2. What does the t im ing of the evacuat ion te l l us a bout the fea r of bombing?

3. What evidence is there that evacuation was a com p l ex and d ifficu l t task?

4. Why d id peop le sta rt to return to London?

5. H ow can we use the i n fo rm at ion i n Sou rces B and C to exp l a i n the attitu de of the Daily Mail head l i nes on page 1 1 7?

6. Do the Daily Mail head l i nes te l l us more a bout why the Dead End Kids chose th is name?

7. H ow usefu l a re Sources A, B and C for exp l a i n i ng why the Dead End Kids were sti l l i n London?


Source D

.&. Fa m i l ies put t i n g u p t h e i r A n d e rson S h e lters at t h e start of t h e wa r

Preparations for wa r: she lters Anderson's committee also ordered the design of a shelter which could be built in back gardens. This 'Anderson Shelter', shown in Source D, was made out of corrugated iron sheets, which were used to line and roof over a pit dug in the ground. Earth was piled on top of the roof to protect against the blast of nearby bombs or shrapnel that flew around in an explosion. However, these shelters could not provide protection against a direct hit from a bomb. In 1938 these shelters were given out free to many people. Those who earned more than £250 a year (which was quite a good wage) had to pay £7 and pay for the cost of the shelter being dug and built. One and a half million shelters were put up. However, some people preferred to stay in their homes, so in 1941 the Morrison Shelter (named after Herbert Morrison, the Home Secretary) was introduced. This was a large steel table, the sides of which were covered with wire netting which could be lifted so that up to three people could shelter inside. The Morrison Shelter was effective because it stopped people from being crushed by collapsing buildings.

As we'll see, the Government did not want to build deep shelters. It was afraid that once people were underground, it would be impossible to get them back to the surface again. Some borough councils ordered the digging of trenches in parks such as Clapham Common and Hyde Park. Surface shelters were also used; these had brick walls, sometimes protected by earth or sandbag banks with concrete roofs. They became known as 'Morrison Sandwiches' because an explosion nearby would blow out the walls, causing the roof to collapse on whoever was inside. The government also

printed leaflets and made information films which advised people how to 'shelter in their own homes'. These tips included boarding up the bottom of windows with old doors or creating blast barriers using piles of dirt. Millions of windows were covered with crosses of parcel tape or strips of curtain lace to stop shards of glass from injuring people.

SHELTERS � 1 . Why do you th i n k peop le in the East End used p u b l ic

she lters?

2. Exp la i n why there were not many underg round she lters d u ring the Phoney Wa r.

Preparations for wa r: gas masks

•

The use of chemical gasses as weapons had been banned in agreements signed by Britain, France and Germany in the 1920s and 1930s, but many thought these promises would be broken. In 1938 the Government issued gas masks to all adults and, in 1938 and 1939, smaller ones to children, and even gas proof cradles for putting babies in. Posters and leaflets encouraged people to carry their gas masks, and in the very first days of the war most people did. A survey carried out by Mass Observation, a research group recording people's lives and attitudes before and during the war, found that during the Phoney War, fewer and fewer people carried their masks. By March 1940 perhaps as few as 5 per cent of the population took their gas masks out with them. Even at the height of the Blitz, only about one third of people carried theirs .


Preparations for wa r: b lackout In July 1939, more than a month before war was actually declared, the government sent round a leaflet explaining the need for a blackout to make it harder for German bombers to find cities during night raids. The leaflet explained how to use dye and chemicals to make paint for soaking old curtains and bed sheets so that they could be used to block light emerging from windows. Volunteer ARP Wardens were appointed in the run-up to September. Most manned observation posts and sounded air raid sirens to warn of a raid. They also told the fire services when fires broke out, led people to shelters in air raids, used first aid to help the injured and kept people away from dangerous damaged buildings or unexploded bombs. One of their main tasks was to patrol and make sure that the blackout was effective. During the Phoney War they were often thought of as 'busybodies', as they ordered people to put out lights and fix blackout covers that had slipped.

Source E

u From down here I can see a chink of light through your dining-room curtains quite distinct!J."

• Punch cartoon ' Fro m d own h e re I can see a c h i n k of l i g h t t h ro u g h you r d i n i n g roo m c u rt a i n s . . . ' . T h i s ca rtoon f rom la te Octo b e r 1 939 shows that d u r i n g t h e P h o n ey Wa r some peop le t h o u g h t tha t A R P wa rd e n s were b usybod i es who took t h e i r ro les too ser ious ly. P u n c h magaz i ne was a sat i r i ca l n ews m a g a z i n e that used po l i t i ca l cartoons

SHELTERS ,

BLACKOUT AND

GAS MASKS

�

1 . Look at Source D (page 1 29) and Source E and F. What effect d id the Phoney War have on London's preparations for war?

•

2. H ow usefu l a re these sou rces i n exp la i n i ng why the Dead End Kids weren't she lter ing with the i r fa m i l ies when the attacks d id come?

Source F M a g g i e J oy B lun t reco rded a n en t ry i n h e r d i a ry abou t a v is i t to London i n J a n u a ry 1 94 0 , from We Are A t War: The Diaries of Five Ordinary People in Extraordinary Times, by S i m o n Ga rf ie ld , p u b l i shed i n 2 0 0 6

Less t h a n 5 0 p e r c e n t of the p o p u la t i on s e e m e d to be ca rry i n g gas masks now. J u n e a n d I dec i ded to take o u rs when we went , o n p r i n c i p le , bu t it was a n effort a n d a n i rr i tat i o n . The b lackou t has s lackened cons i d e ra b ly. I no t i ced strea ks of l i g ht f rom d o o rs a n d w i n d ows wh i ch wo u ld n ever have been a l lowed at t he beg i n n i n g of the wa r, b u t I h e a r tha t reg u la t i ons a re s t i l l str ic t ly enforced i n a l l coasta l towns .

1 What va l u a b l e i nformat ion does Maggie B l u nt g ive me?

\.

2 Is B l u nt convi nc ing , a n d does he r evid ence a g ree with oth er sou rces?

3 Does my know ledge of London d u ri ng the war suggest th i s is usefu l eviden ce?


EXPLORING THE SOURCES - PREPARATIONS FOR WAR

1 . Describe two featu res of: a) An Anderson She lter b) A Morrison She lter c) The evacuat ion made i n 1 940

• 3. H ow usefu l a re Sou rce F and G for an enqu i ry i nto

the fears that many Londoners had at the sta rt of the Second Wor ld Wa r? Exp la i n you r answers us ing Sources F and G and you r knowledge of the h istorica l context.

d) The b lackout

2. H ow usefu l a re Sources D and E for an enqu i ry i nto what was done to prepare Londoners for a ir ra id attacks? Exp la i n you r answer us ing Sou rces D and E and you r knowledge o f t h e h istorica l context.

4. H ow cou ld you fo l l ow up Source E to find out more about how the b lackout worked? Use the fo l l owing headings: a) Deta i l i n Source E that I wou ld fo l l ow up b) Question I wou l d ask c) What type of sou rce I cou l d use d) H ow th is m i g ht he lp answer my q u estion

Source G Cyr i l D e m a rne , a f i re m a n , reflects i n a n i n terv iew for an o ra l h i story p roj ect o n t h e p re p a rat ions for at tack , from The War

on Our Doorstep by H a rr iet Sa l i sbu ry, p u b l i shed i n 2 0 1 2

T h e whole o f t h e p o p u la t i on h a d been issued wi th g a s masks , the f i re m e n who 'd be o n t he streets d u r i n g the a i r ra i ds were g ive n serv ice resp i rators , t he same as what the a rmed forced were g ive n , a n d t he o rd i n a ry c iv i l i ans were g iven t he c iv i l i a n type . Mothers wi th smal l b a b i es we re g iven a p o u c h - l i ke t h i n g to pu t the i nfant in . She was expected to pu t t he b a by i n t here and s i t and p u m p to pu t a i r i nto the b a by d u r i n g an a i r ra i d . Can yo u i m a g i ne?

Source H A young woman 's d i a ry, written i n Septe m ber and then November 1 939 for the Mass O bservat ion organ isat io n , f rom Love

and War in London: the Mass Observation Wartime Diary of Olivia

Crockett, pu bl ished i n 2008

Put u p b lack curta i ns . N ot iced that house next door, i n h a b i ted by refugee Jews is br i l l i a nt ly l i t . . . . went ou t a f ter supper with Father to work out where loca l ARP post i s . Wa lked t h ro u g h b lack streets, pour i ng ra i n , mostly eery . . . Fe lt more cheerfu l t ry i ng on gas mask with s isters i n front m i rro r. Momenta r i ly forgetfu l r i ba ld laug hter. I sha ll t h i n k gas masks a re i ncred i b ly f u n ny un t i l I have to use one i n ea rnest .

B l ack i ng ou t has been an a l m ost u n -solva ble problem i n a house wi th sto n e s u rro u n d s to the w indow. The . . . use of n a i ls a n d d rawi n g p i n s is d efeated a n d t he prob lem has been at tacked i n so m a ny ways that the v is i t of a yo u n g consta b le last n i g ht dec la r i ng t he b lackout was u nsat isfactory red u ced t he m o re h i g h ly-st rung m e m b e rs of the househo ld to a n i m potent hyste r i ca l o u t b u rst .

Source J

..._ ' H e lp t h e C i ty C h i l d re n ' - A poste r p u b l i shed by t h e M i n istry of H e a lth

Source I A woman recalls the Anderson Shelter a rrivi ng at her house d u ri n g a n i nterview for a n oral h istory project from The War on Our Doorstep by Ha rr iet Sal isbury, pu bl ished i n 2 0 1 2

I could not find the ?.

And d a d was car i n g , sens i b le , looked after h i s b i ts a n d p i eces , loved h i s ga rden . i t b ro ke h i s h e a rt when h e h a d to tear it a l l u p a n d p u t a n a i r ra i d she lter d own t h e re when t he wa r c a m e . They s a i d 'yo u 've got a she lter, yo u have to p u t it i n yo u r back g a rd e n . ' Bu t he sa i d ' i t 's m e g a rd e n · a n d they s a i d 'we l l you know we've i ssued i t ou t to yo u , you d o i t ' . Anyhow he m ust have t h o u g ht , t h i s is - h e ' d been t h ro u g h the F i rst World Wa r. H e m ust have t h o u g ht ' t h i s is somet h i n g I 've got to do ' .

exact date when this

poster was made . Can

you make an informed

guess , using the timeline

on pages 1 2 0-2 1?

•


1 .4 The natu re of the attacks on London Now I want to find out a little more about the detail of the attacks on London, and to fit the story of the Duggans and the Dead End Kids into this big picture. The first proper attack of the Blitz was the day and night of 7 September 1940. Before then only a few brief attacks had taken place, such as the attack on Croydon and its airport on 15 August when over 60 people were killed in half an hour's bombing. There were three phases of bombing on London and I'd like to find out more about each - including some of the key events of each phase.

1. The Blitz, which ended on 11 May 1941 2. The 'Little Blitz' from 21 January to late May 1944 3. The V1 and V2 rocket attacks from mid-June 1944 to 27 March 1945

We have sp l it the attacks i nto three phases. You need to understa nd the natu re of each d ifferent phase and to record a l ist of key words to he lp you remember each of them. You cou ld make a ta b le l i ke th is :

The B l itz The Little B l itz V1 and V2 attacks

Key words: Key words : Key words :

1 The B l itz The East End was the main target of the first night of the attack, 7 September 1940, which became known as 'Black Saturday'. There was bombing throughout the day, and the evening brought the start of 57 consecutive nights on which London was bombed. The bombs fell first in South East London, in Bermondsey, just across the river from Wapping where the Duggans lived, and the focus of the attacks remained on the East End:

• St Katharine Docks - hit by more than 160 high-explosive bombs in the first week of the Blitz

• Woolwich Arsenal - which contained artillery and ammunition factories • the Victoria and Albert Docks, and nearby Silvertown, the Isle of Dogs and its docks

were all badly hit and damaged.

T YPES OF INCENDIARIES USED DURING THE AT TACKS

Brandbombe Th ese were 1 - ki l o g ra m bom bs des igned to be d ropped i n l a rge n u m bers over b u i l d i ngs a n d ho uses. They were heavy enough to break thro u g h roofs i nto l oft spaces a n d b u i l d i n g i nte r iors where they wou l d b u rn a n d start f ires. They were fi l l ed with a m ixtu re of magnes i um and m eta l oxides wh ich b u rns very we l l a n d with g reat heat . As the B l itz went on , fi rewatchers beca m e better at dea l i ng with them by cover ing them with wet sand or by m ov ing them off roofs . The German des ig ners therefore sta rted fitti ng B ra n d bombe w i th sma l l exp los ive charg es, often on l ong t imers to so tha t ARP wa rdens a n d fi refig hters were re l u ctant to get too near to th e m .

Flammenbombe These bom bs were barre l s fi l l ed with o i l a n d set with a deton ator that wou l d go off on i m pact, sp l ash i ng bu rn i ng o i l a ro u n d a n d starti ng more fires. Though these bom bs were terrify ing , they often fa i l ed to exp lode on l a n d i n g .

Spreng brandbombe C 50 This bomb was fi rst used in 1 942. lt was in a 50-kg bomb case, but instead of exp losives it was fi l l ed with sma l le r bom bs. Each of these was fi l l ed with magnes ium and six fi re-sta rting bom bs. A sma l l TNT exp losive charge was designed to spray these over a 1 00-metre rad i us to sta rt as many fires as possib le .


However, the west of London was also hit on the night of 7 September 1940. Battersea Power station was damaged, and the gas supply system was also disrupted across the east and west of London. All in all, 350 bombers and 600 fighter escorts dropped more than 330 tons of explosive bombs in a raid that lasted 24 hours, with one brief lull. The highexplosive bombs and parach ute mines damaged buildings and were an important cause of the 430 people killed and the 1600 people wounded. However, it was the incendiaries that stretched the ARP and firefighters to their limits on that first night, and during the other intense Blitz attacks.

During that raid on 7 September 440 canisters of incendiaries were dropped on London, each holding around 250 1-kilogram Brandbombe. The records of the London Fire Brigade from that raid have been compiled by the Guardian newspaper. Combing through them tells us about the kinds of places that were damaged. Bakers, grocers, wine-merchants, armouries, houses, tobacconists, timber yards, flour stores, warehouses, an electrical cable factory, musical instrument makers, engineering works, metalworks, coal merchants, sweet factories, rope makers and other industrial sites were damaged or destroyed.

Firefighting in the Blitz How dangerous was it to be a firefighter? The answer is - very dangerous. Walter Turley (see Source A) was one of the first firefighters to be killed in the Blitz. The first raid on 7 September saw 1000 fire hoses and pumps being used to fight 17 major fires and 19 smaller ones. Damaged water mains hampered the effort so emergency pumps took water directly from the Thames .

Walter was leading an eleven-man fire crew. They were all killed when a building collapsed on them. Waiter's team was mostly made up of civilian 'Auxiliary Firemen'. On that first night, 25,000 of these auxiliaries fought fires using hand pumps, portable ladders, sandbags and buckets as well as mobile fire pumps and hoses. Along with Walter, 327 men and women from the Fire Service or the Auxiliary Fire service were killed in London during the war.

On 29 December, another huge raid targeted the City of London, the business and finance district. Incendiaries left 1600 fires burning. The job of the firefighters was made very difficult by a shortage of water. Explosive bombs had damaged the water mains, and the Thames was at low ebb; water was pumped from boats in the middle of the river, and also from trucks driven into the city.

Source A Deta i ls from t h e C o m m o nwealth Wa r G raves C o m m iss ion record of c iv i l i ans k i l led i n t h e Second Wo rld Wa r. M a ny records a re not as de ta i led as t h i s o n e , w h i c h eve n g ives a

p lace of death

FIREFIGHTING

TURLEY, WALTER JAMEs , age 39; Fireman , West Ham Fire Brigade.

Son of Mr. W. Turley, of 5 1 Deerfield Cottages , The Hyde ,

Hendon, Middlesex; husband of

A. E. Turley, of 3 Cranley Road,

Plaistow. 7 September 1 940 , at

Corporation Depot, Abbey Road.

Source B From In Case of Fire: The Illustra ted History and

Modern Role of the London Fire Brigade, by N e i l Wal l i ng ton , p u b l i shed i n 2005

Once aga i n , t he AFS [Aux i l i a ry F i re Serv ice ] f i rewo m e n p layed a n i nva l u a b le role d u r i n g the ra i d . They d rove petrol carr i ers loa d e d wi th j e rrycans i nto t he h e a rt of t he d a n g e r z o n e s t a k i n g prec ious f ue l s u p p l ies to kee p t he roa r i ng p u m ps at work . They a lso m a n n e d ca nteen va ns , b rewi n g h u n d reds of g a l lons of t e a a n d coco a .

� •

1 . Why were i ncend ia ries more destructive than exp los ive bom bs?

2. Exp la i n why fi refig hting in the B l itz was so dangerous .

3. Exp la i n why fi refig hting was so d ifficu l t d u ri ng the B l itz.


Firefighting: the Dead End Kids On page 133 we saw the record ofWilliam Turley's death in the lists of civilians killed during the war. Further down these lists I came across two more names that were familiar.

Mollie Panter-Downes' piece for the New Yorker contains a reference to 'two of the [Dead End] Kids, Ronnie Ayres and Bert Eden [who] were killed during the raids while tackling blazes with the gang'. So, these official records support Panter-Downes' article. A quick look at the map tells me that they died on opposite sides ofSt Katharine Docks, about 250 metres from the shelter at Watson's Whar£ I felt very sad when I read these names and matched them up with the newspaper piece and the map. I have written other books and taught countless lessons in which we discuss how certain people have died, without feeling like this. I wonder if, having seen photographs, having read these accounts and traced the different places on the map, I have made myself feel differently about the Dead End Kids than I had before.

Source C D eta i ls from t h e reco rds of C o m m o nwealth Wa r G raves Com m iss ion of c iv i l i ans k i l led i n t h e Second Wo rld Wa r

EADON, ALBERT FRANCIS , age 1 6 . Son of A . G . and A . Eadon , of 47 Matilda House , Thomas Moore

Street, Wapping . 29 December 1940 , at St Katharine's Way.

EYRES , Ronald Leslie , age 1 8 . Son

of Frederick George and Emily

Eyres , of 6 Colville House , Lark

Row, Bethnal Green . 29 December

1 940 , at Thomas Moore Street.

SPELLINGS

Notice how Panter- Downes spe l l s Bert and Ron n ie's names d ifferently than the records of the Wa r G raves Com m ission . Which do you th i nk is the r ight one? H ow m ight th is affect ou r enqu i ries?

•

Firewatching The raid on 29 December killed only a very few people compared with other Blitz attacks - the estimate is 160. However, the new tactics of focusing wave after wave of incendiaries on a limited area threatened some of London's most important buildings, such as the Bank of England, and, more symbolically, St Paul's Cathedral, which had been built after the Great Fire of London in 1666 . The fires of 29 December 1940 became known as the Second Great Fire of London, and St Paul's was only saved because of the teams of volunteer firewatchers who put out fires on the roof as 28 incendiaries hit it. This and other incidents made the Government realise the value of firewatchers and, by the end of 1940, streets, offices, factories and other workplaces were required to draw up rosters for compulsory fire watching.

Though St Paul's survived, other important historic buildings did not. Many other churches burnt down that night, some of which had been designed by Sir Christopher Wren, an architect employed by Charles 11 to help rebuild London after the Great Fire of 1666.

Source D An extract from the d i a ry of M rs Consta n ce M i le , written as t h e B l i tz was go ing on , and p u b l i shed i n 2 0 1 3

Ken neth tells m e that . . . a l l t h e br i dges a re i ntact . Th is i s p retty wonderf u l cons i der i ng the enemy u s e the r iver as a g u i de . He sa id t h a t when he hears bombs d ro p p i n g he at once becomes anx ious abou t certa i n factor ies a n d power-stat ions . . . . l t appears tha t the ra id over Lo ndon was perfectly devastat i n g . They sent thousands of i ncend i a ry bombs h u rt l i ng over the C i ty a n d dozens of f i res were b laz ing for h o u rs . M o re Wren c h u rches a n d the G u i ldha l l a re g utte d .

The end of the first Blitz In the early months of 1941 London had some quieter nights, as the Luftwaffe targeted other towns and cities. However, on the night of 10 and 11 May 1941, the Germans launched the war's most destructive raid on London. A total of 1436 people were killed and 1792 were injured. After this, London was free from air raids until the Little Blitz of 1944, as Germany focused on its attack on Russia. Approximately 20,000 people were killed in this first phase of the Blitz and 1, 150,000 houses were damaged or destroyed. One in six people in the London area suffered at least one day of homelessness - around 1.4 million people.


WHAT STORY DOES AN IMAGE TELL?

The s u rviva l of St Pa u l 's gave the B l itz its m ost icon i c image - the dome of the cathed ra l r is i ng over the smou lder i ng city on the n i g ht of 29 December 1 940.

Source E St Pau l's Ca thedra l , 29 Dece m b e r 1 94 0 , taken by Daily Mail p h otog ra p h e r H e rb e rt Mason

The image was used and read i n two ways. On the front page of the Daily Mail on 3 1 Decem ber the head l i n e was 'St Pa u l 's stands U n h a rmed i n the M idst of the B u rn i n g City', a n d the image beca m e a sym bo l o f B rita i n 's' res ista nce. A lmost a m o nth late r the German n ewspa per Berliner 11/ustrierte Zeitung used the same pictu re with the head l i n e 'D ie City von London bre n nt ! ' - the City of London b u rns ! The same p ictu re seems to g ive d ifferent i n fo rm at ion with a d iffe rent head l i ne, and as h istor ians we m ust take a step back and th i n k a bout how the ' i nformat ion ' is be ing used to enco u rage us to t h i n k i n a certa i n way.

29 DECEMBER 1 940 ? •

1 . On page 1 26 we read that London was a ta rget because of the im pact bombing wou l d have on the economy, Govern ment, mora l e and the m i l ita ry. Read Source E and exp la i n how usefu l it is i n he lp i ng us to work out why the City of London was a target.

2. H ow s ign ificant was this ra id fo r Londoners l iv ing i n the d ifferent pa rts of the city that we ment ioned on page 1 26?

3. H ow s ign ificant was it fo r the Dead End Kids?


2 The Litt le B l itz This phase, between 21January 1944 and April 1944 was much less intensive than the Blitz of 1940-41 . Germany could only assemble 475 aircraft to make these attacks, and her best pilots had been killed in missions over Russia, leaving only inexperienced crews who often missed their targets. Even so, these raids killed over 1500 people. The inexperienced German crews were easy targets for fighters and ground a nti-aircraft crews, and the Germans lost about 70 aircraft a month between January and April, when the attacks fizzled out.

EXPLOSIVE BOM BS

Hig h explosive H ig h -exp los ive bom bs came in m a ny d iffe rent sha pes and sizes, a n d had d iffe rent code n a m es . They cou l d wei g h between 50 kg a n d 1 800 kg . The l a rgest bom b was known as a 'Sata n '. Some created a b l ast that destroyed b u i l d i ngs, oth ers with heavier cases shattered a n d caused maxi m u m sh ra p n e l damage .

Pa rach ute mines These m ines we ig hed 1 000 k i l ogra m s a n d were des igned to s i nk s h i ps at sea . They had contact o r m a g n et ic triggers (wh ich were set off by the i ron i n s h i ps' h u l l s) . They were a lso somet imes d ropped by parachute onto im porta nt ta rg ets on l a n d . When they exp loded above the g ro u n d the damage was worse because none of i ts fo rce was soa ked u p by the earth . Somet imes the parach ute wo u l d become enta n g led i n ca b les o r b u i l d i n g s a n d the mine wo u l d be l eft h a n g i n g , often to exp lode l ater.

Anti-personne l bom bs Butterfly bom bs were types of cl uster bombs that wo u l d open up (a nd look l i ke butte rfl i es) when they h i t the g ro u n d , scatter ing bomblets that co u l d be fitted with detonators wh ich went off afte r a certa i n t ime, o r if they were p icked up .

3 V1 attacks The D-Day landings on 6 June 1944 and the gradual liberation of Northern France meant that Britain was further out of range of Germany's dwindling bomber fleet. However, a new threat emerged on 13 June when an explosion in a Gravesend vegetable garden was taken for a crashing enemy plane. In fact, this was the first recorded impact of a V1 flying bomb (see diagram opposite) . These 'pilotless planes' had a jet engine, and carried a 1-ton explosive payload at 400 miles an hour. They had very crude guidance systems and were designed to travel along in one direction, for a certain distance, then dive into the ground and explode. Their engines made a loud buzzing sound and became known as 'buzz bombs' or 'doodlebugs'.

Doodlebugs were a terrifying weapon because there was often no warning, or the warnings were meaningless as the constant flight of these 'pilotless planes' meant that people were always on high alert. The noise added to the fear. The buzz of the engines would stop as the V1 descended sharply, so it was the quiet before the explosion that Londoners learned to listen out for.


Many of the V1s never reached their target. After the first week of attacks, the anti-aircraft crews were told not to try to shoot them down, as this often led to them landing in the areas where more people lived on the outskirts of London. Croydon was directly under the flight path from Holland where the V1s were launched and suffered the worst in the V1 campaign. Just over 140 V1s hit this area, destroying 1000 houses and badly damaging nearly 60,000. Eventually the anti-aircraft guns and barrage bal loons were moved to the area between the south coast and London, where shooting down the V1s would cause less damage.

A total of9000 V1 rockets were launched from ground launch sites . When the Allies overran these

Compressed a i r

launch sites the Germans then launched 1200 further V1s from bombers specially adapted to carry them. Of the 10,200 weapons fired, around 6900 reached Britain, of which 3800 were shot down by British defences, which got more and more effective at bringing them down. By August 1944 it was thought that only around 17 per cent ofV1s launched were hitting London. Over the whole V1 campaign 5475 people were killed, but these statistics hide terrible stories. One 'bug' might not injure anyone, but another could kill tens of civilians.

New Cross in Deptford saw the damage that V1 rockets could bring. In July 1944 a V1 exploded on the Marks and Spencer store, killing 60 people. The destroyed buildings can be clearly seen on the right-hand side of this official bomb damage map (the darker the colour, the more damage) . The V1 blast is shown by a circle on the right-hand side of the picture. In November a Woolworths store, the black-coloured building on the left at the centre of another smaller circle, was hit by a different but no less dreadful weapon - the V2 rocket.

Source F

I I< l >.:.. .o_,_,#_ - ;r_ u_.�_:u_�-� , . . • · � .:.:.. .. ;..;e._. - -v;..-- -- - -

• Cutaway of a flying bomb Vl rocket

• A sect ion of o n e of t h e off i c i a l ' B o m b D a m a g e M a ps' p ro d u ced by t h e London Cou nty C o u n c i l af ter t h e wa r. B lack i n d i cates a reas tha t we re tota l ly destroye d ; p u rple t hose tha t we re damaged beyo n d re p a i r; red a reas ser iously d a m a g e d ; o ra n g e g e n era l b last d a m a g e ; ye l low m e a n s m i n o r b last d a m a g e ; g re e n i n d i cates a reas tha t had been c le a re d ; s m a ll c i rcles i n d i cate d a m a g e from a V-2 rocket a n d Large c i rcles a V-1 rocket


.6. Cutaway of a V2 rocket . The V2 was a liquid oxygen and ethanol-fuelled rocket with a 1 -ton warhead. It had a range of 200 miles and could fly at 55 miles altitude

3 V2 attacks V2 rockets were launched from mobile sites, which made them harder to find and attack. They were an early form of ba l l istic missi le which meant that they launched upwards and travelled through the upper atmosphere before coming more or less straight down on their target. This made it nearly impossible for anti-aircraft gunners to target them, and brought little chance of warning or reaching shelter.

The government was worried about the effect of this new weapon on morale, so after the first rockets fell in early September 1944 they tried to prevent the story from being printed in newspapers, and instead told the public that gas lines had exploded. By November people were sceptical of this story, especially as the numbers of rockets hitting London was increasing rapidly - from 12 in the first week of November to 27 in the third week. The government only admitted the existence of the V2 rockets after the German government itself announced them in a radio broadcast on 8 November. The government still restricted the kinds of information that the press could report about the V2 attacks - they didn't want the Germans to find out how many of their rockets had got through, or how accurate their targeting was .

Then, on Saturday 25 November, the Woolworths on New Cross Road in Deptford was hit by a V2 rocket. The store was full because people had heard there was a delivery of new cooking pans, which had been very hard to buy since the start of the war. There was a long queue of people waiting for a chance to buy one. The building collapsed, killing 168 people, and injuring 122 people on the street. Despite the efforts of the fire services and passers-by who attempted to dig people out with their hands, only one person inside the building survived.

Source G J u n e G a i d a , who was t h i rteen yea rs old a t the t i m e re m e m b e rs the D e ptford d isaste r

I was g o i n g s h o p p i n g tha t m o r n i n g fo r my mother a n d s u d d e n ly t here was a b l i n d i n g f lash and a roa ri n g , rush i n g so u n d . I was th rown i n to the a i r. T h e re was no ise a l l a ro u n d m e , a deafe n i n g terr i b le no ise tha t beat a g a i nst my e a rd ru m s a n d , when I fe l l to the g ro u n d , I cu rled myse lf up i nto a bal l to p rotect myse lf . . .

When the n o i s e h a d f a d e d I p i cked myse lf u p a n d I w a s coated w i t h b ri ck d ust , w i t h s l ive rs o f g lass i n my h a i r. Then I wa lked towa rds Woo lwo rths . T h i n g s were s t i l l fa l l i n g o u t o f t he sky, t here were b r icks , maso n ry, a n d b i ts of peop le . . .

O u t s i d e the p u b t here w a s a bus a n d i t h a d been concert i n a e d , w i t h rows o f peop le s i t t i n g i ns i de , a l l covered i n d ust a n d d e a d . I looked towa rds where Woo lwo rths h a d been a n d t h e re was not h i n g . There was j u st a n enormous g a p cove red by a c lo u d of d ust . . . N o b u i l d i n g , j ust p i les of r u b b le a n d br icks , and from u n d e rneath i t al l I c o u ld h e a r peop le screa m i n g .

LONDON AT WAR ?. Now you know in more deta i l what Londoners had to go through d u ring the war, re-visit you r time l i ne from pages 1 20-21 and improve you r second l iv ing g raph s o that i t better shows how Londoners m ight have fe lt us ing the i nformation on pages 1 38-39.

•


Source H A f i re m a n recal ls the effect of the f i rst a t tack on 7 Septe m b e r 1 94 0 in a n i n terv iew f o r a n ora l h i sto ry p roject , from The War o n Our Doorstep b y H a rr iet Sa l i sbu ry, p u b l i shed in 2 0 1 2

We knew the docks wou ld b e a n u m ber one ta rget s o we pu t f ive f i re sta t ions i n there a n d they were housed i n wa reho uses . We ' d got the docks to work from o u r water s u p p ly, [ bu t were told ] that i f food wa reho uses were i nvolved we had to use c lean water from the m a i n s . Bu t the f i res that occu rred in the f i rst B l i tz - we had to order f ive h u n d red f i re p u m ps for the docks . There was e leve n m i les of q u ays there , a l l l i ned wi th wa re houses f i l led wi th combust i b les , f i fty s h i ps i n there , a l l co m b ust i b le . So you can see how f ive h u n d red p u m ps wou ldn ' t g o ve ry far.

Source I Extract from Mass O bservat ion record ' 1 2-1 2- E A i r Ra ids o n Lo n d o n ' , J u n e 1 94 4 . An extract from d o c u m e nts i n a f i le m a rked ' ra i d feel i n gs ' - w h i c h conta i n e d conve rsat ions ove r h e a rd b y o bse rvers wo r k i n g for Mass Observat i on on 21 J u n e 1 944

Source J A n ews p a p e r a rt i c le from the Daily Mail

30 Aug ust 1 944

Oh ! I fs terr i b le , - i t 's a l l go i ng to have a bad effect on the factor ies - when t hey h e a r t hose p lanes [V1 d o o d le b u g s] come over a l l t he g i r ls stop work . We've lost a shop g i r l , a very n i ce g i r l she was, ove r in t he Battersea b ra n c h - l ived at De ptford . We l l , she popped i n to h e r own p lace , j u st to h ave a s l u i ce [wash] before sta rt i n g off to work , a n d tha t b loody p l ane l anded r i gh t ou ts i de h e r d o o r. There were o ld wo men g r u m b l i n g o u t s i d e the Battersea off i ce : "wh ere's t h a t b loody g i r l?" . And the m a n a g e ress - she to ld m e h e rse lf - she s a i d , " D o n ' t y o u s p e a k l i ke t h a t . T h a t g i r l 's d e a d " .

V1 Battle End ing

S ir Ea rnest Gowers, Sen ior C iv i l Defence Reg i o n a l C o m m iss i o n e r fo r Lond o n , forecast yeste rday t h a t t h e V1 bat t le w i l l s o o n be over. H e sa i d : 'We a re n o t yet f i n i shed wi th t h i s bat t le t h i s long d rawn - o u t atte mpt to b re a k the S p i r i t of Lon d o n , a lth o u g h we may n ow hope . . . t ha t t h i s f i n a l phase is near i ng i ts end . '

AA g u ns we re i n ac t i on aga i n yeste rday when f ly i n g b o m bs were l aunched a c ross t he C h a n n e l a t i nterva ls . The g u n n e rs met wi th q u i ck successes , and a f a i r p ropor t i on of t he ro bots w a s h i t a n d destroyed over the sea o f f o n e p a rt of Southern E n g la n d .

?. • EXPLORING THE SOURCES: THE ATTACKS ON LONDON

1 . Describe two featu res of: a) exp losive bombs b) i ncend ia ry bombs c) the V1 and V2 attacks.

2. H ow usefu l a re Sources H and I for an enqu i ry i nto the weapons that were used i n the attacks on London d u ri ng the Second Wor ld Wa r? Exp la i n you r answer us ing Sources H and I and you r knowledge of the h istor ica l context.

3. H ow usefu l a re Sources I and J for an enqu i ry i nto the d ifferent phases of the attack on London d u ri ng Second World Wa r? Exp la i n you r answer us ing Sources I and J and you r knowledge o f t h e h istor ica l context.

4. H ow cou l d you fo l low u p Sou rce J to fi nd out more about the V1 and V2 rocket attacks? Use the fo l l owing head ings : a) Deta i l i n Source J that I wou l d fo l l ow up b) Question I wou l d ask c) The type of sou rce I cou l d use d) H ow th is m ight he lp answer my q uestion


1 .5 The im pact of the B l itz: were she lters safe?

Source A

We have found some answers to many of the big questions that we had at the start of our enquiry. We've learned about the preparations that the Government put in place, and the attacks that the people of London faced. In this section we will find out whether the preparations were effective - did they protect the Londoners? Were people able to carry on with their lives and their work? Could they even find ways of enjoying themselves?

We might think that this picture of the Dead End Kids, the electric lighting and brick walls, helps us to get a sense of what it was like hiding in a shelter. We might imagine being underground, perhaps the walls are damp and bombs falling might sound like dull thuds on the surface above our heads. Life in underground shelters is often the first image we bring to mind when we think about the Blitz.

A. Th is 1 941 p i c t u re of t h e Dead E n d K ids in t h e i r H Q s h e lter, at Watso n 's W h a rf in Ste p n ey, shows Patsy D u g g a n at t h e back of t h e p i c ture , wea r i n g a n a r m b a n d

However, many people didn't shelter underground, and in the East End many of the largest shelters were surface level shelters - Watson's Wharf included. These gave protection against blast damage from bombs, but did not protect them from direct hits .

The government did build deep shelters, but nowhere near enough to protect all Londoners . The few deep tunnels built as shelters were used to shelter civil servants. Only in 1944 were four opened to the public during the Little Blitz and V weapon attacks (see page 136). At first, the Government even tried to prevent people sheltering in the Underground. They worried that once safe underground, people would refuse to come up, or that a bomb landing in the Thames might breach the underground tunnels and flood stations, drowning those in them.


Visible learning

Asking good questions

One of the prob lems with a q u est ion l i ke 'D id peop le fee l safe i n she lte rs' i s that we rea l ly need to ask other q u estions before we ca n answer th is one . For i nsta n ce, we co u l d ask 'Which type of she lter' o r 'When i n the war? ' o r 'Which type of peop le? ' o r 'Who was i n charg e of the she lte r?'. Othe rwise we co u l d be fa l l i n g i nto the tra p of genera l is i ng - see page 1 24 .

Life in the she lters However, during the first days of the Blitz people ignored the ban on using tube stations. Many bought tickets and refused to leave, others pushed past the barriers and went down to the platforms. Thousands also crowded into surface shelters. As the Blitz went on, long queues formed at shelters as early as mid morning. Children were sent to hold a place in the line and bag a good pitch for the rest of the family.

Shelters could be crowded and very insanitary - buckets used as temporary toilets were easily spilled, and over-crowding meant that people often had to stand through the night. Some lacked lighting or ventilation for fresh air. One famously terrible shelter was in the basement of the Tilbury Depot near Fenchurch Street Station. Ritchie Calder, a Daily Herald journalist described it in his book Carry On London, published in 1941 :

[Ti l b u ry was] not o n ly the most u n hyg i e n i c p l a ce I h ave ever seen, it was d efi n ite ly u nsafe. Yet n u m bers as h igh, o n s o m e estim ates, as 1 4,000 to 1 6,000 people crowd ed i nto it o n those d readfu l n i g hts w h e n he l l was l et loose o n East Lo n d o n - p e o p l e of every type a n d condit ion, every co l o u r a n d creed fo u n d t h e i r way there.

W h e n s h i ps d ocked, sea m e n wo u l d come to ro ister fo r a few h o u rs . Scot l a n d Ya rd knew w h e re to l o o k fo r b o m b e d - o u t cri m i n a ls . Prostitutes paraded t h e re . H awke rs p e d d l e d g reasy, co l d fried fish wh ich c l oyed the a l ready fo u l atmos p h e re a n d fig hts had to be broke n up by the p o l ice.

Aldwych - a better she lter Many tube stations were also unhealthy i n the early days o f the Blitz. However, a shelter was built at the un-used Aldwych station. Walls were whitewashed to improve lighting, toilets were fitted instead of buckets, bunk beds were fitted and wardens were appointed to run the shelter. A medical clinic and first aid, canteen, library and even educational lectures were provided. There was a ticket system so that people didn't have to queue to get in. However, Aldwych only held some of the 120,000 people seeking shelter in the Underground each night.

Private she lters People also sheltered in the basements of their houses, in crypts beneath churches and in private underground shelters. Businesses used their own basements; John Lewis sold tea and Penguin chocolate biscuits to customers sheltering in the basement of its Oxford Street store. The Savoy Hotel offered overnight shelters in its basement for dinner guests. On 14 September 1940 there was a famous invasion of the Savoy's shelter by 77 Stepney residents led by Communist activist Phil Piratin. Eventually the hotel agreed to let them stay, and Piratin bought cups of tea for his followers . The newspapers' coverage of this event further raised the issue of conditions in public shelters .

LIFE IN THE SHELTERS � •

1 . Describe two featu res of she lter l i fe in the fi rst weeks of the B l itz.

2. Describe two reasons why some peop le thought that she lter provis ion was unfa i r.

Some she l ters were not as? safe as we m ight th i n k. We cou l d a rgue that l i fe in the she lters was dangerous and u n hea lthy. D iv ide a paper in two, and on one s ide co l l ect evidence that she lters were safe, and on the other co l lect evidence that they were dangerous or u n hea lthy.

SHELTERS ?. 1 . Describe two featu res

of the Ti l b u ry she lter that made it an u n p leasant p lace.

2. Read the extract from Ritch ie Ca lder's book a bove. a) Why m ight the

govern ment have been concerned to read reports l i ke th is?

b) Why m ig ht th is this extract he lp to exp la in why the Dead End Kids did not stay in their she lters when the bom bs were fa l l i ng?

•


Government investigations into she lter conditions Concern about conditions in shelters led the Government to s e t up a committee under Lord Harder to investigate. The Ministry of Health also sent investigators around the shelters - their reports contain interesting information about the conditions (see Source B). As a result the improvements made at Aldwych were made in other shelters - and eventually many large shelters had medical services, libraries and even entertainment.

Mickey's She lter Some people did not wait for the council or the government to improve things. One example is the Fruit and Wool Exchange, a huge warehouse in Stepney in East London where up to 5000 people had been sheltering in a basement. Mickey Davis (who was very short and nicknamed 'The Midget') and his wife Doris took matters into their own hands . They collected money from wealthy donors to pay for medicines, organised volunteer doctors to set up a clinic and stretcher bearers to make first aid stations. They brought in bunks and even set up a canteen. The example of what could be done at Aldwych and at Mickey's Shelter convinced the government to make new rules about shelters . They appointed shelter marshals and invested money in installing toilets, and in other places they also set up bunks and brought in ticketing so that people didn't have to queue.

Source B From a P rog ress Report d rafted by t h e M i n istry of H e a lth i nvest i ga t i on i n to i m p rove m e nts of s h e lters i n Popla r, from Sources for History of London 1 93 9-45 by H ea t h e r C reaton p u b l i shed i n 1 998

The po l i cy i n Po p l a r i s to concentrate o n t he sma lle r she lters a n d m a ke t hem m o re attract ive .

Vent i lat i o n . In m ost of them th is i s very de f i c i en t .

Ove rcrowd i n g . The large basement she lters a re g rossly ove rcrowd e d , the t rench she lters a lmost e m pty

M e d i c a l Aid Posts . N i l The [co u n c i l] wil l now co ns i der i n t rod u c i n g t hese a n d has a rra nged to mee t t he loca l Doctors to sta rt a g ro u p system . There a re n o n u rses ava i la b le .

Source C CHANGES TO

SHELTERS

?.

.A. A meet i ng of t h e S h e lter C o m m ittee at M i ckey's S h e lter. M ic key Davis can be seen o n t h e left

1 . Describe two featu res of the Aldwych she lter and M ickey's She lter that made them better p l aces to h ide from the B l itz.

2. Exp la i n why the Governm ent was re l u ctant at fi rst to bu i l d more she l ters l i ke these.

•

3. 'Anger by ord i na ry peop le had more effect on the deve lopment of she lters than governm ent po l icy.' H ow m uch evidence is there to support th is statement? What statement cou l d you come u p with that better describes the reasons why she l ters changed?


She lter d isasters Being underground did not make you safe. A direct hit from an explosive bomb could penetrate to where people were sheltering, as we can see from this newspaper report from 11 September 1940 (Source D).

Source D A S cott ish n ews p a p e r re port of the effects of a b o m b h i t t i n g a school , from the Daily

Record and Sunday Mail, 1 1 Septe m b e r 1 940

School Bombed - Many Dead

M a ny bod i es have so far been recovered from the schoo l in East London wh ich was wrecked by a d i rect hit d u ri n g M o n d ay n i g ht 's ra i ds .

Some of the persons extr icated f ro m benea th t he mass of twisted g i rd e rs a n d d e b r is we re st i l l a l ive , bu t i t is u n d e rstood tha t t hey d ied wh i le be ing co nveyed i n a m b u la nces to the hosp i ta l . l t i s fea red tha t t here w i l l be o n ly a few s u rv ivors . The rescue s q u a d s fou n d two b a b i es o n e a g e d n i n e m o nths a n d t he o ther s i x m o nths , a l ive . They were r u s h e d to h o s p i t a l , a n d i t i s t h o u g ht t h a t they m i g h t recove r.

A t ra g i c feat u re is tha t a rra n g e m e nts were m a d e for these ref u g ees to be transferred to the cou ntry today. l t i s expected that the rescue work w i l l g o o n for at l eas t 24 h o u rs .

Actually there i s little concrete information here. Other newspapers that reported on this disaster claimed that 500 people were sheltering in the school, and also emphasised that doctors and nurses had rushed to the scene, working overnight by torchlight to rescue survivors. But other than this, there was little detail in these reports either.

South Hallsville The parachute mine that caused this destruction fell on South Hallsville School north of the Royal Victoria Docks in the East End. By 1 1 September 1940 there were actually more than 600 people sheltering in the school, many were children waiting for evacuation after their own homes had been destroyed in the raids of 7 September onwards. Only 77 bodies were recovered. The details were hidden from the public because the Government feared the effect on morale.

Source E

.&. A vo lunteer h e lps c h i ld re n d o t h e i r h o m ework i n M i c key's S h e lter

1 Read Source D

carefully. What

information can you

find out about this

disaster?

?

2 What information

is missing from this

source that you would

expect to find in a

newspaper report?

•

DEVELOPING

YOUR ENQUIRY

�

H ow cou ld you fo l low up the Daily Record and Sunday Mail report in Source D?

•

1 . Wh ich deta i l s in the report cou l d you fo l l ow u p?

2. What q uestions cou l d you ask?

3. What types of sou rce cou l d you use?

4. H ow m i g ht these he lp to answer you r q uestions?


SHELTER SAFETY? 1 . 'She lters were

dangerous and u n hea lthy.' To what extent do you agree with th is statement based on what you have read so fa r? What evidence best supports you r view.

2. What i m portant q u estions m ight you need to ask to he lp you improve you r answer to Question 1 ?

South Hallsville showed that, despite official fears about high death rates, and the psychological impact of air raids, the Government and some local governments were not well prepared for looking after the victims of the Blitz who had survived the early raids. In a book written during the Blitz, Ritchie Calder, a journalist, describes attitudes to the homeless:

[the home less were] treated , not as casua lt ies, as they certa i n ly were, but as casua l s [tra m ps or trave l l e rs] . . . strict l i m itations were p laced by the M i n istry of Hea lth on the extent to wh ich the Counc i l m ight p rovide e ither food or bedd ing [with] a d isg racefu l m i n i m u m of b l ankets [and on ly] a hot dr in k and a d ry b u l ly-beef sandwich to the victims .

By the end of October most areas in London had much better-run centres for those made homeless by the Blitz, with hot food, medical care and, most importantly, information that would help the homeless to start to recover. As the historian ]uliet Gardiner points out, they needed a great deal of information.

Source F A h i stor ia n 's v iew of what bom bed out L o n d o n e rs wo uld have needed he lp wi th ( from Wartim e Britain 1 93 9- 1 945 by J u l iette G a rd i n e r, p u b l i shed i n 2 0 0 5 ]

e m e rg e ncy c a s h g ran ts , . . . where they cou ld re place t h e i r i d e nt i ty cards , rat i o n a n d pens ion books a n d gas masks , where t hey cou ld get c lothes , who wo u ld he lp t hem sa lva g e any f u r n i t u re , . . . a n d how they were to f i n d somewhere to l ive .

Beth na l G reen As we have seen, news of disasters like that a t Hallsville School was often hidden from the public. Another example is the Bethnal Green Tube disaster. By March 1943 underground shelters were much better organised than in the first days of the Blitz, but the station entrances at Bethnal Green had not been designed to allow thousands of people to quickly get down to safety.

During the Blitz, attacks had been regular and mostly at night. However, by early 1943 there were often small lightning raids in which one or two bombers would sneak past defences. This meant that there was much less warning. On 7 March 1943 an air raid siren sounded in Bethnal Green and people began to go down into the Tube. Nearby a new rocket anti-aircraft defence battery was fired. The sound startled people at the entrance who started to crowd down the steps . At the bottom, a woman had fallen over because there was only a rope hand rail. Others fell too, but those at the top, panicking, continued to push down the stairs. In a very short time hundreds had fallen over; 173 people died from suffocation.

The im pact of the she lter d isasters As with the events at South Hallsville School, the newspapers did not properly report the Bethnal Green disaster, because they had agreed not to print stories that might affect morale. The Government was worried about admitting that panic had played a part in the disaster. The impact seems to have been that instead of relying on news reports, people started to listen to and spread rumours about the disasters .

Source G From a Mass Observat ion re port i n to mora le , ga thered o n 23 M a rch 1 943 by t h e i r obse rvers ove r h e a r i n g conversat ions .

F45 [means a fe m a le a g e d 45] says Bet h n a l G reen Tu be acc i den t was caused by ARP [wa rd ens] turn i ng a h ose o n yo u n g hoo l i gans a n noyi n g peop le at t he entrance to t he she lter, wh i ch sta rted a p a n i c

Ritchie Calder, the campaigning journalist, wrote a book published in 1941 called The Lesson of London. In it he highlighted the lack of preparation the Government had made for dealing with those made homeless by bombing. Calder's campaign meant that improving this provision was one positive impact of the South Hallsville disaster.


1 .6 The im pact of the B l itz : govern m ent a n d the mora l e of Londoners The government was very worried about how the mora le of Londoners would be affected by bombing. The Ministry of Information set up a Home Intelligence Department (HID) to collect information about how well morale was holding up. Every week Home Intelligence Reports were collated by this department, and given to the government. In his book The Myth of the Blitz, Angus Calder lists nine sources of information that the HID used, including:

Source A An extract from A n g u s Ca lde r's book The Myth of

the Blitz, p u b l i shed in 2 0 1 2

1 S u m m a ries of the P ress 2 Reports from Post a l Censors h i p . . . a lso Te le p h o n e

Censorsh i p 3 Reports from po l i ce sta t i ons 4 Reports from Mass O bservat i o n [see be low] 5 B B C L iste n e r Research re ports 6 Reports from W H Sm i ths news a g e nts 7 Reports from m a n a g ers of Granada C i nemas 8 Reports from va r ious c h a r i t i es such as the C i t i zens

Adv ice B u re a u 9 Reports from Scott ish M Ps

HOME INTELLIGENCE REPORTS ?. •

1 . What does the l ist in Sou rce A te l l you a bout the sou rces of information that the governm ent had access to?

2. What k inds of ideas and op in ions m i g ht the government strugg le to get hold of us ing o n ly the items on th is l i st?

Mass Observation One o f the key groups sending information to the Home Intelligence Service was Mass Observation (MO). MO, a group created before the war, collected diary entries from 'ordinary people' to try and make a record about life in Britain. It is still working today - you can find it at www. massobs.org.uk. They collected letters, diaries and papers sent in by people living all over the country. The London entries are a very interesting record of the Blitz and its impact, written as the attacks were going on. They tell you how people felt during the Blitz and what they feared - but they also tell you about rumours and stories that they heard, which might not be true but do tell us a great deal about how the war made people feel.

Summaries of these reports were read by three people who then wrote the weekly report, which started with a general description then went into more detail about particular areas (see Sources B and C).

Source B From the H o m e I nte l l i g e n ce Report of the wee k fol lowi n g 7 a n d 8 S e pte m b e r 1 940

I n t he a reas wh i ch h ave been most heav i ly ra i d e d t h e re has been l i t t l e s i g n of p a n i c a n d none of defeat ism , b u t rat h e r o f b i t tern ess and i n creased d eterm ina t i on to ' see i t t h ro u g h ' . There is w idespread a n d deep ly fe lt a p p rehens i on [fe a r] . wh i ch i s a p p a rent most ly i n t h e Lo n d o n Dock a re a , o f a cont i n ua t i on of ra i ds . . .

As fa r as t he E a s t E n d i s concern e d , t h i s i s beg i n n i n g t o show i tse lf i n a n a i m less evacua t i on to w h a t a re be l i eved to be safer p laces , e . g . the St . J a m es's Park she lters a n d Pa d d i n gton Stat i on . . .

M e n work i n g i n factor ies i n the E a s t E n d a re e n co u ra g i n g t h e i r wives a n d f a m i l i es i n t h i s h a p haza rd esca pe , b u t express t h e i r own w i l l i n g n ess t o stay a n d face f u rt h e r ra i ds i f t hey can be s u re tha t t h e i r re lat i ons a re i n compa rat ive safety.

Source C From the ' reg i o n a l repo rts' sect ion of the re port , and wr i t ten by a reg i o n a l off icer of t h e Home I nte l l i g e n ce D e p a rt m e n t

Lo n d o n Reg i o n :

I n Docks i d e a reas t he p o p u la t i on is showi n g v is i b le s i g n s of n e rve crack i ng from constant ordea l . O ld wo m e n a n d mothers a re u n d e rm i n i n g m o ra le o f yo u n g wo men a n d m e n b y t h e i r extre m e n e rvo usn ess a n d l a c k o f res i l i ence . M e n state t hey can not s leep because t hey m ust keep u p t he m o ra le of t h e i r f a m i l i es a n d exp ress stro n g d e s i re to ge t t h e i r fa m i l i es away f rom danger a reas .

MORALE IN THE EAST END � 1 . What is the overa l l message a bout mora l e in these

reports (Sou rces B and C)?

2. Why have the authors focused on the East End?

•

3. Why m ig ht reports l i ke these not be ab le to show lots of deta i l s a bout how peop le were fee l i ng?

4. What other sou rces m ight you need to look at to fi nd out how peop le fe lt after the B l itz fi rst sta rted?

5. What q uest ions m ight these reports insp i re?


Source E

Government propaganda The government took steps to keep morale a s high a s possible. A s we have seen, newspapers were reluctant to print too many details of accidents . The official censor also stepped in to stop too much information being published about where Vl and V2 bombs were falling. Some propaganda was used to persuade people to behave in certain ways. For example, the government was keen to encourage Londoners to see themselves as being able to 'take it', that a 'Blitz spirit' would see them through the attacks and the war.

One important way in which the government did this was through posters on street corners and at underground stations. They were helped by people who worked in advertising before the war and now worked for the government, creating propaganda.

Sou rce D Extract from a d o c u m e n t cal led ' P r i n c i p les a n d O bject ives of Wa rt i m e p ropaga nda ' , w h i c h w a s i s s u e d to t h e B B C b y t h e M i n istry of I n format ion at t h e o u t b re a k of t h e Wa r i n 1 939

1 . What is a t sta ke i s t he i d e a l of a good l i fe which f ree men have created t h ro u g h two thousand yea rs . A life based on e q u a l j ust ice , on respect for the i n d iv i d u a l , fa m i ly affect i ons a n d t he love of t ru th .

2 . Naz i Germany boasts t he j ust ice of t he Gesta po , t he b re a k u p of the fa m i ly a n d t ru th d i storted to serve ruth less p a rty ends .

3. Defeat means t he e n d of l i f e as we u n d e rsta n d i t i n Western E u rope .

Sou rce F

LE AVE H T LE R TO M E

SON NY - YOU OU GHT

TO BE OUT Of LON DON

I S S U t 0 S f l K f: M t 11 t S T 11 y 0 I


PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES OF WARTIME PROPAGANDA � Visit www. bbc.co.u k/a rch ive/hawhaw/8928.shtm l and read the ' Pr inc ip les and Objectives of Wa rtime propaganda'.

1 . Discuss with a partner what you th i n k were the fou r key a ims for propaganda, as set out in those ' Pr inc ip les and O bjectives'. When you've agreed them, write them as sepa rate head ings on a p iece of paper.

2. N ow look c lose ly at the propaganda posters on page 1 46 and th is page (Sou rces E-H) and work out wh ich of the key a ims seem to have infl uenced these posters.

3. Do some more research of you r own and fi nd some other posters. Do they a l so suggest that these key a ims were i m portant? What other a ims d id the government have i n m a king these posters?

In addition to these posters, the government also used newsreels and cinema to sell to the public the idea that Londoners could take it. London Can Take It! was a film about the Blitz set in October 1940. It was designed to be shown in cinemas in America, as part of the effort by the British government to persuade Americans that they should help Britain in the struggle against Nazi Germany. It was made shorter and retitled Britain Can Take It and also shown in British cinemas.

If you search YouTube for 'Britain Can Take It' you will find this version for British viewers. The opening title is shown over a picture ofSt Paul's, which was becoming a symbol of resistance. However, the real focus of the film is the people of London, and it had a clear message to get across:

Source G Source H

Source I From the vo i ceove r scr ip t of Britain Can Take lt m a d e in 1 94 0 .

M a ny of the peop le at whom y o u a re loo k i n g now a re m e m b e rs of the g reatest c iv i l i a n a rmy ever to be assem b l e d . These m e n and wo m e n who have worked a l l day i n off ices o r i n ma rkets a re n o w h u rry i n g h o m e to c h a n g e i nto the u n i form of t h e i r pa rt i c u l a r serv ice . . . . T h e s e c iv i l i ans a re good sold i e rs .

THE PROUD CJTY

n the� Or-nGmertd our � atv. � lhethi HonourR dour Gollemment. oncl" ' "' s our edlm . : """' R.l.r< 'lOde< tho C,..., � of � t..i1'1!o)'No.I67J

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1 .7 The im pact of the B l itz : d isru ption to work a n d le isure

Where was this photograph taken'?

The photo was taken in the City of London. Page

1 25 will remind me why this area might have been

a target, and might give me a c lue about what was

going on here.

Source A

Who are the people in it'?

This is where the caption can help a little, but I have to make

an educated guess about this. The City was the business

district of London, which perhaps means that these people

are city workers. Most of them have notebooks and pens or

pencils in their hands - they want to remember what's on the

notices tied to the post - so they're writing them down.

When was this photograph taken'?

The photograph was taken on 9 January 1 941. 1f I loo k back

at my notes from earlier in the chapter I might be a ble to

wor k out what had been happening in London in the weeks

before this was taken (see page 1 20).

Which of your questions are answered by the caption'?

I found this photograph in a picture library. lt had a

caption: '9 January 1 941: A group of people checking

the addresses attached to a traffic light, a novel

"change of address bureaux" for many bombed out

businesses in the City of London during the B litz'.


When I look at a photo like the one on page 148 I have to think for a while, look carefully and ask questions about it before I understand what is going on. Look closely, not only at the people and figures in the foreground, but also what is behind them. What questions might you need answers to before you can start to make a more informed guess about what is going on? Write your questions down. I wonder if your questions are like those in the boxes around the photo.

What was going on? The caption helps here, but so does the historical context - our existing knowledge about the raids on London. On 29 December 1940 there was a huge raid which hit the city very badly. We know that incendiaries burned down many buildings in which businesses were based. It looks like these people are looking for notices about changes of address for businesses that they work with. Perhaps they are employees trying to find out where they should go to work? Perhaps they are customers or suppliers of these businesses?

Why was this photog ra ph ta ken? We have to use all the information we have to make some educated guesses. As we know, the Government was concerned about morale - how confident and happy the people living in London were, and how well they were coping with the Blitz. Newspapers were under lots of pressure to print only optimistic pictures, those that showed bravery, or which suggested that life was carrying on despite the bombs. This picture seems to do at least some of these things. You could see it as an attempt to show that for Londoners it was 'business as usual' - even if they did have to work around some problems brought by the destruction of the Blitz.

Developing you r e n q u i ry

What other q u estions m i g ht you ask a bout Sou rce A to h e l p us to understa nd the im pact of the B l itz on d a i ly l i fe, work and l e i su re?

1 . Was th is a typ ica l scene? 2. What e lse d id bus inesses do to protect themse lves?

Disru ption and danger at work Some businesses and even some Government departments had avoided the risk of being bombed out by evacuating their workers and offices at the start of the war, only returning from 1943 onwards as the risk of air raids diminished. Some of the offices of the Bank of England were evacuated to Hampshire, and a large part of its gold reserves were sent to Canada. Other businesses adapted to the Blitz by closing early, so that their staff and customers could get home or to shelters before the nightly bombing raids started.

Sou rce B A m a n recal ls his days as an off ice boy in t h e C i ty of London d u r i n g t h e B l i tz . Adapted from Ho w We Lived Then by N . Long mate , p u b l i shed i n 1 97 1

[ I h a d to] co l lect each d e p a rtment m a n a g er 's a n d d i recto r's papers when t h e s i rens sou n d e d , p u t t hem i n h i s s p e c i a l steel box , a n d co nvey the lot t o the basement stro n g roo m . I soon worked th i s d own to a f ive - m i n ute l im i t - ten boxes from the fo u rth f loor v ia t he l i f t to t he basement . [Often] n o sooner h a d I got everyth i n g i n the stro n g room the ' a l l c l ear ' sou n d e d .


Difficu lties in ca rrying on as normal A s we have seen from the picture o n page 148, and from looking a t the V2 attack o n the Woolworths on Deptford High Street in 1944 (see page 137), businesses could be themselves badly disrupted or damaged by bombs. Mickey Davis ofMickey's Shelter (see page 142) was an optician whose shop had been destroyed. The raid on 29 December, which caused the Second Great Fire of London (see page 134), destroyed thousands of buildings and left businesses without premises. For many people, the disruption that the Blitz brought to transport meant that even getting in and out of work was often very difficult, even if their own premises had not been affected.

Sou rce C A wo m a n recal ls tryi n g to get to wo rk in London on M o n d ay 9 Septe m b e r 1 94 0 . Ada pted f r o m Ho w We Lived Then b y N . Long m a t e , p u b l i shed i n 1 97 1

T h e Tu be was closed at Ba lha m . I h i tch h i ked a l i f t f ro m a lorry d rive r [th e n] wa lked over Southwa rk B r i d g e , as we were not a l lowed to cross London B r i d g e , a n d when I got to t he off ice I u n d e rstood why. R u b b le a n d g lass we re a l l ove r t he p l ace , a n d t here was a gas ma i n s t i l l be lc h i n g f lames at the e n d of the b r i d g e . F i rem e n , who h a d been u p a l l n i g h t were sta n d i n g rou n d . They looked so t i re d .

More generally, many businesses found that they were affected by rules which rationed the amount of food, or clothes that their customers could buy. Many also found that they had to cut their hours so that their employees could get to their shelters before the raids started. Many businesses noticed that their turnover and profits fell as their customers evacuated or moved out of London in the early days of the Blitz. As the war went on and shortages carried on the many big brands continued to advertise, even though they could not make the goods that they had sold before the war, in the hope that they would be able to sell again quickly after the war ended.

The Duggans at work Mollie Panter-Downes' newspaper piece about the Duggans and the Dead End Kids (see page 1 16) also gives us lots of information about the kind of work that people did in the East End - Mr Duggan Senior (Patsy's father) was a dustman collecting waste food to feed to pigs, Eileen worked as a l and g i rl - replacing men who had left their work on farms when they were called up to the Army. Patsy had joined the Army and Maureen, the only girl in the Kids, was working packing tea leaves into boxes . One of the things that I'm learning is that even during the most difficult periods, life has to go on, and people made great efforts to keep working, and living, as normally as possible.

Leisu re activities and enjoying you rself Londoners still found ways of enjoying themselves. Most people had access to a radio, which they used for listening to the news, but also to comedies . The cinemas and theatres were closed for a very short time at the start of the war, and though both were allowed to open again by 12 September 1939, cinema recovered much more quickly than theatre.

People went to the cinema to see rousing films such as In Which We Serve, about the survival of the crew of a sinking warship. Cinemas not only showed films, but also helped keep people informed, to an extent, through newsreels. These newsreels were censored by the Government, though usually this worked through a system of 'self censorship' which meant that producers would put things in the best possible light. Often the producers had difficulty in getting footage of important events, because these happened somewhere remote. One Mass Observation report noted that Londoners were becoming more and more positive about the propaganda in newsreels - perhaps because they wanted their morale to be lifted (see Source D).


Sou rce D From a M ass Observat i on Report on N ewsree ls , 7 Octo b e r 1 940

I n Aug ust 1 94 0 , . . . nobody o bjected to t he newsreels on t he g ro u n d tha t they were p ro pa g a n d a , b u t 7 p e r c e n t s a i d t h a t t hey we re g o o d p ro pa g a n d a . These were n o t en thus iast i c ove r t h e p o i nt a n d n o b o d y s a i d t h a t they L i ked t he reels because t hey we re p ropa g a n d a ; bu t t h i s does seem to i n d icate a cha n g i n g at t i t u d e towa rds the wo rd .

Theatre The slow recovery of the theatres may have been because people didn't want to travel into the centre of London during the Blitz. Many London theatres closed for the whole war, and the theatre companies instead worked in larger towns and cities in the rest of the country. Perhaps because people wanted to have their minds taken off the dangers and difficulties of their lives, the most successful plays of the early war in London were comedies and Agatha Christie murder mysteries . The most successful play of the war was Noel Coward's Blythe Spirit, a short comedy play about a novelist researching ghosts and psychics who accidentally summons the disruptive spirit of his first wife.

The Government began to support the theatres as the war went on, by subsidising plays which could be used to encourage national pride. There was a revival of Shakespeare's plays, for instance. As the threat from bombing got less, more theatres reopened and more serious plays about the effort on the home front became popular, such as Esther McCracken's No Medals.

Sou rce E From the Observer n ewspape r's 'Theatre N ews' colu m n , 6 N ove m b e r 1 941

Lo n d o n is to have at least one ful l s ized p a nto m i m e at C h r istm as . Jack wil l c l i m b the bea nsta lk at the Co l i se u m in sea rch of . . . a dven tures , seaso n a b le , h e ro i c and spectac u l a r . . . . D o n a ld Wo lf i t has p l a n n e d a C h r istmas season of S h a kespeare at t he Ga rr ick Theatre . T h i s w i l l open w i t h . . . A Midsummer Night "s Dream . . . . O n Wed nesday, the H i p po d ro m e , restored and redecorate d , wil l re - o p e n with Georg e B lack 's new show Get a Load of This , descr ibed as a 'su rpr ise mus i ca l ' .

Pu bs Many people also went to the pub. There is some evidence that more women, at a younger age, started to visit pubs as the number of women in employment increased, and as there was less to spend their wages on in the shops . Pubs did suffer shortages of beer and spirits and even of glasses at some points in the war, and many regulars took their own glasses to the pub with them. Singing in the pub, as well as in the shelter, was just one of the ways in which people tried to keep their spirits up. According to Mollie Panter-Downes, Patsy Duggan was back in Wapping in July 1944 on leave and playing the piano to entertain his friends in his local pub when it was badly damaged in a Vl blast which also destroyed the Duggan's home.

IMPACT OF THE BLITZ

1. M a ke two l i sts of the ways i n wh ich the bombing d isrupted work and le i sure.

2. M a ke notes for each d isru pt ion a bout how Londoners tr ied to ca rry on as norm a l .

3. What k i n d s o f sou rces (see p a g e 1 1 4 for s o m e ideas) cou l d be usefu l i n fi nd i ng o u t more about these d ifficu lt ies, or the th ings that peop le d id to ca rry on?

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Da nce ha l l s The National Gallery held lunchtime classical concerts i n its basement, but far the most popular musical entertainment for young people was the dance hall. Dance halls were popular across the country, and church halls, canteens in factories and other public spaces would be cleared for Friday and Saturday night dances . In London the biggest dance halls, such as the Astoria, could have more than 10,000 visitors a week. The dancing became much less formal than before the war; one of the biggest crazes was 'the jitterbug'. One Mass Observation observer attempted to describe 'truckin' - one of the steps in this dance, which he saw at the Paramount Dance Hall on the Tottenham Court Road, just after the war started in 1939.

Dancing became even more popular in dance halls near bases full of soldiers from France, Canada and, after December 1941, from America. American soldiers were well paid, and had access to food rations that others didn't - even being able to get hold of luxuries such as ice-cream, which meant that they were sought after as boyfriends and as dancing partners . Women and men from all over the world danced in dance halls across London during the Second World War.

Sou rce F

.A. J i tte r b u g d a n ce rs before t h e start of the war, i n a da nce ha l l i n 1 938

Sou rce G

1 . R i g h t foot o n stro k i n g the f l o o r fo r fo u r beats , wh i lst t h e left beats on the f lo o r i n rhyth m [ looks l i ke a cat wa lk i ng i n t he wet ] .

2 . H o p p i n g o n r i gh t leg and ra i s i ng left leg k i ck foo t i n d o u b le t i m e for o n e b a r.

3. I n t he m i d d le of usua l t ruck i n ' steps t he c h a p does a sp l i t a n d d raws h i m se lf up s lowly t a k i n g a b o u t t h ree b a rs to d o i t .

4. Lea n i n g forwa rd from the wa ist h a n d s h e ld i n front of body i n a c lasp , p a rt n e r a bou t 3 fee t away i n s a m e pos i t i on fac i n g . Then p ro g ress s i d eways by wri g g l i n g fee t o n t he g ro u n d - the toe and hee l bo th b e i n g ke pt o n the g ro u n d in some cases , i n o thers hee l o n g ro u n d to po i n t i ng u pwards .


Exploring the sou rces: the im pact of the attacks

1 . H ow usefu l a re Sources A and B for an enqu i ry i nto the im pact of the B l itz on mora l e? ?. Exp la i n you r answer us ing Sources A and B and you r knowledge of the h isto rica l context. •

2. H ow usefu l a re Sources C and D for an enqu i ry i nto the cond it ions in the Air Ra id She lters in London? Exp la i n you r answer us ing Sources C and D and you r knowledge of the h isto rica l context.

3. H ow cou l d you fo l l ow up Source C to fi nd out more about l ife in the she lters in London? Use the fo l l owing head ings : • Deta i l in Sou rce C that I wou l d fo l l ow u p • Question I wou ld ask • The type of sou rce I cou l d use • H ow th is m ig ht he lp answer my q u estion

Sou rce A M o ll i e Panter- D ownes , an A m e ri can j o u rna l ist wr i t i n g for t h e N e w Yorker n ews magaz i ne descr i bed t h e effect of the B l i tz for h e r rea d e rs i n t h e U S A , 1 7 Septe m ber 1 940

For Lo n d o n e rs t h e re a re no lo n g e r such th i ngs as good n i g hts ; t here a re o n ly bad n i g hts , worse n i g hts and be t ter n i g hts . H a rd ly a nyo ne has s lep t at a l l i n the past weeks . The s i rens g o off at a p p roxi mate ly t he s a m e t i m e every eve n i n g , a n d i n t he p o o r e r d istr ic ts , q u eues of peop le ca rryi n g b la n kets , t h e rmos f l asks , and b a b i es beg i n to form q u i te ear ly ou ts i de the a i r ra i d she lters . . . a f ter a few o f t h e s e n i g hts , s l e e p of a k i n d c o m e s from c o m p lete exhaust i o n .

Sou rce C

.._ A T i lb u ry S h e lte r Scene , pa i nted by H e n ry M o o re

Sou rce 8 From a yo u n g wo m a n 's d i a ry wr i t ten o n 1 1 Septe m b e r 1 94 0 , from Love and War in London: the

Mass Observa tion Wartime Diary of Olivia Crocke tt,

p u b l i shed in 2 0 0 8

S u n day n i g ht I p u t o u t a n i n c e n d i a ry bes i de t h e coa l ce l la r. M o n d ay n i g ht a h i g h exp los ive at t h e e n d of t h e G a rd e n b ro u g h t a l l t h e wa l ls d o w n a n d m a d e a crater ten feet deep and t h i rty i n d i a m eter. T h e M i n i s t ry of I nfo rmat i on loca l b o a rd s h ave a no t i ce : ' Loca l D a m a g e , two h o u ses h i t . n o c a s u a lt i es ' . B l o o d y Fa rce . T h e re a re l i t e ra l ly h u n d re d s of h o uses down i n t h i s b o ro u g h of D e ptfo rd .

Every n i g ht we have been i n the cella r. I can not sleep , espec ia l ly s i nce I was the on ly one awa ke to hear the i ncend i ary bomb a n d was a b le to pu t i t out with i n two m i n utes of la n d i n g . I d a ren ' t sleep now. I roa m a bout the house a n d g a rden a n d keep go ing back to the cella r when the l i g hts a re overhead and report p rog ress to the others.

Sou rce D

.._ A i r ra i d s h e lter i n J o h n Ke ble C h u rc h , M i l l H i l l , London . E n g la n d , 1 940


1 .8 London's response to the wa r: Keeping th ings going The Dead End Kids gang separated as each of them was sent off to different parts of the war effort. Some, like Maureen, went to work in factories . Others took roles in the military. But where were the decisions being made about where they went, and how the country should be run in wartime? Who decided where the military effort was focused and what to do about shelters and civil defence? And how did they do this in wartime? How did the government keep things going?

CORNELL NOTES

You n eed to record the i n format ion i n th i s section so that you rem e m ber how the govern ment kept th ings go ing i n London d u ri n g the war. Yo u ca n use a 'Corn e l l N otes' Know ledge O rgan iser to h e l p you do th i s . S p l it you r page i nto three as shown in the d i ag ra m be low. As you read th ro u g h pages 1 54-59 you s h o u l d m a ke notes, as yo u m i g ht do norma l ly. When yo u have done th is read th ro u g h you r notes, a n d i n the w ider m a rg i n on t h e l eft write s o m e q u estions that a re answered b y you r notes . F o r i nsta nce, yo u m i g ht write ' E ros Statue covered with sand bags for p rotect ion ' when you a re fi rst m a ki ng notes, a n d then ' H ow was p u b l i c a rt p rotected? ' when you come back to review these notes. I n t h e bottom box you write fu rth er q u estions that you 'd l i ke t o fi nd o u t t h e answers to, o r m a ke a note o f a nyth i n g that confuses yo u .

This is where you write 1--your questions when you -

review your notes. This is where you write

� •

-- your notes the first time

This is where you write you read these pages.

your fina l questions or

things to fol low up. I' "'-

Keeping th ings going: the government Shortly before the war the government decided to create an underground headquarters for the Cabinet and for the Military Chiefs of Staff and their supporting departments, so that the country could still be run while bombing was going on.

The New Public Offices building in Whitehall were eventually chosen for this HQ (see map page 120), because the building had a steel frame and a basement which could be reinforced. A layer of concrete was placed on top of the reinforced basement to act as a shield. The basement was also gas-proofed and protected against flooding in case bombs should cause the river or the nearby Serpentine lake to flood into underground tunnels.

The Cabinet War Rooms, as they became known, eventually became very crowded. The Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Airforce worked there - operations for the whole war were co-ordinated from the Map Room. Churchill, the Prime Minister from 1940, spent most of the war sleeping in the specially prepared annexe of the building above the War Rooms, after Number 10 Downing Street was declared too vulnerable to attack in December 1940. The flat at the New Public Office was not bomb-proof, but it had been reinforced and had steel shutters that could be fitted over the windows to protect against bomb blasts. Churchill continued to hold most of his Cabinet meetings at Number 10.


The Rooms were designed to give the prime minister and key members of his staff a place to work and sleep when the raids were at their worst. However, the War Rooms themselves were not bomb-proof, partly because the concrete slab was not thick enough, and partly because the War Rooms kept expanding into other rooms of the basement of the New Public Office.

THE CABINET WAR ROOMS 1

1 . Exp la i n why the War Rooms beca me so busy.

2. Describe the measures ta ken to protect key mem bers of the governm ent at the N ew Pub l i c Offices.

3. Before you read the next paragraph see if you can predict the fac i l it ies and tech no logy that needed to be insta l l ed at the Wa r Rooms to make it work proper ly.

� •

The War Rooms kept growing, with rooms and facilities being added. The Map Room was the most important and busiest room - senior government officials and military officers would meet and discuss the war, as well as eat meals in this room. There was a tiny telephone room with connections to the USA. In the Map Room more telephone connections to the headquarters of the Army, Navy and Airforce were used to update maps on the wall which showed the situation in Africa, Russia, the Middle East and the Far East, and, after 1944, in Western Europe. Broadcasting equipment and a connection to the BBC meant that official broadcasts could be made if needed. There were also bedrooms and offices, a kitchen and mess rooms in which other officers and the guards (who were paratroopers) ate meals. The site was so secret that soldiers in the Army were detailed to clean the rooms, so that civilian cleaners would not see the secrets displayed on the walls and on papers.

THE CABINET WAR ROOMS 2

1 . H ow accu rate was you r l ist of th ings that the Wa r Rooms wou l d need?

2. Exp la i n why the War Rooms needed: a) maps b) te lephones c) bedrooms and kitchens

3. What fo l l ow-u p q u estions m ight you ask a bout the evidence i n Sou rce A from Genera l I sm ay?

4. What sou rces, or k inds of sou rces m i g ht he lp you to answer these q uestions?

� •

Though the slab was thickened and extended several times in 1943, the decision was made that if large raids re-started then the Cabinet Rooms would be moved elsewhere. Alternative centres of government had already been built, but, in practice, though Churchill moved around London, often spending a night in one place, and the next elsewhere, he most often ran the government's affairs from the Cabinet Rooms.

Developing you r e n q u i ry

You co u l d i nvestig ate the othe r p l aces that were prepared as u n d e rg ro u n d she lte rs fo r pa rts of the govern ment:

• Dol l i s H i l l - code n a m e 'Padd ock' • Monck Street - code n a m e 'the Rotund as'

Sou rce A From G e n e ra l l sm ay's recollect i ons of work i n g i n the Wa r Roo m s .

Wheneve r a b i g batt le o r cr i t i ca l move m e nt was i n p ro g ress , it was a temptat ion to f i n d p retexts for g o i n g to the Wa r Room at a l l h o u rs of t he day o r n i g ht , i n o r d e r to get t h e very latest i nformat i o n . The sensat i on w a s not u n l i ke v is i t i n g a fr iend in hosp i ta l . One entered the roo m hop ing fo r t he best , b u t fea r i ng t he wo rst .


THE

GOVERNMENT

AND THE ROYAL

FAMILY

�

1 . What were the decis ions ta ken a bout whether the governm ent and roya l fa m i ly shou ld leave London?

2. Exp la i n why the governm ent d id not move away.

•

3. Why do you th i n k the roya l fa m i ly decided to stay?

Keeping th ings going: the roya l fa mi ly

Sou rce B From the m e m o i rs of S i r J o h n Colv i l le , a s e n i o r c iv i l se rva nt who worked i n t h e C a b i net Wa r Rooms

l t was w ide ly be l i eved that Lo n d o n wo u ld be red uced to r u b b le wi th i n m i n utes of wa r b e i n g dec lare d , as recent ly d e p i cted to a n a l a r m e d p o p u lace i n the f i lm o f H . G . We l l 's book ca l led The Shape of Things to Come and i t seemed as i f th is was i n d eed a bou t to h a p p e n .

These same fears expressed in Source B led civil servants to draw up plans to evacuate the royal family and important people and sections of the Civil Service. The plans were abandoned after a test run in 1938 led to chaos and lack of communication between these important parts of government. While King George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth decided to stay in London, they did send their daughters, Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II) and Margaret, to Windsor Castle in Berkshire, which was thought to be safer than central London. There had been plans to send the whole family to Canada, but these were abandoned.

Buckingham Palace was hit and damaged on the sixth night of the Blitz. In response, Queen Elizabeth said 'it makes me feel that I can look the East End in the face'.

Keeping th ings going: Dig For Victory

Source C Vegetable allotments in the moat of the Tower of London in June 1940


Source D Painting by Adrian Allinson , 1 9 42

Look closely at Sources D? and E . What differences • can you see between the

pictures?

Write a list of them , and

see if you can explain

each one .

Source E A photograph taken in 2 0 1 0 of the same place as Source D

The photo (Source E) was taken in 2010, and shows a large square in a wealthy part of London. The painting (Source D), by an artist called Adrian Allinson, is of a group of Auxiliary Fire Service volunteers who are working on an allotment garden in the same square in 1942 . Frustrations over shortages of vegetables, along with the fear that Britain needed to do more to feed itself, led the Ministry of Agriculture to announce a campaign which became known as 'Dig For Victory'. The ministry wanted people to turn their gardens into vegetable plots in which they could grow

their own food. The campaign was a success. Before the war there were around 700,000 plots, which doubled to almost 2 million by its end. Schools taught vegetable gardening as part of their lessons, and parks and city squares were dug over to make way for potatoes, onions and carrots. Many of these plots were in public parks, such as Hyde Park and around the Albert memorial in Kensington Gardens. Part of Victoria Park in Bethnal Green became a pig farm, as well as providing space for allotments. Even the moat of the Tower of London was given over to vegetable gardening.


Source F

G rowing vegeta bles in bom b sites In the East End, where the Dead End Kids lived, we have already seen that people were less likely to have a garden in which they could grow food. Though some East End gardens were turned into vegetable plots, other gardeners took advantage of the space created by the bombing to create new plots. The Bethnal Green Bombed Sites Producers Association produced their second 'Annual Report' in 1943, which tells us quite a lot about how the bombed sites were prepared, and the kind of 'production' that took place.

The leaflet discusses how the War Debris Survey lorries were used to take away rubble, and that poultry and rabbits had been bought by the Association and sold on to the members. One item also shows just how important the effort to grow food was to the Government. On 17June 1943 the Queen visited six sites run by the Association and after a few weeks one of her ladies in waiting wrote to the committee to say:

The Oueen wi l l be g ratefu l if you wi l l tha n k a l l t h ose w h o joined i n m a ki n g h e r visit so d e l i g htfu l a n d co n g ratu l ate the A l l otment H o l d e rs a n d Farmers on the s u ccess of the N atio n a l work they a re d o i n g .

There was lots of other advice available for those wanting to Dig for Victory and grow their own food. In January 1941 the government issued 'Dig For Victory Leaflet No. 1' and afterwards printed other guides about what to plant and when, and how to tackle pests and diseases. Demonstration gardens were set up in public parks, and every Sunday afternoon a radio programme called In your Garden gave more tips . One of the people recording their war diaries for Mass Observation went to one of these demonstration gardens.

Source G A M ass Observat i on d i a r ist reco rds a visit to

.A. Th is photo g ra p h from 1 942 shows boys in London clea r i n g a b o m b s i te to create a n a l lot m e n t . T h ey we re g o i n g to g row beans from seeds sent from Amer ica . Th i s photo g ra p h was p u b l i shed by t h e g ove r n m e n t 's M i n istry o f I n format i o n . I n what ways d i d i t p rovid e good propaganda to e n co u ra g e t h e wa r effort?

a vegetab le g a rd e n i n Hyd e Park [ada pted from www. masso bservat io n .a m d i g i t a L . eo. u k/D ocu m e nts/1 m a g es/ D i a r ist-50 98/1 258 )

I we nt a long to t he d e m o nstra t i on a l lotment i n Hyde Park to see how the crops were co m i n g o n . There was n o - o n e i n atte n d a nce th i s m o rn i n g , so I cou ld not get a ny t i ps o n g rowi n g c rops o n poor s o i l w i thout s p e n d i n g a fo rt u n e o n m a n u re . The b r o a d b e a n s a re d o i n g we l l , a n d I not iced s o m e sma l l Let tuces the Last t i m e I w a s there have g rown i n to enormous p la nts L i ke cabbages . [Wh e n back h o m e] I not iced a p i c t u re i n the Eve n i n g Sta n d a rd of M a ry G ray and sheep sheer i ng i n Hyde Park . M a ry was ty i n g u p the f leeces when I was there .

Developing you r e n q u i ry 1 . H ow usefu l is S o u rce G i n exp l a i n i n g how peop le l ea rned to g row more food for

themse lves? 2. What q u estions cou l d you ask to fo l l ow up th is sou rce?

3. What oth er sou rces m i g ht h e l p you to answer these q u estions? Why wou l d you use these sou rces?


Keeping th ings going: safeg uard ing a rt and im porta nt bu i ld i ngs Take another look a t the pictures on page 157 which you compared. You might have noticed the difference between the plinth in each picture. The statue of King William III on horseback has been removed in the painting. This and many other statues, such as Eros in Piccadilly, were removed and stored in safer places, or otherwise protected in order to avoid damage from bombs.

Sou rce H

.A. T h e sta tue of E ras , p rotected by a pyra m i d -shaped s h i e ld m a d e of s a n d bags a n d cove red i n wood

London was home to many art galleries and museums, such as the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert (V&A) Museum, which had thousands of pieces of important art in their collections. The V&A was open throughout the war, but many of its important pieces had been moved to a large country house in Somerset. Its ceramic art (pottery) was stored at the same Aldwych tube station that was used as an air raid shelter.

The museum was hit by bombs several times during the Blitz . It continued to hold exhibitions, encouraged by the Government, as part of the efforts to keep Londoners' morale at a high level but, as the originals had been sent into safe storage, most of the paintings were copies . Churchill himself stepped in to stop the National Gallery from sending its paintings abroad. The museum had planned to ship them to Canada, but instead they were sent to a quarry in Blaenau Ffestiniog in Wales for the duration of the War. At the gallery itself lunchtime concerts were held when Myra Hess, a famous pianist, suggested them. She had hoped that up to 500 people would come, but thousands of people queued to see musicians play more than a thousand concerts at the gallery during the war.

'MUSEUMS' AND if) • THE ARTS

1. Describe the measures ta ken to protect im portant pub l i c a rt and statues.

2. What d id a rt venues l i ke the V&A and the Nationa l G a l l e ry do to keep mora l e h igh d u ri ng the war?


1 .9 Conc l us ions: What have I lea rned a bout London the Second Wor ld Wa r?

.

1 n

I began this enquiry with a face - that of Sham us O'Brien, and some questions: Why was a young teenager like Shamus acting as a hero in bombed-out London? Why hadn't he been evacuated? Why didn't the officials send him and his friends into the underground shelters? These questions came out of the general knowledge I had about life in London during the Second World War, that there was an evacuation, that the East End was badly hit, and that many people spent months in the shelters . Writing this book has given me a chance to find out lots more, and given me access to sources that have helped me better understand how people lived.

So, what have I lea rned? 1. Many people expected London to be heavily attacked

within days of the outbreak of the Second World War. Millions were evacuated, and this evacuation started even before war was declared. The Phoney War that lasted between September 1939 and May 1940 was one reason why many of these evacuees came back.

2. Shelter provision where it wasn't possible to install Anderson Shelters was inadequate in the early days of the Blitz. Many people were hiding in surface shelters, which did not feel safe. This might explain why some, like the Dead End Kids, preferred to be outside, taking part in the defence of their houses.

3. The government did take action to improve shelter provision, but to a great extent they were led by many ordinary people taking matters into their own hands -at Underground stations, at the Savoy and at shelters like Mickey's Shelter.

4. Though the war took a great toll on people's lives, they had to find ways of carrying on with the business of living. Most people continued to make their way into work, to pick up the pieces, literally, when they were bombed out, and even to find ways of enjoying themselves when they got the chance.

What three th ings have you lea rnt a bout l ife i n London

d u ri ng the Second World Wa r?

� •

What did I learn a bout the Dead End Kids? What really interested me about the Dead End Kids was not just the bravery (and possibly their foolish bravery) in setting out to help fight fires, and deal with bombs. I wanted to know how this was possible. I have two children of my own, and my eldest is not much younger than Sham us O'Brien. I wondered how our family would react in the same circumstances. What I learned was that people don't always act in the safest ways. I also found out that these same ordinary people can do extraordinary things when they are faced with danger. The Kids were astoundingly brave, but they fitted into a larger picture in which volunteers, many of whom were children, worked hard to help other people throughout the war in London. Finally I found out that the official plans of the Government would not have been enough, on their own, to keep London working in the face of the Blitz.

What next? One of the reasons I chose to study and to teach history is that it is never 'done'. There are always new questions that can be followed up, and often there are new books, or new pieces of research to read, or even more sources to consider and fit into the jigsaw. The questions I would like to explore next are:

1. Did all Londoners decide that they 'could take it' - that they would raise a 'Blitz Spirit' and carry on?

2. What happened to the homeless - how were they re-housed?

3. What about after the war - how did London cope with the soldiers who returned from the fighting?

4. What happened to the Duggans, and the surviving Dead End Kids?

To find out the answers I need to think about what kinds of sources I could use. Which of the sources in the box might help me answer these questions?

D i a r i es

Loca l gove r n m e n t m a ps of d a m a g e d property

R e g i sters of b i rt hs , dea ths and m a rr i ages

G u i d a nce p r i n ted to h e l p b o m b e d - o u t fa m i l i es

N ews p a p e r a rt i c les

N ewsree ls

Gove r n m e nt s ta t i s t i cs

Records of C a b i net M eet i n g s


Visible lea rn ing : Review and Revise

This activity will help you practise asking questions and

choosing sources . This is a good activity to do with a partner,

so that you can share ideas .

1 Choose one of the topics in the pink box below. Write down

at least two questions you want to ask about it to deepen

your knowledge .

2 Look at the sources in the blue box. Select one source that

might help you answer your questions , and then explain

how it might do this . You could choose different sources for

each question .

Topics to find out more about

1 The ta rgets of the attack

4 Life fo r the ' l eft beh i nd ' k ids

7 S h e lte r d isaste rs

1 0 How mora le changed during the war

13 Worki ng i n the Cab inet Wa r rooms

Sources you could use

A M e m o i rs and autob iogra p h ies B Photographs C Loca l newspapers D Loca l co unc i l records E Centra l govern ment records F N ewspa pers

1 Test you rself

3 Repeat these steps for a t least one more topic .

2 Fa m i ly l ife

5 Life d u ri ng the b l ackout

8 The T i l b u ry she l te r

1 1 Dance h a l l s a n d c inema

1 4 H ow the l ives of women changed

G M ass O bservation reports to the Cab inet

H N ewsree ls I Reports a n d d i a ries from i nd ivid u a l

M ass O bservation vo l u nteers J Cinema posters

3 Evacuation - why so many returned

6 Saving St Pau l s

9 B o m b d isposa l

1 2 Damage to schoo l s a n d educat ion

1 5 H ow bus inesses coped with the war

K G overn m e nt propaganda posters L M a ps of bom b damage M Bus i ness accou nts

The more you ident ify what you 're not su re abo ut, the m o re chance you have of fi l l i ng those g a ps a n d do ing we l l i n the exa m . H ow m a ny of these can you get r ig ht?

1 What was a n ARP warden? 2 Why is the census not yet m u ch 3 What was a n i ncend i a ry? use for h i sto r ians i nvestigat ing the Second Wo r ld Wa r?

4 Exp l a i n 'fi re spotti ng '. 5 What d iffe rent mean i ngs d id the 6 Why was the East End a part icu l a r p h rase 'dead end k ids' have? ta rg et fo r the Luftwaffe?

7 Which a reas were more l i ke to 8 Exp l a i n th ree d iffe rent ways i n 9 Exp l a i n the three phases of the have Anderson S h e lte rs? wh ich Londoners p repared for attacks on Lond o n .

attack.

10 Why did the govern ment come 1 1 List th ree ways i n wh i ch t he 12 What d id 'D ig for Victory' mean? u n d e r p ressu re to i m p rove govern ment tr ied to a) measure she l te rs? a n d b) i m p rove m ora le .

•

I ntrod ucing the exa m Simply knowing a lot of content is not enough to achieve a good grade in your GCSE History exam. You need to know how to write effective answers to the questions. Pages 165-76 give you an insight into the exam and provide guidance on how to approach the different questions. This page and page 163 introduce the structure of Paper 1 of

your exam. The guidance on page 163 and on page 164 helps you approach your exam with confidence.

Paper 1 is divided into two sections. Section A covers the s tudy of a historic environment on London and the Second World War, 1939-45. Section B covers the thematic s tudy of Warfare and British society c .1250-present.

Pa per 1 : Thematic study and h istoric envi ronment

Option 1 1 : Wa rfa re a n d B ritish society, c.1 250-present a n d London a n d t h e Second World Wa r, 1 939-45

Time: 1 hour 1 5 minutes You must have: ______. Source Book let (enc losed)

I nstructions e----. • Answer Questions 1 and 2 from Section A.

� • From Section B, answer Questions 3 and 4 and then EITH ER Quest ion 5 OR Quest ion 6 .

V I nformation

• The tota l m a rk fo r th i s paper is 52 . e----. • The m a rks for each q u estion a re shown i n brackets .

o----. 1 . SECTION A: London and the Second World War, 1 939-45

Answer Questions 1 and 2. Descri be two featu res of she lters wh ich cou l d m a ke them dangerous or u n hea lthy p l aces to she lte r from bomb ing d u ri ng the B l itz.

Featu re 1

Featu re 2 (Tota l for Question 1 = 4 ma rks)

� 2. (a) Study Sou rces A a n d B i n the S o u rce Book let.

o �

H ow usefu l a re Sou rces A a n d B (from page 1 67) fo r a n enq u i ry i nto the fea rs that m a ny Londoners had at the sta rt of the Second Wor ld Wa r?

Exp l a i n you r a nswer, us ing S o u rces A a n d B and yo u r know ledge of the h i sto rica l context. (8 ma rks)

(b) Study S o u rce B .

H ow co u l d yo u fo l l ow u p S o u rce B to fi nd out more a bout how peop le p repared the i r ho uses fo r

the b l ackout?

I n you r a nswer, yo u m u st g ive the q u estion you wo u l d ask a n d the type of sou rce you co u l d use .

Com p lete the ta b l e be low: (4 m a rks)

Deta i l i n S o u rce B that I wou l d fo l l ow u p: ______________________ _

Qu estion I wou l d ask :

What type of so u rce I cou l d use:

H ow th is m i g ht h e l p answer my q u estion :

(Tota l for Question 2 = 12 ma rks)

TOTAL FOR SECTION A = 1 6 MARKS

Part 3: Writ ing better h istory

SECTION B: Wa rfare and British society, c.1 250-present

Answer Qu estions 3 and 4 . Then answer E ITH E R Question 5 OR 6.

o----. 3. Exp l a i n one way i n wh ich civi l i ans' exper iences of wa rfa re i n Eng land d u ri ng the H u n d red Yea rs' Wa r (1 337-1 453) were s im i l a r to civ i l i a ns' exper ience of the Civi l Wa rs i n Eng l and (1 642-49). (4 ma rks)

e----. 4. Exp l a i n why recru itm ent to the Army in B rita i n changed between 1 700 a n d 1 900 . (1 2 m a rks)

Yo u may use the fo l l ow ing in yo u r answer:

• N a po leon ic Wa rs (1 803-1 5) • Cardwe l l 's Army reforms

Yo u m ust a l so use informat ion of yo u r own .

Answer EITH ER Question 5 OR Question 6.

Spel l ing, punctuation, grammar and the use of special ist terminology wil l be assessed in this question.

E ITH ER

� 5. 'The use of m uskets was the m a i n reason for changes i n the nature of wa rfa re d u ri n g the per iod 1 500 to 1 700. '

OR

H ow fa r d o you a g ree? Exp l a i n you r a nswer.

Yo u may use the fo l l ow ing i n yo u r answer:

• the use of m usket a n d p ike sq u a res in the Eng l ish Civ i l Wa rs • the esta b l i s hment of the N ew Mode l Army (1 645)

Yo u m ust a l so use i n fo rm at ion of yo u r own .

(1 6 m a rks)

6. 'The F i rst Wor ld Wa r re presented a major change in the way that G overn ment recru ited so ld ie rs between c.1 800-c.2000. '

H ow fa r d o yo u a g ree? Exp l a i n you r answer.

Yo u may use the fo l l ow ing i n yo u r answer:

• conscr ipt ion • propaganda a n d fi nanc i a l i ncentives fo r recru its

Yo u m ust a l so use informat ion of yo u r own .

(1 6 m a rks)

(Tota l for spel l ing, punctuation, grammar and the use of specia l ist terminology = 4 ma rks)

(Tota l for Question 5 or 6 = 20 ma rks)

Timing tip It is important to time yourself carefully. One hour and fifteen minutes sounds a long time but it goes very quickly! Some students run out of time because they spend too long on Section A, thinking that it is worth spending half their time on this Section. However, Section A is worth 16 marks whereas Section B is worth 36 marks. The final two questions of Section B are worth more marks than all the other questions put together. This shows the importance of having a time plan and sticking to it.

Look at the plan to the right. You could use this plan or develop your own and check it with your teacher.

O ve�tion � 1 and 2 app rox. 25 mi n vte� O ve�ti on � "S and If approx. 25 mi n vte� Either O ve�ti on 5 or G, app rox. 25 m i n vte�


Pla n n ing for success

0 TH E SOU RCE BOO KLET The exam paper on pages 162 and 163 gives you an idea what your exam will look like. We have not included the Source Booklet. For practice use the sources and activities in Part 2 of this book (pages 1 12-61) . Make sure you spend time reading and annotating the sources before you attempt Question 2 in the exam.

0 FOLLOW I N STRU CTI O N S CAREFU LLY Read the instructions very carefully. Some students miss questions they need to answer while others waste time answering more questions than they need to answer. Remember to answer b oth parts of Question 2 and to choose between EITHER Question 5 OR 6. You will also see that for Question 1 you need to describe two key features whereas with Question 3 you only need to explain one way in which people's reactions were similar.

0 TH I N K CAREFU LLY ABOUT WH I C H

QU EST I O N YO U CH OOSE After Questions 1 , 2, 3 and 4 , you need to decide whether to answer Question 5 or Question 6. Do not rush your decision. Think carefully about which question you will perform best on. Plan your answer - it is worth 16 marks, nearly a third of the total marks for the paper.

8 S P E N D TI M E D E-CO D I N G QU ESTI O N S The marks for each question are shown i n brackets. This gives you an idea of how much you need to write, as does the space for your answer on the exam paper. However, do not panic if you do not fill all the space. There will probably be more space than you need and the quality of your answer is more important than how much you write. The most important thing is to keep focused on the question. If you include information that is not relevant to the question you will not gain any marks, no matter how much you write !

Read each question carefully before you to start to answer it. Use the advice on de-coding questions on page 165 to make sure you focus on the question.

0 D ESCR I B I N G KEY FEATU RES The first question asks you to describe two features of an aspect of the historic environment you have studied. Headings on the exam paper help you write about each feature separately. Advice on how to gain high marks is on pages 174-176.

0 EVALUATI N G TH E U S E F U LN ESS OF A

SOU RCE This question asks you to evaluate how useful two sources are for a specific enquiry. Use the Source Booklet to annotate the sources. Make sure you use your own knowledge to place

the source in its historical context. This is a challenging task. Page 167 explains how to approach this question.

0 FOLLOWI N G U P A SOU RCE This question has four parts. You need to fill in the table on the exam paper. provides advice on this question.

0 EXPLO R I N G S I M I LARIT I ES O R

D I FFERENCES B ETWE E N TWO P E R I O DS This is the first question that tests you on your knowledge and understanding of Warfare from c.1250 to the present. It will usually ask you to explain a similarity or a difference between the key features of two different periods. Page 169 explains how to answer this question.

0 EXPLAI N I N G WHY WAR FARE CHAN G ED

(O R STAYED TH E SAM E) Questions such as this test your ability to write effective explanations. You may be asked to explain why warfare progressed so quickly or why there was little change during a period. Pages 170-71 help you write a good answer to this question.

G) U S I N G TH E STI M U LU S MATERIAL When you attempt Question 4 and either Question 5 or 6 you will have bullet points as stimulus material to help plan your answer. You do not have to include them but try to use them to get you thinking and to support your arguments. You must bring in your own knowledge too. If you only use the stimulus material you will not gain high marks for your answer.

4D MAKI N G J U DG E M ENTS This question carries the most marks and requires a longer answer that needs careful planning. You will be provided with a statement. It may be about the pace of change in a period (for example Question 5) or the significance of an individual or a discovery (for example Question 6). Pages 172-73 provides advice on answering this question.

4!) CH ECKI N G TH E QUALITY O F YO U R

WRITI N G Make sure you leave five minutes at the end o f the exam to check your answers. If you are short of time check your answer to the final question first as spelling, punctuation, grammar and use of specialist terminology are assessed in this question. You can gain 4 additional marks on this question - page 173 provides advice on what to focus on. However, remember that the accuracy of your spelling, punctuation and grammar is important in all questions as it affects the clarity of your answer.

De-cod ing exa m q uestions The examiners are not trying to catch you out: they are giving you a chance to show what you know - and what you can do with what you know. However, you must stick to the question on the exam paper. Staying focused on the question is crucial. Including information that is not relevant or misreading a question and writing about the wrong topic wastes time and gains you no marks.

To stay focused on the question you will need to practise how to 'de-code' questions. This is particularly important for Section B of the exam paper. Follow these five steps to success:

Step 1 Read the question a couple of times. Then look at how many marks the question is worth. This tells you how much you are expected to write. Do not spend too long on questions only worth a few marks. Remember it is worth planning the 12- and 16 -mark questions.

Step 2 Identify the conceptual focus of the question. What is the key concept that the question focuses on? Is it asking you to look at: • the signifi cance of a discovery or individual • causation - the reasons why an event or development

happened • similarities - between the key features of different

periods • change - the extent of change or continuity, progress

or stagnation during a period?

The date boundaries for the question are 1800-2000. If you

include references to events in the eighteenth century you will

waste time and not pick up any additional marks.


Step 3 Spot the question type. Are you being asked to: • des crib e the key features of a period • explain similarities between periods or why

something happened • evaluate how useful a source or collection of sources

lS • reach a judgement as to how far you agree with a

particular statement.

Each question type requires a different approach. Look for key words or phrases that help you work out which approach is needed. The phrase 'How far do you agree?' means you need to weigh the evidence for and against a statement before reaching a balanced judgement. 'Explain why' means that you need to explore a range of reasons why an event happened or why the pace of change during a period was fast or slow.

Step 4 Identify the content focus. What is the area of content or topic the examiner wants you to focus on?

Step 5 Look carefully at the date b oundaries of the question. What time period should you cover in your answer? Stick to this carefully or you will waste time writing about events that are not relevant to the question.

Look at the exam question below. At first glance it appears this question is just about the cavalry charge. This shows the danger of not de-coding a question carefully. If you simply describe what nuclear weapons were you will not get many marks as you are still not focusing on the actual question.

The conceptual focus is significance - you need to

reach a judgement on how far the First World War

represented a 'major change' in recruitment.

6. 'The F i rst Wor ld Wa r re presented a m ajor change in the way that

G overnment recru ited so ld i e rs between c.1 800-c.2000.' 16 mar ks are availa ble - this

means the question requires an

extended answer. lt is definitely

worth p lanning this answer !

The content focus is more than

just the First World War. lt is

exploring a wider theme - the

nature of recruitment.

Practice questions

The phrase 'How far d o you agree?' means that this question requires you t o reach a

judgement about the statement in quotation marks. This means analysing the impact of

the First World War on recruitment. lt a lso means weighing its significance against other

important developments in recruitment such as Card we ll 's reforms.

Look at the other q uestions in Section B of the exa m paper on page 1 63 .

B reak each q uestion down i nto the five steps and check you have de-coded the q u estion effective ly.


Describ ing key featu res of a period 'Describe' questions only carry 4 marks s o it i s important to get to the point quickly s o you do not waste precious time that is needed for questions that carry 12 or 16 marks.

Look at the question below.

1 . Descri be two featu res of the she lters wh ich cou l d m a ke them dangerous or u n hea lthy p l aces to she lter from bomb ing d u ri n g the B l itz. (4 ma rks)

Featu re 1 : __ _

Featu re 2 : -------------------------------------------------------------

Tip 1 : Stay re leva nt to the question One major problem with 'Describe' questions i s that students write too much! They include details that are not relevant to the question. Make sure you stick to the question - describe two key features of the shelters which could make them dangerous or unhealthy places to shelter from bombing during the Blitz.

If you write too much you could run out of time later in the exam when you are answering questions that are worth a lot more marks and need longer answers .

Ti p 2: Keep it short and simple You can get 2 marks by simply identifying two features of the shelters that made them dangerous.

You do not need to:

• include more than two features (extra features will gain you no more marks)

For each feature you identify add a sentence that adds further detail and develops your answer.

• evaluate and reach a judgement as to how unhealthy or dangerous the shelters were during the Blitz.

Look at the example below. Then practise your technique by tackling the examples in the practice question box.

Key feature 1 i dent if ied Many people sheltered i n

surface shelters wh ich d i d n 't offer much protect ion .

Key feature 2 i dent if ied Some shelters were n ot well des igned , and th is

made them u n safe .

Practice questions

./ 1 mark

./ 1 mark

Answer developed - Surface shelters could easily catch fire or collapse if bombs

landed too close to them.

Answer developed -At Beth nal Green tube stat ion

i n March 1943 too many people tr ied to get i nto the

shelter at once and 173 people were crushed to

death i n the pan ic .

./ 1 mark

./ 1 mark

1. Descri be two featu res of Anderson S h e lters that meant not a l l Londoners had one . 2. Descri be two featu res of V2 bom bs that made them very dangerous . 3 . Descri be two featu res of M ickey's She lter wh ich made it a better p l ace to she l te r.

4. Descri be two featu res of London that made it a ta rg et fo r attack d u ri ng the B l itz . 5. Descri be two featu res of how dance h a l l s h e l ped i m p rove mora l e i n London d u ri n g the

Second Wor ld Wa r.

6. Describe two featu res of the Cabinet War Rooms that made them important du ring the Second World War.

7. Descri be two featu res of p ropaganda used to i m p rove Londoners' mora le .

REMEM BER

Stay focused and keep it short a n d s imp le . Fou r sentences a re enough for fou r m a rks.


Eva l uating the usefu l n ess of sou rces In Section A of the exam you will be asked to evaluate the value of a source for a specific enquiry. Look at the example below.

. . . . • . . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . • • . . • . . • . . . . . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .

. . : 2. a) Study Sources A and B . H ow usefu l a re Sou rces A : : a n d B fo r a n enq u i ry i nto the fea rs that m a ny : : Londoners had at the sta rt of the Second Wor ld Wa r? :

Exp l a i n yo u r a nswer, us i ng Sou rces A and B and you r own knowledge o f t h e h istorica l context. ( 8 m a rks)

You should annotate the sources in the booklet before you start to write your answer. Also, to evaluate effectively we need to use criteria. Use the criteria opposite to help you.

Source A From a young woman 's d iary, written i n September and then November 1 939 for the Mass Observat ion orga nisat ion , from Love and War in London: the Mass

Observation Wartime Diary of Olivia Crockett, pub lished in 2008

Put u p b lack c u rta i n s . N ot iced that house next d o o r, i n h a b i ted by refugee J ews is br i l l i a nt ly l i t . [. . . ] we nt ou t a f ter s u p p e r w i th Fath e r to work ou t where loca l A R P post i s . Wa lked t h ro u g h black streets , p o u r i n g ra i n , m ostly eery [. . . ] Fe lt m o re cheerfu l t ry i n g o n gas mask wi th s isters i n front m i rro r. M o m enta r i ly forgetf u l r i ba ld la u g hter. I sha l l t h i nk gas masks a re i n c re d i b ly f u n ny u nt i l I have to use o n e i n ea rnest . B l ack i ng ou t has been a n a l m ost u n -solva ble prob lem i n a house wi th ston e s u rro u n d s to the w i n d ow. The [ . . . ] use of n a i ls a n d d rawi n g p i n s is d efeated a n d the p ro b le m has been at tacked i n so many ways that t he v is i t o f a you n g consta b le l as t n i g ht dec lar i ng the b lackou t was u nsat isfactory red u ced the m o re h i g h ly-stru n g m e m b e rs o f the househo ld to a n i m p otent hyste r i ca l o u t b u rst .

Source B A woman recalls the Anderson Shelter a rrivi ng at her house d u ri ng a n i nterview for a n oral h istory project from The War on Our Doorstep by Harriet Sal isbury, published in 2012 .

And dad was cari n g , sens ib le , looked after h is b i ts and p ieces, loved h is g a rden . l t b roke h is heart when he had to tea r it a l l up and put a n a ir ra id shelter down there when the wa r came. They sa id 'you 've got a shelter, you have to put it i n you r back garden . ' But he sa id ' ifs me g a rden ' a n d they sa id 'well you know we've issued it out to you , you do it ' . Anyhow he m ust have thought , th is is - he 'd been through the F i rst World Wa r. He must have thought th is is someth i ng I 've got to do .

REMEM BER

The question is asking you how usefu l the sources are, not how useless they are. There wi l l not be any sources that a re com plete ly useless. Try not to get bogged down te l l i ng the examiner just what is wrong with a source. Look at the strengths of each source as we l l as considering any l im itations. Try to beg in and end you r answer positive ly. Start your answer by h igh l ight ing how each source helps us with this enqu i ry.

D Criteria 1 : Consider the content of the sou rce

Highlight or underline useful information for the enquiry in both sources. Make sure you judge how useful it is for the enquiry specified in the question. For this question the sources need to help us understand the fears that many Londoners had at the start of the Second World War. Start your answer by highlighting how each source helps us with this enquiry.

D Criteria 2: Consider the p rovenance of each sou rce

Look at the captions provided above the sources. Think carefully about the following key questions and the impact that this might have on how useful the source is .

• What is the nature of the s ource?

What type of source is it? How does this affect its utility? For example, a private letter or diary can be useful because the person usually gives his or her honest view.

• What are the origins of the s ource?

Who produced it? Are they likely to have a good knowledge of the events they talk about? Are they likely to give a one-sided view?

• What is the purpos e of the s ource?

Why was it produced? How might this affect the reliability of the source? For example, a politician's speech or a newspaper report might be produced for propaganda purposes - to encourage people to keep going or to down-play the fears that people had.

D Criteria 3: Use you r own knowledge of the historica l context to eva luate the sou rce

Compare the information and key messages contained in the source with your own knowledge of the enquiry topic. Do the CAT test. Ask yourself these three key questions:

• How �omprehensive is the source? Does it have any limitations? What does it miss out?

• How �ccurate is the source? Does it 'match' what you know about the topic?

• How typical is the source? Were the feelings described common among Londoners, did the events described happen regularly in London, or are they unusual and untypical of what went on for the majority of the time?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

: Practice questions :

.

You can fi nd sou rces with p ractice q u estions on pages

1 3 1 , 1 39 and 1 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Fo l lowing u p so u rces One of the key aims of this book is to help you understand how we use the enquiry process to research history. As we said on pages 1 13-114, asking the right historical questions is a crucial part of enquiry and historical research. Exam questions like the one below provide you with the opportunity to show the enquiry skills you have been developing throughout the book.

. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . "' . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . ..

. .

2. b) H ow cou l d you fo l l ow u p Source E (page 1 30) to fi nd out more a bout how peop le prepared the i r houses fo r the b lackout? I n you r answer, you m ust g ive the q uestion you wou l d ask and the type of source you cou ld use. Comp lete the ta b le be low. (4 ma rks)

• Detail in Source E that I would follow up: ______________ _

• Question I would ask:

• What type of source I could use:

• How this might help answer my question: ---·

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The key tip with this question is to make sure that the four different parts of your answer link together.

Step 1 : L ink the deta i l to the enqu i ry

Sta rt by identify ing the focus for the enqu i ry - in th is case how peop le prepared the i r houses fo r the b lackout. M a ke su re that the deta i l you say that you wou l d fo l l ow u p is l i n ked to th is enqu i ry. For exam p le, if Sou rce E mentioned how d ifficu l t it was to stop l ight com ing th rough windows, you cou l d identify th is as a deta i l that you wou ld fo l l ow u p as th is is l i n ked to the main enqu i ry.

�

s Step 2: Link the question to the deta i l

The q u est ion yo u choose m ust be l i n ked to the deta i l yo u a re fo l l ow ing u p from the sou rce. Do not s i m p ly choose a n i nte resti ng q u estion u n re l ated to the enq u i ry! I f we were fo l l ow ing up the deta i l a bout b l ack ing out w indows, we cou l d use ' H ow d id peop le sto p l i g ht from com i n g out of the i r w ind ows' as o u r q u estion .

� m �

Step 3: Link the type of source to the question

Yo u now need to choose a type of source that wou l d be usefu l fo r fo l l ow ing up that q u estio n . Look at the l i st i n the box o pposite. M a ke su re yo u choose a source that wou l d h e l p with t h e q u estion . F o r exa m p le, i n th i s case su rveys b y Mass O bservation m i g ht g ive us a usefu l i n s ight i nto h ow peop le tr ied to prepared the i r houses fo r the b l ackout .

�. ·� � �

Step 4: Link this with you r own knowledge

Do not forget to exp la in the advantages of us ing th is type of source and l i nk it to the enqu i ry. The sou rce type mentioned above wou ld be particu larly usefu l as they suggest that people fe lt that it was very d ifficu lt to fu l ly b lackout their houses, and how ARP wardens checked their prepa rations. However, the ca rtoon shown in the source cannot exp la in in deta i l the steps that people took to b lackout their homes.

REMEM BER

Th is q u estion is o n ly worth 4 m a rks. Do not go i nto deta i led exp l anat ions of why you ch ose to fo l l ow up with a part icu l a r type of sou rce - you do not have t ime . One or two sentences wi l l be fi ne .

Practice questions Yo u ca n fi nd sou rces with practice q u estions on

pages 1 3 1 , 1 39 and 1 53 .

Different types of sources

Nationa l records • G overnm ent

records • N ewspa pers • Mass

Observation reports

• N ewsree l s • M e m o i rs

Loca l records • Person a l accou nts • Person a l

photog raphs • Loca l newspapers • Loca l counc i l

record


Exp loring si m i la rities between the key featu res of two d ifferent periods Question 3 i s the first question that tests your knowledge and understanding of the thematic study on Warfare and British society, c .l250 -present. Remember this is where de-coding questions comes in useful. Look at the question below.

This is an 'explain' question. However, as

it is only worth 4 marks, you only have

to explain one similarity.

This question has a very specific content focus. To save time ma ke sure you stay

relevant - on ly write about civilians' experiences during the two wars mentioned

by the question. There is no need to go into the background of the two wars.

Exp l a i n one way in wh ich civi l i a ns' exper iences of wa rfa re in Eng l and d u ri ng the

H u n d red Yea rs' Wa r (1 337-1 453) were s i m i l a r to civi l i a ns' exper ience of the

Civ i l Wa rs i n E n g l a n d (1 642-49) . (4 m a rks)

The date boundaries are

crucial. You m ust focus on

the right case studies

the H undred Years' War

(1337-1453) and the

Civil Wars (1642-49).

The conceptual focus of this

question is 'similarities' - the

ability to be able to compare

different periods of history and

spot similarities.

The first thing to notice is that the

question is on ly worth 4 marks. it is

important that you are clear on the focus

of the question so that you can keep your

answer short and to the point.

Expla in ing s imi la rities between t ime periods As this i s an 'explain' question you must do more than simply identify a similarity. You will need to support your answer with specific details - a good motto is 'prove' don't 'say'. Would your explanation convince the reader that there was a similarity between the ways that civilians in England experienced wars that were almost 300 years apart?

For example you might 'say' that one similarity between civilian experiences of the two wars was that food was requisitioned from civilians. However, this would not get you high marks. Instead you need to prove your big point about food requisitioning by providing supporting information and 'killer evidence'.

• BIG POINT - With a question only worth 4 marks do not spend time on an introduction. Start your answer with your 'big point' - in this case that civilians were expected to provide food for troops.

I • SUPPORTING INFORMATION - You need to develop your initial 'big point' or

argument. You could explain how in both periods food was requisitioned from civilians to feed troops.

t • KILLER EVIDENCE - You now need to prove that this was the case by providing

specific examples from each time period. For the later Middle Ages you could refer to the custom of purveyance or prise which permitted the monarch to forcibly buy up food for his armies (often at low prices). For the seventeenth century you might talk about requisitioning of food in villages like Myddle, and the issue of'free quarter' tickets which were given to civilians by the authorities in order to compensate them (although often late or not very well) for their provision of food and shelter to troops.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

Practice questions You c a n fi nd fu rther

p ractice q u estions on pages 29, 51 a n d 76 .

REMEM BER

You s h o u l d o n ly be spend ing a ro u n d five m i n utes on th is q u estion . Keep you r answer focused on exp l a i n i n g one way in wh ich people behaved or reacted i n a s im i l a r way. Do not l i st l ots of s i m i l a rit ies .


Tackl ing 1 2-mark exp la in q uestions Look at the question below.

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . .

4. Exp l a i n why recru itment to the Army in B rita i n changed between 1 700 a n d 1 900 .

You may use the following in your answer: • the Napoleonic Wars (1 803-1 5) •

You must also use information of your own.

(1 2 m a rks)

Cardwell's Army reforms

This question is different in two ways from Question 3 on page 169. Firstly, the conceptual focus is different - in this case the key concept is causation (explaining why an event took place or explaining the pace of change). Secondly, this question is worth 12 marks. The examiner will expect you to give a range of reasons why recruitment to the army changed between 1750 and 1900 .

I t is important to spend time planning this question during your exam. Follow the steps below to help you plan effectively and produce a good answer.

Step 1 : Get focused on the question

Step 2: Identify a range of factors

.

M a ke su re yo u de-code the q u estion ca refu l ly. N ote that the content focus is on recru itment, so you do not need to exp l a i n a bout the tra i n i n g of com bata nts. Try to cover more than one cause. I f you r mind goes b l ank a lways go back to the key

factors that i nfl uence change in wa rfa re (see page 8). The sti m u l u s bu l let points can a lso he lp you . For exam ple , i n the q uestion above, the reference to Cardwe l l 's Reforms shows how Govern ment and i nd ividua l s p l ayed a key ro l e in cha ng ing recru itm ent. H owever, do not re ly just on the b u l l et points, remember to br i ng i n you r own knowledge as we l l .

Step 3: Organ ise your answer using paragraphs

Do not worry about a l ong i ntrod uction . One or two senten ces a re more than e n o u g h a n d yo u can u s e words from the q u estio n . Look a t the exa m p l e be low. N ote h o w t h e student has b u i l t a short i ntroduct ion i nto the fi rst para g raph w h i c h focuses on the ro l e p l ayed by the N a po leon ic Wa rs .

One important reason for the changes in recruitment was the Napoleonic Wars which significantly increased the need for recruits (particularly of infantry) .

Aim to start a n ew paragraph each t ime yo u m ove onto a new factor that caused change . S ign post you r a rg u ment at the sta rt of the para g ra p h . For exa m p le, yo u cou l d sta rt you r next para g raph l i ke th is :

The actions of Government and individuals also played an im portant role in influencing developments in recruitment.

Step 4: Do not 'say' that a factor was important - 'prove' it was

Remember that a l ist of reasons why recru itment to the a rmy changed w i l l not get you a h igh - leve l ma rk. You need to prove you r case for each factor. Th is means deve lop ing you r exp lanat ion by add ing su pporti ng i nformation and specific exam ples (ki l l e r evidence).

This is where you r work on connectives w i l l come in usefu l . Look aga in at the advice on page 28 and remember to tie what you know to the q uestion by us ing con nectives such as 'th is meant that', 'th is led to' and 'th is resu lted in '. For examp le, you may want to bu i ld on the open ing to you r fi rst paragraph by us ing the examp le of the increase in the use of recruitment pa rties, bou nties and kid nap by crimps as a way to show how the Napoleon ic Wars im pacted on recru itment. Look at how the student be low sta rts to prove a point.

The Napoleonic Wars caused changes in recruitment because the lengthy wars created a massive need for infantrymen which led to a greater use of recruitment parties who offered bounty payments to men to encourage them to enlist.

Explain why changes took place in the recruitment of com batants

in the Middle Ages.

Step 5: End you r answer with a thoug htfu l concl usion

Keep you r conc lus ion short. A good conc lus ion makes the overa l l a rg u m ent c lea r - it is not a deta i l ed summary of everyth ing you have a l ready written ! M a ke it c lear wh ich factor p layed the m ost i m portant ro le . You may want to show how it l i n ks to other factors .


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Practice questions Yo u ca n fi nd fu rth er

p ractice q u est ions on

pages 29, 51 a n d 76 .

REMEM BER

Do not try to cover too m a ny facto rs that led to change . Se lect wh ich factors yo u ca n m a ke the strongest a rg u m ent fo r. Rem e m ber i n the exa m yo u wou l d have a p p roxi m ate ly 1 5 m i n utes to answer this q u estion .

.


M a king judgements - tackl i ng the 16-mark q uestion The last question on the exam paper carries the most marks and requires a carefully planned, detailed answer. You will be provided with a statement in quotation marks and be asked to reach a judgement about how far you agree with it. The phrase 'how far' is important as it is unlikely that you will totally agree or disagree with the statement. The examiner will be looking for you to show that you can weigh the evidence for and against the statement.

Look at the example below. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

5. 'The use of m uskets was the m a i n reason for changes in the nature of wa rfa re d u ri ng the per iod 1 500 to

1 700. ' H ow fa r do you a g ree? Exp l a i n you r a nswer.

(1 6 m a rks)

Yo u m ay use the fo l l ow ing in yo u r answer: • The use of musket and pike squares in the English

Civil Wars • The establishment of the New Model Army (1 645)

You must also use information of your own.

(Tota l fo r spe l l i ng , p u n ctu ation , g ra m m a r a n d the use of speci a l ist term ino logy = 4 m a rks)

(Tota l fo r Question 5 = 20 m a rks)

Step 1 : Focus

.

In this example, you are being asked to reach a judgement on the reasons for changes in warfare in early modern Britain. So you could explore our main themes and use the following criteria:

• Was the use of muskets the main change that took place in weapons in this period?

• Was the use of muskets the main reason for changes in the composition of armies?

Step 3: Orga n ise There are two ways of organising your answer.

Approach 1: Write ab out one criterion in each paragraph:

• Paragraph 1 - Evaluate the extent to which changes in weapons were brought about by the use of muskets or other factors (weigh the evidence for and against) .

• Paragraph 2 - Evaluate the extent to which changes in the composition of armies were caused by the use of muskets or other factors (weigh the evidence for and against).

• Paragraph 3 - Your final conclusion - weigh the evidence - how far do you agree with the statement?

Approach 2: The simplest is to plan 'for' and 'against' paragraphs:

• Paragraph 1 - Evidence to support the statement (make sure that you use the criteria - the use of muskets was the main reason for changes in weapons and the composition of armies (including tactics)) .

The content focus is important - you have to reach a judgement on the nature of warfare in early modern Britain. This includes information about the weapons and composition of armies, including the number, type and tactics of troops. The • conceptual focus is on causation. You have to evaluate the extent

Paragraph 2 - Evidence to counter the statement (once again use the criteria)

to which the use of muskets was the main reason for changes in the nature of warfare, 1500 to 1700. You need to bring in other reasons for changes. The stimulus bullet points in the question can help you, but you must also bring in at least one cause of your own. Remember that it is important to cover the full timescale set within the question.

Step 2: Identify In 16-mark questions you are required to reach a judgement on a statement. In order to do this effectively you need to identify clear criteria for reaching that judgement. Just as you need to cover a range of factors in 'explain' questions, you need to cover a range of criteria in 'judgement' questions.

Possible criteria for reaching a judgement:

• If you are judging the importance of an individual or weapon you could analyse and evaluate the immediate impact, the short-term impact and the long-term impact.

• If you are judging the extent of change you could analyse and evaluate how much changed or how rapidly things changed or whether change was long lasting and permanent.

• Paragraph 3 - Your final conclusion - weigh the evidence - how far do you agree with the statement?

Step 4: Prove Remember to tie what you know to the question. Do not include information and think that it will speak for itsel£ Some students think that simply dropping in examples to the right paragraphs is enough. One of the stimulus points refers to the musket and pike squares in the English Civil Wars. The following statement from a student could be further developed and gain more marks.

The use of muskets had a big impact on the nature of warfare because musket and pike squares were used during the English Civil Wars.

This does not prove that the use of the musket changed the nature of warfare. To gain more marks, the student would need to go on to explain that pike and musket squares represented a change in tactics and that they were brought about by the use of the musket.


Step 5: Concl ude Your conclusion i s a crucial part o f your answer. You have been asked to reach a judgement on a statement. You need to clearly state how far you agree with it and your reason why. It would be easy to sit on the fence and avoid reaching a final conclusion. But sitting on the fence is a dangerous position. Your answer collapses and you lose marks.

Instead of sitting on the fence, you need to be confident and reach an overall judgement. Imagine that you have placed the evidence on a set of scales. How far do they tip in favour of the statement or against it?

You can then move on in your conclusion to explain your judgement. Do not repeat everything you have already written. Think of the scales - what are the heaviest pieces of evidence on each side? Build these into your conclusion in the following way:

I J U DG E M ENT - Sta rt with you r Judgement - try to I i ncorporate words from the q uestion into th is sentence. To a large extent, I agree that the use of muskets was the main reason for changes in the nature of warfare in the ea rly modern period.

t The role of government and ind ividuals also changed the

nature of warfare. For example, the New Model Army i mpacted I COUNTER - S how that you are awa re that there is some I evidence to counter th is and g ive the best examp le .

on the composition of arm ies with its increased emphasis on sk i l l and discipl ine in the a ppointment of offiers.

t However, the use of muskets was the main reason for changes in

the nature of warfare since they represented the greatest change

I SUPPORT - Exp la in why, overa l l , you have reached the I judgement you have. G ive you r key reason or reasons why .

in weapons during this period and had the biggest i mpact on the tactics of warfare and the com position of the a rm ies.

. . . . • . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • •

. .

Practice questions Yo u c a n fi nd fu rth er p ractice q u est ions on

pages 29, 51 a n d 76 .

REMEM BER

Leave enough t ime to check you r answer ca refu l ly fo r spe l l i ng , 0 p u n ctuat ion a n d g ra m m a r.

Fou r cruc ia l ma rks a re ava i l ab le (th is is as m uch as you r answer to Question 1 , 2b or 3) . 1il!!!

• You wi l l be ma rked for the accu racy of you r spe l l i ng and pu nctuation . \ • You w i l l a lso be marked for you r g rammar - Does you r work make sense? Are you r a rg u m e nts c lear?

• F i na l ly, the exa m i n e r wi l l cons ider you r use of 'speci a l ist terms' - have yo u used a w ide ra nge of h i sto rica l te rms?


What a re the key i n g red ients of effective writing in G CS E h istory? The language you use to express your ideas is very important. One of the ways to get better at history is to be more precise with your use oflanguage. For example, rather than simply saying that you agree or disagree with a statement you can use language that shows whether you agree to a large extent or only to some extent. Look at the different shades of argument below and experiment with using some of the phrases. Use them when you are debating or discussing in class .

Thi n king ca refu l ly about the language you use

Tentative l a n g uage

Strong l a n g uage

Va rying your language to show how fa r you agree with a Va rying you r language to show how important a factor/ statement: cause is:

I tota l l y/ent i re ly/com p l ete ly/a bso l ute ly a g ree with . . .

I su bsta nt ia l ly/fu ndamenta l ly/stron g ly a g ree with . . .

I a g ree to a l a rge extent with . . .

I m a i n ly/m ostly a g ree with . . .

I a g ree to some extent with . . .

I part ia l ly/pa rt ly a g ree with . . .

I o n ly a g ree with . . . to a l i m ited/s l i g ht extent

. . . was by fa r the m ost i m p o rtant reason why . . .

The key/crucia l/essentia l factor was . . .

. . . was the m a i n cause of . . .

The m ost i nfl uent ia l cause was . . .

. . . p l ayed a s ign if ica nt/im portant/m ajor ro l e i n . . .

. . . was of some im porta nce i n . . .

Va rying your language to show the sig n ificance or Va rying your language to show the extent of change: im portance of a n ind ivid ua l , d iscovery, event or development:

. . . made the most i m portant/s ign ificant contribution to . . . . . . was revo l ution i sed i n . . .

. . . had a crucia l/major/h igh ly s ign ificant im pact o n . . . . . . tota l l y changed d u ri ng . . .

. . . had an im portant/infl uent ia l im pact on . . . . . . was tra nsformed d u ri ng . . .

. . . was of some importance/s ign ificance . . . there was fu ndam enta l change i n . . .

. . . on ly made a l im ited/partia l/s l ight/m in ima l contribution to . . . The period saw s ign ificant/i m po rtant prog ress i n . . .

. . . saw some changes i n . . . . . . saw some progress i n . . .

. . . saw l i m ited/s l i g ht/m i n i m a l p rogress i n . . .


Helpful ph rases and sentence starters

When you wa nt to explore When you want to When you wa nt to make a n W h e n you wa nt t o show the other side of an h igh l ight s imi larities: addit ional point to support that an ind ivid ua l , event or a rg u ment:

In the sa me way . . . a n argument: d iscovery was im portant:

On the other hand . . . S i m i l a r ly . . .

A lso . . . . . . was a cru c ia l t u rn i n g po int i n . . .

H owever . . . Th is i s s i m i l a r to the way that

Add it ion a l ly . . . . . . acted as a n im porta nt

Alternative ly, it co u l d be . . . I n add it ion . . . cata lyst fo r . . .

a rg u ed that . . . L i kewise . . . M o reover . . .

Without th i s event/ Fu rthermore . . . deve lopm ent/ d iscovery . . .

When you want to l i nk When you wa nt to refer to When you wa nt to g ive wou l d not have happened .

points or show that one evidence in a source: examples to support a Th is had a n i m m ed iate

th ing led to another: Source A suggests/im p l ies/

point: im pact on . . .

Therefore . . . i nd icates that . . . For exa m p l e . . . I n the short te rm th is transformed/revo l ution ised . . .

Due to . . . Accord i ng to Sou rce B . . . For i n sta nce . . .

Conseq uent ly . . . Sou rce A shows/i l l ustrates/ Th is ca n be seen when . . . I n the l ong te rm th is had a l asti ng im pact on . . .

One conseq uence of th i s demonstrates that . . . Th is i s c lear ly shown by . . .

was . . . Th is i s supported by . . .

Th is caused . . . Th is i s p roven by . . .

Th is led to . . .

Th is resu l ted i n . . .

Th is meant that . . .

You can use the progression grid below to get an idea of what getting better at history looks like. This is designed to give you a general idea of what you need to do to produce good answers in the exam. It focuses on the four key things in the coloured squares on the bingo card (page 176).

The history prog ression g rid

Question focus Organ isation Line of argument Supporting information

High level The answer is The answer is structu red The l ine of a rg u m ent Su pporti ng informat ion cons istent ly focused on very ca refu l ly a n d is very c l e a r a n d has b e e n precise ly the q u estion . exp l anat ions a re convi nc i ng . lt fl ows se lected, a n d shows

co herent th roug hout the th roug hout the a nswer. w ide- ra n g i n g know ledge answer. a n d understa n d i n g .

T h e answer is m a i n ly The answer is we l l The l i n e o f a rg u m ent is Su pporti ng informat ion focused on the q u estion . o rg a n ised but some c lear, convi nc ing a n d is accu rate a n d

pa rts l ack co herence . genera l ly m a i nta i n ed re l evant, a n d shows th ro u g h the answer. good know ledge a n d

understa n d i n g .

T h e answer h a s weak Some statements a re The l i n e of a rg u m ent is Su pporti ng informat ion o r l i m ited l i n ks to the deve loped . pa rt ly convi nc ing but not is m a i n l y accu rate a n d q u estion .

There is some attem pt m a inta i ned th ro u g h the re l evant, a n d shows answer. some know ledge a n d

t o org a n ise the m ateria l . u ndersta n d i n g .

T h e answer h a s no rea l T h e answer l acks The l i n e of a rg u m ent is Su pporti ng i nformat ion l i n ks to the q u estion . o rgan isat ion . unc lea r or m iss i n g . is l i m ited o r not re l eva nt.

-


Self-assessing a n d peer assessing you r work It i s important that you check your own work before you hand it to your teacher to be marked. Sometimes you may be asked to assess the work of someone else in your class . In both cases you need to know what you are looking for. What are the key ingredients of great writing in history?

You can use the bingo card as a checklist - get competitive and try and show that you have covered all the squares and got a full house of ingredients !

The answer sta rts with a clear Statements and a rg u ments a re Con nectives a re used to h e l p focus on t h e question (the re is no fu l ly deve l o ped a n d exp l a i n ed prove a rg u ments and show long i ntroduct ion) . - showing good know ledge a n d s ign if ica nce/i m pact.

Key words from the q u est ion a re u n d e rsta n d i n g .

Look for p h rases l i ke : used d u ri ng the answer. Arg u ments a re wel l supported th is led to . . . For longer answers, each

by accu rate, re l eva nt and we l l -

para g raph is l i n ked t o the se lected evidence . th is resulted i n . . .

q u estio n . th is meant that . . .

There is a clear l ine of argu ment Para g raphs have been used to The answer shows wide-rang ing at the sta rt of each para g ra p h - prov ide a clear structu re. knowledge a n d u n d e rsta n d i n g . th i n k o f it as a s ign post for what

Each paragra p h sta rts with a lt cons iders a ra nge of factors/ fo l l ows. The rest of the para g ra p h supports t h i s a rg u m ent .

d i ffe rent cause/factor causes (exp l a i n q u estions) o r exp lo res the evid ence for and

The l i n e of a rg u m ent fl ows (1 2-m a rk exp l a i n q u estions)

aga i nst a statement (j udgement th roug hout the answer bu i ld i ng up or q u estions) . to a c lear conc l us ion .

a d iffe rent them e/criter ia

(1 6 -mark j udgem ent q uestions) .

The l a n g u age used h e l ps to There is a clear conclusion. The answer has been ca refu l ly construct very precise a rg u m e nts -

For exp l a i n q u est ions factors/ checked for spe l l i ng , p u n ctuat ion

showi ng h ow im porta nt the writer and g ra m m a r. th i n ks a cause/facto r, event o r

causes a re pr iorit ised or l i n ked .

i nd iv id u a l i s . For judgement q u est ions there is a The mean i ng is a lways c lear th roug hout the a nswer.

A good ra nge of speci a l ist focus on ' how fa r' the writer a g rees

historica l voca bu lary has been with the statement.

used .

Glossary Active s ervice A person engaged in active military operations.

Anders on Shelters Simple shelters made out of corrugated iron sheets, which were partly buried in people's gardens.

Anti- aircraft Weapons and barriers used to prevent enemy planes from attacking the city.

Apprentice A person learning a trade from a skilled employer.

Aris tocracy The most privileged class in society, mostly made up of those who have hereditary noble titles .

ARP Air Raid Precautions - the name given to a long list of preparations such as blackout, gas-masks and shelters which were designed to lessen the impact of air-raids.

ARP wardens People, some paid, some volunteers, whose job it was to enforce ARP rules .

Artillery Large weapons (such as cannon and field artillery) for firing objects I missiles .

B aggage camp The temporary store of an army's supplies and equipment.

B aggage train An army's supplies and equipment when they are being transported (this doesn't have to be by train).

B allistic missile A missile which is fired into the upper atmosphere and which then comes down on its target many hundreds of miles away.

B annerets Those holding the military rank above a knight.

B arrage b alloons Hydrogen-filled air balloons which were tied up to float near important targets, in order to prevent low flying attacks from enemy aircraft.

B attalion A large unit I group of soldiers from an army.

B illeting Providing soldiers with accommodation in non-military buildings, such as civilian houses.

B lackout A set of rules which were designed to stop enemy aircraft from spotting the location of a city at night and which meant that street lights were switched off, and windows were covered to stop light from leaking out of buildings.

B litz Short for Blitzkrieg, a German word which means 'Lightning War'. The British people used 'Blitz' as the name for the German bombing raids on Britain during the first two years of the War.

B omb lets Smaller bombs, often incendiaries, which are carried in a larger bomb, and which spread out in large numbers when the bomb hits the ground.

B oroughs The areas under different local councils which made up the county of London.

B owmen Soldiers armed with bow and arrows.

B randing Marking someone I something using a hot metal implement.

B reech (Referring to guns) The opening of a gun (usually positioned above and near the trigger) from where the bullets are loaded.

B ritish Empire Britain and the countries around the world over which it ruled.

C ampaign A series of military operations with the purpose of achieving a particular aim.

C artridge The container holding the bullet and ammunition that is fired from a gun.

C avalry Soldiers who fight on horseback.

C ens orship The limiting I suppression of the communication of information, often for political or military reasons.

C hainmail Flexible armour made of small linked metal nngs.

C luster b omb s Clusters ofbomblets in larger bombs.

C omb atants People involved in fighting.

C ommunist A member of the Communist Party of Great Britain, a left-wing political party.

C ons cription Compulsory enlistment into the army.

C ounterinsurgency operations Military or political activities undertaken against guerilla or terrorist forces .

C ounterterrorist operations Military or political activities undertaken against terrorist forces .

C ourt martial A military court for trying members of the armed forces.

C reeping b arrage Artillery shells fired to explode just ahead of advancing infantry.

C rossb owmen Soldiers armed with crossbows.

D -D ay The day on which Allied forces landed on the French coast in Normandy and started the liberation ofFrance.

D eploy To position troops to be ready for combat.

D es ertion Leaving military service without permission.

D rill training Military instruction that involves a frequently repeated set of manoeuvres.

E arly modern period C . lSOO -c .1700.

Enlisted To be enrolled in the armed forces .

Enlistment period The amount of time for which a person is committed to provide military service.

Feudal summons A king's request for men to perform military service based on their obligation to serve him as a result of their holding land bestowed by him.

Firewatching The activity of looking out for fires, and raising the alarm if a fire starts. Many Firewatchers would also tackle incendiary bombs that had fallen near their posts.

F lanks The sides of an army or large group of soldiers on a battlefield.

F lintlock muskets An infantryman's gun that is fired by a mechanism that uses the spark created by a piece of flint to ignite the ammunition.

Franchis e The group of people who have the right to vote.

Friendly fi re Injury or death as a result of accidental fire from your own side.

G arris oned Troops who have been stationed to defend a particular location.

G entry Privileged members of society, but below the aristocracy.

G old res erves The stores of gold that a country holds, and which were used as the basis for the value of their printed money.

G rapeshot A large number of small metal balls packed into a canvas bag which are scattered when fired from a cannon.

G uerrilla warfare Combat that avoids conventional military tactics of pitched battles in preference for ambush, sabotage and raid.

Heavy cavalry Mounted troops that were relatively well armoured, designed to engage in direct combat with enemy forces .

High explosive shells Artillery shells filled with explosives that explode on impact.

Home front The civilian population and government of a country actively engaged in assisting their military in war.

Hundred Years War A series of wars fought between England and France between 1337 and 1453.

Incendiaries Bombs designed to start fires .

Infantry Foot soldiers .

Ins urgent A person or rebel fighting against a government or invading force, but not an official member of a country's armed forces .

IRA Irish Republican Army - originally an Irish paramilitary organisation with the aim of fighting for the independence oflreland from British rule.

Jerries

Knight

A nickname given to German soliders and pilots.

A mounted soldier from the Middle Ages .

L ance A long spear used by mounted troops.

L and G irl A member of the Women's Land Army, which sent women to work on farms to replace the male workers who were fighting in the war.

Light cavalry Mounted troops who were relatively lightly armoured.

L ongb ow A large bow (approximately 1 .8 metres long) used to fire arrows.

Luftwaffe The German airforce.

Magistrate A person who presides over a court that deals with minor offences.

Matchlock musket An infantryman's gun that is fired by a mechanism that uses a smouldering piece of cord to ignite the ammunition.

Militant Is lamis ts Those who want to reorganise government and society in accordance with Islamic laws .

Militias Military forces made up of civilians that can supplement, but are not part of, the regular Army.

Morale A word to describe how confident people feel, how much they feel that their side will be successful in conflict, or how much they think they will survive.

Mors e code A method of sending messages in which letters are represented by long or short light or sound signals.

Munitions Military weapons, ammunitions and equipment.

Muskets A type of gun with a long barrel, used by infantrymen.

Mustered Troops assembled for inspection or in preparation for battle.

Muzzle The open end of the barrel of a gun.

Napoleonic wars A series of military campaigns fought by France under the rule ofNapoleon between 1800 and 1815 .

National s ervice A period of compulsory service in the armed forces during peacetime (in Britain between 1945 and 1963).

New Model Army The name given to Parliament's reorganised military from 1645 in the English Civil Wars.

Newsreels News progammes shown at cinemas.

N o-man's land Disputed ground between the frontline trenches of opposing armies.

Official cens or The person in charge of the Government department which attempted to control what was shown in newsreels or printed in newspapers.

Ottoman Empire Made up of the territories of what is now Turkey and the areas it controlled in the Near East.

Paid in arrears Wages that are paid after the work has been done.

Parachute mines Mines were floating bombs designed to damage boats. They were very destructive. The Luftwaffe attached them to parachutes and used them to attack cities .

Patriotism Vigorous support for one's country.

Payload The amount of explosive that a missile or aircraft can carry.

Plate armour Armour made of solid flat pieces of metal.

Plunder Stealing property.

Poll tax A tax of a fixed amount to be paid by every adult individual regardless of their income.

Professionalis ation Becoming more professional (well trained and paid a wage) .

Projectile An object fired from a gun.

Prussian A person from the state of Prussia (in what is now Germany) .

P ub lic hous e A pub or inn.

P urchas e system In the military - a system in which promotions are bought.

P uritan A strict protestant.

Quaker A member of a particular Christian religious movement.

Quarter To provide accommodation.

Rans om When a sum of money is demanded in exchange for the release of a captive.

Rationing When a fixed amount of a commodity is allocated to each individual, usually because of shortages .

Reconnaiss ance Getting information about the enemy or an area for military purposes.

Redoub t A small fortification or stronghold often containing large guns.

Requisitioning The forcible taking of commodities, often to supply armies.

Res erves Troops who are not part of the regular army or the main attacking force, but can be used in an emergency.

Retinue Can refer to a group of combatants who accompany in service a knight or other wealthy j privileged combatant.

Rif led weapon A gun with a barrel that has spiral grooves inside it that make the bullet spin to increase accuracy and range.

Royal commission An inquiry or investigation set up by the order of the monarch on the recommendation of the government.

S chiltrons Large ring formations of spearmen.

S emaphore A system of communicating messages using two flags held in different arm positions.

Shrapnel shell A shell that is filled with small fragments, usually small lead balls, which explodes in flight, scattering the fragments. Mostly used against infantry.

S iege A military operation in which a place is surrounded by troops who cut off essential supplies in order to force a surrender.

S iege engine A device designed to break or enable troops to get over the walls of a fortification during a siege.

Smoothb ore weapon A gun with a barrel that is smooth and not rifled.

S ocial elites The most privileged groups or classes in a society.

Spearmen Soldiers armed with spears.

Squire A relatively privileged man who owns his own landed estate.

S taff weapons Handheld spear-like weapons.

S talemate A situation of deadlock when neither side is able to win.

S tanding army A permanent, often professional, army made up of full-time soldiers that exists even in peacetime.

S uicide b omb er A person who kills him- or herself by deliberately detonating a bomb.

S urveillance Close observation of a place or person in order to gain information.

Tenement f lats Blocks of flats, often built in the Victorian period, which were often crowded.

The Troub les The period of violent unrest in Northern Ireland from the late 1960s until the 1990s .

Total war A war that requires the mobilisation of the whole society (not just the military) and in which civilians are often targeted.

Treb uchet A machine like a large catapult designed for hurling large stones and objects in siege warfare.

U-b oats German submarines.

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - refers to Russia and its empire for much of the communist period, 1922-91 .

V-weapon Self-piloting Vengeance bombs called the V1 and V2 which were designed to allow Nazi Germany to attack the South East of England without sending bombers over the English Channel.

Vested interests A personal reason for being involved in something (often with the expectation of financial or other gain).

War b onds Certificates given to those who lent money to the Government to help them pay for the war.

Western Front The combat zone in Western Europe (particularly the trenches in Belgium and France) during the First World War (1914-18) .

I mages o n page 79 a A carrier pigeon being released from a tank in the

First World War.

b A 1916 poster announcing the introduction of conscription.

c Ruins of a home in Hull following a Zeppelin (airship) raid on 6 June 1915 .

d Horses struggling to transport munitions during the Battle of the Somme in 1916 .

Index Agincourt, battle of 16, 24-8 Air Raid Precaucions (ARP)

committee 127, 129 wardens 120-1, 130-1, 133

air raid shelters 123, 125, 129, 131, 153, 160, 166-7 Aldwych 141, 159 Anderson Shelters 125, 129, 131, 167 Mickey's Shelter 142, 150 Morrison Shelter 129 safety 140-4

Tilbury Depot 141, 153, 166 air raids 95, 99, 100, 103, 104, 111, 113, 120-56,

158-9 aircraft 90-2

al-Qaeda 102 anti-aircraft crews 136, 137, 138, 139 archers (bowmen) 4, 11-12, 14, 16, 21, 24-5, 27,

110

aristocracy 63 armour

chainmail 4, 10, 14, 26 contemporary 88 plate 5, 14, 17, 26, 34, 37

armoured personnel vehicles 103, 104 arrows 14

artillery (cannon) 5, 15, 28, 33, 36-8, 44, 57-9, 65, 67-8, 71, 76, 80, 82-3, 110 muzzle-loaded 59

attitudes in society 8-9, 101-2, 111 Balaclava, battle of 64-9

ballistic missiles 138 barracks 73 bascinets 26 battalions 70 Battle of the Somme, The (film, 1916) 86 bayonets 5, 54, 59, 80

Berlin 121 Bessemer process 71 Bethnal Green Tube disaster 144

Big Story 4-9, 31, 53, 78, 107, 169 billeting 48, 127

biological weapons 103 blackout 120-1, 130-1, 167 Bletchley Park 92 Blitz, the 95, 100, 113, 120-7, 129, 132-5,

139-56

Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) 90, 120-1 Boer War 74 bomblets 136 bombs 94-5

anti-personnel 136

cluster 136 high-explosive 133, 136, 153 incendiary 124-5, 132-3, 149

Bonaparte, Napoleon 54, 56-8 bounty payments 61, 63, 70

brass cartridges 71 breech loading 71 Britain 64, 79, 90, 103, 105, 120 Britain, battle of 120 Britain Can Take It! (film, 1940) 147 British Army

active service 70, 97

c.1700-c.1900 54, 60, 61-2, 66-70, 73, 77 c.1900-present 79, 80, 82-4, 90, 94-6, 110 Card well's reforms 70, 110 composition 94-5, 109 discipline 62, 70 enlistment period 70, 97

origins 1707 60 recruitment 96-7, 100, 109 reserves 70, 9 6 size 60, 94, 110 training 109

British Empire 97

Buckingham Palace 124, 156 Cabinet War Rooms 154-5 Calder, Ritchie 141, 144

Card well's reforms 70, 110

cavalry 4-5, 11-12, 17, 24-5, 36-9, 44-6, 58, 65,

67-9, 76, 83, 110 censorship 86, 100, 102, 150

Charge of the Light Brigade 67, 68, 69, 73 Charles I 5, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46

Charles II 41 chemical weapons 82, 103, 129 chronology 2-3 Churchill, Winston 121, 154-5, 159 cinema 86, 147, 150 civilian experience of warfare 12, 22-3, 47-51,

73-4, 85, 95, 98-102, 108, 109, 123 civilian morale 126, 138, 143, 144, 145-7, 159 CNN effect 102 coded messages 92, 93

Colchester, siege of 48 Cold War 89, 97, 101 combatants 18

recruitment 18-21, 27, 40-2, 60-3, 70, 73, 96-7, 100, 108-9

training 20-1, 40-2, 70, 108, 109

combined arms tactics 90, 92, 110 Commissioners of Array 21, 40 communications 8, 9, 46, 65, 68, 73, 77, 81,

85-6, 92-3, 110-11 Communists 141

conscientious objectors 101 conscription 5, 40, 73, 96-7, 100, 109 counterinsurgency operations 95 counterterrorist operations 95 court martial 86 Crimean War 64-70, 73-4 Crockett, Olivia 131, 153, 167 Cromwell, Oliver 5, 41, 42, 44-6 crossbows 4, 14, 34

D-Day 121, 136

dance halls 152 'Dead End Kids' gang 113-19, 123, 126-7, 132,

134, 140, 149, 154, 158, 160 Defence of the Realm Act 1914 99 deployment 38-9

desertion 21, 63 'Dig for Victory' campaign 156-8 drill training 41, 42 drones see unmanned aerial vehicles Duggan, Patsy 116-17, 126, 127, 132, 140, 149

Dutch countermarch 39, 50 Ebbinghaus Curve of Forgetting 30

Edward i 10-12, 17, 20 Edward, the Black Prince 22 Elizabeth, Queen Mother 156, 158 England 22, 24-7 English Army 4, 60

battles 10-13, 24-7, 56-9

composition 16-17, 37-9, 108 discipline 41, 42 food and shelter 23, 48 origins 5 recruitment 108

training 108

English Civil Wars 40-9 evacuation 127-8, 160 exam guidance 162-76 Factor Map 9

factors 8-9, 75-6 Falkirk, battle of 10-13, 16-18, 20, 27-8 feudal summons 18, 20 firefighters 120, 121, 131, 133-4 First World War (1914-18) 5, 79-86, 88, 90, 94

casualties 48, 82, 83, 84, 97 civilian experience 48, 85, 98, 101, 109 communications 92 reconnaissance 92 recruitment 96, 97

flanks (sides) 16, 24, 27, 39, 57 Flynn, Mick 104 food shortages 23, 99, 100, 121, 157-8 foot soldiers 21, 22

France 22, 24-7, 56, 64, 79, 80, 82

'free quarter' tickets 48 French Army 24-7, 56-9, 80, 84 friendly fire 82, 104

garrisoned 48 gas masks 80, 82, 120, 129-31

George VI 124, 156

German army 80, 82-4, 120 Germany 79, 120-1 Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) 89, 93 government 8, 9, 29, 111, 124

and the Blitz 142, 145-7, 160

finance 41, 50, 90 and public opinion 102 and total war 99, 100 and weapons development 76, 90

grenades 5, 80, 103

guerrilla warfare 95, 105 gunpowder 15, 33-5, 110

Gustav Adolf, King 39 Haig, Douglas 84 Hardy, Bert 117

Harfleur 24, 27 helmets 26 helms 10, 26 Henry V 19, 24-7 historic environments, London and the Second

World War 112-62 Hitler, Adolf 121 Home Front 99 Home Intelligence reports 145 Houses of Parliament 124

Hundred Years War 22-4, 27 Hussein, Saddam 103

illiteracy 23, 61, 73 improvised explosive devices (IEDs) 95, 103,

105 indentures (contracts) 19, 20, 21, 27

infantry 4, 37, 41, 44, 58, 61-2, 65, 82-3, 90,

103, 110 infantrymen 5, 12, 16, 21, 54, 80, 82, 88, 90 insurgents 95, 105 Intelligence Corps 94 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) 89 Iraq War 2003 91, 95, 102, 103-5 Irish Republican Army (IRA) 95 Ironsides 46 Islamic extremism 95, 102

Islamic State of iraq and the Levant (ISIL) 102 Kitchener, Lord 96 knights 4, 10, 16-17, 18-20, 24-6, 111

of the Royal Household 18, 21 Knowledge Organisers 13, 30, 33, 55, 115, 154 Korean War 1950-53 89 land girls 149 Lawrence, William 5, 54-5, 61 London

boroughs 122 City of London 125, 126, 148-9 East End 123, 126, 132, 140-5, 150, 156,

158, 160 and the Second World War 112-61, 162

London Can Take It! (film, 1940) 147 London Underground 140, 141 longbow 14, 28, 34 longbow men 4, 11, 14, 16, 25, 27, 110 Luftwaffe 113, 121, 127 machine guns 71, 88, 110 Mass Observation 129, 131, 139, 144-5, 150,

152-3, 158, 167 mass production 72 Maurice of Nassau 39, 50 metallurgy 14 Militia 40, 63 Morse code 65, 92 Munitions Crisis 1915 99 munitions industry 85 musketeers 37, 38-9, 45 muskets 5, 110, 172-3

advantages of 34 limitations 35, 42, 46

Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) 89 Napoleonic Wars 5, 54, 56-9, 63, 73, 170-1 Naseby, battle of 5, 43-6, 77

National Service 97 New Model Army 40-2, 43, 45, 110 news 23, 85-6, 100, 102 newspapers 73, 74, 85-6, 116-17, 128, 133, 135,

139, 144, 149

newsreels 147, 150 no-man's land 81, 82 North Africa 121 Northern Ireland 95

nuclear weapons 89, 90, 94, 101, 103, 110 O'Brien, Shamus 113, 160 officer recruitment 63, 97, 110 official censor 146 Ottoman Empire 64 Panter-Downes, Mollie 116-17, 134, 149, 153 Parliament 40-2, 43-7 patriotism 73, 96, 101, 102

Peasants' Revolt 1381 23 Phoney War 1929-1940 120-1, 127, 129-30,

160 photography 74, 86, 148-9 pike men 5, 36, 37-9, 45 pikes 14, 36, 39, 45 precision guided missiles (PGMs) 89, 93, 95 professionalism 60, 70, 94 progression grids 175 propaganda 40, 49, 86, 100, 135, 146-7, 150 Prussian troops 56, 58, 70 purchase system 63, 70 Puritans 42 Quakers 101

radar (Radio Detection And Ranging) 90, 92 radio 88, 92-3, 110 raids 17, 22 railways 64, 91, 110 rationing 99 reconnaissance 89, 92 Redcoats 54 redoubts 66, 68, 69 rifles 5, 65, 71, 80, 88 royal family 156-7 Royal Navy 73 Royalists 40, 43-8 Rupert, Prince 45 Russia 79

see also USSR Russian army 64, 66-9 St Paul's Cathedral 125, 134, 135, 147 schiltrons 11-12

science 8, 9, 34, 36, 42, 50, 52, 87, 106-7, 110-11 Scottish forces 10-12 Second Great Fire of London 125, 134, 150

Second World War 90, 91, 94-5, 112-61, 162 air raids 95, 99, 100, 103, 104, 111, 113,

120-56, 158-9 and the Blitz 95, 100, 113, 120-7, 129,

132-5, 139-56 children 113-19, 123, 126-8, 132, 134, 140,

149, 154, 158, 160 civilian casualties 48 civilian experience 100-1, 109 civilian morale 126, 138, 143, 144, 145-7,

159 communications 92 evacuation 127-8, 160 'Little Blitz' 1944 121, 123, 132, 134,

136-7, 140 preparations for 127-31

Self-Denying Ordinance 1645 41, 42 shells 85

high-explosive 82 shrapnel 59, 82, 84

ships 91

sieges 48 Somme, battle of the 5, 80-6 South Hallsville School 143-4 spearmen 4, 11-12 spears 14 Special Air Service (SAS) 95, 97 Special Operations Executive (SOE) 92, 97 specialisation 94, 110 specialised bomb disposal units 94-5 Spurs, battle of 1513 32, 33, 36 square formation 39, 42, 50, 58, 110

staff weapons 14 stalemate 80, 81, 84 standing army 40-2, 50, 60, 110 steam technology 64 steel 14, 26, 71

submarines, nuclear 89 suicide bombers 95, 102, 105 surveillance 84, 89, 92, 93, 103 Swedish salvo formation 39, 45 swords 4, 14, 28, 36 tanks 5, 83, 88, 90, 103-4

technology 8, 9, 64-5, 93 and communications 65, 73 and photography 74

and warfare change 34, 36, 42, 50, 52, 71-2, 79, 87-90, 106-0 110-11

telegraph, electric 65, 73 telephones 81, 92, 93, 155 terrorism 95, 102, 105

Tickle, William 5, 80, 83, 85, 88 total war 98, 99, 100 transport 64, 91 trenches 80-3, 120 Troubles 95 Trumpington, Sir Giles of 4, 18 Tunstall, Sir Thomas 19, 21 Turkish forces 64, 66-7 Turley, Waiter 133-4 turning points 109, 110 U-boats (submarines) 99 uniforms 41, 54 United States 89, 103, 105 unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) 89, 93, 103,

111

USSR 89

see also Russia V-weapons 121, 132, 136-40, 150 VE Day 121 VJ Day 121 volunteer fighters 5, 80, 96, 97 Wallace, William 10, 12 war bonds 125 'war on terror' 102, 103 Waterloo, battle of 1815 5, 54, 56-9, 73, 84

weaponry 7, 9, 14-15, 28, 34-9, 42, 55, 59, 65,

71-2, 76, 79, 87-90, 106-0 109, 110 Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) 103 Wellesley, Arthur, Duke of Wellington 56-9, 62 Western Front 80, 84 women 73, 97

firefighters 133 and leisure 151, 152 working 85, 98-100, 133, 149, 151

Women's Royal Army Corps 97 Word Walls 6, 29, 51

Zeppelins (airships) 98, 99

Acknow-ledge111.ents Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

The publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

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School, (14th century) / © Royal Armouries, Leeds, UK / Bridgeman Images; br Basinet known as the Lyle basinet, North Italian, late 14th century (metal), Italian School, (14th century) / © Royal Armouries, Leeds, UK / Bridgeman Images; p.32

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© Royal Photographic Society/ SSPL/Getty Images); p.65 © Old Images / Alamy Stock Photo; p.66 t © Mary Evans Picture Library / Alamy Stock Photo; p.66 b © Archive Images / Alamy Stock Photo; p.71 1 Percussion military rifled-musket, 1859 (wood & iron), English School, (19th century) / © Royal Armouries, Leeds, UK / Bridgeman Images; r © The Art Archive / Alamy Stock Photo; p.74 t © The Print Collector / Alamy Stock Photo; b © Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo; p.79 tl

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© Maddy Podesta; p.119 tl © Cover of WARTIME WOMEN by Dorothy Sheridan, The Orion Publishing Group, London. Mass-Observation Material© Mass-Observation Archive Trust Selection and editorial matter© Dorothy Sheridan 1990; tr

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/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.156 © David Savill/ Topical Press Agency/Getty Images; p.157 t © Westminster City Archives; b © Loop Images Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo; p.158 © Ministry of lnformation Photo Division Photographer/ IWM/Getty Images; p.159 © Popperfoto/Getty Images.

Text acknowledgements p.19 An ne Curry, The Battle of Agincourt, (Yale University Press, 2015); p.45 t R.G. Grant, Battle: A Visual journey Through

5,000 Years of Combat, (DK, 2009); p.45 b Edward, Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England,

(Oxford University Press, 1843); p.47 Richard Gough, Antiquities & Memoirs of the Parish ofMyddle, County of Salop, (http: / /

www.archive.org/ stream/ antiquitiesmemoOOgouggoog#page/ nlfmode/ lup, 1700); p.62 Quoted in Edward]. Cross, All

for the King's Shilling: The British Soldier under Wellington, 1808-1814, (University of Oklahoma Press, 2015); p.72 Quoted in ]. F. C. Fuller, The Conduct ofWar, 1789-1961, (Da Capo Press Inc, 1992); p.85 The Times, 4 July 1916; p.90 Data from HM Treasury, (http:/ / www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ doc/ open-government-licence/ version/ 1/ open-government-licence.htm); p. 95 Andy McNab, Immediate Action, (Corgi, 2005); p.96 Quoted in Minds at War: the Poetry and Experience of the First World

War, David Roberts (ed.), (Saxon books, 1996); p.98 Quoted in lan Beckett, Home Front 1914-1918: How Britain Survived

the Great War, (The National Archives, 2006); p.104 Mick Flynn, Bullet Magnet, (Orion, 2010); p.134 Constance Miles, Mrs

Miles's Diary: The Wartime journal of a Housewife on the Home Front, (Simon & Schuster, 2013); p.138 Quoted in Bill Simpson, Spitfire Dive-Bombers versus the V2, Volume 2, (Pen & Sword Aviation Ltd, 2007); p.144 t Ritchie Calder, Carry on London,

(English Universities, 1941); p.144 b NEEDS PERMISSION; p.155 Quoted in Richard Holmes, Churchill's Bunker: The Secret

Headquarters at the Heart of Britain's Victory, (Profile Books, 2011); p.156 Quoted in Jonathan Oates, Attack on London: Disaster,

Riot and War, (Wharncliffe Books, 2008).

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