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Herbal Medicine: A Comparative Study on

Alternative Healing Practices and Beliefs

By: Samantha Goelz

Senior Thesis

Abstract

Herbal medicine is growing in popularity in the US and currently the number of visits to Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) providers outnumbers the number of visits to primary care physicians (Bussmann 2010). Herbal medicine is one type of alternative medicine used by trained professionals, known as herbalists and healers. Herbal medicine is effective when used properly because herbs contain organic chemicals with healing properties used to treat illness and disease throughout the entire body. Even with proven results of effective healing, herbal remediesare not classified as prescription drugs, but as dietary substances (Bent et al. 2004). In this comparative study, I examined herbalismas found in the alternative healing systems of Chinese medicine and Native American medicine. A local Chinese herbalist and a Native American healer were interviewed to analyze their healing beliefs inreference to diagnosing and treating patients with herbal medicine. I also analyzed how the beliefs and practices tied to herbal medicine differ from the culturally defined western model of healing. To deepen my analysis I compared the local alternative medicine systems of Chinese medicine and Native American medicine toother alternative medicine traditions, specifically those of the Cherokee and Lakota, while also looking at consistencies within Native American medicine. The theoretical approach of ethnomedicine

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Table of Contents

Introduction

page 1

Literature Review Chapter page 4

Research Problem page 4

Background page

7

Theoretical Approach page 11

Methodology Chapter page 14

Sample

page 14

Research Sites page

14

3

Methods

page 15

Data Analysis page

17

Results

page 20

Conclusion page

33

Implications

page 37

Acknowledgements page 39

Works Cited page

40

Appendix A: Interview Questions page 43

Herbal Medicine: A Comparative Study on Alternative Healing Practices

and Beliefs Introduction

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Throughout history, people have used plants for both food

and medicine. Medicinal herbs are defined as plants or parts of

plants such as the leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and seeds that

contain organic chemicals with effective healing properties (Bent

et al. 2004:478-485). Over time, humans have evolved the ability

to absorb and digest the bioactive chemical compounds found in

plants (Winston 2003:10). Because of the healing nature of

plants, herbal medicine has been used from past to present to

treat illness and disease throughout the entire body and

associated systems, such as the digestive or respiratory systems

(Winston 2003:10-29). Herbal medicine is one style of

complementary and alternative medicine employed by trained

professionals known as herbalists, medicine men, botanist,

healers, or shamans. Practitioners of herbal medicine are trained

with traditional knowledge that has been passed down for

thousands of years (Garrett and Garrett 2002: 1-11, Lame Deer

1972:154-162).

Traditional knowledge and biomedicine are two ways of

understanding the complexity of herbal medicines used in clinical

practice. Biomedicine is clinical-decision making that generates

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medical knowledge by using current evidence when treating or

caring for patients. Traditional knowledge is the indigenous

knowledge developed over hundreds of years through direct contact

with the environment. Individuals with traditional knowledge have

a vast understanding of how plants and animals affect people

(Evans 2008:2098-2106). Because of this knowledge, much of the

world’s population uses herbal medicine globally as their primary

health care choice (Winston 2012).

There are various types of traditional knowledge-based

alternative systems of healing that use herbal medicines to treat

illness and disease. Some examples include Ayurveda (India),

Chinese medicine, Native American medicine, Tibetan medicine,

Unani-tibb (Greco-Arabic) and Kampo (Japan). These alternative

systems of healing have a long history of usefulness, safety, and

effectiveness that has now been confirmed through modern research

(Winston 2012). I chose to focus on Chinese herbal medicine and

Native American medicine in my research because they are both

used in the United States and their beliefs and practices differ

from the culturally defined Western medicine model of healing

(Winston and Maimes 2007). The Western model of healing with

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pharmaceuticals is viewed by some as harmful, invasive, too

powerful, and in direct conflict with local healing systems

(Whyte et al. 2004:277-279).

Currently, herbal medicine is growing in popularity in the

United States, and the number of visits to complementary and

alternative medicine providers outnumbers the number of visits to

primary care physicians (Bussmann 2010:1-10). Herbal remedies are

not classified as prescription drugs, but as dietary substances

(Bent 2008:854-859). Unlike prescription drugs, dietary

supplements do not have to claim to diagnose, cure, treat, or

prevent illness, and can be sold in markets without testing or

proven safety and efficacy (Bent 2008:854-859). Moreover, because

an herb is deemed “natural” does not mean it is safe to ingest.

Herbal medicines are effective with the correct dosage, but some

can have dangerous or even deadly side effects if used

incorrectly (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10,

2013). Risks involved with herbal medicine include incorrect

dosage, toxins, allergic reactions, contaminants, and

interactions with other herbs or other prescription drugs (Bent

et al. 2004:478-485). Dosage is a major risk associated with

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herbal medicine. If an herbal dosage is administered incorrectly,

the chance of adverse or unwanted side effects increases

drastically. Herbal medicines can even be deadly if too high of

a dosage is administered. Furthermore, the same type of herb can

contain varying levels of chemical compounds based on the

geographical location in which it is grown or the way it is

manufactured , which complicates the dosage process even more

(Snodgrass 2001:724-737).

In this study, I examine herbal medicine by comparing and

contrasting the alternative healing systems of Chinese medicine

and Native American medicine, while applying the paradigm of

Dumont’s (1980) part/whole relations to my findings. To further

document the major commonalities and differences between these

two systems of healing, I interviewed a local Chinese herbalist

and a Native American healer to analyze their beliefs in

reference to diagnosing and treating patients with herbal

medicine. To better interpret, I apply Dumont’s (1980) theory of

holism to examine how these two alternative systems of healing

see the relationship between the whole person and its parts, and

how their systems of healing include treating the whole to treat

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the affected parts. To further my analysis, I compare the local

healing systems of Chinese medicine and Native American medicine

to other alternative medicine traditions, specifically those of

the Cherokee and Lakota, while also looking at consistencies

within Native American medicine. My research shows how the

beliefs and practices of complementary and alternative medicine

differ from the culturally defined western model of healing. They

involve treating the whole body and its organs rather than

focusing only on the parts affected.

There are three major reasons why my research is

significant. Foremost, I examine manufacturing risks involved

with preparing herbal medicines and show the need to test for

possible manufacturing risks before using store bought herbal

products. Secondly, my research shows the need for standardizing

the chemical levels of herbal products because the same type of

herb can contain varying levels of chemical compounds based on

the area it is grown or how it is manufactured. Standardizing the

chemical levels of herbal products would make testing efficacy

more consistent in clinical trials. Lastly, my research can

directly influence the way we view our own medical beliefs and

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practices by drawing our attention to the possible alternatives

of a more preventative, less invasive, and less costly system of

healing through herbal medicines. This includes documenting

alternative ways of conceptualizing illness, healing, and the

importance of holistic treatments.

Literature Review Chapter

Research problem

As previously stated, I examined the beliefs and practices

surrounding herbal medicine by comparing and contrasting the

alternative healing systems of Chinese and Native American

medicine and then applying the paradigm of Dumont’s (1980)

part/whole relations to my findings. As a comparative study, my

research examines herbalism as found in the alternative healing

systems of Chinese and Native American medicine. A Chinese and

Native American herbalist was interviewed in order to analyze

their healing practices and beliefs in reference to diagnosing

and treating patients with herbal medicine. An angle of my

project that deepens my analysis is the comparison of the local

alternative healing systems of Chinese and Native American

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medicine to other alternative healing traditions. I also looked

at consistencies within Native American medicine by comparing my

findings to other traditional Native American styles of healing,

such as the Cherokee and Lakota.

Various herbs can cause adverse effects and can interfere with

other prescription drugs when used together. Most of the clinical

trial data conducted on herbal medicine is inconclusive since not

all of the risks associated with the herbs are known (Ernst

2002:42-53). I included an analysis of the factors affecting the

quality of herbal products and associated risks. More research is

needed to determine if the potential benefits of using herbal

medicine outweigh any potential risks.

The questions I am trying to address through my research are

regarding the general theories as to how or why herbal medicine

works. How do alternative medicine beliefs and practices differ

from the culturally defined Western model of healing? What are

the commonalities and differences among herbal use between

Chinese medicine and Native American medicine? Do herbalists

inform patients of all known benefits and risks when prescribing

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herbal remedies? Moreover, do the herbalists take into account

manufacturing contaminants when using herbal products? What are

the manufacturing regulations surrounding herbal medicine?

Lastly, does the way herbal products are manufactured affect

their efficacy or quality?

There are benefits to changing the way we view and present

the world of herbal medicine. Some clinical herbalists are moving

away from traditional knowledge and towards biomedicine as their

way of understanding and administering herbal medicine (Evans

2008:2098-2106). I will use these two different frameworks as a

way to examine the beliefs and practices surrounding Chinese and

Native American medicine in order to determine whether they use a

given framework or a combination of both.

Herbalists use a range of techniques aside from herbal

medicine to heal and treat illness, such as acupuncture or energy

and body-based therapies. Due to its increasing prevalence in the

United States, I chose to take the biological approach and only

focus on herbal medicine in my research. Unfortunately, the

increase in popularity as a treatment for illness and disease has

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not yet led to an increase in information on the safety and

efficacy of herbal remedies. Herbs are drugs and have the

potential for high benefits and high risks (O’Hara et al.

1998:523-536). Determining the efficacy of herbal medicine can be

complicated because each plant contains a diverse number of

chemical compounds even within the same species (Winston and

Maimes 2007). This lack of knowledge on the efficacy of herbal

medicine is because it is hard to measure safely without a

standard level of chemical compounds in each herb or without the

regulation of quality control when manufacturing herbal products

(Snodgrass 2001:724-737).

I addressed this problem of efficacy in my research by

interviewing a Chinese and Native American herbalist regarding

their beliefs on herbal safety, effectiveness, and possible

risks. I collected further data on herbal efficacy by conducting

a literary analysis of articles and books relating to

effectiveness and successful treatments of herbal remedies. I

then compared my findings from the literature review to the data

I gathered from my interviews. By better understanding the

benefits and risks associated with an herb, one can determine if

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an herbal product is safe or not. My research is significant

because it can directly influence the way we view our own medical

beliefs and practices, as well as the culturally defined Western

model of healing. It is also relevant because it fills a gap in

the literature on efficacy of herbal medicine by examining it

from a different angle and analyzing the practitioners’ beliefs

on safety and effectiveness. With more research conducted on the

efficacy of herbal remedies, we can gain the benefits of creating

a more preventative, less costly, and less invasive system of

healing.

Background

As a society, we define illness in terms of medicine, even

though it is far more complex than just medicine. We interpret

the meaning of illness when defined in terms of what medicines

are used to cure or prevent it (Van der Geest and Whyte 1989:

345–367). The social meaning of a “cure” is the promise that

medicine will restore you to good health regardless of contact

with a doctor (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279). In other words,

individuals have the capacity to interpret their own models for

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healing, regardless of whether or not it is traditional, and one

defines what medicine is and how to use it based on culture,

personal experiences and personal logic (Van der Geest and Whyte

1989: 345–367). According to the Van der Geest and Whyte study,

medicine is based on objectivity (Van der Geest and Whyte 1989:

345–367). Objectivity means to be fair and make impartial

decisions on medical treatment based on proven results.

Objective medicine is based on efficacy, and individuals who are

sick make their own decisions on whether or not to seek treatment

in order to make themselves better based on their illness (Whyte

et al. 2004:277-279). This is because individuals can impose

personal logic onto reality and ultimately make their own health

care decisions on whether or not to use alternative herbal

medicine versus Western pharmaceuticals (Van der Geest and Whyte

1989: 345–367).

Herbal medicines are used to treat illnesses and diseases

throughout the entire body, including but not limited to the

cardiovascular system, digestive system, ears, skin, eyes, nose,

throat, eliminatory system, endocrine system, female reproduction

system, male reproduction system, immune system, lymphatic

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system, musculo-skeletal system, nervous system, respiratory

system, and urinary system (Winston 2003:10-29). Approximately

one quarter of adults in the United States have reported using

herbal medicines to treat aliments rather than over the counter

drugs (Bent et al. 2004:478-485). Both clinically prescribed

herbal medicines and over-the-counter herbal medicines are

growing in popularity. A survey from the World Health

Organization (WHO) shows that 70-80% of the world’s population

relies on herbal medicine, using complementary and alternative

medicine as their primary healthcare choice (Chan 2003:1361-

1371), indicating it’s an effective and reliable alternative to

Western based pharmaceuticals.

Over-the-counter herbal medicines put added pressure on the

professional herbalists because these herbal remedies are now

available in stores and markets, dissipating the need to see a

professional herbalist to receive the herbal medications. Over-

the-counter herbal medicines are frequently contaminated from

environmental factors such as pesticides, microbial contaminants,

heavy metals, and chemical toxins (Chan 2003:1361-1371). Chemical

toxins may also come from the plant growing in a contaminated

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environment, incorrect storage conditions, or chemical treatments

used to store and preserve the herbal products. Chemical and

biomedical analyses are two methods that can be used to show

intentional and unintentional toxic contaminants in herbal

products. Professional herbalists have a way to test and avoid

using contaminated herbs by following the proper procedures

(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Most

environmental factors leading to contamination can be controlled

by implementing the standard operating procedures (SOP) leading

to Good Agricultural Practice (GAP), Good Laboratory Practice

(GLP), Good Supply Practice (GSP) and Good Manufacturing Practice

(GMP) for manufacturing safe and effective herbal remedies (Chan

2003:1361-1371). Thus, it is far safer to go to a trained

professional herbalist to receive a more regulated herbal product

than to purchase an over-the-counter one.

Herbal medicines can interact with prescription drugs, so

individuals have to be careful when using both at the same time

(Winston and Maimes 2007). Individuals must also be careful when

using herbal remedies that do not have a well-established

efficacy. Previous clinical trials have focused on testing

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efficacy of commonly used single herbs or on chemicals extracted

from the herbs. This way of testing efficacy is ineffective

because herbalists use compounds of herbal mixtures with single

herbs used less commonly (personal communication, Robert Linde,

April 10, 2013). In order to test efficacy more effectively,

clinical trials must study the entire herbal compounds, as they

are used in traditional alternative medicine.

There is also a lack of consistency in clinical trials as

there are no regulations over quality control of manufacturing

herbal products. The same type of herb can contain varying levels

of chemical compounds based on the way it is manufactured or

grown (Snodgrass 2001:724-737). The Dietary Supplement Health and

Education Act (DHSEA) laws govern labeling and claims made by

herbal products, not on the quality control of manufacturing

herbal medicine (Ernst 2004:985-988). The United States

Pharmacopoeia’s (USP) sets the official standards for

pharmaceuticals and regulates all health care products

manufactured and sold in the United States, (Winston and Maimes

2007) but they do not test efficacy. They only make sure that

labeling is correct and that what is in the product matches the

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label. I included in my research the practitioner’s beliefs on

efficacy of herbal medicine as a way to analyze its effectiveness

due to the lack of information from clinical trials.

As part of my research, I compared the alternative healing

systems of Chinese and Native American medicine to other

alternative healing traditions such as the Cherokee and Lakota

traditional style of healing, and then looked for consistencies

within Native American medicine. I used David Winston as a point

of comparison in my research because he is a practicing herbalist

also trained as a traditional Cherokee healer. Winston has

written multiple books describing the herbal compounds,

treatments and remedies that he uses on patients. In Winston’s

“An Introduction to Herbal Medicine” (2012), he asserts that

although herbs are growing in popularity they are still poorly

understood. Most people equate “natural” with being harmless,

which is not the case with herbal medicine. Winston describes how

in Cherokee medicine they divide the herbs into three categories:

food, medicine, and poisonous. Some examples of food herbs that

can be utilized as subsistence are lemon balm, ginger, garlic,

chamomile, hawthorn, rose hips, nettles and dandelion root. Herbs

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used for medicine need to be used more carefully with a deeper

knowledge and understanding. Some examples of herbs used for

medicine are blue and black cohosh, ephedra, goldenseal, Jamaica

dogwood, and Oregon grape root. Certain dangers and toxicities

can be associated with herbal medicine, which is why there is a

category for poisonous herbs. Poisonous herbs are toxic, even

deadly, if ingested. Some examples of poisonous herbs include

datura, male fern, aconite, belladonna, and henbane (Winston

2012). Over the years, a few herbs have been mislabeled as toxic

or poisonous due to inaccurate clinical trials. For example,

Echinacea is a popular herb used to prevent and treat colds. It

received bad publicity in the past because of a test that came

out claiming it was a harmful hepatotoxic, when in fact it is

not. Winston equates this lack of knowledge on herbal efficacy to

a lack of knowledge of phytochemistry, the chemical make-up of

plants (Winston 2012). I used Winston’s knowledge and training in

Chinese and Cherokee medicine as a point of comparison in my

research to look at consistencies within Chinese and Native

American medicine. I compared Winston’s approach of alternative

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medicine to the approach taken by the Chinese and Native American

herbalists from my interviews.

Theoretical approach

For the theoretical approach of my research, I applied the

four theories of ethnomedicine, biomedicine, pharmacovigilance,

and Dumont’s theory of holism. Ethnomedicine is the study of

different cultural approaches to health, disease, and illness and

the nature of the local healing systems (Anderson 1992:1-14). I

used the theoretical approach of ethnomedicine to analyze the

different approaches of herbal use among the complementary and

alternative medicine healing systems of Chinese medicine and

Native American medicine. I used ethnomedicine as a starting

point to help frame my research and to assist with designing the

interview questions. Ethnomedicine allowed me analyze the

different types and styles of herbal medicine employed by

herbalists in complementary and alternative medicine systems of

healing.

Next, I applied the theoretical approach of biomedicine to

study the different clinical approaches each herbalist followed

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when manufacturing and preparing the herbal products. Biomedicine

is the study of the different biological and physiological

principles of clinical practice and can be used to study

different clinical approaches employed by each herbalist in

complementary and alternative medicine (Van der Geest and Whyte

1989: 345–367). Biomedicine is significant to my research because

it helps me examine the manufacturing regulations that govern

herbal medicines as well as the beliefs and practices surrounding

herbalism. With more research conducted towards gaining a

stronger understanding of health and illness, we can better

understand the efficacy of herbal medicine, the reasons behind

why it is successful in treating illness and disease, and what

regulations need to be enforced to ensure it is distributed

properly and safely.

I then applied the theoretical approach of pharmacovigilance

in order to analyze the data gathered from my interviews on the

safety, contaminants, and manufacturing risks surrounding herbal

medicine. Pharmacovigilance is defined as the study of the safety

of marketed drugs and their clinical use in the local healing

systems. Pharmacovigilance is essential to developing reliable

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information on the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines. Tags

or labels on herbal products are often overlooked because people

assume that “natural” means safe, which is inaccurate. As herbal

medicines increase in popularity and use, so do the reports of

toxins and unwanted or adverse side effects. Quality control

issues, such as adulterated, contaminated, or misbranded herbal

products, cause toxicity in herbal medicines. Herbs can also have

varying levels of chemical compounds based on the geographical

location they are grown or on the genotype of the plants. Some

other factors that can influence the chemical levels of herbs

include harvesting time and environmental conditions such as

storage, processing, extraction, and combining the herbs into

compound formulas. I applied this concept of pharmacovigilance to

analyze the data gathered from my interviews on the possible

manufacturing contaminants and risks surrounding the use of

herbal medicine (Shaw et al. 2012:513-518).

Lastly, after I gathered all my data from the interviews and

field notes, I applied Dumont’s (1980) theory of holism to

further illustrate how these alternative systems of healing

illuminate the relationship between the whole person and their

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parts, and how those systems of healing include treating the

whole person in order to treat the affected parts. Dumont’s

(1980) theory of holism is based on a social hierarchy not as a

chain of power, dignity, or commands, but around the idea of

“encompassing the contrary.” Encompassing the contrary means that

an element belongs to a set, viewed as identical to it, however

it is also distinct, and set apart, as an opposition to the set.

For Dumont (1980), hierarchy can be categorized into superior and

inferior parts but as a whole, there is simultaneously unity and

distinction between them. Chinese and Native American healing

systems believe in holistically treating the whole body rather

than solely focusing on the specific parts affected. They

believe that all parts of the body are interconnected and defined

with reference to the whole and that ultimately a patient’s

treatment should encompass physical, psychological, and social

aspects (Winston 2003:10; personal communication, Yakoswathe’te

of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).

Methodology Chapter

Sample

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The choice of participants in my research is based on the

access I had to local practicing herbalists in the Tampa area,

and their willingness to participate in the study. In my

research, I target sampled two different herbalists’ approaches

to herbalism as a comparative sample of complementary and

alternative medicine healing systems. I also target sampled

their most commonly used herbs and the benefits and risks of

using those herbal remedies. The different styles of

complementary and alternative medicine sampled were Chinese

herbal medicine, and Native American herbal medicine. I also

compared the different ways each herbalist manufactured, gathered

and prepared the herbal medicines they employed in clinical

practice. I targeted an herbalist that is more corporate and

orders herbal products from large manufacturing companies and a

smaller scale herbalist that grows and manufactures their own

herbal products. I used referral sampling from each herbalist

during the interviews, to put me in contact with other practicing

herbalists as to gain a larger sample size.

Research Sites

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For my literature review, the research was conducted in the

library through the online anthropology databases. The research

and data collection of my interviews was done online through

email, regular mail, and actually meeting up face-to-face with

the herbalist at their local place of business. The local Chinese

herbalist office I am using in my study is located in St.

Petersburg, Florida. I analyzed all data collected at the

University of South Florida library.

Methods

As a way to collect data, I conducted a literary analysis on

articles and books relating to the efficacy, beliefs, and

practices of herbal medicine in alternative healing systems. I

utilized my findings from the literature review to examine what I

learned and gathered from the data collected from my interviews.

As part of my research, I conducted semi-structured interviews of

a Chinese and a Native American herbalist about their beliefs and

practices in regards to the herbs they use to treat illnesses.

The interviews were conducted at a place of convenience for

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herbalists: either online through email or actually meeting up at

the herbalist’s place of business with field notes taken.

The Native American herbalist interview was done through

regular mail and email with field notes taken on her responses.

To interview the Chinese herbalist, I went to his place of

business and recorded my notes using a tape recorder as well as

taking extensive field notes on his responses. Included in my

methods regarding the Chinese herbalist interview was a workplace

observation used to compile data on where the herbs were gathered

or combined. During the workplace observation, I focused on

collecting data regarding the manufacturing of herbal products

because contaminants such as pesticides and heavy metals can be

introduced to herbal products during the manufacturing or

combination process.

The adverse effects of herbal medicine may be attributed to

the quality, or rather poor quality, of the manufacturing and

production of these herbal products. The issues associated with

quality of herbal medicine can be divided into two categories:

external and internal. Internal and external factors can affect

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both the quality of herbal medicine and the products sold. Some

examples of external factors include toxic metals, pesticides,

and microbes. Internal factors include non-uniform ingredients

(Zhang et al. 2012:100-106). I used the list of internal and

external factors affecting the quality of herbal medicine from

the Zhang study and built upon it while conducting my own

interviews. During the interviews, I asked each herbalist if they

knew of any factors having a direct connection to the products

they use, sell, and manufacture. Lastly, I applied this idea of

internal and external factors affecting the quality of herbal

products during my workplace observation of the Chinese herbalist

(Zhang et al. 2012:100-106).

Data collected from the herbalists on the efficacy of the

herbal remedies was used to determine if the herbal products are

safe or not by providing a list of risks and possible drug

interactions to avoid. Included in the interviews, I inquired

about how the proper dosage of each herbal product is determined

and how are they administered. (See Appendix A for full set of

interview questions). I also targeted the herbs that were used

most often by each of the herbalists. After the conclusion of the

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interviews and data collection, I analyzed and compared the

different types of herbs used by each of the herbalists. I also

compared the different types of alternative medicine employed by

each herbalist as a comparative study of complementary and

alternative medicine healing systems. The herbalists interviewed

gave their own interpretation of the alternative healing system

that each employs and the herbal products which are most commonly

used.

An angle of my project that I used to deepen my analysis was

to compare the local alternative healing systems of Chinese and

Native American medicine to other alternative healing traditions.

I also looked at consistencies within Native American medicine by

comparing my findings to other traditional Native American styles

of healing, such as the Cherokee and Lakota. David Winston was

also used as a point of comparison in my research because he is a

practicing Chinese herbalist also trained as a traditional

Cherokee healer (Winston 2012). Using Winston in my research

allows me to further my analysis on the consistencies within

Chinese and Native American medicine. I also collected data from

another semi-structured interview with the head of the local

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University of South Florida organization Complementary

Alternative and Naturopathic Medicine (CANM), through email and

field notes taken on responses. I examined how CANM increases

awareness of herbal medicine to students and the community, as

well as how they inform the public not only of benefits but also

of the possible risks associated with certain herbal products.

Data Analysis

For my data analysis, I analyzed the data extracted from the

literature review and each herbalist to determine if there is a

general theory to how or why herbal medicine works. I then

gathered data and compared the different styles of complementary

and alternative medicine employed by the Chinese herbalist and

Native American herbalist. From my interviews, recordings, and

field notes I analyzed the beliefs and practices of Chinese

medicine and Native American medicine in regards to the herbal

medicine they use to cure illness and disease. I did this by

asking each herbalist about his or her clinical practice and

beliefs about using herbal medicine.

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From the data collected during the interviews, I analyzed the

possible benefits and risks of using herbal medicine as well as

how the herbs are administered with proper dosage. I did this by

inquiring if the herbalist informed patients of all benefits and

risks before prescribing the herbal medicines and how they were

administered to patients. Proper dosage for the Chinese herbalist

was established by age, sex and weight (personal communication,

Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). I then asked the Chinese and

Native American herbalist which herbs they used most often. Each

of the two herbalists interviewed gave their own interpretation

of the commonly used herbs and their individual type of

complementary and alternative medicine.

Included in my data analysis is a list of all possible

manufacturing risks, to examine if the efficacy or quality of

herbal medicine is influenced by manufacturing contaminants. I

analyzed manufacturing risks to determine if there needs to be

more quality control over manufacturing and producing herbal

medicines. Also included in my analysis was how Chinese and

Native American medicine beliefs and practices differ from the

culturally defined western model of healing. The Western model of

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healing with pharmaceuticals is viewed by many as harmful,

invasive, too powerful, and in direct conflict with complementary

and alternative healing systems (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279).

Next, I analyzed the data collected from the semi-structured

interview with CANM. I examined how CANM increases awareness of

herbal medicine to students and the community, as well as how

they inform the public not only of benefits but also of the

possible risks associated with certain herbal products. CANM

increases awareness of herbal medicines to students and the

community by holding meetings on campus with guest speakers

trained in herbalism or other complementary and alternative

systems of healing. These guest speakers bring with them a vast

understanding of herbal medicines and they are more than willing

to answer any questions one has.

Finally, as a way to deepen my analysis, I compared the

alternative healing systems of Chinese and Native American

medicine to other alternative medicine traditions I researched in

my literature review. While conducting the literature review I

found two studies that were significant to my research. The first

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study was on Ethnopharmacology and examined the side effects of

using herbal medicines and conventional drugs used at the same

time. Ethnopharmacology can be used to study the safety of

traditional herbal medicines. With the increased use of herbal

medicine, comes an increase in cases of adverse or unwanted side

effects, such as abnormal liver function. The Jeonga et al study

sampled three hundred and thirteen patients using herbal medicine

while in the hospital. Fifty-seven patients received only herbal

medicine for treatment and two hundred and fifty-six patients

received both herbal medicine and conventional drugs for

treatment. The study showed that none of the patients in the

herbal medicine only group showed signs of abnormal liver

function. However, six people in the combined herbal medicine and

conventional drug group showed signs of abnormal liver function.

The results of this study are significant to the data analysis of

my research because it shows that when herbal medicine is used

alone it is relatively safe, but the risk of adverse or unwanted

side effects increases when herbal medicine and conventional

drugs are taken at the same time (Jeonga et al. 2012).

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The second significant study from my literature review

examines herbalism from Northern Peru. The Bussmann et al. study

researches the herbal ingredients used in traditional medicine in

Northern Peru. The researchers gathered plants in the markets and

in the homes of the traditional healers, known as curanderos.

Collecting nine hundred and seventy-four different herbal

preparations used to treat one hundred and sixty-four different

afflictions. The researchers used cluster analysis to group the

similar herbs together. Their data showed what family of plant

species the medical herbs belonged to and how many diseases they

were each used to treat. Concluding that the local healers

understand the complexity of treating disease because they

carefully chose remedies based on the underlying cause of the

aliment or disease (Bussmann et al. 2010:1-10). This study is

relevant to the data analysis part of my research because it

explains the way herbs are categorized and the extensive

traditional knowledge that is utilized by these alternative

healing systems, while using herbal medicines. The Bussmann et

al. study was used to deepen my analysis by comparing the

traditional herbal medicine used in Northern Peru to the herbal

34

medicine styles from my interviews with the Chinese and Native

American herbalist.

Results

The beliefs and practices surrounding Native American herbal

medicine are centered on the idea of a supreme God known as the

Creator, the Great One, or the Great Spirit. Herbal medicine and

everything else in nature was created by the Great Spirit and is

viewed as part of him (Lame Deer 1972:198). “The Great Spirit is

one, yet he is many. He is part of the sun and the sun is part of

him. He can be in a thunderbird or in an animal or plant” (Lame

Deer 1972:198). This quote exemplifies the Native American belief

that the Great Spirit is in all of nature and all of nature is

the Great Spirit.

The Native American herbalist from my interview describes

herself as a Native American Ethnobotanist. She was trained to be

a Naturalpathic Doctor (ND) but turned it down because as such

she would have to give up her spiritual beliefs as a Native

American healer. She requires patients to sign a waiver stating

they know that she is a Native American healer not a medical

35

doctor. Her method of treatment is not to talk about disease but

rather she does biofeedback work and energy balancing by talking

to patients about stressors in their life and ways to reduce that

stress. She teaches people about diet and lifestyle changes as

well as how the systems of the body work or do not work (personal

communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6,

2013).

According to the Chinese herbalist, the beliefs and

practices of Chinese medicine are centered on what he describes

as the construct of yin and yang. This construct of yin and yang

describes all things in the world as in constant transition and

balance. They transform into one other and are viewed as mutually

dependent of each other. According to him, yin and yang are

rarely practiced in Chinese herbal medicine but the construct of

this concept that everything is in constant balance is used as a

different set of beliefs in the practice. Chinese herbal medicine

is a different paradigm that uses observational based medicine by

looking at patterns of disharmony in the body (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

36

The Chinese herbalist from my interview has a PhD in Chinese

medicine that he received from a four years master’s program in

St. Petersburg, Florida. He is also self-taught in Western

herbal medicine from knowledge he acquires through books and

conferences. After his schooling, he opened a unique multi-

practitioner and multi-modality practice for alternative medicine

located in St. Petersburg. His clinic is unique because it offers

four acupuncturists, a massage therapist, a mental health

therapist, a MD, and a Chiropractor. His practice also offers a

two-year herbal training program for students. The students are

supervised but get clinical practice through a low cost community

outreach program. This program allows individuals to come get a

health evaluation and recommendation for herbal medicines from

the students at a lower cost than his regular clinic (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

According to the Chinese herbalist some examples of

manufacturing contaminates that can affect the quality of herbal

medicine include toxic heavy metals, pesticides, and microbes

(Zhang et al. 2012:100-106). He controls for these manufacturing

risks by ordering his herbs from a credible distributor and

37

asking for a copy of the spec sheets on testing before he

purchases new herbal products. He also always tests the herbs on

himself first to look for side effects such as digestive trouble

or insomnia. The Native American herbalist notes that factors

such as where the herbs are harvested, the location they are

grown, and the frame of mind of the person gathering the herbs

can all affect the quality of herbal products. She controls for

these factors by growing herbs at home and having the knowledge

and information on which herbs are the best to use and what they

are used for (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida

Nation, April 6, 2013).

The DSHEA and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) are the laws

that govern herbal manufacturing and labeling in the United

States (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

Herbs are classified as dietary substances not prescription

drugs. Unlike prescription drugs, dietary supplements do not have

to claim to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent illness. Because

medical herbs are classified as dietary supplements, they can be

produced and sold in the marketed without testing or proven the

safety and efficacy (Bent 2008:854-859). DSHEA/GMP laws regulate

38

the herbs with known risks, or herbs that have false or

misleading claims. DSHEA regulates if herbs have been adulterated

or misbranded, if so the FDA takes action. DSHEA and GMP laws

only regulate labeling and false claims they do not regulate the

quality control of manufacturing herbal products or the chemical

levels of the herbs (Kamboj 2000:35-39; personal communication,

Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The efficacy of herbal products

will remain uncertain unless there are changes to regulate the

standardization of herbal products (Bent 2008:854-859).

Winston’s book on Herbal Therapeutics (2003) provides guidelines

for how to stay safe when using herbal remedies. He recommends

when using an herb for the first time to that you only take one

quarter of the recommended dosage to make sure you do not have an

adverse reaction to the herb. Following the proper recommended

dosage is very important, more does not mean better with herbal

medicine. If you are pregnant or breast feeding, make sure you

know which herbs are safe to use because during pregnancy, a

majority of herbs can be harmful to the mother and the baby if

ingested. Taking prescription drugs and herbal medicine at the

same time can have unwanted or adverse reactions, it is

39

recommended to always check with an expert herbalist before

consuming both types of medicine (Winston 2003:10-14). By better

knowing the benefits and risks associated with an herb, one can

determine if an herbal product is safe to use or not.

I then applied Dumont’s (1980) theory of holism and

part/whole relations to illustrate further how these alternative

systems of Chinese and Native American medicine illuminate the

relationship between the whole person and their parts, and how

those systems of healing include treating the whole person and

organs in order to treat the affected parts (Dumont 1980).

Dumont’s theory of holism is the idea of hierarchies being based

upon the idea of “encompassing the contrary” (Dumont 1980).

“Encompassing the contrary” means that an element belongs to a

set, viewed as identical to it on one level; however, it is also

distinct, and set apart, as an opposition to the set on another

level. For Dumont (1980), hierarchy can be categorized into

superior and inferior parts but as a whole, there is

simultaneously unity and distinction between them. Chinese and

Native American healing systems believe in holistically treating

the whole body and organs rather than focusing solely on the

40

specific parts affected. They believe that all parts of the body

are interconnected and defined with reference to the whole and

that ultimately a patient’s treatment should encompass physical,

psychological, and social aspects (Winston 2003:10; personal

communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6,

2013). Chinese herbal medicine also views the body organs as

being in a system of hierarchy with the five primary zong organs,

which are the heart, liver, lungs, spleen, and kidneys (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

A major difference between Chinese and Native American

medicine is the beliefs about the general theories to why herbal

medicine is effective. The Chinese herbalist believes the general

theory to why herbal medicine works is because they do not looks

at organs as singular but rather they look at the whole body for

answers. Chinese medicine looks at seasonal patterns and the

rotation of planets around the sun, as the rotation of everything

changes so do our bodies (personal communication, Robert Linde,

April 10, 2013). On the other hand, the Native American herbalist

believes the general theory to why herbal medicine works is

because “The Creator did a great job, science is not needed to

41

correct his work” (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the

Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). She believes that all the

components in herbal medicine were put there purposely for the

best results and that herbs are the Creator’s form of food used

as fuel for healthy bodies (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te

of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).

Another major difference is the types of commonly used

herbal medicines they preferred to use. Native American

herbalists mostly used whole herbs whereas the Chinese herbalists

mostly used powdered solutions of herbs. The Native American

herbalist believes that what you need grows where you are and

each person should use different herbs depending on where he or

she lives and what grows there. The herbs she uses most commonly

are jewelweed, dandelion, mullein, plantain, rosehips, witch

hazel, cedar, violets, wintergreen, spearmint, peppermint,

burdock, Echinacea, hydrangea, red clover, red raspberry, and

bergamot (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida

Nation, April 6, 2013). The Chinese herbalist believes that it is

better to use herbs from all over the world because you gain a

wider vary of herb benefits and treatments. For example, he uses

42

herbs from China, North America, South America, and hopes to

expand to Africa in the near future. The Chinese herbalist uses

powdered concentrated solutions of single herbs, which are

combined and customized for each patient. To make the powdered

solution 100 pounds of a single herb are cooked down into a mud

like consistency then sprayed with a starch binder. According to

the Chinese herbalist, using powdered concentrated solutions is

unique and only used in Chinese medicine. The herbal compounds he

used most frequently are curing pills, chuan xin lian, bupleurum

dragon bone oyster shell teapills (chai hu long gu mu li wan), Trauma

1 formula, and xanthium and magnolia formula (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Curing pills are

used for acute symptoms of food stagnation and contain poria,

coix, magnolia, atractylodes, agastache, pueraria, angelica,

auchlandia, massa fermentata, trichosanthes, chrysanthemum,

citrus, gastrodia, and menthe. Chuan xin lian translates as

“andrographis fight inflammation pills.” It is a strong antiviral

containing the herbs andrographis, taraxacum, and isatis.

Bupleurum dragon bone oyster shell teapills (chai hu long gu mu li

wan) are used for anxiety, neurotic disorders, and irregular

43

hearts that are worse at rest, it contains bupleurum, pinellia,

poria, cinnamomum, scutellaria, zizyphus jujube, condonopsis,

draconis, ostrea, zingiberis, and rheum. Trauma 1 formula is used

immediately after a trauma or injury to stop inflammation and

swelling so that healing is not hindered, it contains peach

kernel, persica seed, forsythia fruit, honeysuckle flower,

lonicera, safflower, carthamus flower, frankincense, myrrh,

skullcap root, scutellaria, scute, tang kuei root, bupleurum

root, rhubarb root and rhizome, Chinese angelica root, and

licorice root. Xanthium and magnolia formula is used to treat

severe nasal congestion, it contains purple angelica, xanthium

fruit, Siberian cocklebur, magnolia flower, Chinese red peony,

Chinese lovage, ligusticum, ligusticum wallichii rhizome,

tetrapanax, rice paper plant pith, kudzu root, pueraria, Chinese

licorice root, and green tea leaf (personal communication, Robert

Linde, April 10, 2013).

The complementary and alternative medicine belief systems of

Chinese medicine and Native American medicine differ because

Native American medicine has a Supreme God that they believe gave

them plant medicine whereas Chinese medicine used a construct

44

centered on the idea of yin and yang and two opposing forces that

consume each other. The Chinese herbalist believes yin and yang

consume each other because if one imagines the yin and yang

symbols as two snakes, they are both consuming the tail of the

other. He also believes that in every part of yin, there is yang

and in every part of yang, there is yin, which describes this

idea of all things in the world as in constant transition and

balance with each other (personal communication, Robert Linde,

April 10, 2013). Another major difference is the location in

which each herbalist obtained his or her supply of herbs. For

personal use, the Native American herbalist gathered her herbs

from her own back yard and for her clients she purchases

commercially prepared bottled herbs. She also teaches her clients

how to identify, gather, and use herbal medicines (personal

communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6,

2013). The Chinese herbalist makes sure he purchases his herbal

products from a credible distributing company, his Western herbs

come from Star West in California and his Chinese herbs come from

May Way in China (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10,

2013).

45

A common quality control test employed by both the Chinese

herbalist and Native American herbalist when receiving the herbal

products from the manufacturer is organoleptic characterization.

One simply smells, tastes, and looks to identify visually the

herb as the correct one you wish to use. Organoleptic

characterization is not an accurate way to test if the herbal

product was contaminated during the manufacturing process because

you cannot see visually see or smell contaminants and tasting the

contaminant is extremely rare, unless it contains large amounts

of heavy metals (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10,

2013 ). The Chinese herbalist uses chromatography in addition to

organoleptic characterization as a more accurate way to test for

heavy metals. Testing herbs with chromatography ensures that the

manufacturing companies are held to a higher standard of quality

control of manufacturing herbal medicines (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

One similarity between the Native American herbalist and the

Chinese herbalists is that both informed patients of the benefits

and risks of using herbal medicine by teaching them about the

herbs. The Native American herbalist teaches her clients about

46

herbs and offers books suggestions on any herbal medicines they

choose to use. However, she does not prescribe herbal medicine,

but rather teaches her clients using pamphlet information to

identify and gather the herbs for themselves, in conjunction with

her or individually (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the

Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). The Chinese herbalist gives his

patients pamphlets on the herbal medicine he prescribes. The

pamphlets list what the herbs are used for and any possible

herb/drug interactions. He also provides pamphlets translating

the complicated ideas of Chinese medicine for the consumer to

understand (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10,

2013). Kava is an example of an herb commonly used to treat

anxiety. Kava is associated with both high benefits and risks,

and several cases have reported liver damage from using kava

(Ernst 2004:985-988). The Chinese herbalist stated that the liver

damage reports from using kava are incorrect because they reports

fail to document all substances a person is using at the time of

liver damage and doctors just assume that it is the herb causing

it. Most people mix kava with alcohol, and alcohol is known to

cause liver damage. Further research is needed on the known risks

47

of kava to determine if in fact it causes liver damage or if

there are other factors at work such as alcohol consumption

(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

Another major similarity is that they both employ the use of

herbal medicine to treat illness and disease and believe that

illness is defined as a disharmony of the body. A disharmony of

the body means that the body is not working together in harmony

and there is less holism for the individual. Chinese and Native

American medicine both employ a more holistic theory of treatment

than in the culturally defined western model of healing. Chinese

and Native American healing systems believe in holistically

treating the whole body rather than focusing on the specific

parts affected. They believe that all parts of the body are

interconnected and defined with reference to the whole and that

ultimately a patient’s treatment should encompass physical,

psychological, and social aspects. Another similarity is that

both the Native American herbalist and the Chinese herbalist were

patients first and then got interested in practicing herbal

medicine because of their experiences with its successful

treatments. Both herbalists also stressed that diet and lifestyle

48

changes were a big part of their beliefs and practice of

alternative medicine (personal communication, Robert Linde, April

10, 2013, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).

Native American medicine beliefs center around a holistic

style of healing the whole person, both body and mind using

numerous types of plants, roots and herbs found in nature, along

with rituals songs, ceremonies, dancing and drumming (Lame Deer

1972). Winston asserts that a holistic approach to herbal

medicine is the most effective way of addressing the underlying

cause of imbalance in the body rather than focusing a specific

disease (Winston 2003:10). Some consistencies within Native

American Medicine are that they believe in a supreme Creator also

referred to as the Great Spirit who created all of nature and

plant based herbal medicines (Lame Deer 1972:198). They also use

similar Western herbs and herbal formulas to heal and treat

disease such as dandelion, mullein, witch hazel, cedar,

peppermint, ginseng, Echinacea, hydrangea, red clover, and

bergamot. A common practice with Native Americans when gathering

herbs is to only pick every fourth plant you come across to

ensure it is around for future generations to use (Mooney 2008:

49

64). The Cherokee believe plant medicine has the power to regain

and maintain proper health of the mind, body, and spirit. Native

Americans believe that every plant has a special power and

purpose to heal diseases given to them by the Creator or Great

Spirit (Mooney 1890:44; Garrett and Garrett 2002:118-119).

Traditional herbal medicine is used internationally and its

beliefs and practices differ from western medicine model of

healing. Many people view western pharmaceuticals as harmful,

invasive, too powerful, and in direct conflict with alternative

medicine healing systems (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279). The Native

American herbalist believes that the culturally defined western

model of healing is best suited for emergencies, repair,

reconstruction and in times of war. She believes that western

doctors only look for a set of symptoms that they can make go

away. Most often, what ends up happening is that the recommended

solution causes a different set of symptoms that now require

another medication for treatment. In other words, western

pharmaceutical doctors are just putting band-aids on problems

that cause more problems. A major difference between Western

medical doctors and Chinese and Native American herbal medicine

50

is that these alternative medicine systems focus a large part of

their treatment on lifestyle and diet changes based on proper

nutrition. On the other hand, Western medical doctors mostly

focus on new prescription drugs and on how to identify illness

and disease rather than curing individuals (personal

communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6,

2013).

Another field were Chinese and Native American herbal

medicine differs from culturally defined Western medicine is in

the treatment of cancers. Western medicine has three ways of

dealing with cancer treatment. They can cut it out, burn it off

with radiation or treat is with chemotherapy. A combination of

all three treatments can also be utilized (personal

communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6,

2013). Western medicine doctors only try to eliminate the cancers

they do not look for its underlying cause. According to Western

medicine, early detection for cancer is necessary because finding

cancer early enough can add twelve days to the life person

suffering from breast cancer. The Native American herbalist

stated that when it comes to cancer Western medicine doctors “do

51

not talk about prevention, or the importance of a good diet and

healthy lifestyle,” they are only concerned with detecting it

early or getting rid of it rather than preventing it in the first

place (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida

Nation, April 6, 2013).

The Chinese herbalist from my interviews believes that

western medicine is superior in its diagnostics, CT scans, and

biopsies of cancer. He believes that Chinese medicine is superior

in determining what organs the cancer originated from and where

it will spread it next. This is because Chinese medicine has the

unique ability to see the root of cancer because they see the

emotional influence of things such as holding on to the loss of a

loved one causing chi stagnation leading to physical

manifestations of illness and disease (personal communication,

Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The Chinese herbalist also

believes that it is better to work with Western medicine and

oncologists when treating aggressive cancers. He works with the

oncologists and helps minimize the effects of chemotherapy and

radiation. Both chemotherapy and radiation can cause your white

and red blood cells levels to drops, which causes you to stop

52

treatments. The Chinese herbalist can use diet and herbal

medicines to monitor the red and white blood cell levels ensuring

the continuity of chemotherapy and treatment (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). He can also

minimize the nausea, diarrhea, diet, and hair loss associated

with chemotherapy cancer treatments. The Chinese herbalist uses

shiitake and reishi mushrooms as a way to increase the

effectiveness of chemotherapy. He helps cancer patients by

providing them with what questions to ask the oncologist about

their care and treatment while also providing a list of

counseling, group therapy, and cancer support groups (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

Conclusion

In conclusion, I examined the beliefs and practices

surrounding herbal medicine by comparing and contrasting the

alternative healing systems of Chinese medicine and Native

American medicine and then applying the paradigm of Dumont’s

(1980) part/whole relations to my findings. Herbal remedies are

53

mostly compounds and mixtures of various types of herbs used to

treat illness and disease throughout the entire body. Chinese and

Native American medicine employ a different set of beliefs

regarding herbal medicine. Native Americans believe that every

plant has a special power and purpose to heal diseases given to

them by the Creator (Mooney 1890:44; Garrett and Garrett

2002:118-119). On the other hand, Chinese medicine uses a

construct centered on the idea of yin and yang and all things in

the world as in constant transition and balance. Another

difference between these two systems is that the Chinese

herbalist used single herbs less commonly than herbal compounds

of powered concentrated herb formulas. He believes that herbs are

more effective when combined together and that it is better to

use herbs from all over the world to gain more benefits of most

effective treatments (personal communication, Robert Linde, April

10, 2013). The Native American herbalist mostly use whole herbs

gathered from her local area because she believes that every herb

you need grows in your local area (personal communication,

Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).

54

As for a general theory to why herbal medicine works, the

Chinese herbalist believes that herbal medicine works because

they do not looks at organs as singular but rather they

holistically look at the whole body for answers (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The Native American

herbalist believes that all the components in herbal medicine

were put there purposely for the best results and that herbs are

the Creator’s form of food used as fuel for healthy bodies

(personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation,

April 6, 2013).

Chinese medicine and Native American medicine both employ a

more holistic theory of treatment than in the culturally defined

western model of healing. Chinese and Native American healing

systems believe in holistically treating the whole body rather

than solely focusing on the specific parts affected. Both

believe that all parts of the body are interconnected, and

defined with reference to the whole, and that ultimately a

patient’s treatment should encompass physical, psychological, and

social aspects (Winston 2003:10; personal communication,

Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). Chinese

55

herbal medicine also views the body organs as being in a system

of hierarchy with the five primary zong organs, which are the

heart, liver, lungs, spleen, and kidneys (personal communication,

Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Dumont’s (1980) theory of holism

illustrates how this hierarchy can be categorized into superior

and inferior parts but as a whole, there is simultaneously unity

and distinction between them.

Many people view western pharmaceuticals as harmful,

invasive, too powerful, and in direct conflict with alternative

medicine healing systems (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279). A major

difference between Western medicine and Chinese and Native

American medicine is that the alternative healing systems

described in this thesis, focus a large part of their treatment

on lifestyle and diet changes based on proper nutrition. On the

other hand, Western medical doctors mostly focus on new

prescription drugs and on how to identify illness and disease

rather than curing individuals. The Native American herbalist

believes that the culturally defined western model of healing is

best suited for emergencies, repair, reconstruction and in times

56

of war (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the Oneida

Nation, April 6, 2013).

Herbs are classified as dietary substances not prescription

drugs. Unlike prescription drugs, dietary supplements do not have

to claim to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent illness. Because

medical herbs are classified as dietary supplements, they can be

produced and sold in the marketed without testing or proven

safety and efficacy (Bent 2008:854-859). China does not regulate

herbal medicine even though they are one of the leading

distributers of herbal products (personal communication, Robert

Linde, April 10, 2013). DSHEA and GMP are the laws that govern

herbal manufacturing and labeling in the United States (personal

communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). DSHEA and GMP laws

regulate the herbs with known risks, or herbs that have false or

misleading claims. DSHEA regulates if herbs have been adulterated

or misbranded, if so the FDA takes action. DSHEA and GMP laws

only regulate labeling and false claims they do not regulate the

quality control of manufacturing herbal products or the chemical

levels of the herbs (Kamboj 2000:35-39; personal communication,

Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The efficacy of herbal products

57

will remain uncertain unless there are changes to regulate

standardization of herbal products.

Consumers need to educate themselves about herbal medicine

rather than exploring different over-the-counter market products

to avoid adverse reactions. One needs to be aware of what herbs

one is ingesting and of all possible risks and drug interactions

of each herb to avoid adverse side effects. The efficacy of

herbal medicine can be complicated because each plant contains a

diverse number of chemical compounds even within the same species

(Winston and Maimes 2007). The same plant species can have

varying levels of chemicals based on the way it is manufactured

or grown (Zhang et al. 2012:100-106). A solution to this problem

is implementing better manufacturing, collection and production

standards for the herbal products.

With more research conducted on gaining a stronger understanding

of health and illness, we can better understand the efficacy of

herbal medicine, the reasons behind why it is successful in

treating illness and disease, and what regulations need to be

enforced to ensure it is distributed properly and safely. My

58

research is significant because I examined manufacturing risks

involved with preparing herbal medicines and showed the need for

testing for possible manufacturing risks before using store

bought herbal products. Another reason is that my research shows

the need for standardizing the chemical levels of herbal products

because the same type of herb can contain varying levels of

chemical compounds based on the area it is grown or how it is

manufactured. Standardizing the chemical levels of herbal

products would make testing efficacy more consistent in clinical

trials. Lastly, my research is significant because can directly

influence the way we view our own medical beliefs and practices

by drawing our attention to the possible alternatives of a more

preventative, less invasive, and less costly system of healing

through herbal medicines. This includes documenting alternative

ways of conceptualizing illness, healing, and the importance of

holistic treatments. Upon concluding my research, I am reminded

of a quote by the Lakota medicine man Lame Deer (1972:137) “All

of nature is in me, and a bit of myself is in all of nature.”

This is consistent with Dumont’s (1980) idea of holism that we

are connected and viewed as identical with nature on one level

59

but also simultaneously distinct, and set apart, on another

level. The alternative healing systems described in this thesis

are consistent with how Lame Deer saw the relationship between

humanity and nature. We are part of nature and herbs are part of

nature; therefore, because of the connection herbal medicine

should work synergistically with the body to heal. Both Chinese

and Native American medicine beliefs center around the concept

that we are simultaneously connected and dependent on nature,

while also being influenced by our environment. Recalling David

Winston’s idea at the beginning of the thesis, humans have

evolved the ability to absorb and digest the bioactive chemical

compounds found in plants (Winston 2003:10). This again shows the

connection between humans and plants and the logic behind why

they should work to heal.

Implications

Future research is needed on continuing to comparatively

study alternative systems of healing in order gain the possible

benefits of a more preventative, less invasive, and less costly

system of healing. Previous clinical trials on the benefits and

60

efficacy of herbal medicine have focused on single herbs or

chemicals extracted from the herbs rather than studying herbal

compounds as whole. From my comparative research, I gathered that

herbalists use single herbs less commonly than herbal compounds

(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

Therefore, clinical trials testing efficacy on single herbs are

ineffective. A more reliable method to test efficacy and possible

benefits would be to study the herbs in compound form as they are

used in alternative systems of healing.

Another lack of consistency in clinical trials to test the

efficacy of herbal medicine comes from the fact that there are no

standards to regulating the quality of manufacturing herbal

products. Future research needs to be conducted on the quality

control of manufacturing herbal products because currently there

are no regulations over the quality control of manufacturing

herbal products to prevent contaminants, such as heavy metals and

pesticides from polluting the finished herbal products sold in

stores. If one buys over-the-counter herbal medicines, there is

an increased risk of using contaminated products that can alter

the safety and effectiveness of the herbs. Therefore, it is safer

61

and more effective to go to a trained professional herbalist to

receive a more regulated herbal product and a proper dosage for

your age, sex, and weight.

Future research is also needed on the chemical levels or

chemical composition of herbs. Currently there are no regulations

on chemical levels or chemical composition of herbal products.

The same type of herb can have varying levels of chemical

compounds based on the way it is grown (Snodgrass 2001:724-737).

The geographical location the herbs are grown in and the way they

are manufactured both effect the quality and chemical makeup of

the final product (personal communication, Yakoswathe’te of the

Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). This makes testing efficacy

difficult without a standard level of chemicals for every herb.

If we know the chemical composition of herbs, we can target and

regulate an average chemical level based on different types of

herbal products. My study directly influences how we see our own

medical beliefs and practices by drawing our attention to the

possible alternatives of a more preventative, less invasive, and

less costly system of healing through herbal medicines. This

62

includes documenting alternative ways of conceptualizing illness,

healing, and the importance of holistic treatments.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. Napora, Dr. Lende, and both my informants for their help and assistance throughout my research.

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Appendix A: Interview Questions

Interview Questions:

How/why did you get interested in herbal medicine?

What made you decide to start treating patients?

How were you trained in alternative medicine?

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Do you continue with ongoing trainings?

Can you describe your practice – how does it work, and what do you do?

Do you bring certain beliefs in to your practice? If so, please explain.

Are there spiritual, emotional, or psychological aspects involved? If so, explain how and why.

What type of people do you usually treat? Why do you think they choose to visit you?

Can you describe what a typical or average treatment would involve?

How do you decide which herbs to give a patient?

How do you provide patients with information on the herbs that you prescribe?

Where do you obtain your supply of herbs?

Do you mix the herbal products yourself or order them from a company/distributer?

Are there any factors that can affect the quality of the herbal products? If so, how do you control for these factors?

Is there a general theory about how or why what you do works?

Why do you believe prescribing herbal medicine is effective?

How does herbal medicine differ from Western medicine or the Western model of healing?

Are herbs are considered safer than western medicine?

Which aspect of your job do you like the most?